Road Engineering Lecture Note

UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR
Institute of Technology
Department of Hydraulic and Water Resource
Engineering
Road Engineering (CEng 5231)
Lecture note
Lecturer: Yodit D, M.Sc.

(Civil Engineering - Road and transport engineering)
October 2019
Gondar, Ethiopia
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Transportation Engineering ....................................................................................................................1
1.2 Transportation planning ...........................................................................................................................1
1.3 Highway Engineering Environment .....................................................................................................2
1.3.1 Highway Engineering Problem ......................................................................................................2
1.3.2 Factors that Affect the Environment of Road Project include: ..........................................2
1.4 Geometric Design Philosophy .................................................................................................................4
1.5 Design Standards .........................................................................................................................................4
1.6 Departures from Standards .....................................................................................................................4
Chapter 2: HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND ROUTE LOCATION ...................................................................5
2.1 Highway Alignment ....................................................................................................................................5
2.2 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment ............................................................................................5
2.3 Route Location Surveys .............................................................................................................................6
2.3.1 Reconnaissance Surveys ..................................................................................................................6
2.3.2 Preliminary Surveys ..........................................................................................................................7
2.3.3 Final (Detailed) Location Surveys ................................................................................................8
2.4 Highway alignment and route location survey based on ERA 2013 manual .......................9
2.4.1 Route corridor selection...................................................................................................................9
2.4.2 Route selection Report................................................................................................................... 11
Chapter 3: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS ....................................................................................... 13
3.1 Design Controls and Criteria ................................................................................................................ 14
3.1.1 Functional classification of the roadway ................................................................................ 14
3.1.2 Nature of Terrain ............................................................................................................................. 15

3.1.3 Traffic Volume and Composition ............................................................................................... 16
3.1.4 Design Speed and Design Class................................................................................................... 16
3.1.5 Design Vehicle ................................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Highway Cross-Section Elements ....................................................................................................... 17
Road Width ......................................................................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Elements of Geometric Design............................................................................................................. 19
3.3.1 Sight Distance .................................................................................................................................... 19
3.3.2 Horizontal Alignment: .................................................................................................................... 23

Road Engineering Lecture note 2019
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Transportation Engineering
Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely,
and in a manner favorable to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing,
constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure. It includes areas such as
transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, some aspects of urban
engineering, pavement engineering, Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and
infrastructure management.
Transportation engineering is the application of technological and scientific principles to

the planning, functional design, operation and management of facilities for any mode of
transportation. A transportation mode is a specific way to travel, usually defined by either
the physical system being used, by the technology used, or the organizational
characteristics. Transportation modes include walking, automobile, transit, water, air or
railway.
1.2 Transportation planning
Transportation planning is the process of defining future policies, goals, investments, and
designs to prepare for future needs to move people and goods to destinations. It deals with
the development of a comprehensive plan as well as construction and operation of
transport facilities. Elements of Transportation Planning:
 Statement of goals and objectives(e.g. connecting villages to nearest

markets/towns; Improvement of air quality in large cities; Reduction of travel time
on a certain highway or Increasing the level of service )
 Identification of needs: the needs of transportation system that can satisfy the
stated goals and done on the basis of taking the inventory of the existing system and
forecast of future conditions( Travel demand and Traffic volume)
 Generation of alternatives
 Evaluation of alternatives: analysis of alternative based on financial feasibility,
economic impact ,technical, land use and demographic impact and environmental
impact analysis
 Implementation Plan
University of Gondar, IoT, Department of HWRE

Compiled by Lecturer Yodit D. (MSc.) Page 1
1.3 Highway Engineering Environment
The highway-engineering problem, like any other problem, exists in a complex

environment that must be taken into account in decision-making. The engineer must
analyze a particular problem and, based on this analysis, make recommendations those are
not only scientifically sound but are also adaptable to the physical environment,
technologically achievable, economically viable, and in the final analysis, socially
acceptable.
1.3.1 Highway Engineering Problem
1.3.2 Factors that Affect the Environment of Road Project include:
i. The Physical Element

This includes the following factors:
 Topography
 Geology and soils
 Vegetation and land use
 Natural drainage
 Rainfall and Climate
 Materials
ii. The Technological Environment

The technological environment affects the success of its implementation, whether
success is measured in terms of quality, completion, or time.
 Skilled manpower & Management manpower
 Tools and equipment
 Construction technology
 Technological literacy and awareness

iii. The Economic Environment

Some of the factors that define the economic environment in highway-engineering
decision are as follows:
 GNP or GDP
 Cash versus food crop cultivation.
 Agricultural versus industrial production
 Distribution of economic activity
 Export-import ratio
Economic evaluation is a rational approach at quantifying the future benefits and costs
of proposed highway. It is generally done by computing
 Cost of construction of the facility

 Cost of maintenance of the facility
 Road user cost (Vehicle operation cost + Travel time costs + Accident cost)
 Cost to the society (Impact on the environment (noise pollution, air pollution,
vibration) , Changes in land values, Land severance and Loss of aesthetics)
iv. The Social Environment

It concerns the social and cultural values of the society, Religious sites and ancient
monuments, safety concerns, job opportunity and economic implication. Social
acceptance is a vital factor in highway planning and engineering. The support of the
community is among the requirement for highway projects.
Environmental impact Assessment
Highway and traffic have a direct impact on social and community values, the environment
and the ecology. Before the highway engineer prepares any scheme, an environmental
impact statement (EIS) should be prepared. The contents of EIS include description of the
proposed action and alternatives considered as well as the probable impact of proposed
action on the environment.

