Answer 1

**1a. What is a control system? State the difference between open-loop and closed-loop
control systems.**

A control system is a device or set of devices that manage, command, direct, or regulate the
behavior of other devices or systems. It uses control loops and is essential for the operation of
many machines and in processes.

The main differences between open-loop and closed-loop control systems are:

- **Open-loop control systems** operate on a fixed operation designed to perform a

particular task without using feedback to modify the operation. They are simpler but do not
correct any errors or disturbances.
- **Closed-loop control systems** use feedback to compare the actual output with the
desired control action to reduce errors and maintain the system at the desired state. They are
more complex but provide higher accuracy and can compensate for disturbances.

**1b. Define minimum phase, non-minimum phase, and all-pass phase transfer functions.**

- **Minimum phase transfer functions** have all their poles and zeros in the left half of the
complex s-plane, which means they are stable and their phase response is minimum for a
given magnitude response.
- **Non-minimum phase transfer functions** have one or more zeros in the right half of the
s-plane, leading to additional phase lag making the system potentially more challenging to
control.
- **All-pass transfer functions** have equal magnitude for all frequencies, but they change
the phase of the input signal. The phase change is frequency-dependent and these systems are
used to alter the phase without affecting the amplitude of the signal.

**1c. Find the value of K for which the unity feedback system will be stable?**

For a system to be stable, all the roots of its characteristic equation must be in the left half of
the s-plane. The characteristic equation of the given system can be obtained from the open-
loop transfer function:

\[ G(s) = \frac{K}{s(s+2)(s+4)} \]

The closed-loop transfer function would be:

\[ T(s) = \frac{G(s)}{1+G(s)} \]

To ensure stability, we would set the denominator of \( T(s) \), which is \( 1+G(s) \), to zero
and solve for \( s \). The value of \( K \) must be chosen such that the roots of this equation
are all negative.

**1d. Explain Routh’s criteria with an example. What are its limitations?**
Routh’s criteria is a method used to determine the stability of a linear time-invariant (LTI)
system without calculating the roots of the characteristic equation. It involves constructing
the Routh array and checking the number of sign changes in the first column, which indicates
the number of right-half-plane poles. The system is stable if there are no sign changes.

Limitations include:
- It only applies to LTI systems with real coefficients.
- It does not provide information about the transient or steady-state responses.
- It cannot be applied directly if there are zero rows or if the first element of any row is zero
(special modifications are needed).

**1e. State the properties of State Transition Matrix (STM) and prove them.**

The State Transition Matrix (STM), denoted \( \Phi(t) \), describes the behavior of state
variables over time. Its properties include:

- **Time-Invariance:** \( \Phi(t + \tau) = \Phi(t) \Phi(\tau) \)

- **Invertibility:** \( \Phi(t) \Phi^{-1}(t) = I \), where \( I \) is the identity matrix.
- **Initial Condition:** \( \Phi(0) = I \)

Proving these properties involves showing that STM satisfies the state equations of the
system and using the properties of the exponential function, which is often used to express
STM.

**1f. Find the steady state error of a unity feedback open-loop control system subjected to a
unit step input.**

The steady-state error \( e_{ss} \) for a unity feedback system is found using the Final Value
Theorem:

\[ e_{ss} = \lim_{s \to 0} s E(s) \]

where \( E(s) = \frac{1}{1 + G(s)} \) for a unit step input.

Given \( G(s) = \frac{9}{s(0.2s +1)} \), you would plug this into the formula and compute the
limit to find the steady-state error.

**1g. Find the angle of departure of the root locus from the complex pole.**

The angle of departure \( \theta \) of the root locus from a complex pole can be found using
the phase condition of the root locus:

\[ \sum \text{angles of arrival at the pole} - \sum \text{angles of departure from the zeros} =
(2k + 1)180° \]

For the given open-loop transfer

function \( G(s)H(s) \), you would calculate the angle contributions from all other poles and
zeros to find \( \theta \).
**1h. Find the System function?**

To find the system function, you typically need to find the transfer function \( T(s) \) for a
given state-space representation. The transfer function is \( T(s) = C(sI - A)^{-1}B + D \),
where \( A, B, C, D \) are the state-space matrices.

**1i. At what frequency does the open-loop transfer function of a feedback control system
have zero gain?**

For a system with open-loop transfer function \( G(s) \), the frequency at which the gain is
zero is found by solving \( |G(j\omega)| = 0 \).

**1j. Find the Phase margin of a unity feedback control system.**

The phase margin is the additional phase lag required to bring the system to the verge of
instability. For a given open-loop transfer function \( G(s) \), the phase margin is found by
first locating the frequency at which the magnitude of \( G(j\omega) \) is 1 (0 dB) and then
measuring the phase at that frequency and subtracting it from \( -180° \).

