CHAPTER I SOILS AND LAND USE

1.1 Soils and Land Suitability

1.1.1 Soil Classification

The soil information of the central Ethiopia is available in the soil report prepared by
the Land Use Planning Project, which was conducted by Land Use Planning and
Regulatory Department of the Ministry of Agriculture in 1989 in association with
FAO/UNDP. The soils of the study area are classified broadly into four (4) units,
namely Vertisols, Andosols, Fruvisols and Solonetz according to the legend of the
Soil Map of the World (FAO/UNESCO). The extent of major soil groups in the
study area is estimated on basis of the soil map with 1:250,000 scale (See Figure
III.1.1). The characteristics and spatial distribution patterns of each soil unit are
summarized below.

(1) Vertisols

Vertisols are heavy clayey soils enriched with montmorillonite clay minerals that
shrink when dry and swell when wet. Through alternation of dry and wet, deep and
wide vertical cracks are developed on their profiles. Pelli-Calcic Vertisols (Hidi
series) are the most predominant in the hilly area (valcano-lacustrine terrace)
extending to the northern study area. They are very deep, black and fine textured,
partly sodic (sodium-rich) phase.

(2) Andosols

Andosols originate from volcano-lacustine deposits with volcanic ashes, cinders,

pumice (gravels) lapilli or other virtic pytpoclastic materials. Virtic Andosols (Meki
series) are predominant on the Rift Valley floor. The soils are neutral to slightly
alkaline, calcareous, deep and coarse loamy. They broadly cover the central part of
the study area.

(3) Fluvisols

Fluvisols are derived from alluvium on the lakeshore and along the Meki river.
Gleyic-Mollic Fluvisols (Abay series) are derived from lacustrine deposits and cover
the lakeshore of Ziway. They are deep, black, fine loamy and partly sodic. Due to
poor drainage conditions and higher groundwater table, they sometimes show gley
layers with hydromorphic properties. They are seasonally flooded for
approximately four (4) months in a year. Calcaric Fluvisols and Mollic Fluvisol are
also observed along the Meki river. They are well-drained loamy soils.

III - 1
 (4) Solonetz

Solonetz is one of problem soils with high sodium content accumulated through
alternation of dry and wet conditions. They sporadically observed in the study area
particularly in the bottomlands and slight depression within the flood plains. In
both Meki and Alem Tena towns, Mollic Solonetz derived from lacustrine widely
covers the flat land. Solonetz with high clay content is very hard when dry.

1.1.2 Reconnaissance Soil Survey under the Study

(1) Soil Profile Survey and Laboratory Tests

Within the framework of the study on the Meki Irrigation and Rural Development
Project (the Study), the reconnaissance soil study was carried out in order to confirm
the previous soil information mentioned above and to assess their suitability for crop
production.

The Study firstly conducted the soil profile observation at three (3) representative
sites, which were selected along the transect line from upper Meki river basin to
lower basin taking the geomorphological conditions into consideration. The
location of the soil pits is indicated in Figure III.1.1. The soil profile was observed
up to 250 cm in depth. Their descriptions are presented in Figure III.1.2.

The soil samples were collected from three (3) soil layers at 20 cm, 50 cm and 150
cm in depth of each test pit. The total of nine (9) samples, i.e. 3 samples x 3
profiles, were collected and sent to the soil laboratory in Addis Ababa. The
laboratory test was carried out to verify the physical and chemical properties
including soil color, bulk density, pH (H2O), pH (KCl), electric conductivity (EC),
exchangeable cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+), Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC),
organic carbon, available phosphorous and total nitrogen (N). The results of
laboratory tests are presented in Table III.1.1.

The soils in the root zone are generally very compact. Their bulk density is as high
as 1.75 gm/ml, which may hinder healthy root extension. The hydraulic
conductivity is in very low ranges. Contents of organic carbon, total nitrogen and
available phosphorous are also very low.

CEC ranges from medium to very high. CEC of the Soil Profile No.1 of Vertisols is
as high as over 45 meq/100gm soil. Exchangeable cations are represented by Ca2+.
Cation saturation percentages (total ex-cations / CEC) often exceed 100%, which is
an evidence of crystalline salt accumulation in the profile.

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1.1.3 Land Suitability

Soil salinity and alkalinity are focused on as major soil hazard in the study area. In
order to grasp their occurrence and spatial distribution patterns, the field observation
was made at 275 sites with the survey density of one sample per 600 ha.
Throughout the survey, 245 soil samples were collected as listed in Table III.1.2.
Immediately after sampling, they were transported to the OIDA office at Addis
Ababa and the analyses were made for soil pH, soil EC2.5 (electric conductivity) and
soil texture. The result of soil analyses is presented in Table III.1.3.

Although soil texture changes from place to place, sand to sandy loam are dominant
in the study area.

Soil Texture Class

120

100

80
Frequency (No.)

60

40

20

0
S:Sand SL:Sandy SC:Sandy L:Loam LS:Loamy SiL:Silty SiCL:Silty CL:Clay C:Clay
Loam Clay Sand Loam Clay Loam Loam

Soil pH of topsoils is in a range between 5.5 and 7.3, which are categorized into
medium acid to slightly alkaline. Only two (2) samples collected on the Ziway
lakeshore, high pH over 8.8. Soil EC2.5 are also in a wide range between 2.0µs/cm
(micro siemens) and 1,550µs/cm. The highest EC value was 5,600µs/cm on the
lakeshore of Tepo Choroke PA.

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 Soil pH (1:2.5)

140

120

100
Frequency (No.)

80

60

40

20

0
5.5-5.9 6.0-6.4 6.5-6.9 7.0-7.4 7.5-7.9 8.0-8.4 8.5-8.9
pH

EC (1:2.5)

200
180
160
140
Frequency (No.)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0-100 101-200 201-300 301-400 401-500 501-1000 1001- 2001<
2000
EC (mS/cm)

The soils in the study area are generally suitable for crop production. It is noted that
proper soil husbandry is required to improve their crop productivity and to avoid soil
degradation process. The following soil measures are recommendable.

1) Soil consistency : Soils can be soften and porous by incorporating crop

III - 4
 residues and farmyard manure into soils.

2) Soil fertility : Introduction pulses in crop rotation will increase plant

nutrient contents, especially for nitrogen.

3) Salinity : Irrigation methodology should be carefully optimized.

Crystalline salts are water-soluble. Regardless of
irrigation water quality, there is a possibility to induce high
soil salinity by irrigation.

Soils are highly susceptible to salt accumulation, which may be easily initiated when
intensive irrigation farming is practiced. Since the lake water of Ziway is slightly
saline, special attention is required when the irrigation farming is introduced to the
lakeshore. One of the advantages in the soil characteristics is their coarse to
medium texture with favorable drainage conditions for salt leaching.

1.2 Natural Vegetation and Present Land Use

1.2.1 Natural Vegetation

Natural vegetation of the study area is categorized into tropical savanna dominantly
with acacia species occasionally mixed with riverine broad-leaf trees and shrubs.
Under semi-arid conditions, grasses are seasonally greenish. They provide huge
grazing sources to local animals. Acacia species provide valuable browse to goats.
Tree density of acacia species has remarkably been diminished. Indigenous and
exotic trees and grass species identified in the study area are listed in Table III.1.4.

Senbelet (Hyparrhenia ruffa) is a grass species particularly suitable for grazing and
preserved in the Meki area. Otherwise, palatable and digestible grass species have
been rapidly replaced with other grass species of low nutritional value in most of
rangeland.

1.2.2 Present Land Use

The present land use patterns are classified broadly into four (4) categories, namely
farmland, forest/shrub/bush, grazing land and others (residence, road, water body
etc). The present land use conditions of each of Dugda Bora Wareda is presented by
PA in Table III.1.5 and summarized below.

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 Summary of Present Land Use Conditions of Dugda Bora
Land Use Category Area (ha) Extent (%)
Farmland 67,828 46.2
Forest/Bush/Shrub 19,971 13.6
Grazing Land 36,326 24.7
Others /1 22,757 15.5
Total 146,882 100.0
Remark: /1 including residence, road, swamp, etc

Farmland occupies 68,000 ha of 46% of the Dugda Bora Wareda. Out of 68,000 ha
of farmland, 55,000 ha or 81% are currently cropped, while the remaining 12,000 ha
or 19% are fallow land as presented in Table III.1.6. The agricultural land use
intensity is changed as illustrated in Figure III.1.3.

The study area is characterized by rapidly growing population pressure and animal
population. As a result of uncontrolled firewood cutting and overgrazing,
vegetation coverage of the study area is generally very sparse. Consequently, soil
erosion is accelerated particularly in terrace edges and hilly slopes.

1.3 Land Tenure System and Holding Size

1.3.1 Land Tenure System

The 1975 land reform legislation of the previous regime made all the lands of
Ethiopia public property. It prohibited private ownership by either individuals or
organizations. Farmers have been given usufructuary rights up to 10 ha of land
holding limit per household. Further, the Constitution endorsed in December 1994
explicitly states that all rural and urban land and natural resources belong to the
government. It is not allowed to sell or exchange the lands. However, there are
many cases of farmland lease agreement in the study area, especially highly
demanded land such as the lower river basin of Meki and the lakeshores of Koka,
Elen and Zway, where irrigable farmland is expanded. In many cases, land
borrowers are large farmers and entrepreneurs, who sometimes live in Meki town
and other urban areas. They eager to obtain farmland from individual farmers with
agreements to rent a part of land from farmers by affording irrigation water or other
inputs to farmers. On the other hand, offspring of farm household sometimes do not
inherit farmland due to limited excess land. They are forced to achieve lease
agreements with landlords who are facing financial problems.

Lease agreement is mainly on annual basis and land rent varies from place to place.
The annual rental charge of rain-fed farmland ranges between Birr 100 and Birr 200
per ha, while irrigated land from Birr 300 to Birr 800 Birr per ha. Needless to say,

III - 6
 such lease agreement is not forwarded through the official channels. Therefore, it is
difficult for the Dugda Bora district administration to grasp actual land tenure
situation in detail.

