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 How to use the Self Learning Material

Table of Contents:

Aim:

Instructional Objectives:

Learning Outcomes:

Advantages:

Disadvantages:

Summary:

Self-assessment:

e-References:

External Resources:

Video Links:

Did you know? :

Activity:

Computer Networks
Computer Networks
Course Description

Computer Networks
Computer Networks
Computer Networks
Table of Contents

Networking Fundamentals

Basics of Network Devices

Basics of Network, Transport and Application Layers

WAN Technology

Network Operating Systems and Troubleshooting Network

Computer Networks
Computer Networks

MODULE - I

Networking
Fundamentals
MODULE 1

Networking Fundamentals
Module Description

The term “Computer Network” is used to mean an interconnected collection of autonomous

computers. This connection is based on various factors and can be of various types. This
module covers the basics of networks and the terms used.

In this module, you will learn about the components of networks and types and topologies of
networks.

By the end of this module, you will be able to select the right topology to design a network.

Chapter 1.1
Introduction to Computer Networks

Chapter 1.2
Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Computer Networks
Introduction to Computer Networks

Chapter Table of Contents

Chapter 1.1

Introduction to Computer Networks

Aim ......................................................................................................................................................... 1
Instructional Objectives....................................................................................................................... 1
Learning Outcomes .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................. 2
1.1.2 Basics of Network and Networking .......................................................................................... 2
1.1.3 Types of Networks ...................................................................................................................... 6
Self-assessment Questions .......................................................................................................... 9
1.1.4 Network Terms - Host, Workstations, Server, Client, Node............................................... 10
1.1.5 Types of Network Architecture ............................................................................................... 11
(i) Peer-to-peer (P2P) Networks ............................................................................................. 12
(ii) Client/Server Networks ...................................................................................................... 13
1.1.6 Workgroup vs. Domain............................................................................................................ 15
Self-assessment Questions ....................................................................................................... 16
1.1.7 Network Topologies ................................................................................................................. 17
(i) Types of Topologies ............................................................................................................. 17
(ii) Selecting the Right Topology ............................................................................................. 23
Self-assessment Questions ........................................................................................................ 24
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 26
Terminal Question ............................................................................................................................. 26
Answer Keys........................................................................................................................................ 27
Activity................................................................................................................................................. 28
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 29
e-References ........................................................................................................................................ 29
External Resources ............................................................................................................................. 29
Video Links ......................................................................................................................................... 29

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Introduction to Computer Networks

Aim

To provide students with basic information on the fundamentals of computer

networks

Instructional Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• Discuss the basics of networks and networking

• Identify the advantages of networking

• Categorise networks based on their geographical span

• List the important terminologies related to networks and networking

• Classify computer network architecture

• Define network topologies

• List factors that describe selection of right topology

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

• Explain the basics of networks and networking

• List the advantages of networking

• Identify the basic differences between various types of networks

• List important terms that are used in relation to computer networking

• Arrange the computers to form a network based on the organisation’s need

• Describe network architecture according to their transmission technologies

• Select the right topology based on the requirements

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 Introduction to Computer Networks

1.1.1 Introduction
Starting from the 18th century, with the Industrial Revolution, many inventions have been
developed. In the 18th century, large mechanical systems, such as the spinning jenny and the
steam engine were invented. In the 19th century, the printing press and the steam locomotive
came into being. Like this advancement, computer industries also have seen a great
development from old day’s telephone networks to today’s Wi-Fi. The merging of computers
and communication technologies has had a profound influence on the way computer systems
are organised. The old model of a single computer serving all of the organisation’s
computational needs has been replaced by one in which a large number of separate but
interconnected computers do the job.

The term “computer network” is used to mean an interconnected collection of autonomous

computers. When two computers exchange information, they are said to be interconnected.
The connection can be wired or wireless. Network is not just a large computer with remote
printers or terminals. Or it is not a system with one control and many slaves is a network.
With a network the user must explicitly log into a machine, explicitly submit jobs remotely,
explicitly move files around and generally handle all network management personally.
Distribution or exchange of information is very important for any group activity to work or
function efficiently and effectively. This is best achieved by networking. Computer network
have become an important tool of communication, with an added advantage of being able to
store large amount of data and also being able to deliver it as and when demanded. A
computer network finds application in almost every field of life.

1.1.2 Basics of Network and Networking

According to the Oxford Dictionary:

“Network is a group of people who exchange information, contacts and experience for
professional or social purposes.” Therefore, networking can be defined as one’s effort to create
this group.

Nowadays, computer networking and data communications are modifying the way we do
business transactions and also the way we live. Usually a decision in business has to be made
very quickly and we need accurate information immediately. Why should we wait a week to
receive documents from the United States by mail when it is possible to access them instantly
through computer networks? Today most businesses depend on computer networks and

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Internet. Before we learn how to rapidly access information, we need to know what we mean
by a network, how it works, the different technologies available in networks and the
description of which design is the best fit for a given need.

Research in networking has led to the development of new technologies. For

example, Technologies such as voice mail, call waiting, caller ID and conference call have
been extended from the available telephone services. The main goal of computer networks is
to be able to exchange the information (text, video and audio) from all points of the world. To
achieve this, we need the Internet.

A computer network can be defined as a group of two or more devices (also referred as
nodes) linked together. And a computer network is a combination of a computer system and
other computing hardware devices such as servers, workstation, LAN cable, network interface
card.

Now that we know the components of a network, let us look at what is data communication.
Data or information can be communicated between computers over the Internet. Thus, when
communication is established, information is shared. The sharing of information might be
within a local or remote place. Data communication can be defined as an exchange of
information between two devices via a transmission medium. For example, a wire cable.

The five main components of data communication are:

• Message

• Sender

• Receiver

• Transmission medium

• Protocols

Figure 1.1.1 depicts the components of data communication system.

Figure 1.1.1: Data Communication System

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 Introduction to Computer Networks

Let us look at these components in more detail:

• Message: It is the information to be communicated.

• Sender: It is the device that sends the message. The sender could be the telephone,
television, computer, workstation, etc.

• Receiver: It is the device that receives the message. The receiver could be the
telephone, television, computer, workstation, etc.

• Transmission medium: It is a physical path that establishes communication between

the sender and receiver. For example, Fibre-optic cable, radio waves, coaxial cable
etc.,

• Protocol: It consists of a group of rules that direct data communication. It is just like
an agreement between the devices that needs to communicate. No devices
communicate without protocol.

Networking is a process of exchanging information between computers in a network.

Advantages of networks

• Speed: They enable quick sharing and transferring of files within networks.

• Cost: Individually licensed copies of many popular software programs can be costly.
Networkable versions are available at considerable savings. Shared programs, on a
network allows for easier upgrading of the program on one single file server, instead
of upgrading individual workstations.

• Security: Sensitive files and programs on a network are password-protected or

designated as “copy inhibit”, so that you do not have to worry about illegal copying of
programs.

• Centralised software management: Software can be loaded on one computer

eliminating that need to spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files
on independent computers throughout the building.

• Resource sharing: Networks allow sharing of expensive devices, such as scanners or

printers.

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• Electronic mail: Networks provide a quick and efficient way for people to
communicate with one another.

• Flexible access: This refers to personal and professional communication. Emails sent
on a LAN can enable staff to communicate within the building without having to
leave their desks.

• Workgroup computing: Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice) allows

many users to work on a document or project concurrently.

Advantages of Computer Networking

• Establishes easy communication: In a network, people communicate within a group

where they can share information by using technologies, like telephony, video
conferencing, email, etc.

• Sharing of information: It is one of the main advantages of networking. People

within an organisation can share information, thus enabling large organisations to
manage and control their data. It also permits access to data for desired people.

• Sharing Hardware resources: Networking allows sharing of hardware. For

example, in an organisation, a printer can be shared by many people in the network.
It eliminates the need for a printer for each individual. This significantly minimises
the cost needed to purchase printers.

• Sharing Software: Like hardware, software is also shared within the network. Cost of
an individually licensed software version is more when compared to a networkable
version of the same software, which is available to all. Thus, most large organisations
prefer sharing of software through networking instead of purchasing the same for
each computer.

• Security: Files and programs on a network are secure. To access these, users need to
enter a password. Thus, information can only be available to those who have an
authorisation and each user has their own set of rights to prevent them from accessing
restricted information.

• Speed: Network allows sharing and transferring the data between the computers at
very high speeds. This saves time along with maintaining the reliability of the data.

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1.1.3 Types of Networks

Computer networks are classified into different types depending on their sizes and their
usage. Network size is determined by the number of computers that it holds and by the area,
that is, the geographic area that it occupies. Networks can include any number of devices,
from those within a room to those which are distributed across the world. The following are
the types of networks:

• Local Area Network (LAN)

• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• Wide Area Network (WAN)

• Personal Area Network (PAN)

Table 1.1.1 shows network types by scale.

1m Square meter Personal area network

10 m Room
100 m Building Local area network
1 km Campus
10 km City Metropolitan area network
100 km Country Wide area network
1000 km Continent

Table 1.1.1: Classifications of Interconnected Network by Scale

Let us look at each of these in more detail:

• Local Area Network: Computer networks that are confined to a localised area,
(for example, An office, a building, or a factory) are known as local area networks
(LANs). The key purpose of a LAN is to enable its users to share resources. The
hardware as well as software resources are shared through LANs.

LANs allow exchange of data between personal computers or workstations. LANs are
called enterprise networks when they are used by organisations. Nowadays, wireless
LANs are becoming popular in regions where it is difficult to install cable. For
example, Cafeterias, Old office buildings, Homes, etc.

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In this system, antennas or radio modems, such as Access Point (AP), wireless routers
or base stations, are used to communicate with other computers. IEEE 802.11 is a
standard for wireless networks, which is termed as Wi-Fi and has become popular
worldwide.

• Metropolitan Area network (MAN): This type of network covers a town of a city. A
good example for this type of network is cable television, which is spread across a city.
Area covered by MAN is larger than LAN. A MAN can cover an area of several miles,
depending on the configuration used. It can be used to connect multiple LANs. When
a MAN is designed for a college campus, it is called a Campus Area Network (CAN).

• Wide Area Network: A WAN occupies a large geographical area, such as a country or
continent or even the entire world. A WAN might be the grouping of LANs and
MANs. The Best example of a WAN is the Internet. Figure 1.1.2 shows the structure
of a WAN.

Figure 1.1.2: Wide Area Network

As you can see in above figure 1.1.2 WANs link computers to facilitate fast and
efficient exchange of information at lesser costs and higher speeds. SONET, Frame
Relay and ATM are technologies that are generally found in WANs.

• Personal Area Network (PAN): A PAN allows devices to communicate around an

individual. This type of network is found in a single building. Computers connected
to its peripheral devices using a wireless network is a good example of a PAN. I/O
devices such as keyboards, monitors, mice are usually connected to a system through
cables and the user may sometimes get confused when recognising the right cables for

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them and plugging them correctly into the systems. So to overcome this, a PAN is
used. This network uses a wireless network of a shorter range called ‘Bluetooth’,
which is used to connect devices without wires. Thus, there is no need for cables when
devices have Bluetooth. Figure 1.1.3 depicts the infrastructure of a PAN.

Figure 1.1.3: Personal Area Network

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Introduction to Computer Networks

Self-assessment Questions
1) Data communication is _________________.
a) Exchanging information between two or more devices
b) Establishing communication path
c) Setting up of protocols to communicate
d) Sending data to required people only

2) Collection of computers that communicate through the Internet” is called

__________.
a) Communication b) Network
c) Computing d) Data flow

3) Which of the following network types is usually preferred in office buildings?

a) WAN b) PAN
c) MAN d) LAN

4) Which of the following network types is an example of a Bluetooth device?

a) LAN b) PAN
c) MAN d) WAN

5) Data communication system spanning across country, continents and world is called
____________.
a) WAN b) LAN
c) CAN d) MAN

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 Introduction to Computer Networks

1.1.4 Network Terms - Host, Workstations, Server,

Client, Node
Hosts, workstations, servers, clients and nodes are basic terminologies of a network. Let us
study each one of them in brief.

Host: In a computer network, the host is the end point of communication. A host can also be
defined as a computer system or other devices connected to a network. A host provides
resources, information, applications or services to people (users) or other computers that are
connected to a network. It is a node that assigns the network layer host address.

Workstations: A node, which is more powerful than a host and can handle local information
processing or graphics processing is called a workstation. The workstation works only for the
person sitting in front of it, whereas a server serves all the people on the network by allowing
them to share its resources. A workstation usually has an inexpensive, small hard disk to carry
out local tasks. Some workstations, called diskless workstations, have no disk drives of their
own. Such workstations called dumb terminals and they rely completely on the LAN for their
access. The network operating system lets the nodes work as if all the resources in the server
belong to the node itself. Workstations may run multiple operating systems and are
connected to a LAN. When compared to personal computers, workstations provide a higher
performance.