1.4 Geometric Design Philosophy
Road geometric design refers to the calculations and analyses made by the designer to fit
the road to the topography of the site while meeting the safety, service and performance
standards. It is mainly concerned with the elements of the road that are visible to the
drivers and users. However, the designer must also take into consideration the social and
environmental impacts of the road geometry on the surrounding facilities.
1.5 Design Standards
Roads are designed in conjunction with design guidelines and standards. These are adopted
by national and sub-national authorities (e.g., states, provinces, territories and
municipalities). Design guidelines take into account speed, vehicle type, road grade (slope),
view obstructions, and stopping distance. With proper application of guidelines, along with
good engineering judgments, an engineer can design a roadway that is comfortable, safe,
and appealing to the eye.
1.6 Departures from Standards
It is expected that there may be situations where the designer will be compelled to deviate
from these standards. Where the designer departs from a standard, he/she must obtain a
written approval and authorization from the Ministry.
The designer must submit a proposal that include all departures from the standards and in
what aspect of this is desired and the reason along with the description of the standard,
including normal value, and the value of the departure from Standards as well as any
mitigation to be applied in the interests of safety. If the proposed departures from the
standards are acceptable, the departures from the Standards will be given approval by the
Ministry.

Chapter 2: HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND ROUTE LOCATION
2.1 Highway Alignment
Alignment is the position or layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground.
 Horizontal alignment consists of straight paths and curves
 Vertical alignment consists of grades and curves
Improper alignment of a road facility implies capital loss initially in construction as well as
loss in costs of maintenance and vehicle operation. Once the road is aligned and
constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining land
and construction of costly structures by the roadside.
Requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminals take account of

• Short distance: straight alignment would be the shortest, though there may be
several practical considerations which would cause deviation from shortest path.
• Easy to construct, maintain and operation with easy grades and curves.
• Economy: initial capital cost, maintenance and operation cost.
• Safety: Safe enough for construction and maintenance (stability of natural slopes,
embankments, cut slopes, and foundations) & Safe for traffic operations
2.2 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment
• Obligatory/mandatory Points that should be consider

– Points through which the alignment is to pass: Chosen Bridge Site,
Intermediate town to be accessed between the termini, a mountain pass, etc...
– Points which should be avoided: Areas requiring costly structures, expensive
soil areas, marshes and low lying lands subject to flooding, hilly terrain where
there is a possibility of landslides, etc...
• Traffic: Present and future travel patterns should be observed & forecasted.
• Geometric Constraints: max gradient, min curve radius and sight distance,
maximum allowable super-elevation, etc. should be within the limits of design
values that are governed by the expected traffic speed.
• Economy: Total cost (initial construction cost, maintenance and operation cost)
• Other considerations like Drainage considerations, Hydrological factors and
Political considerations

Special considerations on Hilly Roads
• Slope Stability
– A common problem in hill roads is land slide.
Special care should be taken to choose the
side that is more stable.
• Drainage
– Numerous hill-side drains to adequately drain the water across the road should
be provided. But, attempts should be made to align the road where the numbers
of cross-drainage structures are minimized.
• Geometry
– Different standards of grades, curves, sight distances, speeds and other related
features are followed in hill roads.
• Resisting Length
– The resisting length should be kept as low as possible. Thus, the ineffective rise
and excessive fall should be kept minimal.
2.3 Route Location Surveys
Highway and railway routes are chosen only after a complete and detailed study of all
possible locations. Route location usually involves the use of air photos, satellite imagery,
and ground surveys as well as the analysis of existing plans and maps. The route selected
will be chosen as it satisfies all design requirements with minimal social, environmental,
and financial impact.
The following engineering surveys are usually carried out in order to select the best road
corridor: Desk Study
 Reconnaissance Surveys
Field Study
 Preliminary Surveys
 Detailed (Location) Surveys
2.3.1 Reconnaissance Surveys
1st phase of Reconnaissance (Desk Study) involves an examination of a relatively large

area between terminal points for the purpose of determining broad corridors through
which a road alignment may pass. Usually such survey is made by the use of available maps
and Aerial Photographs (stereoscopy).
Some of the data that may be required:

 Published literatures: Road construction and maintenance case histories and
geological, economical and environmental reviews
 Topographic and Geological maps, Agricultural or land development map, soil map
and other natural resource maps
 Aerial Photography if possible satellite imagery (e.g. Land sat/MSS and Radar
images
Sources of referenced maps may be Ethiopian Mapping Authority, Geological Survey of
Ethiopia, Ministry of Mine, Ministry of Agriculture, Ethiopian Institute of Geological, etc….
2nd phase of Reconnaissance (Field Study): When the desk study is over and once the
potential route corridors have been identified, the reconnaissance survey should be
employed to verify interpretations, to help determine the preferred corridor, and to
identify factors that will influence the feasibility design concept and cost comparison.
A team consisting of following personal/Engineers should make a site inspection visit:

 Highway Engineer,  Bridge/Structure Engineer
 Soil & material (pavement) Engineer,  Environmentalist / Sociologist, and
 Hydrologist,  Local Administrative Personnel
 Chief Surveyor,
After evaluating the alternative routes proposed, one or more routes will be recommended.
If more than one routes passed the reconnaissance survey detail study is made to choose
one best route in the preliminary survey.
2.3.2 Preliminary Surveys
It consists of running an accurate traverse line along the routes already recommended as a
result of reconnaissance survey in order to obtain sufficient data for final location. Its
oobjectives include
 Survey and collect necessary data (topography, drainage, soil, etc.) on alternate
alignments
 To estimate quantity of earthwork, material, … of different alternatives
 Compare alternate alignments
 Finalize the best alignment from all considerations

