LAB MANUAL

PHYS102

SPRING 2022
EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Physics
 Experiment 1: Specific Heat Capacity and
Latent Heat of Fusion

PURPOSE
To evaluate the specific heat capacity of iron and brass and the latent heat of fusion of water.

APPARATUS
Calorimetric cup, a saucepan, a heater, a thermometer, an electronic balance, metal blocks, ice cubes, and
purified water.

THEORY
Once heat energy is provided to a system, this energy will lead to an increase in the average kinetic energy per
molecule, which in turn implies that the temperature of the system will rise. At this point, it would be beneficial
to introduce the quantity called specific heat capacity. Specific heat capacity, 𝑐, is the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance by one Celsius degree, which can be stated as

1.1
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇,

where 𝑄 is the heat lost or gained in Joules, 𝑚 stands for mass in kg, and ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 . It is worthwhile to note
that, the unit of specific heat capacity will be expressed as 𝐽/(𝑘𝑔℃).

For the case when the heat energy is used for changing the state of a system, we require to define a new quantity,
namely the latent heat, which can be expressed as

1.2
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿,

1
where 𝑄 and 𝐿 stand for the heat transferred (in 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠) and latent heat (in 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑘𝑔), respectively. As can be
noticed from Eq. (1.2), there exists no temperature change for this case, since all the energy is used for breaking
the existing chemical bonds among the molecules. Therefore, the average internal energy per molecule remains
constant.
The latent heat can be classified into two; the latent heat of fusion,𝐿𝑓 , which is the heat energy released when
1 𝑘𝑔 of a substance in liquid form solidifies (i.e. fuses) without changing its temperature, and the latent heat of
vaporization,𝐿𝑣 , which is the heat energy needed to vaporize 1 𝑘𝑔 of a liquid substance without changing its
temperature. As a matter of fact, water has one of the highest values of the latent heat of fusion

(𝐿𝑓 )𝑤 = 333000 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 . It also has a high specific heat capacity value relative to other liquids; 𝑐𝑤 =
4186 𝐽/(𝑘𝑔℃).
Transfer of heat energy occurs when substances having different temperatures are allowed to interact thermally.
In any energy transformation for an isolated system, the total amount of energy remains constant. This is called
the law of conservation of energy. Whenever two substances at different temperatures are allowed to be thermally
exposed to each other, heat travels from the warmer substance to the colder one. The quantity of heat given off
by the warmer substance is equal to the negative value of the quantity of heat energy gained by the colder one,
provided that heat energy does not escape to the surroundings (an isolated system). The energy transfer will
continue until both substances reach the same temperature (equilibrium temperature). This is called the principle
of heat exchange; i.e.
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 0:

1.3
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 0

Consider the case in which a metal block at a higher temperature is mixed up with purified water. In this case,
one can write

𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑄𝑏 = 𝑚𝑏 𝑐𝑏 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑏 ) 1.4

𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 𝑄𝑤 = 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑤 )

where 𝑇𝑓 , 𝑇𝑤 , 𝑇𝑏 , 𝑚𝑤 , 𝑚𝑏 , 𝑐𝑏 and 𝑐𝑤 represent the equilibrium temperature of the system, the initial
temperature of water, the initial temperature of the metal block, mass of water, mass of the metal block, specific
heat capacity of the metal block and specific heat capacity of water, respectively. Note that the specific heat
capacity of the beaker is neglected throughout the calculations stated in Eq. (1.4). Substituting expressions in
Eq. (1.4) into Eq. (1.3), one obtains

𝑚𝑏 𝑐𝑏 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑏 ) + 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = 0 1.5

which in turn implies

−𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑤 ) 1.6

𝑐𝑏 = .
𝑚𝑏 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑏 )

For latent heat of fusion

2
 1.7
𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑓 + 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 0) + 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = 0. 8

Rearranging for 𝐿𝑓 leads to

−𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 0) − 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑤 ) 1.8

𝐿𝑓 = .
𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒

You may take specific heat capacity of water as 𝑐𝑤 = 4186 J/(kg℃).

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
For the Metal Blocks
1) Place the beaker on the digital balance and press the calibrate button.
2) Add some purified water into the beaker and measure the mass, 𝑚𝑤 , and the initial temperature, 𝑇𝑤 , of water.
3) Press the calibrate button of the digital balance again.
4) Heat a metal block in boiling water long enough for the block to reach 100°𝐶.
5) Transfer the hot metal block into the system.
6) Record the mass of the metal block as 𝑚𝑏 .
7) Measure the final temperature of the water & block system once the heat transfer has taken place.