Server: Servers are faster computers that run various software, store and process information
and also provide a human interface for the users to be able to use the networked computers.
In a computer network, the server serves data to other computers that are connected to a
LAN, MAN or WAN through the Internet. Generally, a server runs applications that accept
requests from client (users) and provides responses to requests over the Internet.

Client: A client might be a computer or a piece of software or hardware that accesses services
provided by a server. In local and wide area networks, client-server architecture is very
common in which the client accesses services provided by the server through the network.

Node: A node is any device or computer connected to a network. In a network, it is the

connection point, either at the start or end point of data communication. For example, if
three computers, a file server and three pointers are connected by a network, then the number
of nodes in that network is said to be seven.

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Network Operating System (NOS): A network requires some software to control all the
activity related to information transfer on the network, like the traffic police to control the
traffic. The software called NOS handles these tasks. Networks, which are more complex,
require network devices like hubs, switches and routers to carry out different network
functions.

LAN Software: On the network, each computer is called a node or a workstation unless there
are certain computers designed as servers. LAN cables connect all the nodes and servers
together to form the network. In addition to its local disk operating system, each node
requires networking software that enables the nodes to communicate with the servers. In
return, the file servers run network software that communicates with the nodes.

LAN Cable: This is the medium or channel over which the information travels from
computer to computer. The information travels from one computer onto the transmission
medium and then from the medium to another computer in a form that can be read.

Network Interface Card: Each computer contains a network interface card. This card is used
to connect the cables to the computers. These cards help the computer to transfer the data at
a faster rate and in the form of packets. These cards are plugged into the computer
motherboard. These cards are generally called Ethernet cards.

1.1.5 Types of Network Architecture

Network architecture consists of a set of software, hardware, transmission medium (wired or
wireless) and communication protocols. Thus, it refers to the layout of a network. Network
architecture describes the types of networks according to the area range, network topologies
and layout and communication protocols in the network technology.

There are many network architectures available according to the application domain and
characteristics. Generally, there are two types of network architecture categorised according to
its transmission technology and scope. These are:

1. Peer-to-peer

2. Client-server

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(i) Peer-to-peer (P2P) Networks

Peer-to-peer is a type of network architecture, where ‘peer’ stands for computer. In a P2P
network, computers are interconnected via the Internet. There is no need of a server to share
information or data; it is done directly between the computers in a network. Thus, devices in
peer-to-peer network act as both a client as well as a server. Figure 1.1.4 shows the structure
of peer-to-peer model.

Figure 1.1.4: Peer-to-Peer Model

In peer-to-peer network, the computers communicate only when there is an Internet

connection and peer-to-peer software. Some of the most commonly used peer-to-peer
software programs include Morpheus, Limewire, Kaza, Acquisition, etc. A computer can
share and access data from thousands of other systems on the network just by connecting
these programs to P2P network on that network.

Advantages of P2P networks:

• It is easy to install.

• Both clients and server, that is., all peers, share all of their resources.

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• Peer-to-peer is more reliable because failure of one peer does not affect the
performance of other peers.

• In a P2P network, every user is the administrator of the system and can control
the shared resources.

• Cost of building and maintaining P2P network is less when compared to other
networks.

Disadvantages of peer-to-peer network:

• Accessibility: Setting of an entire network cannot be determined by a single

person as it is a decentralised system.

• This network fails to provide security while accessing the data.

• As each system in this network should have a backup, it is very difficult to

maintain and recover data.

• This type of network is used in website like Torrents, which transfers music,
movies or other copyrighted files.

(ii) Client/Server Networks

In client-server network architecture, a server refers to a system that provides services to
other systems that is clients, on demand. The services can include storage, file sharing,
applications, printer access, or it might be direct access to the server’s raw computing power.
Figure 1.1.5 shows the client-server architecture.

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 Introduction to Computer Networks

Figure 1.1.5: Client/Server Network

In this network model, a client system sends a request to the server through the Internet for
processing. The server system processes the request and sends it back to the client system. A
server can control multiple number of clients simultaneously. The client is an individual
system that can be connected to several servers at a specific time, each of which can be
offering a different set of services.

The best example for this type of network model is the Internet where users may access
different web pages or websites of different web servers simultaneously.

Advantages of client-server architecture:

• There is centralised control, where the server acts as the administrator and sets up
access rights.

• Maintaining information or data is very easy as it is stored in a single place.

• Back-up and recovery are possible, as the entire data is stored on the server
system.

• Data can be modified easily and new resources can be added just by making
necessary changes and upgrading in the server, thus facilitating scalability.

• This type of network model provides security of data access by defining access
rights at the time of server set up.

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• Data can be accessed simultaneously from different servers at a time.

Disadvantages of client server architecture:

• Confusion or jamming (congestion) might be created when there are many
requests sent by clients to a server.

• There is no communication between the computers (clients) when the server fails.
Thus this type of architecture is not as robust as P2P.

• Cost of installing and managing this type of architecture is very high when
compared to P2P networks.

• IT professionals are required to manage the servers.

1.1.6 Workgroup vs. Domain

Many organisations have a large network of computers but may still not have a proper
management solution for them. This becomes very expensive from both, an economic and
time standpoint. There are two standard methods used by Window - based system to manage
computers in a network. They are:

• Workgroups

• Domains

Let us look at the advantages and differences between both methods.

Advantages:

• Workgroup: A workgroup is referred to as a peer-to peer network, in which devices

can communicate with each other without a server. There is no efficient way to
manage all the workstations in a workgroup with respect to their scalability, which is
essential for future growth of an organisation. As a result, domains were introduced
to overcome this drawback of workgroups.

• Domain: It is similar to client-server network model. It includes many computers

with at least one domain controller. A domain controller is a device that acts as a
server that controls the user computers with respect to their requests.

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Differences:

• In domain network, all users access permissions (User accounts and passwords) that
are managed by the central system. In workgroup, every user has their own username
and password to log-in that are managed by the users themselves.

• A domain network offers high security and it allows access to data only by authorised
users; whereas in a workgroup network, the user may or may not have a password at
all. This can lead to serious security issues, especially when user systems have sensitive
information.

• In a workgroup network, people may not want to ensure that their computers are
secure from viruses. This may lead to virus attacks getting out of hand in most
workstations in the workgroup network. However, in domain network with the help
of a domain controller, a centrally managed antivirus, which will be monitored and
controlled by the server system, can be formed.

• Workgroup network is suitable for smaller organisations; whereas domain network is

applicable to large organisations.

Self-assessment Questions
6) Domain controller acts as a server that controls the user computers in the
___________ network architecture.
a) Peer-to-peer b) Workgroup
c) Transmission d) Domain

7) Which of the following is a centralised network model?

a) Peer-to-peer b) Client/server
c) Point-to-point d) Workgroup

8) Which of these is essential in a P2P network to ensure communication between the

devices within the network?
a) Internet connection b) Internet and P2P software
c) Protocols and internet d) Cables and internet

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1.1.7 Network Topologies

Network topology can be defined as a systematic arrangement of computer network
components, such as links, nodes, workstations, hosts or any communicating devices.
Network topology defines how all computers or nodes are connected and communicated in a
network and defines the layout of network.

(i) Types of Topologies

Network topologies can either be physical or logical. Thus they are broadly classified into two
types, namely:

1. Physical network topologies

2. Logical network topologies

1. Physical Network Topologies

Physical topologies describe layouts of computers (nodes), cables, workstations in the

network. Thus, it is a geometric layout of physical devices of a network.

The different types of physical network topologies available in a computer network are:

• Bus Topology

• Star Topology

• Ring Topology

• Mesh Topology

• Tree Topology

• Hybrid Topology

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 Introduction to Computer Networks

Figure 1.1.6 shows a general structure of each of these topologies.

Figure 1.1.6: Different types of physical network topology

1. Bus Topology

It is one of the simplest network topologies. In this topology, all the nodes are connected by a
single cable called a bus. The bus is the main thing in this topology through which every
workstation communicates with the other.

Advantages of Bus Topology

• It is available at a very low cost.

• Length of the cable required for this topology is less when compared to other
topologies.

• It is used for small networks.

• It is easy to understand, set up and extend the network.

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Disadvantages of Bus Topology

• The length of the cable is limited.

• There is no communication when a cable fails to perform.

• It is difficult to find/troubleshoot fault at individual nodes.

• The speed is less compared when compared to the other topologies.

• The performance decreases when the number of nodes increases.

• In this topology, all nodes get information sent and this decreases security.

2. Star Topology

In this topology, all the nodes are connected in the form of a star. There is a central device
called hub/ router/ switch or server to which all the computers are connected directly. Thus,
in this topology, every computer is connected to one another through the central device or
hub.

Advantages of Star Topology

• It gives better performance when compared to the bus topology, as the data that is
sent reaches the desired node directly.

• It is easy to add a new device to the existing network.

• It provides centralised management, which helps to monitor the network.

• Failure of one or two nodes doesn’t affect the rest of the network.

• It is easy to set up, modify and troubleshoot faults.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

• The installation cost is high.

• It is very expensive to use.

• If the server or hub fails then the whole network stops performing.

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 Introduction to Computer Networks

• The performance and number of nodes added to the topology depends on the
capacity of the hub.

3. Ring Topology

In ring topology, all the nodes are connected in the form of rings so that there will be a closed
loop in which each node or computer is connected to two other nodes on either side. Thus,
communication of each computer is established only with two of its adjacent neighbours.
Tokens are needed to send and receive data in the ring topology.

Advantages of Ring Topology

• This is a better organised topology where the node sends data only when it
receives an empty token. This avoids collision between the nodes.

• It is less expensive when compared to the star topology.

• It does not need the server to control communication between the nodes.

• All the nodes have an equal access to resources.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• The speed of sharing data is slow when compared to star topology as it passes
between the source and destination through all computers.

• The network fails to work when any of the nodes fail.

• Addition of a new node might cause disturbance in the network.

4. Mesh Topology

In this type of network, each computer is interconnected to one another. Thus there is a
point-to-point connection to devices or nodes. In this topology, every computer not only
sends its own data but also transmits the data sent by other devices. Mesh topology requires
n (n-2)/2 cables to connect or link devices when there are n number of nodes.

There are two types of mesh topology, which are:

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this type of mesh topology, some of the nodes are
connected to all other nodes in the topology whereas some are connected to only one
or two devices.

2. Full Mesh Topology: In this type of mesh topology, each node is connected to all
other nodes.

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Advantages of Mesh topology

• Each device can transfer its own data load.

• The network does not get affected when any node fails to perform.

• It is easy to troubleshoot faults.

• It provides high speed of transmission and security.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

• It is difficult to install and configure.

• The cost of network is more, needs n (n-1)/2 physical channels.

• It is complicated to set up this type of topology.

5. Tree Topology

In a tree topology, there is a main node called root node that acts as a server and other nodes
are connected to it to form a hierarchy. Thus, it is also referred to as hierarchical topology.
Tree topology makes use of two or more star topologies to form a network in the shape of a
tree.

Advantages of Tree topology

• This topology is an extension of the bus and star topologies.

• New nodes can be easily added.

• Nodes in this topology can easily be managed and maintained.

• It is easier to troubleshoot faults than in any of the other topologies.

Disadvantages of Tree topology
• It is very expensive.

• It needs more number of cables to connect nodes.

• If the root fails, then the network also fails.

6. Hybrid Topology

Hybrid, as the name denotes, is a mixture of 2 or more topologies. This topology is used when
there is a need of two or more topologies in a single network. Hybrid topology can be found
in Wide Area Network where several nodes are interconnected from different locations.

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 Introduction to Computer Networks

Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology

• Reliable: It is easy to detect errors.

• Effective: It offers a combination of two or more topologies, so that it is possible

to design in such a way that it maximises the strengths of this topology.

• Scalable: It is easy to add new nodes that increase the size of the network.

• Flexible: It is designed according to the requirements that allow optimising the

available resources.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

• It causes complexity throughout the designing of the network.

• It is very expensive when compared to all topologies.

2. Logical Network Topology

Logical Network Topology defines how data is transferred between the nodes. It describes the
architecture of the communication mechanism of all nodes on a physical network topology.
The logical topology makes use of network equipments such as routers or switches to manage
and configure data between the nodes in a network.

Logical topology is referred to as ‘signal topology’. The signal topology does not bother about
how devices are connected in the network. It concentrates only on how they communicate.
They are created by defining protocols on Network Interface Cards, which determine
movement of data on the physical network.

Logical topologies make use of peer-to-peer or client server network model to transfer data
between the computers; it also makes use of some devices, such as router, switch, Ethernet
etc., which identify and transfer data to the intended system.

Table no. 1.1.2 shows the comparison between physical and logical topologies.

Media Type Physical Topology Logical Topology

Ethernet Bus, star, or point-to-point Bus
FDDI Ring Ring
Token Ring Star Ring

Table 1.1.2: Physical vs. Logical Topology

22 Networking Fundamentals | Computer Networks

Introduction to Computer Networks

Ethernet is used in the logical bus topology to establish communication between the nodes,
regardless of the physical layout of the cabling. The Ethernet connector is a NIC which allows
other Ethernet devices to identify and communicate with other nodes in the network. In the
logical bus topology, a node broadcasts data to all the nodes on a network. After that, the
nodes check the data received if it is needed. Thus, only an intended user can process data as
they want.