Answer 2

The questions for Question No. 2 from the document are as follows:

**2a.** Derive the transfer function of an armature-controlled DC motor with a proper block
diagram.

**2b.** Obtain the transfer function of the system whose signal flow graph is shown below.
(The signal flow graph is not visible here.)

Here's how to address these questions:

**2a.** The transfer function of an armature-controlled DC motor can be derived based on

the motor's electrical and mechanical equations. The electrical equation for the armature
circuit is:

\[ V(t) = L_a \frac{di(t)}{dt} + R_a i(t) + e(t) \]

And the electromechanical equation is:

\[ e(t) = K_b \omega(t) \]

where:
- \( V(t) \) is the input voltage,
- \( L_a \) is the armature inductance,
- \( R_a \) is the armature resistance,
- \( i(t) \) is the armature current,
- \( e(t) \) is the back emf,
- \( K_b \) is the back emf constant,
- \( \omega(t) \) is the angular velocity.
The mechanical equation of the motor, neglecting friction and other losses, is:

\[ T(t) = J \frac{d\omega(t)}{dt} \]

where:
- \( T(t) \) is the motor torque,
- \( J \) is the moment of inertia of the rotor.

The torque is also related to the armature current by:

\[ T(t) = K_t i(t) \]

where \( K_t \) is the torque constant.

By combining these equations and applying the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial
conditions, the transfer function \( G(s) = \frac{\Omega(s)}{V(s)} \) can be derived, where \
( \Omega(s) \) is the Laplace transform of \( \omega(t) \) and \( V(s) \) is the Laplace
transform of \( V(t) \).

The block diagram would include blocks for the motor inductance, resistance, back emf, and
torque generation, with the output being the angular velocity.

**2b.** To obtain the transfer function from a signal flow graph, you would typically use
Mason’s Gain Formula, which states:

\[ T(s) = \frac{\sum_{k=1}^{N} P_k \Delta_k}{\Delta} \]

where:
- \( T(s) \) is the transfer function from input to output,
- \( P_k \) is the forward path gain of the \( k \)-th forward path,
- \( \Delta \) is the determinant of the graph,
- \( \Delta_k \) is the determinant of the graph with the \( k \)-th forward path removed,
- \( N \) is the number of forward paths.

Each forward path gain is the product of the gains of individual blocks in the path, and the
determinants involve calculating the loop gains and considering non-touching loops. The
actual transfer function would require the details of the signal flow graph.

If you provide the signal flow graph or more specific parameters for the DC motor, I can give
you a more detailed solution.

2c:
1. Setting up the equations: For a mechanical system with forces and masses, you
would typically write down the force balance equations, which might look something
2
d y dx
like m 2 + c +kx ,where m is mass, c is damping coefficient, k is spring constant,
dt dt
and x is displacement.
2. Laplace transform: Apply the Laplace transform to these differential equations,
converting them into algebraic equations in terms of s, the Laplace variable.
 3. Solve for X1(s) and X2(s) / F(s): Manipulate the algebraic equations to solve for the
transfer functions X1(s) and X2(s) in terms of the force F(s).
For 2d:
1. Identify paths and loops: From the signal flow graph, identify all forward paths,
loops, and non-touching loops.
2. Calculate gains and determinants: Calculate the gains of the forward paths and the
determinants Δ and Δk as required by Mason's gain formula.
3. Apply Mason's gain formula: Use Mason's gain formula to find the overall transfer
function C/R by summing the contributions of all forward paths weighted by their
respective determinants and dividing by the system determinant Δ.

Answer 3

3a. For the root locus as K varies from zero to infinity, you follow these steps:
 Identify the poles and zeros of the open-loop transfer function. The poles are at s=0,
s=−3, and the roots of s2+2s+2=0.
 Plot these poles and zeros on the complex s-plane.
 Apply the rules of root locus to sketch the paths that the roots of the closed-loop
system take as K varies. This includes identifying the segments of the real axis that
are part of the root locus, the asymptotes, breakaway and re-entry points, and the
angle of departure or arrival if applicable.
3b. M-Circle in the root locus plot represents constant magnitude of the open-loop transfer
function. It helps in analysing the stability and performance of the control system, especially
in terms of the relative stability and speed of response.
3c. To sketch the root locus for the given transfer function, follow similar steps as in 3a. The
poles of the system are at s=0, s=−6, and the roots of s2+4s+13=0. Sketching the root locus
involves plotting these poles and zeros, and then drawing the trajectories followed by the
poles of the closed-loop system as K is varied.
3d. N-Circle in root locus plots is used to represent the constant damping ratio. It's
particularly useful in designing control systems where a specific damping ratio is desired for
system stability and performance. N-Circles are concentric circles on the s-plane centred at
the origin, each corresponding to a different value of the damping ratio.