1.3.2 Land Holding Size

A typical farmer in the study area has (i) homestead, (ii) crop area in upland, and (iii)
furrow and grazing land usually consisting of several scattered small plots.

The majority (75%) of the local farmers are small farmers with land less than 2.0 ha.
Land holding size per farm household in the study area is presented below.

Land Holding Size in Dugda Bora Wareda

Below 1 ha 1 – 2 ha 2 – 4 ha 4 – 6 ha 6 – 8 ha 8 – 10 ha

25 % 50 % 10 % 7% 5% 3%

Source: Dugda Bora District Agriculture Bureau Office

1.4 Meki Nursery Center

The Meki Nursery Center (MNC) has been established since 1989 assisted by the
NGO, Self Help Development International (SHDI), aiming at establishment of state
forest and soil conservation under jurisdiction of the District Agriculture Bureau
Office. The activities of MNC is summarized in Table III.1.7.

The area of MNC is 0.75 ha with the management office and produced annually
around 24 tree species of 800,000 seedlings in a maximum capacity under irrigation
from Meki River. The tree species produced by the MNC is based on an annual
PA’s demand compiled through the Development Agent (extension worker) stationed
to each PA. The routine nursing activity will be started from October to gather seeds
over different places via local farmers by giving an incentive to buy seeds with 15 to
20 Birr/kg, depending on tree species. The routine annual activity and tree species
nursed in the 1999-2000 season are shown in below tables. However, the project
term supported by the SHDI has been phased out since January 1999 and the World
Food Program (WFP) has taken over a position of assisting the MNC with change of
project scope of work that confines to only specified project area approved by the
WFP.

III - 7
 CHAPTER II CROP PRODUCTION

2.1 Agro-ecological Zones

The study area situates from El. 1,600 m to El. 2,000 m on the bottom of the
Ethiopian Rift Valley system. The area is classified into SA2 (semi-arid 2) zone
according to the agro-climatic zoning system of Ministry of Agriculture (1998).
The climate in the Meki town is characterized by erratic, unreliable and low rainfall
with averaging between 600 mm to 1,100 mm per annum over past 30 years. The
rainfall is bimodal with the long rain season (Meher) from July to September and the
short rain season (Belg) from February to early May.

Rainfall (mm) ETO (mm) Temprature (oC)

180 22

160
21
140
Rainfall/ETO (mm

120 20

Degree C
100
19
80

60 18

40
17
20

0 16
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Climatic Conditions of the Study Area (Meki)

As mentioned in Appendix II on Meteorology and Hydrology, the hilly land lying in

west to northwest of the study area receives annual rainfalls of 850 to 1,100 mm.
On the other hand, annual rainfalls of the lakeshore of Ziway are as low as 700 to
750 mm. Farmers in the lakeshore areas have experienced chronic drought in last 5
to 6 years, especially for the western Ziway lakeshore.

The soils are also broadly grouped into two (2) zones. In the hilly land with
relatively higher rainfalls, heavy clays with vertic properties are predominant. In
contrast sandy soils cover the central flat plain of Meki area. The Ziway and Koka

III - 8
 lakeshores are affected by seasonal inundation and suffer from saline soils.

Farmers have carefully selected suitable crops taking rainfall patterns and indigenous
soil conditions of their farmlands into consideration. Therefore the leading crops
show specific distribution patterns, which are highly coincident with agro-ecological
zones. The leading crop zoning map is prepared as presented in Figure III.2.1.

2.2 Farming System

As seen in Figure III.2.1, small farmers in the study area cultivate cereals and pulses
represented by maize, teff, wheat and haricot beans. In addition, several types of
animals are raised in the study area, e.g. oxen, goat, sheep and donkey. The farming
system in the region is generally categorized into “livestock-based mixed-farming
system” under close linkage between crop production and animal husbandry.

Crop residues provide vital supplemental fodder source left on farm after harvesting.
Farmlands after harvested are used as communal grazing purposes among the rural
community. Crop production also relies on animal husbandry. Oxen provide draft
power source for land preparation, transportation and threshing.

Apart from traditional mixed farming system, market-oriented horticulture

production is also practiced along the Meki river and the lakeshores of Ziway, Elen
and Koka. Horticulture crop growers are not only local peasants but also private
farmers or investors, who live outside the rural area of Dugda Bora.

Off-farm activities are not common in the study area because of not much available
for the working opportunities in and out of the study area like Nazareth and Addis
Ababa.

2.3 Cultivated Crop and Cropping Patterns

2.3.1 Cultivated Crop

According to the District Agriculture Bureau Office in Meki, the major crops in the
study area are as below;

1) Cereals : maize, teff (Eragostis teff), wheat, barley, and sorghum

2) Pulses : haricot beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), horse beans (Vicia

faba L), peas (Pisum sativum L), chickpeas(Cicer
arietinum L), and lentil(Lens culinaris Medik)

3) Vegetables : tomato, red onion, cabbage, Ethiopian cabbage

(Brassica oleracea var virdis), chili pepper, sweet

III - 9
 pepper, carrot, beet root (Beta vugaris), watermelon,
cucumber, eggplant, sugarcane, garlic, etc.

4) Fruits : mango, avocado, papaya, orange, etc.

5) Industrial crops : coffee

2.3.2 Cropping Patterns

As mentioned in Section 2.1 on Agro-ecological Zones, some alternatives are
observed in crop selection within the study area. Crop seasons are also slightly
changed. The present cropping pattern in the study area is generally illustrated in
Figure III.2.2.

Maize is usually planted on fertile soils with priority. Wheat and teff is usually
alternative to maize. Maize is sown immediately before onset of long rainy season
in April. Other grains such as wheat, haricot beans and teff follow maize. In case
of poor crop establishment of maize under delay of rains, maize is incorporated into
soils and other crops are sown.

Although scheduled crop rotation is rarely practiced, some tendency is recognized in

crop sequence. For instance, chickpea is sometimes a second crop sown after
cereals. The cropping patterns in the study area are described below.

(1) Hilly land

Teff and wheat are leading crops followed by maize and barley. Other crops such as
haricot beans, sorghum, horse bean, field peas and chickpea are planted to the
limited extent. All crops are cultivated under rain-fed conditions in a single
cropping season. Chickpea is planted in early September and harvested around the
end of December with utilization of residue moisture retained in soils.

(2) Central study area

In the central study area, most of the grains are planted from May to June and
harvesting crop is done through October to November.

(3) Inundation area and seasonal lake

The northern lakeshore of Ziway is seasonally flooded. Heavy clay soils, which are
locally called “Kotticha”, cover this area. By knowing an inundation cycle farmers
utilize receding water for second crops. Figure III.2.3 shows a double cropping
pattern in the Ziway inundation area, and single cropping of local cabbage and
chickpea in the Cheleleka inundation area.

In the Ziway lakeshore area, seasonal flood cycle depends on rainfalls and yearly

III - 10
 changed. Therefore, farmers sow maize in early April and harvest green maize at
the end of June when they prospect floods in early July. If not, grain maize is
harvested in August. Either chickpea or haricot beans are then sown in the middle
of October by using soil residue moisture.

On the other hand, dry season cropping is also observed on seasonally flooded flat
land surrounding the Cheleleka lake. The major crops include Ethiopian cabbage
and chickpea by utilizing soil residue moisture after flood water ebbs away and land
becomes a workable condition from mid-August.

2.4 Planted Area, Yield and Production

The crop production largely fluctuated from year to year. Planted area, production
and yield of the major grain crops from 1994/95 to 1999/2000 are presented in Table
III.2.1. The planted area of maize is significantly increased in the years with higher
rainfalls. As well as maize, the planted area of haricot beans is increased in lower
rainfalls of short rainy season. The planted area of sorghum has significantly
decreased since 1999/2000.

25,000

20,000

15,000
Planted Area (ha)

10,000

5,000

0
94/95 95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00*
Year
Teff Wheat Maize Haricot Bean

Crop yield also varied with year to year as illustrated below.

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 3.50

3.00

2.50
Unit Yield (ton/ha)

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
94/95 95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00*

Teff Wheat Year Maize Haricot Bean

As discussed in Section 1.2.2 on Present Land Use, 67,800 ha or 46% of the district
area of Dugda Bora are categorized into farmland, of which 54,900 ha or 81% were
cropped with diversity of rain-fed crops in the crop year 2000/01. Planted area,
yield and production of the 2000/01 crops in the study area are presented for each PA
in Tables III.2.2 to III.2.11. They are summarized below.

Planted Area, Production and Yield of Rain-fed Crops in 2000/01

Crop Planted Area Production Yield
(ton/ha) (ton/ha)
(ha) (%)
Teff 15,058 27.4 11,244 0.7
Maize 14,852 27.1 39,910 2.7
Wheat 13,261 24.2 27,105 2.0
Haricot Beans 6,530 11.9 5,071 0.8
Barley 2,310 4.2 3,473 1.5
Sorghum 350 0.6 327 0.9
Horse Beans 1,177 2.1 577 0.5
Field Peas 672 1.2 283 0.6
Chickpeas 483 0.9 288 0.6
Lentil 164 -0.3 86 0.6
Total Planted Area 54,857 100 - -

It is noted that only four (4) major crops consisting of teff, maize, wheat and haricot
beans cover 91% of the total planted area in 2000/01.

In addition, horticulture crops were also planted only 1,804 ha as presented in Table
III.2.12. Horticultural crops are represented by tomatoes with 581 ha or 32% of the
1,804 ha. Hot pepper and onion are also prevailing. These three crops cover over

III - 12
70% of the total planted area of horticulture crops. Vegetables and papaya are
generally produced under irrigated conditions along to the Meki river as well as
lakeshores. The location of horticultural production areas is indicated in Figure
III.2.4. The present crop intensity (CI) of the study area results in around of 83 %
but the irrigable land is mostly cultivated with two crops per year and beyond 100 %.