A token ring is used in ring topology. In ring topology, only one node transfers the data to all
others in the network. To achieve this mechanism, tokens are used. This helps to avoid
collision created during the transfer of data between the server and several nodes. FDDI’s are
also used for data communication in ring topology.

(ii) Selecting the Right Topology

Choosing the right topology for a network is an important task prior to establishing a
network. Some of the factors that influence the selection of a network topology are as follows:

• The number of computers needed to be connected

• Availability of cables

• Other devices essential for networking

• The physical area available for the network

As discussed previously network topologies have two important layers, physical and logical.
These layers describe different types of physical network topologies and also the
communication protocols (logical topologies) used to define how data moves between nodes
in the network.

The following are some of the factors to be considered when deciding the right topology
for a network:

• Network Scale: It determines how many nodes or devices have to be connected

within a network and helps in thinking about the signal traffic involved in the
network. If there are a fewer devices, then bus topology is preferred as it connects
devices and uses only a single cable that is easy to set up and is low in cost.

• Cost Effectiveness: If you don’t want to spend more money on a specific network,
select the bus topology that makes use of fewer cables and performs well for LANs.

Computer Networks | Networking Fundamentals 23

 Introduction to Computer Networks

• Traffic Management: When there are multiple devices and there is a large flow of
network traffic between the servers, then star topology is selected as this is considered
to be the best fit for establishing an organised network.

• Large Networks: When there is a need for a large network that includes complex
administration access levels, then wireless network is used. This is fulfilled by having
mesh topology as it mainly involves wireless connection on a logical network layer.

• Security: Token ring is used where data flows in one direction; this means that only the
right devices get the information and helps when the information is confidential.
Thus, token ring topology is chosen when there is a need of high security in the
network.

• Scalable Networks: Tree topology is selected when there is a need to expand the
network. Tree topology combines bus and star topology, where the central bus cable
links with the different hubs and also other devices. This topology organises several
elements of network into one system.

Self-assessment Questions
9) Physical and logical arrangement of devices in a network is called ______.
a) Network Topology b) Network
c) Domain d) Computer networking

10) Which of the following topologies has a hub?

a) Bus b) Star
c) Ring d) Mesh

11) A blend of two or more topologies in a single network system called _________
a) Hybrid Topology b) Group Topology
c) Mixture Topology d) Unit Topology

12) Which of the following physical topologies using Ethernet to transfer data between
nodes?
a) Mesh b) Ring
c) Bus d) Full Mesh

24 Networking Fundamentals | Computer Networks

Introduction to Computer Networks

13) Which of the following is NOT considered while selecting the right topology to
establish a network?
a) Cost b) Type of data
c) Security d) Data traffic

14) The device in a network that manages other devices is called a _________.
a) Node b) Main computer
c) Server d) Client

15) Logical topology is also known as _________.

a) Layout Topology b) Data Flow Topology
c) Virtual Topology d) Signal Topology

Computer Networks | Networking Fundamentals 25

 Introduction to Computer Networks

Summary
o A network is a group of devices or computers connected together.

o Computer networks are classified into different types based on their size and their
usage; namely LAN, MAN, WAN, PAN.

o Local Area Network is limited to a very small area. For example, College campus.
MAN is limited to a city. For example, TV cable. WAN is spread across the world.
Know the Internet.

o A Personal Area Network (PAN) allows devices to communicate around an

individual or over the range of a person.

o Network architecture consists of a set of software, hardware, transmission

medium (wired or wireless) and communication protocols. P2P and client/server
are the two types of network architecture.

o In a P2P network, there is no need of a server to share information or data directly

between the computers on network.

o In client server architecture, client system sends the request for being processed to
the server through Internet; the server system processes the request and sends it
back to the client system.

o Network topology is a systematic arrangement of various components or

elements, such as nodes, links, etc., of a computer network.

o Physical and logical topologies are two types of network topologies.

o Selecting the right network topology depends on a number of factors, such as

security, cost, space, scalability, etc.,

Terminal Question
1. Discuss the advantages of networking.

26 Networking Fundamentals | Computer Networks

Introduction to Computer Networks

Answer Keys
Self-assessment Questions
Question No. Answer

1 a
2 b
3 d
4 b
5 a
6 d
7 b
8 b
9 a
10 b
11 a
12 c
13 b
14 c
15 d

Computer Networks | Networking Fundamentals 27

 Introduction to Computer Networks

Activity
Activity Type: Online Duration: 30 Minutes

Description:

Prepare a presentation on design of network including network types and network

topologies. (Maximum 15 slides)

28 Networking Fundamentals | Computer Networks

Introduction to Computer Networks

Bibliography
e-References
• Classification of computer networks. Retrieved 13 May, 2015 from
http://www.cs.toronto.edu/~marbach/COURSES/CSC358_S14/classification.pdf

• Study to night. Types of network topology. Retrieved 14 May, 2015 from

http://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks/network-topology-types

External Resources
• CCNA Cisco Certified Network Associate: Study Guide. (2011). India: Wiley
publishing.

• Forouzan, B. A. (2007). Data Communications and Networking (4 ed.). New

York: McGraw-Hill.

• Rick Graziani, A. J. (2007). Routing Protocols and Concepts: CCNA Exploration

Companion Guide (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Cisco Press.

• Tanenbaum, A. S. (2007). Computer Networks. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall Of India

Pvt. Limited.

Video Links
Topic Link

Basics of Network & Networking https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ClPA3F_ZXds

Types of Networks https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z8sqPruWG6Y

Types of Network Architecture https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=70FDX26pIMY

Physical Network Topology https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBn_QpfLHAo

Logical Network topology https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AJayXW8VAFg

Computer Networks | Networking Fundamentals 29

 Introduction to Computer Networks

Notes:

30 Networking Fundamentals | Computer Networks

Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Chapter Table of Contents

Chapter 1.2

Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Aim ....................................................................................................................................................... 31
Instructional Objectives..................................................................................................................... 31
Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................................ 31
1.2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 32
1.2.2 Transmission Media ................................................................................................................. 32
1.2.3 Communication Modes ........................................................................................................... 37
1.2.4 Wiring Standards and Cabling ................................................................................................ 39
(i) Straight-through and Crossover Cable .............................................................................. 39
(ii) Rollover Cable ..................................................................................................................... 41
(iii) Media Connectors .............................................................................................................. 41
Self-assessment Questions ........................................................................................................ 42
1.2.5 OSI Model .................................................................................................................................. 43
(i) Seven Layers of OSI Model ................................................................................................. 44
(ii) Functions of the Seven Layers ........................................................................................... 46
Self-assessment Questions: ....................................................................................................... 50
1.2.6 TCP/IP Model ........................................................................................................................... 51
1.2.7 Different Protocols .................................................................................................................... 52
(i) Transport Control Protocol ................................................................................................ 53
(ii) User Datagram Protocol..................................................................................................... 53
(iii) Internet Protocol ................................................................................................................ 54
(iv) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) ................................................................... 55
(v) ARP/ RARP .......................................................................................................................... 55
1.2.8 Comparison between OSI model & TCP/IP model .............................................................. 56
1.2.9 Overview of Ethernet Addresses ............................................................................................. 57
Self-assessment Questions ........................................................................................................ 58
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 59
Terminal Question ............................................................................................................................. 60

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Answer Keys........................................................................................................................................ 61
Activity................................................................................................................................................. 61
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 62
e-References ........................................................................................................................................ 62
External Resources ............................................................................................................................. 62
Video Links ......................................................................................................................................... 63

Networking Fundamentals | Computer Networks

Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Aim
To focus on the transmission media, mode and protocols that governs data
communication in networks

Instructional Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• After completing this chapter, you should be able to: Define transmission
media in terms of data communication

• Discuss the factors to determine the behaviour of transmission media

• Classify transmission media

• Explain communication modes and wiring standards

• Explain the functions of seven layer OSI model

• Describe the TCP/IP model

• List the protocols available in OSI model

• Explain Ethernet address

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

• Discuss the importance of transmission media

• Classify transmission media

• Identify the factors to be considered while choosing transmission media

• Define communication modes

• Analyse wiring standards while establishing network

• Compare OSI and TCP/IP model

• Explain the functions on network layer protocols in conversion of addresses

• Identify the need of Ethernet address

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

1.2.1 Introduction
The successful transmission of data depends mainly on two factors. First, the type of
transmission medium. Second, the characteristic of the signal that varies with the transmission
medium. These factors define the quality of the signal being transmitted and the
characteristics of the signal being received. But, finally, the transmission happens based on the
standards defined by the OSI model. This OSI-layered model is proposed to exemplify the
issues suitable to related functions within each layer standardisedly, that allows
straightforward access to all lower-level functions.

The OSI model splits the total function or process of data communication into seven abstract
groups, known as layers. Three organisations, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
(IEEE), American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) are formerly known as CCITT (in French: Comite
Consultatif Internationale de Telegraphique et Telephone). They placed various protocols into
different layers of OSI model to help in communication. Each layer is responsible for some
unique functions. For instance, a web program at Layer 7 should not think at all about the
kind of physical system being used at Layer 1, nor about any interceding levels; everything it
needs is a presentation space.

This chapter starts with the functions and importance of transmission media in data
communication. It compares two popular data communication models: OSI reference model
and TCP/IP model. It also discusses various protocols related to data transmission. Finally, it
introduces the most popular LAN technology, Ethernet.

1.2.2 Transmission Media

In a computer network, every device shares data with other devices. This data is transmitted
through different transmission media. In data communication, transmission medium is
anything that carries data from source to destination. For example, Air is the transmission
medium for two people having a conversation.

Signals are used by computers and telecommunication devices to represent data. These signals
are in the form of electromagnetic energy during transmission. Electronic signals were first
used with telegraphy in 19th century, which was a form of very slow communication. Later,
telephones were invented to communicate and this extended the range of human voice to

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Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

carry these electric signals. That communication was unreliable because poor quality of wires
ware used. Moreover technology used was unsophisticated resulting in connections that were
often noisy.

In 1895, frequency signals were introduced that were used in wireless communication. With
the invention of transmission media, such as coaxial cable, twisted pair and the usage of
optical fibres, data transmission rate increased considerably.

The key points in data transmission are data rate and distance; greater the data rate better the
distance.

The following are some factors that determine the behaviour of transmission media:

• Bandwidth: Greater the bandwidth of signal over the transmission line, the higher is
the data rate.

• Transmission impairments: Some transmission impairments like attenuation, can

limit the distance across which data can be transmitted

• Interference: Interference from competing signals in overlapping frequency bands can

distort a signal.

• Number of receivers: As the number of devices increase, some attenuation and

distortion is introduced in the transmission line that affects the data rate and limits the
distance.

The first layer (physical layer) of Communication Networks OSI Seven Layer model is
dedicated to transmission media, which you will study in the next section.

Figure 1.2.1 shows the classifications of transmission media. Transmission media in

telecommunication can be classified into two categories:

1. Guided Transmission Media / Bounded / Wired

2. Unguided Transmission Media

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Figure 1.2.1: Flowchart of Transmission Media

1. Guided / Bounded / Wired Transmission Media

This type of transmission media makes use of wires or cables in which signals are imprisoned
to a specified path. There are different types of guided media, such as:

• Twisted-pair cable: This is the most commonly used cable and is cheaper when
compared to other cables. They are easy to install, lightweight and support several
network types. Twisted pair cables are used to transfer both analog and digital signals.
It is mostly used in telephone networks as well as within a building. These cables are
less expensive when compared with other media.

Twisted pair cable is shown in figure 1.2.2 below.

Figure 1.2.2: Types of Twisted Pairs of Cable

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Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Twisted cables are further classified into two types, Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable and
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable consists of two conductors. These conductors are
made from copper and are covered with a plastic insulator to differentiate them
from several other cables.

 Shielded Twisted Pair Cable consists of a metal foil used to cover the insulated
conductors. The main purpose of shields is to prevent noise penetration and also
remove crosstalk.

• Coaxial cable: This cable consists of two conductors that are parallel to each other and
are separated by an insulator. In the centre, copper, which is a solid wire, is used. The
inner conductor is placed either by using insulating rings or a thick dielectric material,
whereas the outer one is covered with a jacket or shield as shown in figure 1.2.3 below.

Figure 1.2.3: Coaxial Cable

This coaxial cable is mostly used in:

 Local area networks (LAN)

 Television transmission

 Telephone transmission

 Computer system links for short-runs

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Coaxial cables have higher frequency and data rates when compared to twisted pairs.
They support many varieties of data and traffic types passed over by a number of
devices. Coaxial cables are classified into two types:

 BaseBand: It is used for digital transmission. This type is commonly used in

LANs to transmit a signal with high speed.

 BroadBand: It is used for analog transmission. For example, Television cabling.

It makes use of different frequencies to transmit various signals simultaneously.