After finishing the preliminary survey, select the most suitable alignment by conducting a
comparative study considering economy, geometry, etc. Optimum alignment will be the one
which yields the least overall transportation cost
 Cost of construction and maintenance of the road
 The recurring cost of vehicle operation
 Least adverse impact on the environment and ecological balance
2.3.3 Final (Detailed) Location Surveys
Final location survey is conducted to fix the centre line of the selected alignment and collect
additional data for the design and preparation of working drawings. The survey work might
be limited if extensive data gathering was done earlier. Tasks during this stage include:
 Pegging the centre line: usually done at stations established at 30m intervals
 Centre-line Levelling: at the stations and at intermediate points between stations
where there is a significant change in the slope to obtain the representative profile of
the ground
 Cross-section Levelling: at each station and at points with significant change in
ground slope
 Intersecting Roads: the directions of the centre line of all intersecting roads,
profiles, and cross-sections for some distance on both sides
 Ditches and Streams: horizontal alignment, profile, and cross section levelling of
the banks of the stream/river
The data, after the necessary investigation and final location survey, is sent to the design
office to be used for geometric design, pavement design, and design of drainage and other
structures, preparation of drawings, reports, and specifications
A complete set of drawings for a road design includes:

• Site plan of proposed alignment
• Detailed Plan & Profile
• Cross-sections for Earth work
• Typical Roadway sections at selected locations (e.g. junctions)
• A mass-haul diagram
• Construction details of structures like bridges, culverts, ….

2.4 Highway alignment and route location survey based on ERA 2013 manual
The Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) has prepared a series of technical manuals, standard
specifications and bidding documents for the practicing engineer in Ethiopia. The series
describes current and recommended practice and sets out the national standards for roads
and bridges. The manuals are based on national experience and international practice
appropriately modified to take account of local experience and local conditions. Companion
documents and manuals include the Standard Technical Specifications, Standard Detailed
Drawings and Standard Bidding Documents.
The complete series of documents, covering all roads and bridges in Ethiopia, includes:
1. Route Selection Manual
2. Site Investigation Manual
3. Geotechnical Design Manual
4. Geometric Design Manual
5. Pavement Design Manual Volume I Flexible Pavements
6. Pavement Design Manual Volume II Rigid Pavements
7. Pavement Rehabilitation and Asphalt Overlay Design Manual
8. Drainage Design Manual
9. Bridge Design Manual
10. Low Volume Roads Design Manual
11. Standard Environmental Procedures Manual
12. Standard Technical Specifications
13. Standard Drawings
14. Best Practice Manual for Thin Bituminous Surfacings
15. Standard Bidding Documents for Road Work Contracts – A series of Bidding
Documents covering a full range from large scale projects unlimited in value to minor
works with an upper threshold of $300,000. The higher level documents have both Local
Competitive Bidding and International Competitive Bidding versions.
2.4.1 Route corridor selection
Projects are planned and carried out using a sequence of activities known as the “project
cycle.” The cycle is composed of the following steps: identification, feasibility, design
commitment and negotiation, operation, and evaluation. Route corridor selection
comprises of portion of the first three of these activities.

Project Identification
Identification of the need for a new road based on strategic, economic and/or social/rural
mobility considerations. A route corridor is defined as the length and width of an area of
terrain that needs to be studied in order to be able to identify route options within it.
The data resources available for identifying a corridor are:

– Existing topographic and other specialized mapping
– Satellite imagery
– Site reconnaissance
– Local information
– Government and regional development plans
ERA consider the identification of route corridors on basis of

– Strategic Road Planning Network Analysis
– Input from other ministries and authorities
– Issues raised by regional and local authorities
– Road sector development programmes
The outcome of this corridor identification process is:

– the definition of the start and end points of the project corridor
– the identification of any other defined intermediate control points (e.g. towns
and villages) through which various route options are required to pass
– the definition of any constraints (topographical, environmental or
administrative) that might dictate where route options cannot be located
Feasibility Study
Identification of route options, desk & field studies to yield comparisons of length, cost,
stability and geo-hazard, environmental and social considerations, preliminary economic
analysis. Route options are defined as approximate alignments within the route corridor
that are compared in order to select the preferred route.

All possible routes shall be located and examined on maps, satellite and air photos. Then
the possible alternative routes are evaluated by the following criteria (ERA)
 Relative lengths of the alternatives; normally the shortest distance is preferable.

 What are the average and mean gradients of the alternatives? Normally the least
severe grade alternative is preferred.
 Proximity to existing road; which alternative more closely follows an existing road
or track, this makes survey and construction easier and may indicate the route of
least earthworks.
 Which alternative follows the least severe terrain type? Which would be less costly
and have less severe horizontal curves?
 Which alignment minimizes the need for land acquisition? Which alignment
minimizes the need to demolish buildings and houses?
 What is the total number of bridges required for each alternative? What is the
total aggregate length of these bridges?
 Which route remains for a longer period on the crest of the terrain? Such an
alignment minimizes the need for drainage structures.
 Which route results in the least environmental disturbance to surrounding area?
 Which route has the least overall project cost, including both design and
construction?
The ERA Geometric Design Manual lays out general considerations and best practice with
regard to route selection. “the road should be as direct as possible (within the bounds of
the geometric standards for the particular class of road) between the cities, towns or
villages to be linked, thereby minimizing road user transport costs and probably
minimizing construction and maintenance costs as well.” That is Balance user costs and
highway costs.
2.4.2 Route selection Report
The contents of a Route Selection Report will vary from project to project, and may have to
deal with specific issues that are contained in the route selection Terms of Reference
provided by ERA. For example, a report for a completely new alignment over mountainous
and escarpment terrain will differ considerably from a report for the upgrading of existing
road on flat or rolling terrain.