For the Ice

1) Place the beaker on the digital balance and press the calibrate button.
2) Add some purified water into the beaker and measure the mass, 𝑚𝑤 , and the initial temperature, 𝑇𝑤 , of the
water.
3) Press the calibrate button of the digital balance again.
4) Add the ice cubes (held at the melting point) into the beaker and measure the mass of ice.
5) Measure the final temperature of the water & ice system once the heat transfer has taken place.

RAW DATA
a) For iron
mw (kg) miron (kg) Tw (0C) Tiron (0C) Tf (0C)

b) For brass
mw (kg) mbrass (kg) Tw (0C) Tbrass (0C) Tf (0C)

3
c) For ice
mw (kg) mice (kg) Tw (0C) Tice (0C) Tf (0C)

DATA ANALYSIS
1) The experimental value for specific heat of iron [Eq. (1.6)]: ……............................................

2) The experimental value of specific heat of brass [Eq. (1.6)]: .…...............................................

3) The experimental value of latent heat of fusion of water [Eq. (1.8)]: ........................................

4) Since the standard values of the associated specific heats and the latent heat are as follows:

𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 438 𝐽/(𝑘𝑔℃)

𝑐𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 380 𝐽/(𝑘𝑔℃)

(𝐿𝑓 ) = 333000 𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑤

Percent error is used when comparing an experimental result 𝐸 with a theoretical value 𝑇 that is accepted as
the "correct" value.

|𝑇 − 𝐸|
Σ = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑇

Fractional or relative uncertainty is used to quantitatively express the precision of a measurement.

Σ
𝜀 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 =
𝐸

Measurement = (measured value ± uncertainty) unit of measurement

Find the percent errors and uncertainties for 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 , 𝑐𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 , and (𝐿𝑓 ) by using the expressions provided below
𝑤
and make comment on the possible sources (minimum two) of those errors.

IRON BRASS LATENT HEAT OF FUSSION

Σ𝐼𝑅𝑂𝑁 = Σ𝐵𝑅𝐴𝑆𝑆 = Σ(𝐿𝑓) =
𝑤
𝜀𝐼𝑅𝑂𝑁 = 𝜀𝐵𝑅𝐴𝑆𝑆 = 𝜀(𝐿𝑓) =
𝑤

4
 Experiment 2: Ideal Gas Law

Figure 2.1

PURPOSE

Utilizing the ideal gas law to measure the number of moles of a confined ideal gas.

APPARATUS
The gas law apparatus

THEORY

All macroscopic pieces of matter have in common some fundamental properties. For example, pressure ( P ),
volume ( V ), temperature ( T ), internal energy ( U ) and entropy ( S ). These variables are not independent and
for simple states of matter any of these variables can be expressed in terms of any two of the others. These
expressions are called equations of state. The ideal gas law is the simplest equation of state:

2.1
PV  nRT ,

where n is the number of moles, 𝑅 = 8.31 𝐽/(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒. 𝐾) is the gas constant in SI units and T is absolute
temperature, T (𝐾) = 273 + T (℃). The first law is Boyle’s law, which is expressed as

PV  K1 ( K1 is a constant)

In the case when pressure is kept fixed, Charles’ law is

5
V
 K2 ( K 2 is another constant)
T

and the third law (Avagadro’s law) reads

V
 K3 ( K 3 is a third constant)
n

Throughout this experiment, we will be investigating the Boyle’s law, i.e we can express 𝑉 as a function of
1/𝑃 as follows.

1
V  nRT , 2.2
P

where in this case the slope is equivalent to 𝑛𝑅𝑇.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1) The apparatus is already set up in the laboratory. A fixed amount of air is closed in a glass tube by a column
of oil. The volume of the air above the oil is measured directly from the volume scale on the apparatus, in 𝑐𝑚3 .
The pressure of the gas is determined directly from the barometer in units of atmosphere. You should start the
experiment by setting the gas on some initial pressure (e.g. 2.8 𝑎𝑡𝑚 is a good starting point).
2) Decrease the pressure (in steps of 0.3 𝑎𝑡𝑚) by opening the valve on the apparatus. For each specific pressure
measurement, record the associated volume reading from the scale and write it down in the table provided in the
Raw Data section.