• Fibre Optical cables

This media consists of three components: Transmission media, Detector and Light
source. The 1 and 0 represents presence and absence of light. The transmission
medium is a thin glass fibre that generates light according to the input (electrical
signal). The detector regenerates the signal after the light signal is found in the
transmission medium. Thus this can be used as a transmission system that transmits in
a single direction. This transmission is done by attaching a light source to the end of an
optical fibre and a detector. Figure 1.2.4 depicts the internal structure of fibre optical
cables.

Figure 1.2.4: A Fibre Optical Cable

Optical fibre is used for both analog and digital signals. This cable provides high-
quality transmission of data at very high speeds and protects signals from interference
and noise. Thus it is known to have less distortion.

2. Unguided transmission media

In this media, transmission of data takes place though air or water. Wireless transmission is
available to everyone who has the ability to receive them. They are classified into two types:

36 Networking Fundamentals | Computer Networks

Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

a) Radio Transmission

b) Microwave Transmission

a) Radio transmission

In radio transmission, the radio communication system sends signals through a radio.
It is simple to install and has high attenuation. These waves are used for multicast
communications. Radio Transmission utilises propagation of troposphere and
ionosphere. Bluetooth is an example of radio transmission.

b) Microwave transmission

Microwave is the smallest unit of wavelength of electromagnetic waves. Microwave

transmission is the transmission of energy in the form of microwaves. It travels at a
higher frequency than radio waves. Microwave transmission operates in a system
which has a low gigahertz range and is mostly used for unicast communication.
Microwave transmission is of two types:

• Terrestrial Microwave system: This system uses directional parabolic antennas

to send and receive signals in the lower gigahertz range.

• Satellite Microwave system: This system transmits signals between directional

parabolic antennas.

1.2.3 Communication Modes

Communication modes specify the direction of flow of data between two devices when they
are in communication. Communication modes are also termed as transmission modes, which
can be classified as shown in figure 1.2.5.

a) Simplex mode

b) Half-duplex mode

c) Full-duplex mode

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Figure 1.2.5: Types of Transmission Mode

a) Simplex mode

It is a unidirectional communication mode, that is, the flow of data takes place only in one
direction. In the simplex mode, a device either only sends or receives signals; it cannot
perform. Keyboard, television, loudspeaker are examples of simplex mode communication.
Figure 1.2.6 shows simplex mode communication.

Figure 1.2.6: Example for Simplex Mode

b) Half-duplex mode

In this mode, data flows in both directions between the devices but the flow is only in one
direction at a time. In half-duplex mode, an alternative send and receive also takes place, that
is, when one device sends data, the other can only receive and vice versa.

A walkie-talkie is an example of half-duplex communication. Figure 1.2.7 shows half duplex

communication.

38 Networking Fundamentals | Computer Networks

Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Figure 1.2.7: Half Duplex Mode

c) Full-duplex mode

In full-duplex mode, the flow of data takes place in both directions simultaneously. Thus, full-
duplex mode is referred as bidirectional communication mode. Mobile communication is the
example of full-duplex communication. Figure 1.2.8 shows full duplex mode communication.

Figure 1.2.8: Full Duplex Mode

1.2.4 Wiring Standards and Cabling

(i) Straight-through and Crossover Cable
Straight-through cables refers to cables in which there are pin assignments at both ends of the
cable as shown in figure 1.2.9. Pin 1 connector of cable ‘A’ links or goes into the pin 1

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

connector of cable ‘B’, similarly pin 2 connector of cable ‘A’ links or goes into the pin 2
connector of cable ‘B’ and so on. A straight-through cable is a type of twisted pair cable used
in local area networks. These cables are widely used to connect host to client and also used to
connect computers, scanners, printers and network devices to hubs, routers or switches.

Figure 1.2.9: Straight Wiring Cable

Crossover cables are similar to straight-through cables with the exception that they cross over
their respective pins to connect two computers. This cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to
connect two systems of the same type. As shown in below figure 1.2.10, pin 1 of connector A
connects to pin 3 of connector B.

These cables are used to connect router to router, one computer to another computer or two
hosts directly. Some of the advantages of crossover cables are:

• They are very inexpensive when compared to other cables.

• There is no need of Internet to communicate between two devices

• They are very easy to install.

Figure 1.2.10: Crossover Cable

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Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

(ii) Rollover Cable

Rollover cables are also known as Cisco console cables. These cables are used to connect
device terminals to the console port of the router. These cables are flat and light blue in colour
that help distinguish from other network cabling types.

In rollover cables, the opposite pin assignment is made at each end of the cable, that is, the
cables are rolled over. As shown in figure 1.2.11, pin 1 of connector A connects to pin 8 of
connector B, pin 3 goes to pin 6 and so on.

Rollover cables are used to establish an interface between the systems, not to carry data
between them.

Figure 1.2.11: Rollover Wiring Cable

(iii) Media Connectors

In a network, computers connect and communicate with each other using wired and wireless
media that pass data in terms of electromagnetic waves, signals and electric current.

Copper, fibre wires is an example of wired media for physical networks. Laser, infrared and
microwave are examples for wireless media.

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Self-assessment Questions
1) Transmission media are categorised as ___________ media.
a) Metallic or non-metallic b) Fixed or unfixed
c) Guided or unguided d) Bidirectional or unidirectional

2) The signal source in fibre optics is ________.

a) Infrared b) Light
c) Radio d) Laser

3) Which of the following is wireless media?

a) Twisted-pair cable b) Optical fibre
c) Coaxial cable d) Satellite communication

4) The inner core of an optical fibre is _______.

a) Water b) Glass
c) Light d) Copper

5) The communication mode between the mouse and computer device is _______.
a) Full Duplex b) Half Duplex
c) Simplex d) Manual

6) A Communication type that allows flow of data between devices in both directions
simultaneously is known as _____________.
a) Full duplex b) Simplex
c) Half duplex d) Automatic

7) Which of the following is used to connect device terminals to the console part of the
router?
a) Straight through cable b) Rollover cable
c) Crossover cable d) Media connector

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Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

1.2.5 OSI Model

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) consists of a set of protocols that define and
standardise the data communication process as shown in figure 1.2.12. The OSI model was
defined by the International Standard Organisation (ISO). ISO is an international body that
provides international standards which are accepted all over the world.

In 1995, the OSI model were revised and standardisation of protocols was done. Which is used
in several layers. This revised protocols are known as the ISO OSI reference model. This
model connects open systems, that is, systems that are available for communication or open
for communication. Figure 1.2.12 shows the abstract structure of an OSI model.

Figure 1.2.12: OSI Model

The OSI model consists of seven layers. The following are the principles that are applied to
the seven layers:

• Based on the requirement of different abstractions, a layer should be created.

• Specific functions should be performed by each layer.

• Layer functions are designed and determined by international standardised protocols.

• To minimise the flow of information across the interfaces, form strict layer boundaries.

• The number of layers should be large so that each of them performs distinct functions.

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Let us briefly discuss each layer of OSI model starting from bottom layer in the following
section.

(i) Seven Layers of OSI Model

1. Physical (Layer 1):

This layer is concerned with data transmission in the form of bitstreams, such as electrical
impulses and light radio signals over a communication channel through network. It uses
hardware, such as transmission media as a carrier for sending and receiving data.

2. Data Link (Layer 2):

This layer is concerned with data packets that are encoded and decoded into bits. The main
role of this layer is to handle the errors that occur in the physical layer and provide protocol
knowledge needed for transmission and management of data.

Data link layer is divided into two sub layers: Media Access Layer (MAC) and Logical Link
Control (L

LC) Layer. MAC layer controls a device in a network regarding permission relating to data
access and transmission. LLC layer controls error checking, flow controls and frame
synchronisation.

3. Network (Layer 3):

This layer forms an imaginary or logical path for passing information termed as virtual
circuits and provides switching and routing technologies. These two technologies define how
data are to be transmitted and forwarded from one system to another on a network.

This layer manages logical addressing in the packets that are needed to transmit information
to the correct destination. Thus, the logical addressing scheme used in the network layer is
termed as IP addressing.

4. Transport (Layer 4):

This layer is concerned with functions related to reliable and unreliable delivery of data from
source to destination. The Transport layer splits data into smaller packets as soon as data is
sent by a computer on a network so that packets can be resent if any of them fail to reach the
specified destination.

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Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

The Transport layer provides transparent data transfer between the end devices and controls
flow of packets. This layer is responsible for ensuring complete data transfer and for the end-
to-end error recovery.

5. Session (Layer 5):

This layer allows users to establish, manage and terminate the connection between the
applications as soon as the communication process is completed. The Session layer mainly
establishes sessions that offer services, such as Token management that revents two parties
from accessing the same operation simultaneously and diagonal control that keeps the record
of who is going to transmit data at a specific time and synchronise the events.

6. Presentation (Layer 6):

This layer deals with syntax and semantics of the transmitted information. Unlike lower
layers, presentation layer provides independence from data representation differences, that is,
presentation layer includes some technologies, such as encryption and character code set
(EBCDIC, ASCII) that transforms data format from network to application format and vice
versa.

The Presentation layer is also termed as the syntax layer because it encrypts and formats data
that is sent all over the network. When this layer receives data from the Application layer that
needs to be sent over the network, it checks the data format. The Presentation layer converts
data into proper format if it is not already. When this layer gets data from the Session layer, it
performs the same conversion process if data is not in the proper format and then transfers
the data over the application layer.

7. Application (Layer 7):

This layer is the topmost layer of the OSI model. The Application layer mainly supports the
end-user processes and applications. Real data traffic is generated from this layer. All
functions of this layer are application-specific. HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) is a
widely used application, which is the basis for World Wide Web (WWW). This layer provides
some other services for email, file transfer over the Internet and other network services such as
FTP and Telnet.

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Now look at the functions of these seven layers.

(ii) Functions of the Seven Layers

1. Physical layer:

This is the lowest layer of OSI model. It is mainly concerned with sending and receiving
bitstreams from one device to other via transmission meda.

Functions of the Physical layer:

• Representation of bits: In this layer, data is represented as streams of bits and data is
encoded to signals while transmitting.

• Data rate: Determines the sending of number of bits per second during transmission.

• Synchronisation: This layer defines synchronisation between sender and receiver at

bit level.

• Interface: Designs transmission interfaces between computers and transmission

channel.

• Line configuration: This layer makes use of point-to-point or multi-point connection

configuration to connect devices with transmission medium.

• Topologies: It is at this layer that the network topology, such as bus, star, mesh and
ring, is designed.

• Transmission modes: This layer defines transmission direction between devices such
as simplex, half duplex and full duplex.

2. Data Link Layer:

This layer ensures the reliable delivery of data from one node to another node. It converts the
packets received from network layer to frames and sends it to the physical layer.

Functions of the Data Link layer

• Framing: These are a sequence of bits taken from the network layer. Data link layer
divides this sequence of bits into a proper format that can be easily transmitted over
the network to a physical layer.

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Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

• Physical addressing: The header is added by this layer into frames to find the physical
address of sender and receiver of the frames on the network.

• Flow control: This layer prevents the data traffic jam at the receiver end.

• Error control: This layer is used as a mechanism of error control that adds an extra bit
at the end of the frame so that duplication of frames can be prevented.

• Access control: This layer designs a set of protocols that determine which of the
devices has control over a link at a specific time and also determine how many devices
are to be connected to the same link.

3. Network layer

This layer divides large packets into smaller ones and delivers them from source to destination
across multiple links or networks. There is no need for a Network layer if two systems are
connected on the same link. This layer routes the signal through various mediums to the
destination and functions as a network controller.

Functions of the Network layer

• Logical addressing: A Physical address is created by a data link layer. In the network
layer, another addressing system is included to differentiate the source and destination
devices. Thus, this layer adds a header to packets received from the upper layer and
translates a logical network address into physical address.

• Routing: Connecting devices are used to connect different networks to route packets
from source to destination such as routers, gateways and switches. The Network layer
provides a mechanism called routing to achieve this.

• Network layer includes services such as error control, packet sequence control and
flow control.

• It splits large packets into smaller ones.

4. Transport layer

This layer is concerned with process-to-process delivery of entire message from source to
destination. The Transport layer transmits whole data in a predefined order and ensures flow

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

control and error control during transmission of data from source to destination. This layer
divides the message into smaller units that are easily handled by the Network layer.

Functions of the Transport Layer:

• Service point addressing: A port addressing is added by the Transport layer header.
The addition of the port address helps to get the message to the correct process on the
computer.

• Segmentation and reassembling: Segments are formatted in this layer by dividing the
message that includes sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message and allow replacing packets that were lost in transmission.

• Connection control: This layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.

 Connectionless Transport Layer: Each segment is considered as an independent

packet and sent to the transport layer at the destination system without forming
any connection.

 Connection Oriented Transport Layer: Connection is established with transport

layer before delivering packets at the destination system.

• Flow control: This layer deals with flow control of data and this is performed from end
to end rather than across a single network.