A recommended contents list is given below
• Introduction: Project background, Study objectives and key considerations, Project

location, Fixed points, Options
• Desk Studies, Reconnaissance Surveys and Stakeholder Consultations
• The Project Area: Socio-economics (Location, Population, Economy, Natural resources),

Environment and Physical Characteristics (Terrain, Climate, Geology, Soils and
construction materials, Hydrology)
• Route Options: Socio-economics, Environment, Engineering (Road design standard ,

Traffic survey and forecast , Geology, Soils and construction materials, Hydrology), Cost
estimate and Economic Evaluation
• Preferred Route Option: Evaluation criteria, Evaluation of route options, Conclusions

and recommendations

Chapter 3: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway engineering

concerned with the positioning of the physical elements of the roadway
according to standards and constraints.
The basic objectives in geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while
minimizing cost and environmental damage.
Geometric roadway design provides a three-dimensional layout for a roadway. It can be

broken into three main parts:
 The alignment is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangents and
curves.
 The profile is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves, and the
straight grade lines connecting them.
 The cross section shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle lanes and
sidewalks, along with their cross slope or banking. Cross sections also show drainage
features, pavement structure and other items outside the category of geometric design
Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road in the terrain is designed to
meet the needs of the road users. In engineering terms, road alignments have to service
traffic in terms of providing a route that meets constraints imposed by vehicle dynamics,
occupant comfort and topography. This means that most road alignments are in fact
complex three-dimensional splines that do not have a simple mathematical definition.
This problem has historically been addressed by reducing the three-dimensional alignment
to two two-dimensional alignments. In each case, the alignments are made up of geometric
elements that are convenient to calculate and construct yet still ensure that vehicle
dynamics constraints are met.
Therefore, despite the fact highway Alignment is a three-dimensional problem, design &
construction would be difficult in 3-D so highway design is split into three 2-D problems:
 Horizontal alignment,
 vertical alignment, and
 cross-section

3.1 Design Controls and Criteria
The elements of design are influenced by a wide variety of design controls, engineering
criteria, and project specific objectives. Such factors include the following:
 Functional classification of the roadway  Traffic safety considerations

 Projected traffic volume and composition  Road users characteristics
 Required design speed  Right-of-way impacts and costs
 Topography of the surrounding land  Available fund
 Capital costs for construction  Safety
 Road users characteristics  Economic & Environmental Considerations
 Vehicle size & performance characteristics
3.1.1 Functional classification of the roadway
The first step in the design process is to define the function that the facility is to serve.
Highways are classified in accordance with functional characteristics. These characteristics
are based on:
 the location of the road, such as urban or rural;

 width of the road, such as single lane or multilane;
 the type of service the road is to provide, such as local access or travel between
cities
Classification of Movements and highways
Mobility is the ability to move goods and

passengers to their destination (in a reasonable
time) whereas Accessibility is the ability to reach
desired destination.
Hierarchical system based on purpose and level of

importance.

 Trunk Roads (Class A)

– Roads of international importance
– Connect Addis Ababa with international boundaries
– have a present AADT 1000 and as low as 100
 Link Roads (Class B)
– Roads of national or international importance
– have over 400 - 1000 first year AADT, although values can range between 50-
10,000 AADT
 Main Access Roads (Class C)
– Connect the centers of provincial importance
– their first year AADTs between 30-1,000
 Collector Roads (Class D)
– Connect locally important centers to each other or to a more important center or
to high class roads
– their first year AADTs between 25-400
 Feeder Roads (Class E)
– Any road link to a minor center such as market and local locations with first year
AADT between 0-100
3.1.2 Nature of Terrain
The terrain classification as ‘level’, ‘rolling’ or ‘mountainous’ may be defined as average

ground slope measured as the number of five-meter contour lines crossed per kilometer on
a straight line linking the two ends of the road section.
Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows:

 Flat or gently rolling terrain: slope up to 5%
 Rolling terrain: slope 5 to 25%
– Slopes rise and fall moderately
 Mountainous terrain: slope 25 to 50%
– Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges
– Presents definite restrictions to the alignment
 Escarpment: slope greater than 50%
– To accommodate situations not met above.
– Ex. Hill side traverse where earth work quantities are considerable

3.1.3 Traffic Volume and Composition
Traffic data indicates the service for which the road is being planned and directly affects the
geometric elements such as width, alignment, etc,
– Traffic volume – AADT, ADT, PHV, DHV
– Directional distribution – the percentage of traffic volume flowing in each
direction
– Traffic projection – using the design period of a road (5-20 years)a reliable
traffic projection should be made considering the following elements
Traffic composition: Vehicles of different sizes and mass have different operating
characteristics. Trucks have a higher mass/power ratio and occupy more roadway space
than passenger cars. Consequently, they constitute a greater impedance to traffic flow than
passenger vehicles, with the overall effect that one truck is equivalent to several passenger
cars.
3.1.4 Design Speed and Design Class
The assumed design speed for a highway may be considered as “the maximum safe speed
that can be maintained over a specified section of a highway when conditions are so
favorable that the design features govern”. The choice of design speed will depend
primarily on the surrounding terrain and the functional class of the highway. Other factors
determining the selection of design speed include traffic volume, costs of right-of-way and
construction, and aesthetic consideration.
It is therefore recommended that the basic parameters of road function, terrain type and
traffic flow are defined initially. On the basis of these parameters, a design class is selected,
while design speed is used only as an index which links design class to the design
parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with a
reasonably consistent speed environment.
3.1.5 Design Vehicle
Design vehicles are selected to represent all vehicles on the highway. They have
representative dimensions and operating characteristics, and the weight, physical
dimensions, and operating characteristics of the design vehicle will be used to establish the
geometric features of the highway. The design engineer will select for design the largest
vehicle that is expected to use the roadway facility in significant numbers on a daily basis.