III - 13
 CHAPTER III FARM INPUTS AND PRACTICES

3.1 Farm Inputs

3.1.1 General
In the study area, there are several sources and channels for procurement of farm
inputs. They are (i) Extension Package Program (EPP), (ii) input supply shop by
NGOs, (iii) middlemen’s shop, (iv) cooperatives and (v) retailers in large urban
centers.

3.1.2 Extension Package Program (EPP)

The standard EPP consists of improved seeds, pesticides and fertilizer. Only
eligible farmers can access to EPP through the OADB wareda office. This access is
basically confined to the PA members. The number of EPP applicants is relatively
lower in frequent drought area compared to the other areas where have fairly good
rainfall such as west to north west of hilly area.

A shortage of improved seeds is currently crucial in the EPP operation. Use of

improved seed is a quite limited extent, i.e. 18.9 % of wheat, 2.3 % of maize and
0.2 % of haricot bean as shown in below:

Use of Improved Seeds in Dugda Bora (2000/01)

Crop Total Sown Area Use of Improved Seed Performance

(ha) (ha) (%)
Teff 15,058 0 0.0
Maize 14,851 342 2.3
Wheat 13,261 2,511 18.9
Barley 2,310 0 0.0
Sorghum 350 0 0.0
Haricot Beans 6,530 12 0.2
Horse Beans 1,177 0 0.0
Field Peas 672 0 0.0
Chick Pea 483 0 0.0
Lentil 165 0 0.0
Source : OADB - Dugda Bora

Further details can be referred to Appendix V on Agricultural Extension and Support

Services.

III - 14
3.1.3 Other Sources
(1) Input supply shop by cooperative union supported by NGO

The cooperative shop deals with only vegetable seeds (tomato, onion, cabbage, chili
pepper, potato and garlic). Cereal seeds are not available. It sells chemical
fertilizer (DAP, Urea), some agro-chemicals (herbicide and 3 types of pesticide) and
farming implement (portable sprayer). Further, imported vegetable seeds by this
shop vary the quality, i.e.germination rate, according to the interview to the shop
manager.

A part from this shop, Adami Tulu chemical Co., Ltd adjacent to Dguda Bora
District supplies most of agro-chemicals except for the Kocide and Menkozep
chemicals which are quite high demand for tomato cultivation.

(2) Middlemen’s shop

This access is not stable to get proper items on time and a quality of some items such
as agro-chemicals are not reliable. Most of farmers procure grain seeds through this
channel.

(3) Cooperatives

This channel is confined to the cooperative member only and cooperative purchases
agro-inputs in collective way for the members.

(4) Purchase directly from Addis Ababa

Most of state farm and private farmer who are strong financial status purchase
agro-inputs directly from Addis Ababa by themselves.

3.2 Prevailing Farming Practices

3.2.1 General
The farming practice of major food grain and leguminous crops among the subsistent
landholder prevailing in the study area is summarized in Table III.3.1. The farming
practices prevailing in the study area are highly relied on animal draught power from
land preparation to harvesting, namely plowing, inter-tillage locally called
“Shilshalo”, transportation of farm produce and threshing.

3.2.2 Land Preparation

Farmland is generally ploughed by a pair of oxen with traditional plow called

“Maresha“. Number of plowing varies by crop to be planted, e.g. 3-4 times for teff,

III - 15
 2-3 times for maize, barley and wheat, and 1-2 times for the rests including sorghum
and pulses. Although the area is limited, private tractor hire service is also available
in the study area. The service charge is Birr 260 per ha in 1999/2000.

3.2.3 Sowing
Sowing is manually done. Seed rates are generally higher than recommended
seed rate to make up lower germination percentage and seedling damages by
drought. The standard seed rates of major crops are presented below.
Standard Seed Rate

Crop Seed Rate (kg/ha)

Maize 25 kg/ha for row sowing
Teff 30 kg/ha for broadcasting
Wheat 140-160 kg/ha for broadcasting
Barley 100-125 kg/ha for broadcasting
85 kg/ha for drill seeding
Haricot Beans 60 - 80 kg/ha for drill seeding
100- 140 kg/ha for broadcasting

3.2.4 Fertilizer Application

Urea (46-0-0) and DAP (18-46-0) are common in Ethiopia. Most of subsistent
small farmers do not use chemical fertilizers for sorghum and leguminous crops but
cow dung. Chemical fertilizers are applied to cash crops including wheat and teff.
The standard application rates under EPP are presented below.

Fertilizer Application Rates

Crop Urea (kg/ha) DAP (kg/ha)

Maize 100 100
Teff 50 100
Wheat 50 100
Barley 50 100
Haricot Beans 0 50

Moisture stressed area is not recommended to practice split application in order to avoid leaf
burn caused by fertilizer-itself and waste use of fertilizer generated by moisture stress under
erratic rain.

3.2.5 Weed Control

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 Herbicide such as 2,4 D and U-46 are sprayed for cash crops including teff and
wheat at a rate of one liter per ha after emergence. Weeding is done by hand for
maize and sorghum at knee-high stage and inter-tilling by ox-plow (Maresha) in
order to thin plant population and control weeds. Weeding is not done for pulse
crops after sowing till harvesting.

3.2.6 Pest and Disease control

Except for the major horticulture crops such as tomato, cabbage, onions, and other
cash vegetables, agro-chemicals for grain crops are usually not applied through
cropping season. Chemicals used for vegetable cultivation are mainly of Kocide,
Mencozeb, Ridomil against disease of blight, powdery mildew, purple blotch, downy
mildew, and Malaine, Tiodan against nematodes, aphids, thrips and so on.

3.2.7 Harvesting
Except for maize and sorghum, most of cereal crops are cut as whole plant and
bundled and sun dried either in the harvested field or surroundings of homestead,
and followed by threshing operation which is down by driving oxen trampling on the
spread grain bundles and cleaned by hand winnowing in the same place.
Meanwhile, leguminous crop are pulled out by hand and stacked in the filed until
dried or brought to the threshing ground and stacked there for drying. Threshing is
done by oxen, followed by hand winnowing same as grain crops. Maize is harvested
by hand and brought to homestead by donkey cart for shelling by beating cob with
stick or near motor- driven corn sheller place.

3.2.8 Storing
Majority of farmers has equipped with traditional storage bin called “Gotera”, made
of woven wood and bamboo splits in homestead and with 15 to 20 quintals capacity.
Harvested grains are stored in this Gotera or sacs either in-house or open place.
However, cash crops like teff, wheat, haricot beans and surplus of farm produce
except for self-consumption are immediately sold to middle men followed by
processing grains due to very limited

margin for money among the subsistent landholders. Cereal grains are milled at the
nearest flour mill and used as food diet of Injera, locally brewed beer such as Tella,
and sprit like “Arake”. Pulse grains are also used as ingredient of Injera, soup or
roasting.

III - 17
3.2.9 Utilization of crop residue and cow dang

Field crop residue after crop harvest is utilized as open grazing land. Maize and
sorghum stalk are used as fuel source or construction materials for hut after feeding
tender part to animals. Straws of teff, wheat, and barley are also used as important
supplemental feeding materials followed by threshing process and leguminous crops
as well.

Thus, incorporating the crop residue into the soil is quite limited extent. Cow dung
in the study area is used for plastering materials of traditional storage bin, hive, and
circular plot of threshing place, and fuel source after drying, however most of
interviewed farmer reported about 90 % of cow dung is returned to field.

3.3 Farm Labor

The farm labor balance study was made through the interview to 10 sample farmers.
The results are summarized below.
Profile of Typical Farm Household (HH) in the Study Area
Family Family Farm Arable Cropped Cropping Working Available
Size Labor Land Area Intensity Hours per Family
(person) (person/HH) (ha/HH) (ha) (%) Day Labor per
(hr/day) Month
(MD)
6.9 3.4 5.0 4.8 95.5 8.6 72.4

On the basis of the above conditions, the farm labor balance study was made as
presented in Table III.3.2. Labor shortage appears twice a year in May to June and
October. The former is caused by intensive farm works from land preparation to
sowing for wheat, teff and haricot bean, and harvesting of four (4) crops, the later is
during harvesting of those crops. However, labor shortage is mitigated through a
traditional labor exchange custom, so called ”Debo”. It is a sort of reciprocal help
system with provision of a tiny compensation with beverage and food provided by
host farmer. “Debo” is not common among irrigation farmers. Large farmers with
nearly 10 ha of farmland usually employ a few permanent workers by boarding them
as part of family member.

III - 18
 CHAPTER IV CROP BUDGET

4.1 Introduction
The major grain and horticulture crops prevailing in the Study Area were analyzed in
terms of crop budget by dividing them into 3 farming technology levels, i.e. 1)
traditional farming level under rain-fed condition, 2) improved packaged technology
level (EPP), and 3) irrigation farming on horticulture crops. The detail result of crop
budget analyses is shown in Table IV.4.1.
4.1.1 Market Price of Major Grain Crops
Below Table shows minimum and maximum producer-based marketing price of the
major grain crops over the past 5 years from 1995 to 2000 in Meki area. Generally,
sale price in the open market shows a tendency of augmentation except for the '95 to
'97 years. The monthly price curve shows a upward flow toward the off-season,
while drops just after harvesting crops. Farm gate price fluctuation of the major
horticulture crops is mentioned in Chap V.
Marketing Price of Major Food Grains in the Meki Area
Haricot bean Maiz Wheat Teff
Year Mean Min Max Mean Min Max Mean Min Max Mean Min Max
99-00 183 174 190 132 103 153 173 137 202 233 204 295
98-99 162 162 162 100 74 150 159 128 200 221 176 275
97-98 146 140 150 93 81 110 159 150 170 212 196 240
96-97 110 83 147 63 46 89 101 77 141 186 150 231
95-96 157 150 161 82 70 120 117 101 150 210 194 238
Souce: Ethiopia Grain Trade Enterprise(EGTE) Unit: Birr/qt

4.1.2 Traditional farming

In this traditional farming level, the prevailing farming practice on the four major
grain crops is relatively extensive under mostly local variety without chemical
fertilizer as mentioned in Chap 3. Only teff and wheat like cash crops is usually
cultivated by using herbicide among subsistence farmers. Below table shows the
summary result of crop budget analyses.