• Error control: This layer is responsible for error control and it is performed end to
end. This layer makes sure that the entire message has to transmit to the destination
transport layer without any error.

5. Session layer

This layer forms sessions that enables user to maintain, establish and synchronise the
interaction between the communication devices.

Functions of the Session Layer

• Dialog control: The Session layer enables two devices to start communication either
using full-duplex or half-duplex transmission modes.

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• Synchronisation: This layer adds checkpoints to synchronise data streams.

For example, if a system is sending 1000 pages of file, adding a checkpoint after every
100 pages will help to ensure successful delivery of the entire file by receiving
acknowledgments after every pass of 100 pages.

6. Presentation layer

This layer sends data in a format that is understood by the receiver and also it will be in use.
Thus, this layer takes care of the syntax and semantics of the data that is transmitted between
the communication devices.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

• Translation: Information is changed to stream of bits before being transmitted. This

layer is responsible for forming portable data, that is, interoperability between the
encoding methods. Different computers use different encoding methods.

• Encryption: This layer performs encryption and decryption mechanisms at sender

and receiver end respectively.

• Compression: This layer compresses data to be transmitted. The main purpose of data
compression is to reduce the number of bits to transmit that is, it reduces the data
bandwidth.

7. Application layer

This layer provides services to the end user to get rights to use the network. Some of the
services provided by this layer are: network resources, distributing the results to end user, e-
mail and file transfers.

Functions of the Application Layer

• Mail services: This layer enables the user to forward and store e-mails.

• Remote log-in: This layer allows the user to log into a remote system and also permits
the user to access and make use of resources available for that remote system.

• Directory services or accessing WWW: This layer provides the user permission to
access information globally with respect to various services.

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

• File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM): This function allows the user to
access and control files and also retrieve records from remote system.

Self-assessment Questions:
8) Which layer is closest to the transmission medium?
a) Physical layer b) Data Link layer
c) Transport layer d) Application layer

9) Which lies between the Application layer and the Network layer?
a) Physical layer b) Transport layer
c) Data link layer d) No layer

10) Which layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of a whole message?

a) Network Layer b) Data Link Layer
c) Transport Layer d) Session Layer

11) The service provided by the Application layer is _______.

a) File transfer and access b) Data translation
c) Communicate devices d) Synchronisation

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1.2.6 TCP/IP Model

In the previous section we have studied OSI model. Now it’s time to know about the most
acceptable network model TCP/IP. TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and
Internet Protocol. Protocols are the rules that define a path that make it possible to
communicate over the network and also specify the data movements between the host devices
or the Internet. This model consists of four layers as shown in figure 1.2.13 below.

Figure 1.2.13: TCP/IP Models

The TCP/IP model was developed and proposed by ARPA, which later became DARPA
(Department of Defence’s Project Research Agency). This model was mainly created to
connect military networks. Later, it was used in universities and government agencies. This
model is also called the Internet layering model or the Internet reference model. The goal of
this model was to ensure continuance of a conversation between source and destination even
if transmission went out of operation. The reference model was named after two of its main
protocols, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol).

There are four layers in TCP/IP model:

1. Link/Physical Layer

2. Internet Layer

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

3. Transport Layer

4. Application Layer

1. Link/ Physical layer: The TCP/IP model lumps together the OSI model’s layer 1 and layer
2 into a single layer, called the Link layer as shown in figure 1.2.13. This layer forms an
interface between the data transmission systems and transmission media. This layer
defines the nature of the signal and data rate.

2. Network Access layer: This layer deals with the transmission of data between the devices
and the network to which it is attached. The Network Access layer is concerned with
routing data among devices that are in the same network.

3. Internet layer: This layer is applicable when data transmitted between two devices are on
different networks. This layer uses Internet Protocol (IP) to route data across multiple
links.

4. Transport layer: This layer ensures the reliability of data, that is, it ensures all data
received at the destination device and delivered data is in the same order as it was sent by
sender. This layer makes use of Transport Control Protocol (TCP) to provide this
functioning.

5. Application layer: This layer provides services to end users to work over network or
Internet. For example, file transfer.

1.2.7 Different Protocols

A protocol defines a set of rules that govern data communication and transmission between
two or more devices. Each protocol has some key elements in computer networks. Those are:

• Syntax: It refers to format of data, that is, representation of data.

• Semantics: It refers to section of bits. It defines how a particular section is to be

interpreted and what operations to be taken after data processing.

• Timing: This refers to what should be sent and how fast it should be sent.

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Let us now look at some most common protocols used during data transmission on a network.

(i) Transport Control Protocol

In a TCP/IP network, TCP is one of the main protocols that enables a connection between two
hosts to exchange data streams. This protocol ensures the delivery of data in the correct
format and predefined order in which they were sent.

Features of TCP are as follows:

• It is a transport layer protocol.

• This protocol defines how to set up and sustain network conversation.

• It works together with IP to determine how data is transmitted between the devices.

• TCP and IP are the base rules to establish the connection in Internet.

• This protocol is a connection-oriented protocol.

• It defines how to break data into packets.

• This protocol manages flow control and error-free data transmission.

• In the OSI model, this protocol covers the parts of Transport layer and Session layer.

(ii) User Datagram Protocol

It is a communication protocol on the Internet, which is a connectionless, unreliable transport
protocol. Network applications prefer User Datagram Protocol (UDP) when there is a small
data unit to be exchanged to save processing time.

The following are some features about user data protocol:

• It is a transport layer protocol.

• It offers very slow speed of data transmission between devices.

• It acts as an alternative to TCP, used together with IP.

• It does not add anything to IP except for providing process to process communication.

• UDP makes use of IP to access a data unit, termed as datagram, from one device to
another like TCP.

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

• UDP does not provide any services to break message into packets.

• UDP requires much lesser interaction between the sender and receiver during sending
a small message compared to TCP.

• UDP has no flow control and error control.

(iii) Internet Protocol

Internet Protocol (IP) creates a single logical network from various physical networks. IP is
used to route data to a specified address. This protocol will be discussed in detail in the
following chapters.

Features of IP

• IP is also a connectionless and unreliable protocol.

• IP defines packet formats referred to as datagrams and addressing schemes.

• Most networks combine IP with TCP to form a virtual connection between the devices
over the network.

• IP itself is something like a postal address. It never provides direct connection between
the sender and receiver, it just allows the user to address a package and slump it into
the system.

• TCP/IP allows a link to be established between two hosts and exchange of data takes
place between them for a period of time.

• On the Internet, each computer has its own unique address known as its IP address.

• IP never forms any physical connection between the devices; for this function, it relies
on TCP.

• IP does not have error-reporting or error-correcting mechanism.

• IP does not have a mechanism for host and management queries.

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(iv) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

ICMP is designed to compensate two main functions that IP fails to manage, which are error
control and mechanism for host and management queries. Thus, it is considered as one of the
main protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite.

• ICMP is a Network layer protocol.

• This protocol is used to generate error messages when the Network layer prevents
transmission of IP addresses.

• This protocol creates and sends messages to the IP address of the source to denote an
open way to the Internet for packet delivery.

• Any device with an IP address can send and receive or process ICMP messages.

(v) ARP/ RARP

Address Resolution Protocol

In the same network, if one device wants to communicate with another, then a physical or
MAC address is needed, whereas applications specify IP address of destination. There is a
need for a mechanism to bind this IP address with its MAC address. Address Resolution
Protocols are used to perform this function of binding. Broadcast the IP address of the
destination node and it will provide the MAC address of the destination node to the source
node.

• First presume the LAN broadcast nature

• Broadcast the destination system IP address

• Destination sends its MAC address to sender or source

• Source (sender) maintains both MAC and IP address.

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

It is a protocol that can be used to request the IP address of a device in the LAN from an ARP
table or cache that acts as a gateway server. A system does not have any permanent disk to
store its IP address permanently. A table is created by the network administrator in the LAN’s
gateway router that binds the MAC address of a physical device to its IP address. Whenever a

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

new device is set up, its RARP program sends a request for its IP address from RARP server to
router table. Thus, a RARP server sends the IP address to its device that can be used in future.

1.2.8 Comparison between OSI model & TCP/IP

model
Table 1.2.1 compares the functionalities of OSI and TCP/IP models.

OSI TCP/IP

Focused on protocols rather than the layer

This defines functions of all layers in a network
functions
The Transport layer is responsible for ensuring The Transport layer does not guarantee delivery
correct delivery of packets of packets

Data flow follows horizontal approach Data flow follows vertical approach

This layer has a separate presentation layer This layer does not have a presentation layer

It is a general purpose model that can be used by

This model cannot be used by any application
any application

In this model, the Network layer provides both Only connectionless service is offered by the
connection-oriented and connectionless service Network layer

There are some difficulties to fit protocols in this

It does not fit any protocol
model

Here protocols are hidden and are easily replaced

In TCP/IP, replacing protocol is not easy
as the technology changes

In this model, each layer has separate function

There are no separate protocols, services and
and they are clear about their interfaces and
interfaces.
protocols used between them.

It consists of 7 layers It consists of 4 layers

Table 1.2.1: OSI vs. TCP/IP Model

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1.2.9 Overview of Ethernet Addresses

In 1980, Ethernet was introduced; later, in 1983, the first standard was developed as IEEE
802.3. This had been refined to support higher speed data rate and cover longer link distances.
In a computer network, Ethernet is a family of technologies for LAN and MAN. In LAN
technologies such as FDDI, token ring has been replaced by Ethernet.

LAN address assignments and formations are defined by Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE). To ensure a unique MAC address, the first half of the address identifies the
manufacturer of the card. This code is termed as organisationally unique identifier (OUI). In
MAC address, half of it describes the manufacturer code defined together with OUI. The
manufacturer assigns the second half with same OUI which is never used on network interface
or on other card. The figure below is the structure of a unicast Ethernet address.

Figure 1.2.14: Structure of Unicast Ethernet Address

Ethernet is composed of group addresses, which enables to identify various network

interfaces. There are two general categories of group address for Ethernet defined by IEEE.

• Broadcast addresses: This ensures that the devices connected to LAN must process
frames and should have value of FFFF.FFFF.FFFF.

• Multicast addresses: It is used to communicate to a subset of devices on LAN. The

multicast MAC address used by IP follows the format 0100.5exx.xxxx, where x can be
replaced by any value, when this IP multicast is used over Ethernet. .

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Self-assessment Questions
12) Which of these protocols is a network layer protocol?
a) ICMP b) FTP
c) TCP d) UDP

13) Which of these protocol is used to bind MAC address with its IP address?
a) UDP b) ICMP
c) ARP d) IP

14) MAC stands for

a) Manage Access Control b) Mode Allocate Control
c) Method Assign Control d) Media Access Control

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Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Summary
o Transmission media belongs in the Physical layer.

o Guided media describes a physical stream from one system to another.

For example, Twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables and optical fibers.

o Wireless transmission media uses electromagnetic waves (through air) to transmit

data.

o Wireless media is classified into radio transmission, microwave transmission or

infrared transmission.

o Flow of data between any two communicating devices can occur in any of three
ways: simplex, half duplex and full duplex.

o The cables used in data transmission are grouped according to their characteristics,
such as straight-through cable, crossover cable, rollover cable and media
connector.

o The OSI model, proposed by ISO, defines the standard set of protocols and
organisation of seven layers.

o The Physical layer is responsible for data transfer over a physical medium and the
data link is for delivering data from one device to another without error.

o The Network layer performs source-to-destination delivery over multiple links of

packets and the Transport layer performs process-to-process delivery of messages.

o The Session layer is an interface that enables to maintain, establish and synchronise
the interaction between the communication devices.

o The Presentation layer sends data in such a format that should be understood by
the receiver.

o The Application layer allows users to access networks.

o The TCP/IP model includes five layers.

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

o There are different protocols used in different layers to govern specific

mechanisms, such as TCP, UDP, IP, ICMP, etc.,

o Different sentence structures play an important role in determining music of

writing.

Terminal Question
1. Compare OSI and TCP/IP model in terms of their functionality.

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Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Answer Keys

Self-assessment Questions
Question No. Answer

1 c
2 b
3 d
4 d
5 c
6 b
7 b
8 b
9 c
10 a
11 d
12 a
13 c
14 d

Activity
Activity Type: Offline/Online Duration: 30 minutes

Description:

Draw the structure of OSI layer and TCP/IP layer side by side and include all the protocols
of each layer and explain their functions.

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Bibliography
e-References

• Computer Notes. Transmission Modes. Retrieved 15 May, 2015 from

http://ecomputernotes.com/computernetworkingnotes/communication-
networks/what-are-the-different-transmission-modes

• Tutorials Point. Transmission Media. Retrieved 15 May, 2015 from

http://www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_network/transmis
sion_media.htm

• Omnisecu.com. Layers of OSI model. Retrieved 16 May, 2015 from

http://www.omnisecu.com/tcpip/osi-model.php

• Study to night. TCP/IP reference model. Retrieved 16 May, 2015 from

http://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks/tcp-ip-reference-model

External Resources

• CCNA Cisco Certified Network Associate: Study Guide. (2011). India: Wiley
publishing.