Roadway features such as intersection corner radii, Max. gradient, lane width, horizontal
curve widening are all directly affected by vehicle characteristics (size & shapes of the
vehicles using a facility)
3.2 Highway Cross-Section Elements
Road cross section elements are those features of roadway which forms its effective width.
They embrace aspects such as right-of-way, roadway width, central reservations (medians),
shoulders, camber, side-slope etc.
All the cross‐section elements are accommodated within the right‐of‐ way (ROW) of
the highway
– Roadway: the portion of a highway including shoulders for vehicular use
– Carriageway: That portion of the roadway including the various traffic lanes and
auxiliary lanes but excluding shoulders
– Travel/traffic lanes: the portion of the roadway provided for the movement of
vehicles exclusive of shoulders (ERA manual: lane width for DS1 & DS2 = 3.65 m)
– Shoulders: the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway and serves
for an emergency stop of vehicles and used to laterally support the pavement
structure
– Medians: the physical or painted separation provided on divided highways
between two adjacent roadways.

– Crown: Highest portion of the cross-section of a cambered roadway

– Side Slope: Area between the outer edge of shoulder or hinge point and the
ditch bottom; provided for stability of earthworks; the slope varies depending on
the material type
– Cross-fall: The difference in level measured transversely across the surface of
the roadway.
– Back Slope: Area between the ditch
bottom and the limit of the earthworks
– Toe of Slope: The intersection of the
front slope or back slope with the natural
ground or ditch bottom
– Front Slope: The side slope created by connecting the shoulder or shelf at the
hinge point, downward and outward, to the ditch bottom or natural ground.
– Hinge Point
 The point from which the fill height or depth of cut is determined
 For fills, the point is located at the intersection of the shoulder and the fill
slope.
 For cuts, the hinge point is located at the toe of the back slope
– Roadside barriers, Guardrails: longitudinal barriers on the outside of sharp
curves at sections with high fills (greater than 2.5 m)
– Curbs: Border of stone, concrete or other rigid material formed at the edge of
the roadway or footway
– Gutter (in urban areas) and Drainage Ditches: located on the pavement side of
a curb to provide the principal drainage facility for the highway
Auxiliary Lane: The portion of the roadway adjoining the traveled way for purposes
supplementary to through traffic movement including parking, speed change, turning,
storage for turning, weaving, or truck climbing
Climbing Lane: An auxiliary lane in the upgrade direction for use by slow moving vehicles
and to facilitate overtaking, thereby maintaining capacity and freedom of operation on the
carriageway.
Passing Bay: Widened section of an otherwise single lane road where a vehicle may move
over to enable another vehicle to pass.

Road Width
Road width should be minimized to reduce the costs of construction and maintenance,
whilst being sufficient to carry the traffic loading efficiently and safely. Usually width of
travel lane varies from 3 to 3.65 m, but occasionally 2.7 m lane width is used in urban areas
where the traffic volume is low and there is extreme right-of-way constraints.
Considerations in cross‐section design
– Volume and composition (percent trucks, buses) of the vehicular traffic expected
to use the facility
– The likelihood that bicyclists and pedestrians will use the route
– Climatic conditions
– The presence of natural or human‐made obstructions adjacent to the roadway
– Type and intensity of development along the section of the highway facility that
is being designed
– Safety of the users
The most appropriate design for a highway improvement is the one that balances the mobility
needs of the people using the facility (motorists, pedestrians, bicyclists) with the physical
constraints of the corridor with which the facility is located.
ERA GDM provides cross-sec elements for all standards of roads.
3.3 Elements of Geometric Design
3.3.1 Sight Distance
Drivers need to have the capacity of seeing ahead. Sight distance is the length of roadway
ahead visible to the driver. (Distance visible to the driver) It must allow driver to perceive,
react, stop, change speed, and swerve etc. when necessary.
– Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

– Decision Sight Distance (DSD)
– Passing Sight Distance for two‐lane highways (PSD)
– Intersection Sight Distance (ISD)
For highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of sufficient length that
drivers can control the operation of the vehicle.

i. Stopping Sight Distance:
Minimum distance needed to stop and comprises of two elements, SSD = d1 + d2
Perception Reaction distance(d1) : distance travelled from time the object is sighted to
the instant the brakes are applied.
– Recommended PRT = 2.5 sec (average driver 1.0 – 1.5 sec)
– PRT = 2.5 sec may not be adequate for the most complex, unexpected
conditions encountered in actual driving
The distance traveled before the brakes are applied is: d1 = 10/36 * V * t
where: d1 = total reaction distance in m;
V = initial vehicle speed in Km/h
t = reaction time in sec.
Braking distance(d2) : the distance required to stop after brake activation ( f = a / g where,
a = deceleration rate, typical value 3.5 m/s2 )
The braking distance is dependent on vehicle condition and characteristics, the coefficient
of friction between tyre and road surface, the gradient of the road and the initial vehicle
speed.
d2 = V2 / (254(f + g/100))
where: d2 = breaking distance in meters;
V = initial vehicle speed in km/h;
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction;
g = gradient( in %; positive if uphill and negative if
downhill)
V2
Therefore SSD becomes ………………. SSD  0.278Vt 
254 f  G
Where G=percent of grade divided by 100.
Note:
1. Safe SSD on upgrades is shorter than on downgrades
2. Min. SD should be adjusted where steep grades and high speed occur in combination

ii. Decision Sight Distance (SSD)
Distance required to detect an information source difficult to perceive, recognize hazard,

select appropriate action and complete maneuver. A bit longer than SSD, used in locations
of complex decision making, where info is difficult to perceive and when
unexpected/unusual maneuvering required. Eg. Intersection area, Interchange area or
other places where needs to make speed/path/direction changes.
iii. Passing Sight Distance:
it is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads to enable the driver of
one vehicle to pass another vehicle without interfering with the speed of an oncoming
vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Factors affecting passing (overtaking) sight distance are the judgment of overtaking
drivers, the speed and size of overtaken vehicles, the acceleration capabilities of overtaking
vehicles, the speed of oncoming vehicles and gradient of the road.
Passing Sight Distance (PSD) = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction

where t = perception/reaction time (sec)
V 2  Vo 2
d1  Vot  ( f ) Vo= average speed of passing vehicle (m/s)
2a
Vf= speed as vehicle enters the left lane (m/s)
a = acceleration (m/s2)
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d 2  Vt
t  V / D,
where : D  (6  6.7  6.7  6)m, and
V  16kph(relative speed of pas sin g vehicle]
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, Usually d3 is taken
equal to 75m
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle (d4 usually taken as 2/3 d2 )