Summary Table for the Traditional Farming Level

Haricot
Crop Unit Maize Wheat Teff
Bean
Expected yield qt/ha 6.00 9.00 10.00 7.00
Unit sale price Birr/qt 183 132 173 233
Gross revenue Birr/ha 1,098 1,188 1,730 1,631
Hired Oxen plowing Birr 120 210 240 300
Seed Bir 183 66 260 117
Fertilizer Birr 0 0 0 0
Agro-chemicals Birr 0 0 50 50
Labor Birr 301 370 535 575
Transportation Birr 30 45 45 45
Post harvest Birr 40 45 80 80
Production cost Birr 674 736 1,210 1,167
Net revenue Birr 424 452 520 464
B/C ratio 1.63 1.61 1.43 1.40
Source: JICA Study Team Unit: Birr/ha

III – 19
 In this table, the unit sale price is applied to a mean value of the 1999-2000 year, and
resulted in 1.34 - 1.63 B/C ratio among the crops. However, the net revenue might be
varied toward more profit if farm operation including labor is managed through a
traditional labor exchange custom called "Debo" mentioned in Chap., III.

4.1.3 Extension Package Program

As stated in Appendix V, this packaged technology (EPP) is comprised of improved
seed and chemical fertilizer over most of the grain crops except for teff and haricot
bean which are limited only chemical fertilizer due to short of improved seeds. The
result of crop budget analyses is shown below table based on the 1999-2000 sale
price in the Meki area. One of variable cost like "labor" is widely managed through
the labor exchange custom like "Debo" mentioned before, thus actual production
cost appears to be less than the figure.
Summary Table for the Extension Package Program Level
Haricot
Crop Unit Maize Wheat Teff
Bean
Expected yield qt/ha 10.00 18.00 19.00 10.00
Unit sale price(mean ) Birr/qt 170 120 145 230
Gross revenue Birr/ha 1,700 2,160 2,755 2,300
Hired Oxen plowing Birr 60 210 300 300
Seed Birr 152 60 310 70
Fertilizer Birr 138 365 365 365
Agro-chemicals Birr 0 0 50 50
Labor Birr 600 650 755 715
Transportation Birr 45 90 105 60
Post harvest Birr 60 90 100 100
Production cost Birr 1,054 1,465 1,985 1,660
Net revenue Birr 646 695 770 640
B/C ratio 1.61 1.47 1.39 1.39
Source: JICA Study Team Unit: Birr/ha

4.1.4 Irrigation farming

Cultivation of horticulture crops in both rainy and dry seasons is theoretically
possible, but due to less incidence of disease and pest problem, most of prevailing
cropping pattern is confined to the dry season. However due to advantage of the
higher marketing price, some of horticulture crops such as onion, tomato and chili
are cultivated with some extent during the rainy season. The result of crop budget
analysis is shown below table based on a mean value of farm gate price in Meki area.
Among the 5 crops, papaya is one of the most profitable crop with B/C ratio of 7.7
followed by chili (2.2) and onion (2.1). In case of cabbage, net revenue is below
cost at sale price of 43 Birr per quintal. However, traditional labor exchange
custom like "Debo" is usually applied, thus cabbage also generates some profit.

III – 20
 Summary Table for the Irrigated Horticulture Crops
Crop Unit Papaya* Tomato Onion Cabbage Chili
Unit of Area Ha 1 1 1 1 1
Expected yield qt 500 100 170 120 62
Marketable rate (%) 70 80 90 90 80
Unit sale price Birr/qt 15 45 31 30 65
Gross revenue Birr 5,250 3,600 4,743 3,240 3,224
Hired Oxen plowing Birr 0 0 0 0 0
Hired tractor Birr 0 0 0 0 0
Seed Bir 0 113 400 154 18
Fertilizer Birr 0 455 455 0 0
Agro-chemicals Birr 0 626 1,280 930 965
Labor Birr 0 165 602 189 160
Fuel Birr 1,314 500 500 500 500
Lubrication Birr 83 79 99 28 55
Depreciation cost(pump: 8 years) Birr 875 438 438 438 438
Depreciation cost(Hand sprayer: 6 years) Birr 0 43 43 43 43
Depreciation cost (poles: 6 cropping) Birr 0 250 0 0 0
Production cost 2,272 2,669 3,816 2,282 2,179
Net revenue Birr 2,978 931 927 959 1,045
B/C ratio 2.3 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.5
Source: JICA Study T eam Unit: Birr/ha
Note: Expected yield of papaya is estimated based on a mean yield over 5 economic
production year and marketable rate of 70 % to the produce..

4.2 Break-Even Point

Beak-even point of the major crops in each farming level is shown below table.
Based on the '99-'00 year market price in Meki, all level of the major grain crops
were fallen in a level of generating profit, while the break-even point of horticulture
crops like tomato, onion and cabbage exceeded the minimum market price. Thus
cropping is very risky with a small profit range depending on market price. However
papaya and chili generate a good profit with a wide range of return, especially a
break-even point of papaya is only 6.5 Birr /qt compared to 15 Birr per quintal as
minimum market price.

Break-Even Points of Major Crops in Me ki Area

*3)
Farming Crop Break-even Break-even Variation of Marketing Price
*1) *2)
Level point point Max Min Mean
Traditional Haricot bean 110.2 - 190.0 174.0 182.0
Maize 81.1 - 153.0 103.0 128.0
Wheat 116.0 - 202.0 137.0 169.5
Teff 166.4 - 295.0 204.0 249.5
EPP Haricot bean 107.3 - 190.0 174.0 182.0
Maize 81.4 - 153.0 103.0 128.0
Wheat 104.5 - 202.0 137.0 169.5
Teff 165.9 - 295.0 204.0 249.5
Irrigation Papaya 4.0 6.5 100.0 15.0 57.5
Farming Tomato 24.2 33.4 200.0 30.0 115.0
Onion 21.8 24.9 150.0 30.0 90.0
Cabbage 16.7 21.1 70.0 15.0 42.5
Chili 27.4 35.1 225.0 60.0 142.5
Source: JICA Study Team Unit: Birr/qt
Remark 1) Cost without depreciation, 2) Cost with dep reciation, 3) 99-00 y ear market p rice in M eki

III – 21
 CHAPTER V POST HARVEST AND MARKETING

5.1 Post Harvest

No agro-industries exist in or around the study area except for small-scale flour mills
operated by private individuals registered by the District Financial Office as below .

Location Flour Mill (No.)

Meki Town 34
Alan Tena 9
Rural Area (PAs) 9
Tuchi Sumeyo (2)
Ombile (3)
Shubi Gamo (1)
Derara Dalecha (1)
Koto Bilati (1)

Berta Sami (1)

Source : District Financial Office

Some non-registered flour mills also operated in the study area. Apart from flour mill,
there are two large agro-storages operated by the Ethiopia Grain Trade Enterprise
(ETGE) and the District Agriculture Bureau Office with capacity of 5000 and 500
tons, respectively. The former was temporarily rented to the Disaster Prevention
Preparedness Bureau (DPPB) for food relief but restored to EGTE now. In
household level, most of farm household has few traditional storage bins (capacity:
10-15 qts locally called Gotera) in their homestead to keep farm produce such as
food grains.

5.2 Market Channels

(1) Major Markets

There are four primary markets in the study area. The primary markets are held in
town level and first two are held on every Monday and Thursday in Meki town, and
2nd two are daily held in Meki and Alan Tena towns with small scale. The Monday
market and daily markets are dealt with farm produce and some daily commodities
mainly for local consumers, while the Thursday Market is extensively operated for
trading livestock, all kind of food grains, vegetables, daily commodities with outside
collector as well as local consumers. And the registered middlemen trading in the
Thursday Market is charged 6 Birr/month by the Meki Municipal Office. In this

III - 22
 Thursday market, most of the farmers in the study area will come out to the market
with their farm produce such as grains, livestock, firewood, folk craft and etc, and
trade with necessary daily goods.

(2)Food grain channel

The schematic food grain channel in the study area is shown in Figure III.5.1.
There are four food grain channels from the producers to consumers in the study area.
About 70 % of marketing grains are traded through the registered middlemen
channel, followed by 20 % of retailers and 10 % of direct trade with individual
consumers, respectively. Ethiopian Grain Trade Enterprise (EGTE), a
profit-oriented state enterprise playing a role to export surplus grain and to control
floor market price of the food grain has irregularly participated to purchase food
grains, especially haricot bean from Meki Area. However, food grain such as teff,
wheat, maize including haricot bean has almost not been merchandised during the
past 5 – 6 years because of no surplus grains available in the market due to drought
prone area.

The quantities of major grains annually traded in the study area can be estimated
only based on taxation system controlled by the Meki Municipal Office that tax the
registered middlemen based on their capitals scale. Farm produce such as vegetables
and fruit is directly traded with local consumer as well as middlemen from outside,
thus no official census is available.