RAW DATA1

P (atm) V (cm3) P (Pa) V (m3)

1
In order to complete the table in this section, you may need the following conversion factors.
1cm3=10-6m3
1atm=1.01x105Pa
6
DATA ANALYSIS
You may use the following table and formula to find the equation of the least-square line of y versus x2.

X(=1/P) [Pa-1] Y(= 𝑉) [m3] X2 [Pa-2] XY [Pa-1m3]

∑ X= ∑ Y= ∑ X2= ∑ XY=

The least-square line is given by

2.3

𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑐

in which

2.4
𝑛 ∑ 𝑋𝑌 − ∑ 𝑋 ∑ 𝑌
𝑚=
𝑛 ∑ 𝑋 2 − (∑ 𝑋)2

and

2.5
∑ 𝑌 ∑ 𝑋 2 − ∑ 𝑋 ∑ 𝑋𝑌
𝑐=
𝑛 ∑ 𝑋 2 − (∑ 𝑋)2

where 𝑛 stands for the number of measurements (for this experiment, 𝑛 = 5 by default).

Draw the least-squares line 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑐, by substituting the 𝑚 and 𝑐 values you have already calculated. To this
end, pick any two X-values from your raw data and plug into the equation of the least-squares line to obtain two
7
corresponding Y-values. This will give you two points which can then be plotted onto the graph paper using a
proper scaling.

Finally, knowing that the experiment has been made while the temperature of the gas is held at room temperature
(about 27℃ on average), determine the amount of air (in moles) enclosed in the glass tube of your apparatus by
using Eq. (2.2).

8
 Experiment 3: Magnetic Force on a Wire

PURPOSE
To determine the strength of a constant magnetic field by investigating the relation between the
magnetic force and current.

APPARATUS
A cent-o-gram balance, a magnet, a low voltage AC/DC power supply, plug cord sets, a current loop
board, a tripod.

THEORY
A current carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a force that is usually referred to as a magnetic
force. The magnitude and direction of this force depend on four variables: The magnitude and direction
⃗ ); the length of the wire (𝐿
of the current (𝐼); the strength of the magnetic field (𝐵 ⃗ ); and the angle between
the field and the wire (𝜃). This magnetic force can be described mathematically by the vector cross
product:

⃗ ×𝐵
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐼𝐿 ⃗ 3.1

In scalar form, the above expression becomes

𝐹𝑚 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 sin 𝜃 3.2

In the special case of 𝜃 = 90°, when the magnetic field and the current carrying wire are normal to
each other, Eq. (3.2) turns into

𝐹𝑚 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵, 3.3
which will be the case for the incoming experiment.

Figure 3.2
Figure 3.1

9
As in Figure 3.1, the lower part of a rectangular current loop is lying in a magnetic field. The magnetic
field produced by a permanent magnet is constant, uniform, and directed outwards. Once the current
flows through the wire, the magnet starts to exert a force upon the wire via its magnetic field. Direction
of this force is upwards and in case if you need assistance regarding how to prove this, you may ask for
your assistants’ help. Figure 3.2 illustrates the same picture but from another point a view. In this
rotated picture, the magnet itself together with the forces acting on it are shown. One of these forces is
the so-called gravitational field 𝐹𝑔 , while the second one, 𝐹𝑚′ , is nothing but the reaction force exerted
on the magnet by the wire. Based on Newton’s third law, the magnitude of this force is equal to the
magnitude of the original force 𝐹𝑚 , whereas its direction is opposite to it. Therefore, the magnitude of
the net force exerted on the magnet (the magnitude of the apparent weight of the magnet: 𝑀𝑔) can be
expressed as

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑚′ + 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑀𝑔 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 + 𝑀0 𝑔 3.4

This implies that the changes of 𝑀𝑔 with respect to 𝐼 is linear, with its slope and y-intercept being
equal to 𝐿𝐵 and 𝑀0 𝑔, respectively. (𝑀0 : mass of the magnet when there is no current)

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1) Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 3.3 and make sure that the magnet and the current loop board
are not in contact.

Figure 3.3

2)The magnet should be situated on the scale pan in such a way that the white side (south pole) of the
magnet faces the tripod.
3) Determine 𝑀0 of the magnet when there is no current in the wire. The procedure to be followed for
this step is explained in Appendix.
4) Convert 𝑀0 value into kg and record it into the table provided in the Data Table section. This number
represents the true mass of our magnet.
5) Turn on the power supply and set first the current to 1A. Once the current starts flowing, the
measurement to be taken will be equal to the apparent mass of the magnet. Your aim now is to readjust
the position of the center windows in a way to make the two indicators match again.
6) Having completed step 5, continue taking the measurements and record each value of apparent
masses in your table.