Answer 4

Here are the answers to Question No. 4 from the document:

**4a.** The response of a servomechanism to a unit step input is given as \( c(t) = 1 - 0.2e^{-
60t} - 1.2e^{-10t} \). To obtain the expression for the closed-loop transfer function and
determine the undamped natural frequency and damping ratio, we analyze the response
equation.

- **Closed-loop transfer function**: The time response of a second-order system to a unit

step input is generally given by \( c(t) = 1 - \frac{e^{-\zeta \omega_n t}}{\sqrt{1 - \zeta^2}} \
cos(\omega_d t - \phi) \), where \( \omega_n \) is the natural frequency, \( \zeta \) is the
damping ratio, and \( \omega_d \) is the damped natural frequency. Comparing this general
form with the given response, we can identify the terms related to the exponential decay and
oscillatory response to find the values of \( \omega_n \) and \( \zeta \).
- **Natural frequency (\( \omega_n \)) and damping ratio (\( \zeta \))**: These can be
determined from the exponential and sinusoidal parts of the response. The terms \( e^{-60t} \)
and \( e^{-10t} \) are related to the damping and frequency of the system.

The exact mathematical derivation would require matching the given response form to the
standard second-order system response form and solving for \( \omega_n \) and \( \zeta \).

**4b.** For a unity feedback control system with a forward path transfer function \( G(s) = \
frac{K}{s(sT + 1)} \), the maximum overshoot is to be reduced from 60% to 20%. The
maximum overshoot \( M_p \) in a second-order system is related to the damping ratio \( \zeta
\) by the formula:

\[ M_p = e^{-\frac{\zeta \pi}{\sqrt{1 - \zeta^2}}} \]

Given the initial and final overshoot percentages, you can calculate the initial and final values
of \( \zeta \) and then determine the necessary change in \( K \) to achieve this reduction. The
damping ratio \( \zeta \) is related to the system parameters, including \( K \) and \( T \), by
the system's characteristic equation, which can be derived from the transfer function \
( G(s) \).

The precise calculation would involve solving these equations to find the factor by which \( K
\) should be reduced. This typically involves a combination of algebraic manipulation and
understanding of the relationships between overshoot, damping ratio, and system parameters
in control theory.

Here are the answers to questions 4c and 4d from your document:

**4c.** For the unity feedback control system with an open loop transfer function \( G(s) = \
frac{10}{s(s^2 + 2s + 1)} \):
- **a) Finding the Position, Velocity, and Acceleration Constants:**
- **Position Constant (\( K_p \))**: This is the system's gain as \( s \to 0 \). So, \( K_p = \
lim_{s \to 0} G(s) = \lim_{s \to 0} \frac{10}{s(s^2 + 2s + 1)} = \infty \).
- **Velocity Constant (\( K_v \))**: This is found by taking the first derivative of \( G(s) \)
and then evaluating as \( s \to 0 \). So, \( K_v = \lim_{s \to 0} sG(s) = \lim_{s \to 0} \frac{10}
{s^2 + 2s + 1} = 10 \).
- **Acceleration Constant (\( K_a \))**: This is found by taking the second derivative of \
( G(s) \) and then evaluating as \( s \to 0 \). So, \( K_a = \lim_{s \to 0} s^2G(s) = \lim_{s \to
0} \frac{10}{s + 2 + \frac{1}{s}} = 0 \).

- **b) Finding the Steady-State Error When the Input \( R(s) = \frac{1}{s} - \frac{2}{s^2}
+ \frac{1}{3s^2} \):**
- For a unit step input (\( \frac{1}{s} \)), the steady-state error \( e_{ss} = \frac{1}{1 +
K_p} = 0 \) (as \( K_p = \infty \)).
- For a ramp input (\( \frac{1}{s^2} \)), \( e_{ss} = \frac{1}{K_v} = \frac{1}{10} \).
- For a parabolic input (\( \frac{1}{s^3} \)), \( e_{ss} = \frac{1}{K_a} = \infty \) (as \( K_a
= 0 \)).

**4d.** For the unity feedback system characterized by an open loop transfer function \( G(s)
= \frac{K}{s(s + 10)} \):
- **Determine gain \( K \) for a Damping Ratio of 0.5:**
 - The standard form of a second-order system is \( G(s) = \frac{\omega_n^2}{s^2 + 2\zeta\
omega_ns + \omega_n^2} \).
- Given \( \zeta = 0.5 \), equate the given \( G(s) \) to the standard form and solve for \( K \)
and \( \omega_n \) to match the coefficients. This will require algebraic manipulation to
match the forms and solve for \( K \).
- **Determine Settling Time, Peak Overshoot, and Time at Peak Overshoot for a Unit Step:**
- **Settling Time (\( T_s \))**: Generally given by \( \frac{4}{\zeta \omega_n} \) for a 2%
criterion.
- **Peak Overshoot (\( M_p \))**: Given by \( e^{-\frac{\zeta\pi}{\sqrt{1-\zeta^2}}} \).
- **Time at Peak Overshoot**: Given by \( \frac{\pi}{\omega_d} \), where \( \omega_d = \
omega_n \sqrt{1 - \zeta^2} \).