Estimated Traded Volume of Major Grains (Dugda Bora)

Crop Middlemen Estimated Monthly Traded Estimated Annual
Registered (No.) Volume per Middleman (kg) Traded Volume (ton)
Maize 50 2,000 1,200
Teff 50 1,500 900
Wheat 50 1,500 900
Haricot Bean 50 10,000 6,000
Barley 50 300 180
Hoarse Bean 50 400 240
Total 9,420

5.3 Prices
1) Middlemen

Below table shows the prevailing market price of farm produce in the study area.
Buying price by middlemen is seasonally changed but not much difference among
the buyer (middlemen) because of a tacit agreement among the middlemen made.
The commission charge per quintal of grain usually ranges 10 to 20 Birr. But this
farm gate price jumps to 125 % -130 % in the Addis Ababa Market, thus it reveals

III - 23
that middlemen channels squeeze unreasonable profit from the producer.
Buying Price of Major Crop purchased by Middlemen in Meki area

Unit : Birr / 100 kg

No Crop Buying price Selling price to other
Middlemen
1. Peas(Atar) 180 200
2. Haricot bean (white & red) 140 150
3. Teff /white grain 220 230
4. Teff/brawn grain 170 180
5. Chickpea (nuts) 140 150
6. Horse bean (beans) 120 130
7. Maize 70 80
8. Wheat 130 140
9. Barley 120 130
Source: JICA Study Team, November 2000

2) The Thursday Market

Below table shows the Thursday market price on farm produce as of October 2000.
Price of farm produce in the Thursday Market Price
Unit : Birr
No Crop Buying price Selling price to Other
middlemen
1 Haricot bean (white & red) 165/qt 175
2 Maize 70/qt 80
3 Wheat 140/qt 150
4 Dry hot chili 8 -10 /kg
5 Ethiopian cabbage 0.5 /bunch
6 Green chili pepper 0.25/heap
7 Sugarcane 0.50/stem
8 Orange 2.0/kg
9 Pumpkin 2.0/pc (big size)
0.75/pc (medium)
10. Tomato 1.5 /kg
11 Beet root 1.0/kg
12 Fresh Ginger 10/heap (4 ~ 5 kg)
13 Potato 1.0 /kg
14 Carrot 2.0 / kg
15 Red onion 2.5/kg
16 Garlic 2.0 /kg

3) Buying price of major grain by EGTE

EGTE has a branch Office in Shashamane wareda, covering East Shewa by

stationing the grain storage in Meki and Ziway in order to purchase major food
grains (only white round type of haricot bean, teff, wheat and maize) except for
barley which is based on purchase-order made by brewing company. Purchased price

III - 24
by EGTE seasonally varied and grain quality is subject to the normal stipulated by
the Ethiopian Standard Authority but EGTE at least supports a minimum marketing
price. Table III.5.1 shows the monthly marketing price of food grains among the
producer, wholesaler and retailer over the past 5 years from 1995 to 2000 in Meki
area. The commission from producer to retailer ranges from 8 to 16 Birr/qt
depending on kind of grain crop. The price fluctuation over monthly and yearly
movement tends to show a very arbitrary change, but general trend of market price
indicate a higher price during the off-season of crop harvest and lower price during
November to March of harvesting season.

4) Seasonal Farm Gate Price Fluctuation of Horticulture Crops

Price fluctuation on the major horticultural crops in Meki area is shown below table
with some case study of farm gate price curve for onion and tomato along to the
Meki River bank. The seasonal and annual fluctuation of farm gate price show
arbitrarily movement without regular tendency under free market condition. But,
farm gate price generally appears to indicate higher price in the rainy season and
lower price during the dry season. Also, the result of interviewed survey on farm
gate price among the farmers varies from place to place. For instance, the onion and
tomato 2000 year price curve (Below Figure) were made by the newly formed WUA
member at PRA meeting, while the 2001 price curve and figures in below table were
compiled based on the horticulture crop farmer's interview survey in the surrounding
area. Namely, the highest price of onion is differed among the informants.

The Farm Gate Price Fluctuation of Major Horticulture Crops

Horticulture crop Max Price (Birr)/kg Min Price (Birr)/kg
1 Tomato 2.0 0.3
2 Onion 3.3 0.3
3 Chili 2.25 1.5
4 Cabbage 0.7 0.15
5 Papaya 1.0 0.6
Source: JICA Study Team

M onthly O nion Farm gate Price in Som bo M onthly Tom ato Farm gate Price in ShubiG am e
5.0 2000 year 2.0
4.5 1.8
4.0 1.6 2001 year
2001 year 2000 year
3.5 1.4
3.0 1.2
2.5 1.0
2.0 0.8
1.5 0.6
1.0 Nursery Transplanting Harvesting 0.4 Transplanting
0.5 0.2
Nursery
0.0 Harvesting
Birr/kg 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Birr/kg 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
M onth M onth

III - 25
 CHAPTER VI CONSTRAINTS AND PROSPECTS

6.1 Constraints

6.1.1 Natural Constraints

(1) Erratic Rain

Erratic rainfall pattern is the most crucial constraints, particularly recurrent dry spell
during the reproductive stage of grain crop causes severe bad crops. In the western
to northern lakeshore of Ziway is chronic drought prone area and has resulted in
continuous bad crop since 5 - 6 years ago.

(2) Infertile soil with low water holding capacity

Crop residues are broadly utilized as supplemental animal feed. Only the limited
amount is incorporated into soils. As a result, root zone of soils is very hard with
high bulk density of over 1.75, which hinders healthy root penetration.

(3) Decrease of farmlands by soil erosion

Due to irresponsible deforestation by cutting firewood and overgrazing, the land

degradation process is rapidly expanded in the study area. Hill slopes and terrace
edges are severely incised by large gullies. The potential farmland is being
minimized. Flush water passing through gullies often destroy farmland as well as
houses of peasants.

(4) Salinity Problem

Salinity problem is partially observed in the farmland adjacent to the Ziway

lakeshore and causes physiological desiccation of plant growth.

6.1.2 Socio-economic Constraints

(1) Post-harvest loss

Post harvest loss is usually generated through a traditional threshing method

mentioned in Chapter III on Farm Inputs and Practices. Legs of oxen penetrate
plastered threshing plot and mix grains with soils and sand to decrease grain quality.

(2) Weak financial status of subsistent landholder

Most of the farmers in the study area is subsistent landholders, while

commercial-oriented crop production is rarely operated. Farmers are financially
very weak because of low cash income by sale of farm produce under drought prone
area. Access to crop credits such as EPP are quite limited among the peasant

III - 26
farmers. Through the interview survey, some farmer reported to fear getting credits
because of unable to refund under recurrent drought.

(3) Poor inputs supply system

Apart from herbicide for grain crop production, most of agro-chemicals are
consumed by horticultural crop growers including private farmers. Availability of
agro-chemicals is also limited to cooperative union shops, EPP, middlemen or
retailers in Addis Ababa. Improved seeds, mostly cereal crops are only available via
EPP or on-farm research purpose and local market by middlemen handles only local
varieties. Even though EPP suffer from shortage of improved seeds such as teff and
haricot beans.

(4) Insufficient of flour mill place

As mentioned in Chapter IV on Post-harvest and Marketing, only 9 flour mills are
registered in Dugda Bora. Some of villagers spent long time to go and back from
the Meki town for milling.
(5) Shortage of farmland under high land demand

Land tenant usufructuary right is given equally to every farming family without
distinction of sex, up to 10 ha in max per family. However, there are many lease
agreements of farmland among the subsistent landholders in the study area due to
insufficient of the farmland based on economic size per family. One farmer
reported that he has no land after his father passed away because his mother
inherited land use right, thus he has farmed by renting farmland but unable to be a
member of the PA and legally no access to EPA.

(6) High competition between crop farming and livestock farming

Due to rapid increase of animal population, large portion of crop residue is

consumed as animal feed. Meanwhile, crop residues are locally available important
resources to improve soil fertility. More than half of them are used for feeding
materials, fuel source and etc and recycled residue is apt to diminish coupled with
increase of livestock population under fragile environment of central lift valley.

(7) Poor marketing system to discourage producer

About 70 % of cereal grains are traded through the middlemen channels at farm gate
level, and vegetables and fruits are as well. Most of producers are individual basis
to trade with middlemen who make tacit agreement of purchase price from producer
before hand, while the producer has no financial margin to build up bargaining
power, thus the producer is forced to sell farm produce by asking price

III - 27
 (8) Insufficient extension service to the farmers

1) Frequency to visit farmers by Development Agents (DAs)

The farmer’s interview survey by the JICA Study Team verified that beneficiaries
accessed by DAs are varied from place to place ranging from one to four times per
month or 5 times per year. Most of interviewees want more frequent access by DAs
to meet for their technical information demand. Also, the insufficient of practical
information of plant protection is reported by horticulture growers.

2) Research-Extension-Farmer’s Linkage

In the study area, most of on-farm based demonstration plot occasionally carried out
by the research sector for extension purpose is confined to a popularization of new
variety on haricot bean and maize coupled with extension package program so far.
Thus, the farming practices to conserve soil moisture and sustain soil fertility to
improve land productivity are not demonstrated even though the research sector has
already verified certain useful technology for improving rain-fed farming in the East
Showa.

6.2 Opportunities
(1) Erratic rain

Drought damage on crop growth can be alleviated partially by constructing diversion

canal, or dam along to the Meki river, and multipurpose-pond coupled to water
harvesting technology on agriculture.

(2) Soil characteristic of low water holding capacity and low fertility

It is possible to prevent soil desiccation by mulching soil surface with locally

available crop residue like maize stover to suppress evaporation by decreasing soil
temperature. Further, recycling raw organic matter into soil should be practiced as
much as possible.

(3) Diminishing of farmland and grazing land due to land degradation

It is urgent issue to take countermeasures of soil conservation because of

diminishing of farmland and grazing land coming from land degradation and erosion
caused by deforestation, over cultivation, and overgrazing. The rural communities
in the hilly area has independently undertaken countermeasures of soil conservation
and water harvesting practices under NGO’s support, thus it is possible to extend this
people participatory project over other area.

(4) Soil salinity

III - 28
Traditionally, indigenous way to alleviate poor crop growth caused by salt
accumulation is empirically verified by applying cow dang into the affected soil
among the subsistent farmers, and should be massively practiced where faces salinity
problem.

(5) Harvesting loss

It is possible to alleviate harvesting loss by introducing motor driven threshing

machine which is locally available instead of traditional threshing method done by
animal draught power.

(6) Weak financial status of subsistent landholder

This financial weakness of subsistent landholder comes from compound factors of

natural and socio-economic constraints, especially farmers subject to rain-fed
condition is afraid of applying credit associated with risk because of low crop yield
coming from erratic rainfall coupled to low fertility soil. Thus, there is some
possibility to alleviate their financial status by improving land productivity with
application of useful technology under rain fed condition.