10
DATA TABLE

𝑰 (𝑨) 𝑴 (𝒌𝒈)

The length of the wire under the influence of magnetic field is 𝐿 = 0.03(𝑚)
Take the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration of 𝑔 as 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2

DATA ANALYSIS.
Plot 𝑀 versus 𝐼 graph and determine the least-squares line with its 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 by using Excel
program. Comparing the obtained result with Eq. (3.4):
𝐼𝐿𝐵 3.5
𝑀= + 𝑀0
𝑔
Determine the experimental value of the magnitude of the magnetic field of the magnet:

𝐵𝑒𝑥𝑝 =…………(Tesla) 3.6

If its theoretical value is 𝐵𝑡ℎ = 0.12T, calculate the percentage error made for the magnetic field.

|𝑡ℎ − 𝑒𝑥𝑝|
Δ = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑡ℎ

List at least two possible reasons for that error:

(i)

(ii)

11
APPENDIX

As can be observed from the apparatus, you will be able to

determine the mass values via using the scaling provided on the
cent-o-gram balance. The poise show weights through the
center windows and the beams are stepped up from front to
rear. Each poise will enable you to determine which number
you shall quote for each digit. Adjust the position of the center
window on the rear beam to ‘100’. Then, by trial and error,
figure out which numbers shall be chosen for the second, third
and front beams so that the indicator aligns with the reference
point marked at the right side of the cent-o-gram balance. Once this is Figure 3.4 achieved, your
system is in equilibrium.

12
 Experiment 4: Heat Engine Cycle

Equipment: PASCO Gas Law Apparatus, a ring stand, an ice-water bath, a hot water bath, a
thermometer, a low gas-pressure sensor, LabPro interface, a 100-gram mass, and various tube
couplings

Introduction
The PASCO heat engine apparatus is a closed system consisting of a nearly friction-free piston inside
a cylinder. It has two air tubes leading from the cylinder: one going to a pressure sensor (which is
measured using the Lab Pro) and the other leading to an air reservoir (aluminum can or the so-called
canister) that we will immerse in water to change the temperature of the air in the system. There is also
be a rotary sensor connected to the interface to record the height of each movement of the piston.

The manufacturer states that the piston has a diameter of 32.5 ± 0.1 𝑚𝑚 and a mass of
35.0 ± 0.06 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠.

The platform on the top of the piston gives you the ability to add a mass that will change
the pressure in the cylinder. The manufacturer recommends that this mass does not
exceed 200 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠; we will use a 100 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 slotted mass. The pressure sensor
measures the absolute pressure in the cylinder, 𝑃, in 𝑘𝑃𝑎.

As the piston moves, the volume of the air inside the cylinder changes. The total volume
of the air in the system consists of the volume of the cylinder plus the volume of the
canister and the two air hoses. The millimeter scale on the cylinder will also allow you
to directly measure the cylinder's height.
When the piston undergoes transitions in which one or more of the system's properties
(𝑃, 𝑉, or 𝑇) change, the data can be potted on a 𝑃 − 𝑉 diagram. Any work done by the system during
a transition can be found as the area of the graph bounded by the x-axis (volume axis) and that process'
graph. The processes that can be applicable to our heat engine's cycle are limited to isovolumetric,
isothermal, isobaric, and adiabatic.

The total work done during a complete cycle is represented by the area of the closed cycle on the 𝑃 − 𝑉
diagram.

13
It is important to take your measurements of pressure and piston height as quickly as possible after each
transition stabilizes since the apparatus does leak air slightly and you want the completed cycle to return
to its initial conditions providing you with a closed 𝑃𝑉 diagram to analyze.

This is a “real” 4-step heat engine that has expansion and compression processes in which the engine
will do useful mechanical work by lifting a 100-gram mass (and the piston) from one height to another.
During the expansion steps, the gas lifts the mass and piston increasing their potential energy; while
during the compression steps their potential energy is reduced. Remember that potential energy is
calculated with the equation 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝛥𝑦. A diagram of the four steps is shown below:

When your experimental data has been plotted on a 𝑃 − 𝑉 diagram, it will hopefully ressemble the
diagram below where there is a close agreement between the state variables for Point A (𝑃, 𝑉) and the
values for the cycle's initial preparation conditions.

Notice that steps BC and DA are isobaric processes and steps AB (hopefully the conditions at the
engine's preparation and those at the end of the cycle will be synonymous) and CD are isothermal
processes.