Assumption of PSD:
1. Passing/overtaking vehicle travels at uniform speed

2. Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed vehicle as it reaches passing
section
3. Time elapses as driver reaches decision to pass
4. Passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver and velocity of the
passing vehicle is 10 mph (16kph) greater than that of the passed vehicle
5. Enough distance is allowed between passing and oncoming vehicle when the
passing vehicle returns to its lane
iv. Intersection Sight Distance (ISD)
Intersection sight distance is distance in advance of an intersection that enables a driver to

determine whether the intersection is safe to maneuver.
Purpose – provide sight distance at intersections to allow drivers to perceive the presence
of potentially conflicting vehicles and traffic control devices.
Method – Specified areas along intersection approach legs and corners should be clear of
obstructions.
Two types of clear sight triangles are considered in intersection design: Approach Sight
Triangle and Departure Sight Triangle

3.3.2 Horizontal Alignment:
The horizontal alignment should always be designed to the highest standard consistent
with the topography and be chosen carefully to provide good drainage and minimize
earthworks. The alignment design should also be aimed at achieving a uniform operating
speed. Therefore the standard of alignment selected for a particular section of road should
extend throughout the section with no sudden changes from easy to sharp curvature.
Where a sharp curvature is unavoidable, a sequence of curves of decreasing radius is
recommended.
The horizontal alignment consists of a series of intersecting tangents and circular curves,
with or without transition curves.
3.3.2.1 Straights (Tangents)
Long straights should be avoided, as they are monotonous for drivers and cause headlight
dazzle on straight grades. A more pleasing appearance and higher road safety can be
obtained by a winding alignment with tangents deflecting some 5 – 10 degrees alternately
to the left and right. Short straights between curves in the same direction should not be
used because of the broken back effect. In such cases where a reasonable tangent length is
not attainable, the use of long, transitions or compound curvature should be considered.
The following guidelines may be applied concerning the length of straights:
 Straights should not have lengths greater than (20 * V) meters, where V is the design
speed in km/h.
 Straights between circular curves turning in the same direction should have lengths
greater than (6*V) meters, where V is the design speed in km/h.
 Straights between the end and the beginning of untransitioned reverse circular curves
should have lengths greater than two-thirds of the total superelevation run-off.
3.3.1.2 Circular Curves
Horizontal curvature design is one of the most important features influencing the efficiency
and safety of a highway. Improper design will result in lower speeds and lowering of
highway capacity.

Figure 3.1. Parts of a Circular Curve
Note:
 PC – point of curvature
 PI – point of intersection
 PT – point of tangency
 Δ – central angle
 R – radius of curve
 D – degree of curve that defines,
a. Central angle which subtends 20m arc (arc definition),
b. Central angle which subtends 20m chord (Chord definition)
From arc definition,
R = 1145.916 / D
From chord definition,
R = 10 / Sin(D/2)

 Tangent (T): distance from PC to PI(backward tangent) or from PT to PI(forward

tangent)
T = R*tan(Δ/2)
 External distance (E): distance from PI to middle of curve.
E = R*(Sec(Δ/2) – 1 Or E = T*tan(Δ/4)
 Middle ordinate (M): length from the middle of chord to the middle of curve.
M = R*(1- Cos(Δ/2))
 Long chord(C): straight-line distance from A to B.
C = 2R*Sin(Δ/2)
 Length of Curve (Lc): distance from PC to PT along the curve.
Lc = 20* Δ/D Or Lc = R*π* Δ/180
 Sub-arc angles di: are angles subtended by an arc less than the degree of curve (D).
di = Ai*D/20 where: di = angle subtended by sub-arc of length Ai

Ai = arc less than 20m.
 Sub chord angle (dj): are angles subtended by a chord less than the degree of curve (D).
cj = 2R*Sin(dj/2)
Also
cj = 20Sin(dj/2)/Sin(D/2)
Where:
dj = angle subtended by sub-chord of length cj
cj = chord less than 20m.
 Deflection angles: The angle that a chord deflects from a tangent to a circular curve is
measured by half of the intercepted arc.
o Deflection angle for Lc m = Δ/2
o Deflection angle for 20m = D/2
o Deflection angle for Ai m = di/2

 Stations of PC, PI, and PT: PC = PI – T
P T = PC + Lc or PT = PI + T
Several variations of the circular curve deserve consideration when developing the
horizontal alignment for a highway design. When two curves in the same direction are
connected with a short tangent, this condition is referred to as a “broken back”
arrangement of curves. This type of alignment should be avoided except where very
unusual topographical or right-of-way conditions dictate otherwise. Highway engineers
generally consider the broken back alignment to be unpleasant and awkward and prefer
spiral transitions or a compound curve alignment with continuous superelvation for
such conditions.
Figure 3.2 Properties of a Compound Curve