• Forouzan, B. A. (2007). Data Communications and Networking (4 ed.). New York:

McGraw-Hill.

• Rick Graziani, A. J. (2007). Routing Protocols and Concepts:CCNA Exploration

Companion Guide (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Cisco Press.

• Tanenbaum, A. S. (2007). Computer Networks. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall Of India

Pvt. Limited.

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Video Links

Topic Link
Transmission media https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mlnl4UpD3Lg

Data Transmission Mode https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4rCdCKAx1D0

Wiring Standards https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4cFGS_-uZg

OSI Model https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O_rsqVtaloI

TCP IP Model https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tCRBa3fTR3A

Protocols https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0vbIqZPDrOY

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 Overview of Transmission Media and Protocols

Notes:

64 Networking Fundamentals | Computer Networks

Computer Networks

MODULE - II

Basics of
Network Devices
MODULE 2

Basics of Network Devices

Module Description

Network devices are also termed as network equipment that mediate information or data in a
computer network. Network devices provide the required functionality and connectivity to
accomplish successful transmission of data in a network. They operate at different layers of
the OSI or TCP/IP reference model. But what about wireless network? Wireless
communication involves the transmission of information over a distance without the help of
cables, wires, or any other forms of electrical conductors. This module discusses about all the
networking devices that operate at different layers of the network model along with most
popular network technology called Ethernet. It also gives an overview of wireless network
technology and identifies the benefits of a wireless network.

In this module, you will learn wired and wireless network technology.

By end this module, you will be able to install network interface card. You will also come to
know how to provide security for wireless network.

Chapter 2.1
Introduction to Network Devices

Chapter 2.2
Wireless Networking

Computer Networks
Introduction to Network Devices

Chapter Table of Contents

Chapter 2.1

Introduction to Network Devices

Aim ....................................................................................................................................................... 65
Instructional Objectives..................................................................................................................... 65
Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................................ 65
2.1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 66
2.1.2 Network Devices ....................................................................................................................... 66
2.1.3 NIC.............................................................................................................................................. 75
Self-assessment Questions ........................................................................................................ 78
2.1.4 Data Link Layer ......................................................................................................................... 80
Self-assessment Questions ........................................................................................................ 90
2.1.5 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) ....................................................................................... 91
Self-assessment Questions ........................................................................................................ 94
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 95
Terminal Question ............................................................................................................................. 95
Answer Keys........................................................................................................................................ 96
Activity................................................................................................................................................. 96
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 97
e-References ........................................................................................................................................ 97
External Resources ............................................................................................................................. 97
Video Links ......................................................................................................................................... 97

Computer Networks | Basics of Network Devices

Introduction to Network Devices

Aim

To equip students with knowledge about basic network devices and an overview of
the data link layer along with various protocols

Instructional Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• List various network devices according to their working layer

• Outline the NIC installation steps

• Explain the functions of the following network devices: hub, switch, bridge,
router, gateways, repeater, CSU/DSU, modem

• Discuss the functions of data link layer and Point-to-Point protocol

• Elucidate the functional requirements of Ethernet

• List several standards of Ethernet

• Explain the working of address resolution protocol (ARP)

• Describe the ARP message format and transactions

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

• Identify different network devices used to establish communication

• Summarise NIC installation process to establish communication with

different networks

• Identify the advantages and disadvantages of network devices used in various

layers

• Analyse the role of data link layer over data communication

• List the components of Point-to-Point protocol

• Compare Ethernet standards in terms of data rates

• Identify the functions of ARP and RARP

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 Introduction to Network Devices

2.1.1 Introduction
Local area networks (LANs) are connected to one another or to the Internet. To connect
LANs or segments of LANs, we make use of connecting devices. Connecting devices are,
therefore, also referred to as networking devices. They can operate at different layers of the
OSI or TCP/IP reference model. As you know, internetworking refers to the equipment and
technologies involved in connecting either LANs to LANs, WANs to WANs, or LANs to
WANs. Typical examples of internetworking devices are repeaters, hubs, switches, bridges,
routers and gateways. Each device operates at all layers below a particular layer of the OSI
model. When designing a network, it is important to remember that the capacity of the
internetworking devices tends to limit the overall network capacity.

Computer networking technologies act as a glue which binds all the networking elements
together. As you know, LAN technologies connect relatively close devices whereas WAN
technologies connect a smaller number of devices that can be many kilometres apart.
Ethernet has been a relatively inexpensive, reasonably fast and very popular LAN technology
for several decades.

In this unit, we will discuss about all the networking devices that operate at different layers of
the network model. You will be familiarised with the popular network technology called
Ethernet. Then point to point protocol will be discussed. Finally, we will explain how ARP
works.

2.1.2 Network Devices

So far we have discussed about media access methods, topologies, protocols and cable types.
This chapter deals with network devices, which completes the assessment of computer
network on a physical layer (level).

Network devices are also termed as network equipments that mediate information or data in
a computer network. Network devices provide the required functionality and connectivity to
accomplish successful transmission of data in a network.

Network devices are categorised based on the layer in which they operate. Figure 2.1.1 shows
categorisations of devices.

66 Basics of Network Devices | Computer Networks

Introduction to Network Devices

Application Layer Application Layer

Presentation Layer Presentation Layer
Gateway
Session Layer Session Layer
Transport Layer Transport Layer
Network Layer Router Network Layer
Data Link Layer Switch/Bridge Data Link Layer
Physical Layer Repeater/Hub Physical Layer

Figure 2.1.1: Network Devices at Different Layers

1. Repeaters and hubs operate on the physical layer.

2. Switches and bridges operate on the data link layer.

3. Routers operate on the network layer.

4. Gateway operates on the remaining layers.

Let us discuss the functions of each device in detail:

1. Hub: A hub is a network device that connects multiple computers on a network to

facilitate communication between them. A hub is generally used to connect segments of a
LAN. It transmits data packets to all other devices on a network, regardless of the MAC
address defined in the data packet as shown in Figure 2.1.2.

Figure 2.1.2: Hub Network Device

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 Introduction to Network Devices

A hub is a multiport repeater, which acts as an interface for connecting multiple devices such
as servers, storage devices, printers, workstations, etc. A hub copies packets to other ports
when it arrives at one of its ports. Thus, all segments of LAN can see all the packets.
Computers plug into a hub using Ethernet cables.

A hub sends data to all computers which are connected to it because it cannot recognise the
source or intended destination of the data. A hub cannot send and receive data at the same
time. They are commonly used in physical star topology to create connections between the
devices. Hubs are more economical compared to all other network devices. To extend the
network, hubs can be connected to other hubs using uplink port.

There are mainly two types of hubs:

a) Passive Hub: There is no change in the signal during transmission and it sends the
data as it is. These hubs do not require power to supply the data.

b) Active Hub: These hubs amplify the signal; hence, it works as a repeater and requires
power to supply the data. For example, USB hub, this hub allows a number of USB
devices to be connected to a single device as shown in Figure 2.1.3.

Figure 2.1.3: USB Hub

2. Switch: A switch works in the same way as a hub, but in a more efficient manner; that is,
switches identify the intended destination of the data or information that they receive.
Thus, a switch sends data only to those systems that are supposed to receive it. A switch
keeps a record of all the devices’ IP addresses and MAC addresses in a table to which it is
connected.

As you can see in Figure 2.1.4, a network switch is used to connect various devices with
Internet.

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Introduction to Network Devices

Figure 2.1.4: Network Switch

In a computer network, switches are used to filter and forward the packets between the LAN
segments. Switches operate on the data link layer and sometimes on the network layer of the
OSI model. Switch LANs are used to connect the LAN segments and switched Ethernet LANs
are used in the case of Ethernet networks.

Unlike hubs, switches can send and receive information simultaneously. Thus, they send
information faster as compared to hubs. Therefore, switches are used in situations where
multiple tasks need to be performed simultaneously and a lot of information is passed over
the network. Switches are expensive compared to hubs.

3. Bridge: Bridges operate on both, the data link layer and the physical layer. As a physical
layer network device, it generates the received signals; and as a data link layer network
device, it checks the MAC addresses of the source and destination device specified in the
frames (i.e., data formatted as frames). A bridge does not control broadcast domains and
usually comes with less number of ports. Figure 2.1.5 shows the operations of a bridge.

Figure 2.1.5: An example for Bridge

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 Introduction to Network Devices

As you can see in the above Figure 2.1.5, a bridge has filtering capacity so that it does not send
all the packets. Hence, this network device reduces data traffic on the network. A bridge
checks for the destination address of frames (data) sent and decides whether the frame needs
to be forwarded or dropped. A bridge maintains a table that maps the addresses to the ports.

A bridge is used to connect LANs and it acts as a repeater to eliminate limited transmission
distance. This means that bridges are used to extend distance capabilities of networks, so that
a LAN can connect to a geographically extensive network within a campus or a building.
There is no need to configure a bridge because it is a plug and play device (bridges are self-
configured).

There are four types of bridges:

a) Transparent basic bridge: It observes incoming network traffic to identify physical or

MAC address

b) Source routing bridge: It is used mainly in token-ring networks

c) Transparent learning bridge: It keeps track of the location of network devices

d) Transparent spanning bridge: It’s a combination of source route bridge and

transparent basic bridge.

4. Router: Router is a small network device used to connect multiple networks so as to have
successful communication between the devices on the networks. A router operates on the
network layer of OSI model. Figure 2.1.6 illustrates how a router is placed in a network.

Figure 2.1.6: An example for Router

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Introduction to Network Devices

Routers are designed to receive incoming packets, forward packets between computers over a
network, analyse the packets, route the packets to appropriate locations and convert the
packets to other network interface.

Like a switch, a router records address information of all devices connected to it. Along with
this, a router also records the next closest router (refer to it as a default gateway) address in
the network. Usually, a router reads information from the packet address and decides what to
do with the data based on the address specified.

For example, if a router receives the destination address for sending specific information
which is not recorded in the routing table, then it passes information to the default gateway
rather than sending it to all devices (like hub and switch).

A router also has the ability to scan the data packets of a source address and take decisions
based on that. It means that a router gives information about two things, that is, traffic
generated on the network and traffic that comes into the network from outside.

A router can be configured in the following two ways:

a) Static routers: These routers are configured manually and direct the data packets
based on the information available in the routing table.

b) Dynamic routers: These routers use dynamic routing algorithm to direct the data
packets. There are two dynamic routing algorithms:

• Distance vector

• Link state

5. Gateways: A gateway is a connecting device used to connect remote networks with the
host network. A gateway can be a computer running the software which is essential to
connect and translate information between the networks with several protocols. Thus,
gateways perform more complex tasks than a normal router.

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Figure 2.1.7: Gateway

For example, a gateway can be used to connect and establish communication between the
AppleTalk and TCP/IP clients.

A gateway is used to connect two or more systems which are not of the same type such as:

• Communication protocols

• Data formatting structures

• Languages

• Architecture

Generally in a network, gateways serve as entry and exit points. The data passing through
gateways (both in inward and outward direction) should first communicate with the gateway
to get the routing paths. In most networks, a router is configured to perform as a gateway
LAN connecting to the internet using a node, i.e., a router is referred to as a default gateway.
Usually, gateways operate at the network layer and above, most of them operate at the
application layer.

Advantages of Gateways
• Expands the network

• Connects two or more different types of networks

• Easily handles the data traffic problem

• Connects internal and external networks

• Performs conversion of protocol

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Disadvantages of Gateways
• No noise prevention method

• No data analysis method

• Very expensive compared to routers and switches

• Minimised transmission rate due to protocol conversion

• Difficult to handle

6. Repeater: It is a device that operates at the physical layer. A repeater retransmits, with
more power, the received signal that carries information within a network; i.e., it
regenerates the signals. A repeater cannot connect two LANs; instead, it connects two
segments of the same LAN as shown in Figure 2.1.8 below.

Figure 2.1.8: Repeater

Repeaters are implemented in a network to expand the geographical area of a network and
regenerate a strong signal by propagating a weak or broken signal. The main role of a repeater
is to amplify the signal which is received at a higher frequency, so that it can be reused.

Repeaters are mainly used in wired data communication to pass signal (data) over a long
distance without any loss. These are also referred to as signal boosters.

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Advantages of a Repeater

• Easily expands the network over a long distance

• Allows to connect various wired transmission media (For example, Twisted-pair

cable, coaxial cable, etc.)

Disadvantages of a Repeater

• Cannot work across multiple networks

• Does not provide filtering capability

7. CSU/DSU: CSU/DSU stands for Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit. A CSU/DSU is
a network device used to translate the communication technology used as digital data on
the LAN into a frame appropriate to a WAN and vice versa. It is a digital - interface
device mainly used to link DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) as shown in Figure 2.1.9.

Figure 2.1.9: Example for CSU/DSU

A CSU connects a terminal to a digital line, i.e., forms the connection to the
telecommunication network. A DSU manages the interface with DTE, i.e., performs
analytical and defending functions for a telecommunication line. For example,
Connecting a router to a digital circuit, such as a digital signal (T1) line.