(7) Limited supply of farming inputs

The cooperative union comprising of WUAs has already launched an union shop to
deal with farming inputs under support by NGO, thus it is possible to apply this
way to the existing Cooperative Association which has already operated some credit
sale for fertilizer.

(8) Severe competition between crop farming and livestock farming

Animal keeping plays a role to insure against emergency case to cope with drought
problem. However, it is inferred that vicious circle of overgrazing and
over-cultivation coupled to drought coping strategy can be alleviated with proper
livestock density via dialog with inhabitants if crop production is improved by
applying several countermeasure on rain fed farming.

(9) Poor marketing system to discourage the producer

Present marketing system which middlemen purchase farm produce directly from the
producer should be shifted to a marketing system from the producer to consumer
channel by minimizing middlemen channels. This advanced marketing system has
already launched by the cooperative union in the study area, thus it is highly possible
to apply it to the existing-cooperative association, and the margin profit squeezed by
middlemen can be returned to the producer.

(10) Insufficient extension service and research-extension linkage

III - 29
 The agriculture research stations in the East Shewa have already verified some
useful technologies in terms of soil water conservation and keep soil fertility under
rain-fed condition but not been disseminated in on-farm level yet. Thus it is
essential to extend their useful expertise by verifying in accordance with
agro-ecological system in the study area

6.3 Indigenous Drought Coping Strategy

The indigenous drought coping strategy among the subsistent landholder in the study
area is summarized as below:

D rought: Drought coping

1) O vercultivation strategy
2) O ver graizing 1) C hoise of crop C V
3) D eforestation 2) Shift to other crop
due to fire w ood 3) Higher seed rate
4) V ery erratic 4) M aking soil soften by
rainfall plowing several tim es
Farm
5) P oor soil (low O M ) to conserve rainw ater
House-
5) M aking cut-drain ditch
hold
Effect: 6) Share cropping
1) Soil Degradation 7) Use soilresidue
2) Low soil fertility m oisture
3) Low yield 8) Selllabor
4) Loss of Linvestock 9) Selllivestock
10) Sell fire wood
11) Rent Land

(1) Flexible sowing time along to rainfall pattern

One of indigenous strategies to cope with drought problem is to adjust a sowing time
of cereal crops along to rainfall pattern. Maize is generally sown from late April to
early May in the central Meki area but immediately shift to barely, wheat or haricot
bean if poor rain is anticipated during this short rain period (Belg). But if the rain in
the Belg season is good and dry spell occurs later in the Meher season (long rainy
season), severe moisture stress causes a mass mortality and no option to avoid
drought at the silking/tasseling growth stage. This supported that the poor rain
drastically increased an acreage of haricot bean up to 14,730 ha in the 1999-2000
season, but decreased to 6,350 ha in this good rain year (2000-2001 season).

(2) High seed rate more than recommended rate

Most of interviewed farmers by the JICA Study Team employ a higher seed rate as
shown below:

III - 30
 Recommended and Farmers’ Seed Rates

Crop Recommended (A) Farmers’ Rates (B) B/A

(kg/ha) (kg/ha) (%)
Maize Lined 25
Broadcasted 30 40-120 133-400
Haricot Beans 20-30 100 333-500
Teff 30 50 166
Wheat 75 50 133

From this table, higher seed rate to the recommended rate ranges from 133 % to
500%, varying from crop to crop. One interviewed farmer reported that the reason of
applying this high seed rate is accounted for their drought coping strategy to ensure a
number of good stand and secure the biomass of plant for feeding live stock if dry
spell occur later and forced to shift to other grain crop.

(3) Contour ditch made in teff , wheat, and barley fields

In the sloped field where is cultivated with teff, wheat, and barley even in flat field,
regular ditches with 2 – 3 m interval along to control line is observed. The ditch play
a role to cut drain and infiltrate rainwater into the soil in stead of run-off and protect
soil erosion as well. In the flat field, it serves as drainage to avoid suffocation of
emerged seed due to stagnant water in the field.

(4) Shilshallo (process of rough thinning/weeding)

Locally called “Shilshallo” referring to a rough thinning and weeding operation by

using ox-plow, locally called “Maresha” is applied to sorghum and maize field at
knee high stage. This practice contributes to elimination of excess plants, and weeds,
conserve soil moisture by making the soil soft, and protect the crop lodging.

(5) Application of cow dung to salinity affected area

In the surrounding of the Ziway lake area, soil salinity problem suppressing crop
growth is observed in the farmlands. Farmer cope with this problem by applying cow
dung manure, which appears to have some effect to alleviate soil salinity and results
in some harvest according to the interviewed farmer.

(6) Indigenous variety

Apart from the improved seeds on food grains, there are few indigenous varieties of
major food grain crops like maize, wheat, teff and haricot bean, which have been
traditionally multiplied and kept by farmers themselves. Characteristics of these
cultivars are summarized as below:

III - 31
 Indigenous Varieties of Major Crops
Crop Local Varietal Potential Yield Growth
Name Characteristics (kg/ha) Period (day)
Maize Milisha Mixed variety of white & brown 4,000 90
grains
Wheat Lakech Formally released as improved 2,400 120
seeds but no more distribution
Teff White 1,600 105
Brown 2,000 105
Mixed 2,000 105
Haricot B. Round & Fat 2,000 105

6.4 Sustainable Agricultural Production Programs

6.4.1 Objectives and Program Components

(1) Objectives

The lift valley area is often hit by drought and exposed to progressive soil erosion
over hilly area and sloping land generated by deforestation, over-grazing and
over-cultivation under increase of pressure to land due to growing of human and
livestock population. Under recurrent drought, keeping livestock plays a role of
security at emergency case and accelerates land-degradation coupled with growing
rural population, which pressurizes progressively land use.

Development of this area is only possible when the mixed farming system engaged
by the subsistent landholder, who is accounted for majority of inhabitants in the
study area is managed in a sustainable way under fragile agro-ecosystem of the rift
valley.

In order to support growing rural population and livestock heads continuously,

stabilizing and improving agriculture production is most vital issue with formulation
of appropriate land use plan. For that purpose, it aims at improving of productivity
by developing of appropriate irrigation scheme in the rain-fed farming area and by
introducing useful technology to alleviate negative effect of erratic rain on crop
production where is out of irrigable area and subject to rain-fed condition.

The study area where is classified as semi arid area with annual rainfall of 700 – 800
mm and is often hit by recurrent drought at reproductive stage of grain crop under
rain-fed condition. Seeking for sustainable farming is most prioritized by
alleviating drought damage on crop growth caused by erratic rainfall pattern, and by
stabilizing and improving crop production, with prevention of on-going
desertification under the fragile natural ecosystem. The program is based on the
following concept and direction.

III - 32
 (2) Basic Concept

i. This program aims at producing maximum profit by utilizing limited

available water resources including irrigation scheme and land resource.

ii. This program aims at stabilizing and improving agriculture production by

introducing supplemental irrigation system which is mainly applied to
chronic drought prone area during the rainy season.

iii. Most vital issue in the rain-fed farming area is how to alleviate water stress
on grain crop growth at emergence and flowering stage during the recurrent
dry spell, thus some of useful technologies which have already been verified
by the local agriculture research station under the similar agro-climatic
condition in the study area should be verified in on-farm level.

iv. Kind of crop and cropping period in the present rain-fed farming system is
basically continued and is focused on improvement of land productivity.

6.4.2 Cropping Plan

(1) Irrigation (supplemental irrigation) scheme

Considering the basic strategy of agriculture development in the Program, the

following crops are selected for the prospective cropping pattern as main crops.

a. Food grain : maize, wheat

b. Pulse crop : haricot bean, horse bean, field pea
c. Vegetables : tomato, red-onion, chili pepper, cabbage
d. Fruit : papaya
Moreover, considering the below factors, the cropping pattern illustrated in Figure
III.6.1 and Table III.6.1 is proposed after construction of irrigation structure.

a. Water requirement based on maximum water requirement and effective

irrigation water during the dry season
b. Type of present cultivated crops and method of present farming practice
c. Available family labor
d. Socio-economic condition (profitability, marketability, demand and
possibility of seed multiplication)
(2) Rain-fed farming area

The cultivated crops currently are followed as status quo and are focused on
improving agricultural productivity based on the three components illustrated below

III - 33
conceptual figure.

Key w ord: How to conserve soilm oisture

H ow to sustain soilfertility
U tilization of Indigenous
D rought C oping Practice Integration of 3
Com ponents &
Exam ine its effect in
Utilization of Locally
agro-ecological
Available Resource
based on-farm trail
(the Agriculture
U tization of U seful
Verification Study)
Technology Verified

There are two vital factors to be considered for improving rain-fed farming. The
first is how to conserve soil moisture and the second, how to keep soil fertility.
Approach to improved rain-fed farming is essential for an integration of three
components comprising of a) utilization of indigenous drought coping practice, b)
utilization of locally available resources and c) utilization of useful technology
verified by the local agriculture research station.