Answer 5

The questions for Question No. 5 from the document are as follows:

**5a.** Sketch the Bode plot for the open-loop transfer function for the unity feedback
system given below and assess stability: \( G(s) = \frac{1}{(s + 50)(s + 2)} \).

**5b.** Given the open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system \( G(s) = \frac{1}
{s(1 + s)(1 + 2s)} \), draw the Polar plot and measure the gain margin and Phase margin.

**5c.** For the function \( G(s) = \frac{1}{(1 + \frac{5}{4s})(1 + 0.25s)} \), draw the Bode
plot.

**5d.** The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given by \( G(s) = \
frac{1}{s(1 + s)(1 + 2s)} \). Sketch the polar plot and determine the gain margin and phase
margin.

Here are the general approaches to answer these questions:

**5a.** To sketch the Bode plot:

1. Identify the poles and zeros of \( G(s) \). Here, there are poles at \( s = -50 \) and \( s = -2 \).
2. Sketch the magnitude and phase plots separately. The magnitude plot is typically a log-log
plot showing how the gain (in dB) varies with frequency. The phase plot shows how the
phase angle varies with frequency.
3. Assess the system's stability by looking at the phase margin and gain margin in the plot.

**5b.** To draw the Polar plot and measure the gain margin and Phase margin:
1. Convert \( G(s) \) to \( G(j\omega) \) by substituting \( s = j\omega \).
2. Plot the magnitude and phase of \( G(j\omega) \) on a polar plot as a function of \( \
omega \).
3. Gain margin is found at the frequency where the phase angle is \(-180^\circ\), and the
Phase margin is found at the frequency where the magnitude is 0 dB.

**5c.** To draw the Bode plot for \( G(s) \):

1. Identify poles and zeros.
2. Create magnitude and phase plots, showing the asymptotic behavior due to each pole and
zero, and then adding these contributions.
**5d.** To sketch the polar plot and determine the gain margin and phase margin:
1. Convert \( G(s) \) to \( G(j\omega) \) as in 5b.
2. Plot the polar plot, which is a plot of the magnitude of \( G(j\omega) \) at different phase
angles.
3. Determine the gain margin and phase margin similar to 5b.

Answer 6

The questions for Question No. 6 from your document are as follows:

**6a.** Determine the Solution for Homogeneous and Non-homogeneous State Equations.

**6b.** For the control system with the state model provided, compute the state transition
matrix.

**6c.** Write the state equation in state space representation with usual meanings and draw
the block diagram of the state equation.

**6d.** For the matrix \( A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 4 \\ -2 & -5 \end{bmatrix} \), find the
Eigenvalues matrix and also the Modal matrix.

Here are the general approaches to these questions:

**6a.** Solving Homogeneous and Non-homogeneous State Equations:

- **Homogeneous State Equation**: If the state equation is \( \dot{x} = Ax \), where \( A \) is
a matrix of constants and \( x \) is the state vector, the solution can be written as \( x(t) =
e^{At}x(0) \), where \( e^{At} \) is the state transition matrix.
- **Non-homogeneous State Equation**: For a non-homogeneous equation \( \dot{x} = Ax +
Bu \), with input vector \( u \), the solution involves integrating the effect of \( u \) over time,
in addition to the homogeneous solution.

**6b.** For the given state model, the state transition matrix (\( \Phi(t) \)) can be computed.
The given system's state-space form is not entirely clear from the excerpt, but generally, \( \
Phi(t) \) is computed from the state matrix \( A \) by finding \( e^{At} \).

**6c.** Writing State Equations and Drawing Block Diagram:

- Convert the given system dynamics into state-space form, which is typically \( \dot{x} = Ax
+ Bu \) and \( y = Cx + Du \), where \( x \) is the state vector, \( u \) is the input, \( y \) is the
output, and \( A, B, C, D \) are matrices defining the system.
- The block diagram would involve blocks representing these matrices and their
interconnections.

**6d.** For matrix \( A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 4 \\ -2 & -5 \end{bmatrix} \):

- **Eigenvalues**: Found by solving the characteristic equation \( \text{det}(A - \lambda I) =
0 \), where \( I \) is the identity matrix.
- **Modal Matrix**: Comprises the eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalues. Each
column in the modal matrix is an eigenvector of \( A \).