14
Volume
You must first calculate the total volume of air (gas) in the system that does not change with the height
of the piston. Remember that this volume includes the volume of the metal canister and the volume of
the air in the tubing. The volume of a cylinder equals 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ.

What is the interior volume of air in the metal canister in 𝑚3 ?

What is the interior volume of air in the tubing in m3 if it has an interior diameter of 0.4𝑐𝑚?

What is the total volume that air can occupy in the metal canister and tubing during the experiment?

Experiment
After you run the cycle with CAPSTONE software {by reading the probe values for pressure (kPa) and
the height from the base of the piston [position(mm)], and carefully adding/removing the 100-gram
mass from the top of the piston}, the computer will record the values for a complete cycle. Remember
to move as quickly as possible after each step stabilizes.
Based on your P-V diagram (copy the plot of Capstone and embed it into an Office Word or Excel page
to get its printout) to be obtained, fill the following table:

Position
Total Volume of Air
Point or Pressure (height=ℎ) of
(piston chamber + metal
State (𝑘𝑃𝑎) the Piston
cylinder + tubing ) (𝑚3 )
(𝑚)
B
C
D
A

How much volume of air is leaked out of the system during the cycle?

Analysis
We can calculate work and heat separately for each portion of the process:

Isothermal
𝑛𝑅𝑇
Temperature is constant, so 𝑃 = 𝑉 , where 𝑛𝑅𝑇 is a constant. The work done by the gas is given by
𝑉
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛( 𝑉𝑓 ).
𝑖

Since the added heat is not causing a change in temperature, all the heat must be contributing to the
𝑉
work done: 𝑊 = 𝑄 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛( 𝑉𝑓 ).
𝑖

Also, the ideal gas equation of state tells us that 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇. Since 𝑛𝑅𝑇 is a constant, 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 =
𝑛𝑅𝑇 so we can express the work and heat in any of the following ways:
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑄 = 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑉𝑓 ) = 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑉𝑓 ) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛( 𝑉𝑓 ).
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

15
Isobar
Pressure is constant, so 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 ) and 𝑄 = 𝑛𝑐𝑝 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) where 𝑐𝑝 is the specific
heat at constant pressure.

Analysis
1. Describe each leg of the cycle (isothermal, isobaric, etc.) on your 𝑃𝑉-diagram.

2. For each leg of the cycle, calculate the following:

a. 𝑊 (work done by the system)
b. 𝑄 (Heat added to the system)

3. Find the total work done by the system from your 𝑃𝑉 diagram.

4. Find the total mechanical work, 𝑚𝑔∆𝑦:

5. Compare the results of 3 and 4. Are they different? Why?

6. Calculate 𝑄𝐻 for the entire cycle.

7. Calculate the thermodynamic efficiency of your engine.

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 Experiment 5: Magnetic Induction

PURPOSE
The purpose of this experiment is to
1- Verify Faraday’s law of induction, and
𝜇0
2- Determine the value of .
4𝜋

APPARATUS
Function generator, two solenoids, ammeter and digital voltmeter.

THEORY
About 1820 the Danish physicist Oersted noticed that a wire carrying an electric current produced a
magnetic field. It occurred to Michael Faraday to ask the converse question: Is a current produced by a
magnetic field in the vicinity of a wire? The answer he found is yes, but only if the field is changing by
time.
Faraday saw that when a closed conducting loop (see Fig. (5.1)), is in a region containing a static
magnetic field (i.e., a magnetic field independent of time) the voltmeter will show zero volt. In other
words, the current in the loop is zero and so is the potential difference between the ends of the loop.

Figure 5.1

On the other hand, if the magnetic field is not static (i.e., its value depends on time) the voltmeter will
show a non-zero voltage. The non-zero voltage shows that there exists a current flowing in the loop.