Further the integrated approach should be examined in its effect through the
agriculture verification study scheme in collaboration with local agriculture research
station based on agro-ecological on-farm trial base. The trial subject to be verified in
the study area should consider the followings:

a. Tied ridge effect

b. Maize storver mulching effect

c. Intercropping with pulse crop

d. Alley cropping with Leucaena

e. Green manure effect

f. Stone mulching effect

g. Watershed management

III - 34
 APPENDIX III
AGRICULTURE

Tables
 Table III.1.1 The Result of Soil Physio-chemical Analyses in the Study Area

Location of Soil Pit

Soil Profile No.1 Soil Profile No.2 Soil Profile No.3

No. Soil Physical and Chemical Properties Gusa Elementary School (About 11 Km. far from
Ela - Gebre Dalacha (23 Km far from Meki town) Bekele Girsa Area(1 Km. far from Meki town)
T.P1)
Soil Depth (cm)
20 50 150 20 50 150 20 50 150

Light brown silty Light gray clayey, Light brown silty Whitish gray silty
White sandy
Black silty clay Black silty clay Brown sand sandy sand Light brown sand
1 Visial Description gravel with
with few sand with few sand silty clay with clay and few silt with few with few gravel sandy silt with few gravel
silt and few clay
gravel gravel and clay and clay

2 Bulk Density (gm/cm3) 1.95 1.69 1.78 1.76 2.05 1.67 1.76 1.58 1.76
3 Gravel (%) 0.4 0.4 0.5 7.2 5.4 39.2 8.8 0 7.8
4 Particle size distributionSand (%) 9.8 7.2 7.8 44.9 30.4 58.6 56.4 63.7 54.3
Silt (%) 38.1 30.8 28.1 36.4 33.2 31.7 34.2 20.9 37.2
Clay (%) 52.1 61.9 64.0 18.6 36.4 9.7 9.4 15.4 8.5
5 pH(H2O) 6.2 6.4 6.5 5.2 6.4 7.2 6.6 7.2 8
6 pH(KCl) 5.0 4.5 4.3 4.8 4.6 6.8 6.0 6.4 7.2
7 Electrical Conductivity (EC), mmho/cm 0.28 0.15 0.11 0.03 0.09 0.12 0.06 0.07 0.49
8 Cation Exchange Capacity(CEC) (meq/100gm soil) 45.51 55.15 45.63 16.92 26.33 35.1 25.87 16.95 34.93
Very High Very High Very High Medium High High Medium Medium High
9 Exchangable Sodium (meq/100gm soil) 1.76 2.71 2.7 1.69 1.69 2.61 2.59 2.59 7.97
10 Exchangable Potassium (meq/100gm soil) 0.96 1.08 1.35 0.71 0.78 1.78 1.92 1.87 4.5
11 Exchangable Calcium (meq/100gm soil) 32.95 39.28 33.48 7.07 19.92 39.08 14.58 14.16 40.98
12 Exchangable Magnesium(meq/100gm soil) 9.54 10.48 10.87 4.16 5.51 5.04 3.75 3.34 7.53
Total Exchangeable Cations (meq/100gm soil) 45.21 53.55 48.4 13.63 27.9 48.51 22.84 21.96 60.98
Saturation Percentages (%, Total Ex-Cations / CEC) 99.3 97.1 106.1 80.6 106.0 138.2 88.3 129.6 174.6
13 Organic Carbon (%) 1.12 1.2 0.25 0.93 0.45 0.28 1.00 0.77 0.37
Organic Matter Content (%) (= Org.C % x 1.724) 1.93 2.07 0.43 1.60 0.78 0.48 1.72 1.33 0.64
Low Low Very Low Low Very Low Very Low Low Low Very Low
14 Available Phosphorous(mg/Kg P2O5) 4.778 4.81 3.74 2.011 1.025 2.485 3.023 3.023 3.597
Low Low Low Low Low Low Low Low Low
15 Total Nitrogen(%) 0.087 0.064 0.032 0.084 0.039 0.035 0.063 0.098 0.049
Low Low Very Low Low Very Low Very Low Low Low Very Low
Remarks : 1) Measurement of pH(H20) and EC are made using suspension as soil and water ratio of 1:2.5 and pH (KCl) using suspension as soil and 1M-Kcl ratio of 1:2.5.
2) Soil Organic Matter content (%) is calculated by multiplying conversion factor of 1.724 to orgarnic carbon (%).
 Table III.1.2 Soil Samples Collected by PA

No of
No. Peasant Association Soil Sample Number per Peasant Association
Samples
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1. Kersa Gambala 0
2. Abene Kumuro 0
3. Adie Mirt 246 247 2
4. Biliti Balewoid 218 220 223 224 238 5
5. Koto Biliti 222 221 240 239 241 242 243 244 245 248 249 11
6. Argo Gadilala 271 233 232 270 273 5
7. Tuchi Denbel 228 229 230 231 4
8. Weyo Gebriel 227 225 28 29 4
9. Aboro Gebriel 268 27 2
10. Dodoti Dembel 26 31 30 236 235 234 226 215 8
11. Mukiye 1 216 209 208 212 210 205 204 41 40 39 38 11
12. Birbirsa Guda Sabole 60 62 67 70 4
13. Birbirsa Gale 0
14. Eela Gebre Daiech 65 64 63 66 4
15. Menjegso Weji 0
16. Joro Reka 71 1
17. Korke Adama 68 69 74 75 4
18. Goro Korke 72 73 79 3
19. Kiltu Ombole 78 80 102 203 4
20. Doyo Laman 138 140 201 200 199 198 6
21. Tute Koremtu 137 202 139 3
22. Koye Jejeba 108 110 112 76 111 77 135 136 8
23. Hafe Kemale 101 107 113 115 109 5
24. Weldia Hafa 121 114 123 128 130 5
25. Beyimogusa 55 103 57 104 105 106 6
26. Dongorota 59 56 58 61 4
27. Mukiya 2 42 44 46 43 45 5
28. Hate Leman 206 37 47 48 4
29. Tepho Choroke 25 207 155 32 4
30. Giraba Korke Adi 33 34 35 36 49 50 6
31. Bekele Girisa 264 24 23 259 260 5
32. Weldiyo Mekidela 265 266 2
33. Weldiyo Kelina 261 262 263 86 267 5
34. Saubi Gamo 82 83 84 2 4
35. Tuchi Sumeyo 3 156 157 158 161 5
36. Jawe Bofa 20 21 118 3
37. Oda Bokota 1 51 52 116 117 5
38. Sera Wekele 53 54 119 120 122 5
39. Derara Daiecha 5 7 4 85 88 159 274 275 8
40. Burka Debrebeg 87 89 90 6 98 5
41. Jirme Bora 8 9 10 11 160 162 6
42. Berta Sami 16 17 18 19 124 125 126 154 8
43. Sori Dolesa 127 129 131 132 134 5
44. Tuka Largamo 15 151 152 153 4
45. Gose Korke 133 141 142 143 144 145 6
46. Tuchi Deko 146 147 148 149 189 5
47. Elen 186 187 188 3
48. Kushe Huluko 194 195 196 197 4
49. Lafesa Germeji 190 191 192 193 4
50. Gora Leman 0
51. Dodo Wedera 179 181 182 183 184 185 6
52. Malema Jere Bera 176 177 178 180 4
53. Tube Suti 171 173 174 175 4
54. Dalota Mati 12 13 14 150 163 164 167 169 170 9
Meki City 22 81 2
Source : JICA Study Team/December, 2000. 245

OTHER AREA(Out of the Study Area)

1. Arsi Zone 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 99 100 165 166 168
172 13
2. Southern Region 257 258 214 237 211 213 217 219 8
3. Adami Tulu Wareda 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 269 272 9
30
Total Sample No 275
 Table III.1.3 Soil Analytical Results (1/4)

No. Peasant Association Soil Analytical Results No. of

Sample No. pH EC Texture Samples
1. Kersa Gambala 0
2. Abene Kumuro 0
3. Adie Mirt 246 6.2 167.0 S 2
247 6.9 99.0 SL
4. Biliti Balewoid 218 6.8 194.0 L 5
220 7.0 180.0 S
223 6.4 64.0 LS
224 6.7 64.0 SL
238 6.4 182.0 S
5. Koto Biliti 222 6.4 64.0 LS 11
221 6.4 82.0 SL
239 6.1 88.0 L
240 6.4 410.0 LS
241 6.1 102.0 CL
242 6.6 190.0 SL
243 6.2 77.0 S
244 6.1 128.0 SL
245 6.1 114.0 SL
248 6.8 172.0 SL
249 7.3 240.0 CL
6. Argo Gadilala 232 6.2 38.0 CL 5
233 6.1 21.0 SiL
270 6.2 140.0 CL
271 6.4 107.0 CL
273 6.1 120.0 CL
7. Tuchi Denbel 228 6.2 85.0 LS 4
229 6.2 163.0 LS
230 7.0 138.0 LS
231 6.2 77.0 LS
8. Weyo Gebriel 28 6.8 78.0 S 4
29 6.6 94.0 SL
225 6.8 300.0 S
227 6.8 116.0 SL
9. Aboro Gebriel 27 6.5 67.0 S 2
268 6.9 220.0 S
10. Dodoti Dembel 26 6.6 85.0 S 8
30 6.5 47.0 SL
31 7.0 20.0 S
215 6.9 330.0 SiL
226 6.9 108.0 SL
234 7.2 200.0 SL
235 6.5 75.0 L
236 6.6 88.0 L
11. Mukiye 1 38 6.6 78.0 SL 11
39 6.2 86.0 SL
40 6.1 53.0 SL
41 6.2 57.0 SL
204 6.6 200.0 SiL
205 6.5 42.0 SiL
208 7.0 220.0 L
209 6.4 1,060.0 SiL
210 6.7 67.0 SiL
212 6.4 96.0 CL
216 6.9 54.0 L
12. Birbirsa Guda Sabole 60 6.1 46.0 SL 4
62 6.1 41.0 S
67 5.8 84.0 CL
70 6.1 78.0 CL
13. Birbirsa Gale 0
14. Eela Gebre Daiech 63 6.4 42.0 SL 4
64 6.2 73.0 CL
65 6.4 46.0 CL
66 6.1 46.0 CL
15. Menjegso Weji 0
16. Joro Reka 71 6.1 24.0 SiL 1
Source : JICA Study Team/December, 2000
Remarks :
Soil Texture - S:Sand, SL: Sandy Loam, L:Loam, LS:Loamy Sand, SiL:Silty Loam, CL:Clay Loam, C:Cla
Electric Conductivity -µs/cm
Soil pH 1:2.5 H2O
 Table III.1.3 Soil Analytical Results (2/4)