Functions of CSU

• Protects the carrier and its customers from any weird events such as voltage or
frequency fluctuation

• Transfers signals at a specified time on the public line

• Provide interface loopback functionality to collect the lost signals

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Functions of DSU

• Serves as an interface between the computer and CSU

• Sends digital data over various hardware channels

• Takes care of data conversion that is used on digital phone line from gateways,
routers and bridge

• Manages timing errors and signal regeneration

8. Modem: A modem is a short term for a modulator-demodulator. A modem is a device

that enables a computer to transmit data over a network through telephone lines. A
computer network uses the digital form of data whereas the analog form of data is carried
across telephone lines. Figure 2.1.10 shows where modem is used in internet.

Figure 2.1.10: Modulation and Demodulation

As you can see above in Figure 2.1.10, a modulator translates the data from digital form to
analog form at the transmitting end and a demodulator translates the data from analog form
to digital form at the receiving end. If analog mode of data is used for data communication
between the two computers, then it is referred to as Data Terminal Equipment (DTE).

2.1.3 NIC
NIC stands for Network Interface Card. It is a hardware component that connects a computer
to a network and allows communication between them. A NIC manages wired and wireless
connections of a computer to exchange the information with other computers and Internet.

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The NIC consists of electronic circuitry which is essential to communicate through a wireless
connection (for example, Wi-Fi) or a wired connection (for example, Ethernet). NIC is also
termed as expansion card, network card, network interface controller or network adapter
card (NAC).

a) Functions of NIC

A wired computer network uses either Ethernet or RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack) cables
to exchange data between devices over a network. A NIC translates the data into a form that
is acceptable for transmission through cable and also gives interface for Ethernet to computer.

Most of the devices have built-in Ethernet ports on motherboards and extra add-on cards are
not required to connect networks. Some devices have built-in network adapters for
connecting to wireless networks; for example, Most of the modern network cards have inbuilt
capabilities to connect to a Wi-Fi wireless network. These cards make use of antennas that
help to send data signals via radio waves.

Functions of NIC are as follows:

• Arrange the data on the computer for the network cable

• Transmit data to other systems

• Manage the data flow between a cabling device and a computer

• Receive and send data between the cables and translate that data into bytes which can
be easily processed by the computer’s CPU

Preparing the Data

The NIC converts the data which travels over a network cable into a form that can be
understood by computers. Buses represent a path that carries data through computers. Data
can transfer either in a serial or parallel way.

Serial transmission takes place when one bit of data follows another while travelling on a
network cable. Here, the computer cannot send and receive data at the same time.

In parallel transmission, NIC restructures the data that is travelling so that it will pass in a
sequential order on the network cable.

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Network Address

NIC not only transforms data but also assigns an address to the network to distinguish it
from other networks. These addresses are provided by IEEE (Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers) to each NIC manufacturer. The NIC and the computer communicate
before moving data from system to the card. The NIC signals the computer regarding data
needed to be transferred from the computer. Control bus transfers the data from computer to
the NIC.

Sending and Controlling Data

The following points have to be considered by NIC before sending data between computers
over the network:

• Total size of data to be transmitted

• Amount of data to be sent before successful deliver of message from recipient is given

• Time required to send data chunks

• Amount of time to wait before confirmation is sent

b) Installing NIC

A NIC card is usually found on the motherboard of a computer. The following are the steps
to install a NIC card:

1. Read the instructions given on the new card and get familiarised with the instructions
mentioned on it.

2. Shut down the PC (Personal Computer) and remove the AC power chord.

3. Open system case (PC case).

4. Now install NIC card on one of the Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slots
by aligning the guide notches with the PCI slot.

5. Then push or press this card until it fits tightly into the PCI slot.

6. Secure the card using a single screw.

7. Close the PC case, reattach the power cord and switch on the computer.

8. Now check whether the internet is working. If it is not working, check the condition
and repeat the above steps if required.

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Self-assessment Questions
1) _______________ is a network device that connects multiple computers on a
network to facilitate communication between them.
a) Switch b) Hub
c) Repeater d) Router

2) In a computer network, ________ acts as an intermediary during transmitting data

over a network.
a) A network device b) A computer
c) Data d) The network and data

3) Repeaters operate at the ________ layer.

a) Application layer b) Presentation layer
c) Network layer d) Physical layer

4) NIC stands for

a) Network Internet Card b) Network Interface Card
c) Network Interface Cable d) Network Internet Cable

5) NIC is a
a) Software that is installed on a computer to perform network operations
b) Circuit board that connects computers to a network
c) Hardware device that carries data over a network
d) Software that controls the communication system over a network

6) Which of the following devices transfers packets to all computers in a network, when
the packet is encountered at one of its ports?
a) Router b) Hub
c) Switch d) Bridge

7) Which of the following network devices or communication devices acts as a repeater?

a) Bridge b) Hub
c) NIC d) Cable

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8) Router sends packets ____________, if it fails to find the intended destination

address for that packet.
a) Back to its source device b) To its closest router
c) To all the devices in a network d) To any closest device

9) A network interface card can be used for ____________.

a) FDDI b) Ethernet
c) Wi-Fi d) Microwave

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2.1.4 Data Link Layer

Data Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI model and is the layer in which most of the
wired and wireless LAN technologies perform their function (for example, Ethernet, Token
ring, FDDI). Especially this layer transfers data between computers in the same LAN or
across the WAN. It also provides a well-defined service interface to the network layer.

Data link protocols not only send data but also define how data is formatted for transmission,
perform error correction and detection and identify the intended destination to which the
data has to be sent.

Data link layer has two sub layers:

1. Logical Link Control Layer (LLC): It is responsible for establishing a connection and
controlling logical link between the devices on a network. It mainly provides services to
the network layer.

2. Media Access Control Layer (MAC): This sub layer mainly deals with actual control of
media. For example, Ethernet uses CSMA/CD method of media access control.

The best example of data link protocol is Ethernet (for a local area network) and PPP and
HDLC for point-to-point connection.

a) IEEE Ethernet Standards

Ethernet was originally based on the idea of computers communicating over a shared coaxial
cable acting as a broadcast transmission medium. The methods used show some similarities
to radio systems, although there are major differences, such as the fact that it is much easier to
detect collisions in a cable broadcast system than a radio broadcast. The common cable
providing the communication channel was likened to ether and it was from this reference
that the name "Ethernet" was derived.

From this early and relatively simple concept, Ethernet evolved into the complex networking
technology that today powers the vast majority of local computer networks. The coaxial cable
was later replaced with point-to-point links connected together by hubs and/or switches in
order to reduce installation costs, increase reliability and enable point-to-point management
and troubleshooting. Star LAN was the first step in the evolution of Ethernet from a coaxial
cable bus to a hub-managed, twisted-pair network.

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Above the physical layer, Ethernet stations communicate by sending each other data packets,
small blocks of data that are individually sent and delivered. As with other IEEE 802 LANs,
each Ethernet station is given a single 48-bit MAC address, which is used both to specify the
destination and the source of each data packet. Network interface cards (NICs) or chips
normally do not accept packets addressed to other Ethernet stations. Adapters generally come
programmed with a globally unique address, but this can be overridden, either to avoid an
address change when an adapter is replaced or to use locally administered addresses.

IEEE has standardised a number of LANs and MANs under the name of IEEE 802. Some of
the standards have become obsolete; the most important of the survivors are 802.3 (Ethernet)
and 802.11 (wireless LAN). Both these two standards have different physical layers and
different MAC sub layers but converge on the same logical link control sub layer so they have
the same interface to the network layer. The following table 2.1.1 shows different Ethernet
standards.

Name IEEE Standard Data Rate Media Type Maximum Distance

Ethernet 802.3 10 Mbps 10Base-T 100 meters
100Base-TX 100 meters
Fast Ethernet 802.3u 100 Mbps
100Base-FX 2000 meters
1000Base-T 100
Gigabit
802.3z 1000 Mbps 1000Base-SX 275/550
Ethernet
1000Base-LX 550/5000
10GBase-SR 300
10GBase-LX4 300mMMF/10kmSMF
10 Gigabit
IEEE 802.3ae 10 Gbps 10GBase-LR/ER 10km/40km
Ethernet
10GBase-
SW/LW/EW 300m/10km/40km

Table 2.1.1: Ethernet Standards

IEEE introduces new standards for Ethernet to define higher performance variants. Naming
schemes for each of the Ethernet standards is defined by different references such as cable and
transmission type used so that it can be identifiable uniquely. Let us look into this example:
10BASE5 is one of the IEEE standards which specifies 10 Mbps baseband transmission with a
500-meter distance limitation.

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The following table gives the meaning of each character in the media type, which are
specific to IEEE standards:

Guide to Ethernet Coding

10 At the beginning means the network operates at 10 Mbps.
BASE Means the type of signaling used is baseband.
2 or 5 Indicates the maximum cable length in meters.
T Stands for twisted-pair cable.
X Stands for full duplex-capable cable.
FL Stands for fibreoptic cable.
T4 Indicates twisted-pair cable using four telephone-grade pairs
TX Indicates twisted-pair cable using two data-grade pairs
FX Indicates fibreoptic link using two strands of fibreoptic cable

Table 2.1.2: Guide to Ethernet Coding

For example, 100BASE-TX indicates a Fast Ethernet connection (100 Mbps) that uses a
twisted pair cable capable of full-duplex transmissions.

Ethernet is a LAN technology used by the physical and data link layers. In 1980, Ethernet was
invented by engineer Robert Metcalf and then commercially introduced. Ethernet was first
standardised in 1983 and named as IEEE 802.3. Figure 2.1.11 depicts the frame format for the
802.3 protocol as shown below:

Figure 2.1.11: Frame Format of IEEE802.3

• Preamble field: Each frame starts with a preamble of 8 bytes with each containing bit
patterns “10101010”. Preamble is encoded using Manchester encoding. Thus, the bit
patterns produce a 10 MHz square wave for 6.4 µsec to allow the receiver’s clock to
synchronise with the sender’s clock.

• Address field: The frame contains two addresses, one for the destination and for the
sender. The length of address field is 6 bytes. The MSB of destination address is ‘0’ for

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ordinary addresses and ‘1’ for group addresses. Group addresses allow multiple
stations to listen to a single address. When a frame is sent to a group of users, all
stations in that group receive it. This type of transmission is referred to as
multicasting. The address consisting of all ‘1’ bits is reserved for broadcasting.

• SOF: This field is 1 byte long and is used to indicate the start of the frame.

• Length: This field is 2 bytes long. It is used to specify the length of the data in terms of
bytes that is present in the frame. Thus, the combination of the SOF and the length
field is used to mark the end of the frame.

• Data: The length of this field ranges from zero to a maximum of 1500 bytes. This is
the place where the actual message bits are to be placed.

• Pad: When a transceiver detects a collision, it truncates the current frame, which
means the stray bits and pieces of frames appear on the cable at the time. To make it
easier to distinguish valid frames from garbage, Ethernet specifies that a valid frame
must be at least 64 bytes long, from the destination address to the checksum,
including both. That means, the data field received must be of 46 bytes. But if there is
no data to be transmitted and only some acknowledgement is to be transmitted, then
the length of the frame is less than what is specified for the valid frame. Hence, these
pad fields are provided. That is, if the data field is less than 46 bytes then the pad field
comes into picture such that the total data and pad field must be equal to 46 bytes
minimum. If the data field is greater than 46 bytes then pad field is not used.

• Checksum: It is 4 bytes long. It uses a 32-bit hash code of the data. If some data bits
are in error, then the checksum will be wrong and the error will be detected. It uses
CRC method and it is used only for error detection and not forward error correction.

IEEE 802.3 is refined to support higher bit rates and longer link distances. Ultimately,
Ethernet has replaced the wired LAN technologies such as FDDI, token ring, etc. [The
primary alternative for contemporary LANs is not a wired standard, but instead a wireless
LAN standardised as IEEE 802.11 and also known as Wi-Fi].

Traditional Ethernet supported data rate of 10 Mbps (megabits per second). Later, fast
Ethernet was introduced which came with higher data rate of 100 Mbps. Latest is the Gigabit
Ethernet which has speed of 1 Gbps (gigabits per second). Internet Protocol (IP) also uses

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Ethernet for their transmission medium. Data or information which is transmitted over
Ethernet, inside protocol units is referred to as frame.

In LAN, Ethernet cable is used as a communication medium to establish the connection

between two computers. This cable has RJ45 connector at both ends. Ethernet supports both
small- and large-sized networks. Let us first learn some terminologies before studying the
rules followed by Ethernet.

a) Node: A device that connects various devices to form a network.

b) Frame: Message sent by computer (node)

c) Segment: A single shared medium

d) Medium: Ethernet devices connected to communication medium

Ethernet has the following set of rules to generate frames:

• Frame’s length varies depending on the size of information or message.

• Frame must include the message that has to be transmitted and the address of the
destination.