Figure 3.2 identifies elements of a typical compound highway curve with variable
definitions and basic equations developed for a larger and smaller radius curve, based on
the assumption that the radius dimensions RL and RS and central angles ΔL and ΔS are given
or have been previously determined.
Another important variation of the circular highway curve is the use of reverse curves,
which are adjacent curves that curve in opposite directions. The alignment illustrated in
figure 3.3, which shows a point of reverse curvature, PRC, and no tangent separating the
curves, would be suitable only for low-speed roads such as those in mountainous terrain. A
sufficient length of tangent between the curves should usually be provided to allow
removal of the superelevation from the first curve and attainment of adverse
superelevation for the second curve.
Figure 3.3 Properties of a Reverse Curve

Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves:
(a) (b)
Figure 3.4 Sight Distance Around Horizontal Curve: (a) S < Lc and (b) S > Lc
Situations frequently exist where an object on the inside of a curve, such as vegetation,
building or cut face, obstructs the line of sight. Where it is either not feasible or
economically justified to move the object a larger radius of curve will e required to ensure
that stopping sight distance is available. The required radius of curve is dependent on the
distance of the obstruction from the centerline and the sight distance.
Case 1. S < Lc
S = 40 * Cos-1 ((R-M)/R) / D
Case 2. S > Lc
M = Lc* (2S - Lc) / 8R
Night driving around sharp curves introduces an added problem related to horizontal sight
distance. Motor-vehicle headlights are pointed directly toward the front and do not provide
as much illumination in oblique directions. Even if adequate horizontal sight distance is
provided, it has little useful purpose at night because the headlights are directed along a
tangent to the curve, and the roadway itself is not properly illuminated.

3.3.1.3 Superelevation
Any body moving rapidly along a

curved path is subject to an outward
reactive force called the centrifugal
force. If the surface is flat, the vehicle
is held in the curved path by side
friction between tires and pavement.
The total of these friction forces
balances the centrifugal force.
Expressed in terms of the coefficient
of friction f and the normal forces
between the pavement and the tires,
Figure 3.5 Forces acting on a vehicle moving the relationship is
along a curved path.
When velocity v(m/s) is stated in V(Km/h), m *v2the

and /R =radius
(NL + Nof
R)*f = m*g*f in meters, the
curve(R)
equation reduces to or
f = V2 / (127*R) f = v2 / ( g * R)
On highway curves, this centrifugal force acts through the center of mass of the vehicle and
creates an overturning moment about the points of contact between the outer wheels and
the pavement. But a stabilizing (resisting) moment is created by the weight acting through
the center of mass. Thus for equilibrium conditions,
(m * v2 / R) * h = m * g * d/2
and
h = d / (2v2 / gR) = d / 2f
where
h = height of the center of mass above pavement
d = lateral width between the wheels

For the moment equation, if f = 0.5, then the height to the center of mass must be greater
than the lateral distance between the wheels before overturning will take place. Modern
passenger vehicles have low center of mass so that relatively high values of f have to be
developed before overturning would take place. In practice, the frictional value is usually
sufficiently low for sliding to take place before overturning. It is only with certain
commercial vehicles having high center of mass that the problem of overturning may arise.
In order to resist the outward acting centrifugal force, and to enable vehicles to round
curves at design speed without discomfort to their occupants, the pavements are “tilted” or
“superelevated” so that the outer edges are higher than the inner edges. This tilting, plus
frictional resistance between the tires and the pavement provides a horizontal resistance to
the centrifugal forces generated by the circular movement of the vehicle around a curve.
Analysis of the forces acting on a vehicle as it moves around a curve of constant radius
indicates that the theoretical superelevation can be expressed as:
e + f = V2 / (127*R) ……………………………………………(*)
where:
e = rate of superelevation(m per m)
f = side friction factor (or coefficient of lateral friction)
V = speed (Km/hr)
R = radius of curvature (m)
Equation (*) above is the basic equation relating the speed of vehicles, the radius of curve,
the superelevation and the coefficient of lateral friction. This equation forms the basis of
design of horizontal curves.
If the entire centrifugal force is counteracted by the superelevation, frictional force will not
be called into play. Proper design does not normally take full advantage of the obtainable
lateral coefficients of friction, since the design should not be based on a condition of
incipient sliding. In design, engineers use only a portion of the friction factor, accounting for
the comfort and safety of the vast majority of drivers.

From equation (*), the minimum radius or maximum degree of curvature for a given design
speed can be determined from the rate of superelevation and side friction factor.
R = V2 / (127*(e + f))
D = 1145.916 / R
Attainment of Superelevation:
The transition from a tangent, normal crown section to a curved superelevated section
must be accompanied without any appreciable reduction in speed and in such a manner as
to ensure safety and comfort to the occupants of the traveling vehicle.
The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is changed into a superelevated
surface into two stages. In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is gradually raised
until it is level. In the second stage, three methods may be adopted to attain the full super-
elevation.
i. The surface of the road is rotated about the centerline of the carriageway, gradually
lowering the inner edge and raising the upper edge, keeping the level of the centerline
constant.
ii. The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising the center and the outer
edge.
iii. The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the center and the
outer edge.
Method (i) is the most generally used.
The distance required for accomplishing the transition from a normal to a superelevated
section, commonly referred to as the transition runoff, is a function of the design speed
and the rate of superelevation.
Superelevation is usually started on the tangent at some distance before the curve starts,
and the full superelevation is generally reached beyond the point of curvature (PC) of the
curve. In curves with transitions, the superelevation can be attained within the limits of the
spiral.
Value of Coefficient of Lateral Friction:

The value of coefficient of lateral friction depends upon a number of factors, chief among
them being the vehicle speed, type and condition of roadway surfaces, and type and
condition of the tyres.
Maximum Super-elevation Value: it is desirable to know the maximum super-elevation

that can be permitted. Practice in this regard varies from country to country.
According to Transport Construction Design Enterprise (TCDE):
 emax = 10%
 fmax = 0.16
3.3.1.4 Transition Curves
Transition curves provide a gradual change from the tangent section to the circular curve
and vice versa. For most curves, drivers can follow a transition path within the limits of a
normal lane width, and a spiral transition in the alignment is not necessary. However, along
high-speed roadways with sharp curvature, transition curves may be needed to prevent
drivers from encroaching into adjoining lanes.
A curve known as the Euler spiral or clothoid is commonly used in highway design. The
radius of the spiral varies from infinity at the tangent end to the radius of the circular arc at
the end of the spiral. The radius of the spiral at any point is inversely proportional to the
distance from its beginning point.