No. Peasant Association Soil Analytical Results No. of

Sample No. pH EC Texture Samples
17. Korke Adama 68 5.9 470.0 C 4
69 6.3 79.0 C
74 5.7 28.0 SiL
75 6.9 106.0 SL
18. Goro Korke 72 6.9 106.0 SL 3
73 6.8 112.0 S
79 5.7 28.0 SiL
19. Kiltu Ombole 78 6.1 37.0 SL 4
80 5.8 38.0 S
102 6.3 56.0 SiCL
203 6.2 68.0 SiL
20. Doyo Laman 138 6.4 71.0 SL 6
140 6.6 58.0 SL
198 6.3 57.0 SL
199 6.6 112.0 SiL
200 6.8 360.0 SL
201 6.1 35.0 SL
21. Tute Koremtu 137 6.2 118.0 SL 3
139 6.8 45.0 SiL
202 6.4 76.0 LS
22. Koye Jejeba 76 5.8 51.0 L 8
77 5.6 102.0 CL
108 6.1 52.0 LS
110 6.0 46.0 SiL
111 6.1 26.0 LS
112 5.5 360.0 LS
135 6.5 64.0 LS
136 6.6 61.0 LS
23. Hafe Kemale 101 5.7 128.0 CL 5
107 6.1 65.0 SL
109 5.8 54.0 SL
113 5.7 38.0 L
115 5.8 56.0 S
24. Weldia Hafa 114 5.7 139.0 S 5
121 6.9 57.0 LS
123 6.4 64.0 SL
128 6.9 81.0 S
130 6.0 81.0 SiL
25. Beyimogusa 55 6.5 116.0 SL 6
57 5.9 290.0 S
103 6.1 77.0 SL
104 6.0 50.0 LS
105 5.6 32.0 SL
106 6.2 52.0 SiL
26. Dongorota 56 6.1 70.0 SL 4
58 6.0 44.0 S
59 5.8 54.0 SL
61 6.1 370.0 C
27. Mukiya 2 42 6.8 146.0 SL 5
43 6.4 72.0 SL
44 6.5 88.0 SL
45 6.3 43.0 SL
46 6.1 38.0 S
28. Hate Leman 37 6.7 41.0 SL 4
47 5.6 37.0 SL
48 5.7 61.0 SL
206 6.6 36.0 SiL
29. Tepho Choroke 25 8.9 5,600.0 S 4
32 6.3 79.0 S
155 6.9 65.0 SL
207 6.4 64.0 L
30. Giraba Korke Adi 33 5.6 112.0 SL 6
34 5.7 200.0 S
35 6.8 162.0 S
36 6.8 88.0 S
49 6.1 88.0 SL
50 6.4 49.0 S
Source : JICA Study Team/December, 2000
Remarks :
Soil Texture - S:Sand, SL: Sandy Loam, L:Loam, LS:Loamy Sand, SiL:Silty Loam, CL:Clay Loam, C:Cla
Electric Conductivity -µs/cm
Soil pH 1:2.5 H2O
 Table III.1.3 Soil Analytical Results (3/4)

No. Peasant Association Soil Analytical Results No. of

Sample No. pH EC Texture Samples
31. Bekele Girisa 23 6.6 86.0 S 5
24 8.8 1,040.0 S
259 7.8 500.0 SL
260 6.3 100.0 SL
264 6.1 115.0 C
32. Weldiyo Mekidela 265 6.2 76.0 C 2
266 6.4 94.0 SL
33. Weldiyo Kelina 86 5.9 69.0 SL 5
261 6.1 102.0 SL
262 6.6 120.0 CL
263 6.9 240.0 SL
267 6.6 109.0 SL
34. Saubi Gamo 2 6.6 18.0 SL 4
82 5.8 75.0 C
83 6.0 83.0 SiL
84 6.3 63.0 C
35. Tuchi Sumeyo 3 7.0 62.0 SL 5
156 6.7 38.0 SL
157 5.5 1,550.0 CL
158 6.8 92.0 S
161 6.8 178.0 LS
36. Jawe Bofa 20 6.4 39.0 SL 3
21 6.4 68.0 SL
118 6.9 63.0 LS
37. Oda Bokota 1 6.4 17.0 SL 5
51 6.4 74.0 S
52 6.1 49.0 S
116 6.4 78.0 SL
117 6.8 63.0 SiL
38. Sera Wekele 53 6.4 35.0 SL 5
54 6.9 111.0 S
119 7.1 62.0 LS
120 6.0 65.0 SL
122 6.4 78.0 SL
39. Derara Daiecha 4 7.0 62.0 SL 8
5 6.5 2.0 SL
7 6.4 52.0 SL
85 6.3 196.0 C
88 6.8 89.0 S
159 6.3 22.0 S
274 6.8 250.0 SL
275 6.2 123.0 SL
40. Burka Debrebeg 6 6.6 32.0 SL 5
87 6.8 220.0 C
89 5.7 69.0 SiL
90 6.3 40.0 SiCL
98 6.3 73.0 CL
41. Jirme Bora 8 6.5 38.0 S 6
9 6.4 172.0 S
10 6.2 51.0 SL
11 5.7 67.0 LS
160 6.4 122.0 CL
162 6.6 82.0 SL
42. Berta Sami 16 6.4 33.0 S 8
17 6.3 37.0 SC
18 6.2 61.0 SL
19 6.2 64.0 SC
124 6.6 36.0 LS
125 6.1 94.0 SiL
126 6.2 56.0 LS
154 6.4 63.0 SL
43. Sori Dolesa 127 6.2 42.0 SiL 5
129 6.3 44.0 LS
131 6.6 74.0 LS
132 6.4 46.0 LS
134 6.7 62.0 SL
Source : JICA Study Team/December, 2000
Remarks :
Soil Texture - S:Sand, SL: Sandy Loam, L:Loam, LS:Loamy Sand, SiL:Silty Loam, CL:Clay Loam, C:Cla
Electric Conductivity -µs/cm
Soil pH 1:2.5 H2O
 Table III.1.3 Soil Analytical Results (4/4)

No. Peasant Association Soil Analytical Results No. of

Sample No. pH EC Texture Samples
44. Tuka Largamo 15 6.2 49.0 S 4
151 6.7 83.0 SL
152 6.3 42.0 SL
153 6.5 71.0 S
45. Gose Korke 133 6.7 46.0 SiL 6
141 6.7 38.0 SiL
142 6.7 81.0 LS
143 6.6 113.0 LS
144 6.5 50.0 SiL
145 6.4 60.0 SL
46. Tuchi Deko 146 6.1 38.0 SiL 5
147 6.5 54.0 LS
148 6.1 52.0 CL
149 5.9 44.0 SL
189 6.8 118.0 SL
47. Elen 186 6.3 69.0 L 3
187 6.9 82.0 SL
188 6.4 79.0 L
48. Kushe Huluko 194 6.2 46.0 SL 4
195 6.2 42.0 SiL
196 6.4 57.0 SL
197 6.1 81.0 L
49. Lafesa Germeji 190 6.4 111.0 SL 4
191 6.8 95.0 SiL
192 7.0 120.0 SL
193 6.7 73.0 SL
50. Gora Leman 0
51. Dodo Wedera 179 6.1 137.0 S 6
181 6.5 35.0 LS
182 6.6 82.0 S
183 7.1 88.0 SL
184 6.9 2.0 SL
185 6.4 54.0 SL
52. Malema Jere Bera 176 6.9 132.0 LS 4
177 6.5 44.0 SL
178 6.2 77.0 SL
180 6.8 91.0 SL
53. Tube Suti 171 6.4 90.0 S 4
173 6.0 200.0 SL
174 6.7 67.0 LS
175 6.3 98.0 CL
54. Dalota Mati 12 6.1 76.0 SL 9
13 5.8 58.0 SL
14 5.7 45.0 SL
150 7.0 188.0 LS
163 6.4 80.0 L
164 6.3 31.0 SL
167 6.0 32.0 SL
169 6.5 68.0 S
170 7.0 45.0 SL
Meki City 22 6.2 55.0 S 2
81 6.1 61.0 S
Total 245

OTHER AREA(Out of the Study Area)

Name of Zone Soil Sample Number taken from the area
1. Arsi Zone 91 92 93 94 95
99 100 165 166 168
2. Southern Region 257 258 214 237 211
3. Adami Tulu Wareda 250 251 252 253 255

Source : JICA Study Team/December, 2000

Remarks :
Soil Texture - S:Sand, SL: Sandy Loam, L:Loam, LS:Loamy Sand, SiL:Silty Loam, CL:Clay Loam, C:Cla
Electric Conductivity -µs/cm
Soil pH 1:2.5 H2O
 Table III.1.4 Indigenous Trees and Grass Species in the Study Area

(1) Indigenous trees

No. Local name Scientific Name Common Name

1. Tedecha Acacia tortilis Acacia albida
2. Dere A. brevispica Millia
3. Bisana Croton macrostchys Moringa
4. Zibba Podo carpus Jacaranda
5. Shola Spatoda ficus Ficus sycomorus n.a.
6. Weira Olive tree Lusinia
7. Bora Capprris tomentasa Sesbania n.a.
8. Kurkura Ziziphus mauritania Gravicia
9. Duckuac Cactus spp. Eucalyptus tree
10. Keba n.a. Neem
11. Abam Carissa edulis Turmantuli
12. Bofefe n.a. n.a.
13. Sensec n.a. n.a.
14. Berbi n.a. n.a.
15. Dodota Acacia spp.(myalotica?) n.a.
16. Bedeno n.a. n.a.
17. Wacho Acacia seyal n.a.
18. Girar Acacia mubica n.a.
19. Lafto Acacia mellifera n.a.
20. Wanza n.a. n.a.
21. Wadesta Erythrina melanacantha n.a.
22. Kophim n.a. n.a.
23. Kontil n.a. n.a.

(2) Grass Species

No. Local name Scientific Name
1 Senbelet Hyparrhenia ruffa
2 Serdo Cynodon dactylon
3 Muga Cenchrus ciliaris
4 Fila n.a.
5 Akirma n.a.
6 Gicha n.a.
7 Chloris spp n.a.
8 Setaria spp n.a.
9 Paspalum spp n.a.
10 Eragrostis spp n.a.