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5.1
Namely, there is a potential difference between the ends of the loop, which is called INDUCED
electromotive force, 𝑒𝑚𝑓 defined as

𝑑 B
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = − .
𝑑𝑡

This is called the Faraday’s law where  B is the magnetic flux through the loop given by

⃗ . 𝑑𝐴.
𝐵 = ∮𝐵 5.2

⃗ . Then the flux

To gain some intuition about the flux, consider a loop in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵
through the loop is given by
 𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) 5.3

where 𝐴 is the area of the loop and 𝜃 is the angle between 𝐵 ⃗ and a perpendicular plane of the loop. In
a sense, then, flux is the “amount” of magnetic field which goes straight through the loop. The direction
of the perpendicular, which determines 𝜃 and the sign of the flux, is given by an arbitrary rule: Imagine
standing on the surface and walking around the loop with the inside of the loop to your left. The
perpendicular points from your feet toward your head. If the loop is part of a complete circuit, so that
current flow, an additional magnetic flux will be produced by the induced current. The negative sign in
Faraday’s law tell us that the flux produced by the induced current opposes the change in the external
flux. This result is called Lenz’s law, and often provides an easy way to find the direction of the induced
current or voltage.
The instrument that we will use in this experiment is given in Fig. (5.2) as:

Figure 5.2

Inside a long solenoid, the magnetic field is calculated as

𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝐼0 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡), 5.4
where 𝐼0 is the amplitude of the current flowing through the windings, 𝑛1 is the number of windings
per unit length of the big solenoid and 𝑓 is the frequency of the function generator. Therefore, when an
induction coil (small solenoid) of n2 windings, each of area A is put inside the solenoid, the induced
𝑒𝑚𝑓 in the coil is
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝐴𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐼0 2𝜋𝑓cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑡). 5.5
The relation between induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 and output of the current ( 𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑡) ) can be written as
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝐴𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 2𝜋𝑓𝐼.
5.6

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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The experimental set is already set up in the lab. First you should know that here you will apply AC
current, which is a function of time, to the big solenoid. Using AC current always creates the magnetic
flux through the loop. In a sense, the magnetic field goes straight through the big solenoid. So, when
you insert the small solenoid (induction coil) into the big solenoid, a current is induced on the small
solenoid. Consequently, you see that the digital voltmeter displays a non-zero value.
Your lab TA will show you how to use the function generator to fix the frequency of the AC current to
10.7 × 103 𝑠 −1 and how to change the amplitude of the current. Then you will also learn to read the
ammeter and the digital voltmeter for collecting the data.
Read the windings of 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 written on the big solenoid and the small solenoid, respectively.
On the small solenoid there is a ∅ symbol. Here, ∅ indicates the diameter, in millimeter, of the small
solenoid. In order to find the cross-sectional area, 𝐴 (in 𝑚2 ), of the induction coil, you will use the
following formula
∅ 2
𝐴 = 𝜋 (2 × 10−3 ) . 5.7

RAW DATA
You start to take data by setting the current on the initial value 10 𝑚𝐴, as given in the table below.
Then you increase the current (in steps of 10𝑚𝐴). At each value of the current, you read 𝑒𝑚𝑓 from the
display of the digital voltmeter and write it down in the following table.
𝑰(𝒎𝑨) 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝟑𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟓𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟕𝟎
𝒆𝒎𝒇(𝑽)

DATA ANALYSIS
1) Find the least square line for your data having 𝑒𝑚𝑓 on the 𝑦-axis and 𝐼 on the 𝑥-axis. You may use
EXCEL program to find the equation of the least-square line 𝑒𝑚𝑓(𝑉) versus the current 𝐼(𝐴). Note
that you need to convert the unit of 𝐼 to 𝐴 for this plot.
𝜇0
2) Use the value of the slope with Eqs. (5.6) and (5.7) to determine the experimental value of . Call
4𝜋
𝜇0
this (4𝜋) . Show your calculation!
𝑒𝑥𝑝

𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
3) Show % error calculation to compare (4𝜋0 ) and (4𝜋0 ) . Are they close? Recall that (4𝜋0 ) =
𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ
𝑇.𝑚
10−7 .
𝐴

4) List at least two sources of errors in your experiment.

QUESTIONS

A. Assume that you turn off the function generator during the experiment. Normally, you expect to
read zero volts of the voltmeter, connected to the induction coil, both for the two cases: when the
induction coil is outside and inside the big solenoid. However, it is possible to read non-zero volts
for the outer case. What can be reasons of this?

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B. A circular loop of wire of radius 3 𝑐𝑚 and 40 turns is perpendicular to a magnetic field whose
magnitude decays in time according to 𝐵 = 0.5𝑡 2 − 0.6 in 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 and 𝑡 in 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠. What is the
induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 as a function of time?

C. 120 turns flat circular loop of radius 10𝑐𝑚 and total resistance 𝑅 = 80 Ω lie perpendicular to a
magnetic field given by 𝐵 = 2 + 𝑡 in 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 and t is in 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠. Find,
a. the magnetic flux through the circular loop,
b. the total induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓, and
c. the induced current.

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