Some of the important properties of the spirals are given below:

 L = 2Rθ
 θ = (L / Ls)2 * θs
 θs = Ls / 2Rc (in radians) = 28.65Ls / Rc (in degrees)
 Ts = Ls /2 + (Rc + S)*tan(Δ/2)
 S = Ls2 / 24Rc
 Es = (Rc + S)*sec(Δ/2) - Rc
Note:
θs = spiral angle
Δ = total central angle
Δc = central angle of the circular arc extending from BC to EC = Δ - 2 θs
Rc = radius of circular curve
L = length of spiral from starting point to any point
R = radius of curvature of the spiral at a point L distant from starting point.
Ts = tangent distance
Es = external distance
S = shift
HIP = horizontal intersection point
BS = beginning of spiral
BC = beginning of circular curve
EC = end of circular curve
ES = end of spiral curve
Length of Transition:
The length of transition should be determined from the following two conditions:
 The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause
discomfort to the drivers. If C is the rate of change of acceleration,
Ls = 0.0215V3 / (C*Rc)
Where:
V = speed (Km/hr)
Rc = radius of the circular curve (m)

 The rate of change of superelevation (superelevation application ratio) should be such

as not to cause higher gradients and unsightly appearances. Since superelevation can be
given by rotating about the centerline, inner edge or outer edge, the length of the
transition will be governed accordingly.
3.3.1.5 Widening of Curves
Extra width of pavement may be necessary on curves. As a vehicle turns, the rear wheels
follow the front wheels on a shorter radius, and this has the effect of increasing the width of
the vehicle in relation to the lane width of the roadway. Studies of drivers traversing curves
have shown that there is a tendency to drive a curved path longer than the actual curve,
shifting the vehicle laterally to the right on right-turning curves and to the left on left-
turning curves. Thus, on right-turning curves the vehicle shifts toward the inside edge of
the pavement, creating a need for additional pavement width. The amount of widening
needed varies with the width of the pavement on tangent, the design speed, and the curve
radius or degree of curvature.
The widening required can be calculated from
We = n *B2/ 2R + V / 10 R
Where:
We = total widening
B = wheel base
R = radius of curve
V = design speed (Km/hr)
n = number of lanes


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UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR

Road Engineering (CEng 5231)

Lecturer: Yodit D, M.Sc.

1.1 Transportation Engineering ....................................................................................................................1

1.2 Transportation planning ...........................................................................................................................1

1.3 Highway Engineering Environment .....................................................................................................2

1.3.1 Highway Engineering Problem ......................................................................................................2

1.4 Geometric Design Philosophy .................................................................................................................4

1.5 Design Standards .........................................................................................................................................4

1.6 Departures from Standards .....................................................................................................................4

Chapter 2: HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND ROUTE LOCATION ...................................................................5

2.1 Highway Alignment ....................................................................................................................................5

2.2 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment ............................................................................................5

2.3 Route Location Surveys .............................................................................................................................6

2.3.1 Reconnaissance Surveys ..................................................................................................................6

2.3.2 Preliminary Surveys ..........................................................................................................................7

2.3.3 Final (Detailed) Location Surveys ................................................................................................8

2.4.1 Route corridor selection...................................................................................................................9

2.4.2 Route selection Report................................................................................................................... 11

Chapter 3: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS ....................................................................................... 13

3.1 Design Controls and Criteria ................................................................................................................ 14

3.1.1 Functional classification of the roadway ................................................................................ 14

3.1.2 Nature of Terrain ............................................................................................................................. 15

3.1.4 Design Speed and Design Class................................................................................................... 16

3.1.5 Design Vehicle ................................................................................................................................... 16

3.2 Highway Cross-Section Elements ....................................................................................................... 17

Road Width ......................................................................................................................................................... 19

3.3 Elements of Geometric Design............................................................................................................. 19

3.3.1 Sight Distance .................................................................................................................................... 19

3.3.2 Horizontal Alignment: .................................................................................................................... 23

1.1 Transportation Engineering

Transportation engineering is the application of technological and scientific principles to

1.2 Transportation planning

 Statement of goals and objectives(e.g. connecting villages to nearest

University of Gondar, IoT, Department of HWRE

1.3 Highway Engineering Environment

The highway-engineering problem, like any other problem, exists in a complex

1.3.1 Highway Engineering Problem

1.3.2 Factors that Affect the Environment of Road Project include:

i. The Physical Element

ii. The Technological Environment

University of Gondar, IoT, Department of HWRE

iii. The Economic Environment

 Cost of construction of the facility

iv. The Social Environment

Environmental impact Assessment

University of Gondar, IoT, Department of HWRE

1.4 Geometric Design Philosophy

1.5 Design Standards

1.6 Departures from Standards

University of Gondar, IoT, Department of HWRE

Chapter 2: HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND ROUTE LOCATION

2.1 Highway Alignment

Requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminals take account of

2.2 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment

• Obligatory/mandatory Points that should be consider

University of Gondar, IoT, Department of HWRE

Special considerations on Hilly Roads

2.3 Route Location Surveys

2.3.1 Reconnaissance Surveys