• Each node in a network should be uniquely identifiable.

• Ethernet address must be unique.

b) Ethernet Components

There are several elements that define Ethernet standards that enable data transmission over
LANs. Ethernet 802.3 is defined under IEEE standard. This cabling standard suggests the
specification for cable lengths, cable types, etc. Depending on the demand and need of
networking, Ethernet standards also change and hence, there will be a new standard for each
change.

The following are some of the Ethernet components:

1. RJ-45 connectors: These are standard terminating interfaces used for unshielded
twisted-pair wire (UTP) IEEE 803.2 Ethernet installations. It has 8-pin international
network interface and cabling standards for Cat-5, Cat-5e and Cat-6 applications.
Most homes and business use the 6-Pin RJ-11 as the standard telephone terminating
interface.

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2. GG-45 connector: It has high-speed shielded design concept, which can be used in
600 MHz or faster Ethernet applications.

3. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): This cable consists of 4-twisted copper pairs. Each of
the copper wire is shielded with a metal foil along with a drain wire and outer cable
jacket. These cables are terminated using GG-45 connector.

4. Category 5 (Cat-5) Cable: It is an Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable designed for
use in Ethernet applications of 100 Mbps. Cat-5 cables have electrical performance
characteristics which are specified and controlled by ANSI/TIA/EIA-568. It reduces
electrical interference and crosstalk and tends to be frequency independent.

c) Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

In a network, two computers are connected and communicate by a specified link or a shared
link. Point-to-point access is one of the access types where a link is available between the two
devices at any time. In multiple accesses, link is shared between pairs of devices that need to
use the link. Most common protocol for point-to-point access is the Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP).

PPP is a data link layer protocol, which creates a direct connection between two devices for
communication. It is a full duplex protocol, which can be used on any transmission medium
such as fibreoptics, twisted-pair cable or satellite communication.

For example, PPP connection is established by the Internet Service Provider (ISP) with user
system to exchange requests and responses between the user and server.

This protocol consists of three components:

1. Encapsulation: Provides a method for encapsulating multi-protocol datagrams.

2. Link Control Protocol (LLP): Creates, configures and tests the data-link connections.

3. Network Control Protocol (NCP): Provides a method for setting up and configuring
the network layer protocols.

PPP defines the following set of services:

• Describes the frame format which has to be exchanged between the nodes.

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• Determines how two devices form a link to communicate and exchange the data.

• Defines a way of encapsulating data in the form of frames.

• Responsible for authenticating the two devices which are involved in a data link
before exchanging the data.

PPP General Frame Format

A message sent using PPP is considered as control information or data. There are different
types of frames used for different protocols in the PPP suite. Given below is the general frame
format at the highest level in which all types of frames fit. The basic operation of PPP is based
on the ISO HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) protocol. Hence, frame format of PPP is
the same as that of HDLC basic format shown in Figure 2.1.12.

Information

Figure 2.1.12: PPP Frame Format

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Table 2.1.3 explains the function of each field.

Field Name Size (bytes) Description

Indicates the start of a PPP frame, identifies the

Flag 1
boundaries of a PPP frame. Its value is “01111110”.
In HDLC, this field specifies the address of the
Address 1 destination of frame. In PPP, it uses the broadcast
address of HDLC, 11111111.
In HDLC, this field specifies various control purposes,
but in PPP it is set to 11000000 to show that the frame
Control 1
does not contain any sequence numbers and that there is
no flow or error control.

Protocol 2 Defines what is being carried in the data field.

This field includes user data or other information which

Information Variable
will be carried over the network.

Specifies additional dummy bytes which are added to

Padding Variable
pad out the size of the PPP frame.
Frame Check This field is used to provide basic actions against errors
Sequence 2 (or 4) in transmission. It can be either 16 bit or 32 bit in size
(FCS) (default is 16 bit).
This field is used to specify the end of the frame. Its
Flag 1
value is “01111110”.

Table 2.1.3: Field description of PPP frame

PPP Standards

PPP is a suite of protocols. Hence, PPP’s operation is defined in many different standards.
Generally, PPP standards are described in the series of Request for Comments (RFCs). These
are updated as per the changes and new RFCs are added whenever new technologies are
introduced.

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Base PPP Standards:

Table 2.1.4 describes the basic operations of PPP including PPP Link Control Protocol in
general terms.

RFC Number Standard Name Description

Allows devices to identify every other device

1570 PPP LCP Extensions and inform other devices about how much
time is remaining in the current session.

Describes basic architecture, general

1661 The PPP
operation and details of LCP protocol.

Specifies the framing method for PPP

PPP in HDLC-like
1662 frames. It can be used as a ‘companion’ to the
Framing
RFC 1661.

Table 2.1.4: Basic Operations of PPP

LCP Support Protocols

The table 2.1.5 represents the basic operations supported by LCP protocol.

RFC Number Standard Name Description

Describes two PPP authentication protocols such

PPP Authentication
1334 as: Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) and
Protocol
Challenge Handshake Protocol (CHAP)

Describes information about CHAP specified in

1994 PPP CHAP
RFC 1334

Table 2.1.5: Basic operations of LCP protocol.

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Feature Protocols

The table 2.1.6 describes some of the additional operations performed by the PPP suites such
as encryption and compression.

RFC Number Standard Name Description

The PPP CCP (Compression Describes compression mechanism sent

1962
Control Protocol) over PPP link

The PPP ECP (Encryption Describes encryption mechanism sent over

1968
Control Protocol) PPP link

Instructs PPP device to generate the

1989 PPP Link Quality Monitoring
reports about the quality of each link

The PPP MP ( Multilink Describes a method of running PPP over a

1990
Protocol) set of aggregated links

The PPP BAP (Bandwidth

Allocation Protocol)/The PPP Manages the allocation of bandwidth in
2125
BACP (Bandwidth Allocation links
Control Protocol)

Table 2.1.6: Some additional operations performed by PPP

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Self-assessment Questions
10) 10BASE5 is one of the IEEE standards which specifies ______ baseband transmission
for a 500-meter distance limitation.
a) 10 Mbps b) 1 Mbps
c) 100 Mbps d) 3 Mbps

11) Which of the following data link layer protocols creates a direct connection between
two devices for communication?
a) ARP b) Ethernet
c) PPP d) IP

12) Which of the following is not a PPP component?

a) Encapsulation b) LLP
c) NCP d) LAC

13) Which of the following is not a data link layer protocol?

a) Ethernet b) HDLC
c) FTP d) PPP

14) Which of the following functions is not performed by the data link layer?
a) Flow control b) Error control
c) Channel coding d) Framing

15) Ethernet frames include

a) MAC address b) LLC address
c) Destination address d) MAC and LLC address

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2.1.5 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is briefly explained in the previous chapter; let us study it
in detail here. Internet protocol uses Address Resolution Protocol to map IP network address
to the hardware address. It is a data link layer protocol. In the network, hosts and routers are
identified by their IP addresses which are universally unique.

ARP operates at the data link layer and acts as part of an interface between the OSI link layer
and OSI network layer. ARP provides a method to find the address of a device in a network.
To know this address, ARP sends a piece of information from a client system to a server
system over the network. The server identifies the network address of the system mentioned
and sends the required address to it. The ARP procedure is complete when the client receives
a response from the server with the required address.

There are two hardware addresses used by an Ethernet network to determine the source and
destination of each frame which is sent over a network. A media Access Layer (MAC) address
is a local address, i.e., device address, which is defined by Ethernet in reference to the
standards.

ARP makes use of IP over Ethernet to map IP address to MAC address of device. Reverse
Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is used to map MAC address to an IP address s shown
below in Figure 2.1.13.

Figure 2.1.13: ARP/RARP

There are four types of ARP packets (messages) sent by ARP protocol used to determine and
map IP address and MAC address over a network. These ARP message types are determined
by ‘operation’ field of message type that contains four values. The message types are:

• ARP request

• ARP reply

• RARP request

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• RARP reply

The format of an ARP packet or ARP message is shown in Figure 2.1.14:

Hardware Type Protocol Type

Operation
Hardware length Protocol length
Request 1, Reply 2

Sender hardware address

(For example: 6 bytes for Ethernet)

Sender protocol address

(For example: 4 bytes for IP)

Target hardware address

(For example: 6 bytes for Ethernet)
(It is not filled in a request)

Target protocol address

(For example: 4 bytes for IP)

Figure 2.1.14: ARP Frame Format

It contains the following fields:

• HTYPE (hardware type): This field specifies the network type on which ARP is
running. It is 16 bit field.

• PTYPE (protocol type): It is also a 16 bit field. It defines the type of protocol using
ARP.

• HLEN (hardware length): This is an 8 bit field which specifies the physical address
length in bytes.

• PLEN (protocol length): It is an 8 bit field that describes IP address length in bytes.

• OPER (operation): It is a 16 bit field which specifies the packet or message type (ARP
requests, ARP reply).

• SHA (sender hardware address): This field specifies the physical address of the
source (sender).

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• SPA (sender protocol address): This field specifies the logical (for example, IP)
address of the sender.

• THA (Target Hardware Address): This field specifies the physical address of the
target.

• TPA (Target Protocol Address): This field specifies the target’s logical address.

ARP Message Format

A specific format is to be followed during sending a message from a source to destination or

vice versa. Message format generally depends on the channel that is used to deliver the
message and the type of message.

Message Formatting: Headers, Payloads and Footers

ARP message is illustrated in Figure 2.1.15.

Figure 2.1.15: Network Message Formatting

As you can see above in Figure 2.1.15, a message consists of following three basic
elements:

1. Header: This field includes the essential information needed before adding the actual
data or information. Header consists of a small number of bytes of control information
(for example, Source address). This field serves as a control link and communication
between the protocol elements on different devices.

2. Data: This field specifies the actual data or information that has to be sent over a
network. This field is used only for control and communication purposes, for example,
used to set up a connection before data is sent.

3. Footer: Header and footer are the same, as both include control fields. This field includes
the information that is placed after the addition of data.

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Self-assessment Questions
16) ARP stands for _____________.
a) Address resource protocol b) Address resolution protocol
c) Address remote protocol d) Address response protocol

17) In ARP packet, THA stands for ___________.

a) Transmission hardware address b) Transmission header address
c) Target hardware address d) Target header address

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Summary
o Network devices are also termed as network equipments that mediate information
or data in a computer network.

o NIC stands for Network Interface Card. It is a hardware component, which

connects a computer to a network and allows communication.

o A hub is a hardware component that connects multiple computers or other

network devices to facilitate communication between them.

o A switch identifies the intended destination of the data or information that it

receives.

o Bridge does not send all the packets, thus it reduces the traffic on the network.

o A CSU/DSU is a network device used to translate the communication technology

digital data frame on the LAN in a specific frame to a WAN and vice versa.

o Internet protocol uses address resolution protocol to map an IP network address

to the hardware address used by data link protocol.

o PPP is a data link layer protocol; it creates a direct connection between two
devices for communication.

o The basic operation of PPP is based on the ISO HDLC (High-Level Data Link
Control) protocol.

o PPP standards are described in the series of Request for Comments (RFCs).

o ARP acts as a part of an interface between the OSI link layer and OSI network that
operates below the network layer.

o Message format generally depends on the channel that is used to deliver the
message and the type of message.

Terminal Question
1. Explain the frame format of an ARP message.

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Answer Keys
Self-assessment Questions
Question No. Answer

1 b
2 a
3 d
4 b
5 c
6 a
7 a
8 b
9 d
10 a
11 c
12 d
13 c
14 c
15 a
16 b
17 d

Activity
Activity Type: Online Duration: 30 minutes

Description:

Make a table to list all the standards of Ethernet along with its features.

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Introduction to Network Devices

Bibliography
e-References
• Computer networking notes. Networking devices. Retrieved 7 July, 2015 from
http://computernetworkingnotes.com/comptia-n-plus-study-guide/network-
devices-hub-switch-router.html

• Boddunan. Bridges and its types. Retrieved 7 July, 2015 from

https://www.boddunan.com/articles/computers-technology/34-hardware-a-
troubleshooting/8688-bridges-a-its-types.html

• Tutorials web. Repeaters, Bridges, Routers and Gateways. Retrieved 8 July, 2015
from http://www.tutorialsweb.com/networking/repeaters-routers-bridges-
gateways.htm

External Resources
• CCNA Cisco Certified Network Associate: Study Guide. (2011). India: Wiley
publishing.

• Forouzan, B. A. (2007). Data Communications and Networking (4 ed.). New

York: McGraw-Hill.

• Rick Graziani, A. J. (2007). Routing Protocols and Concepts: CCNA Exploration

Companion Guide (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Cisco Press.

• Tanenbaum, A. S. (2007). Computer Networks. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall Of India

Pvt. Limited.

Video Links
Topic Link

Network devices https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ofjsh_E4HFY

Data link layer https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pi7mMjiixiY

Address resolution protocol https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1jncvd6JDoc

Ethernet in computer networks https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KDHbP81SAmA

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 Introduction to Network Devices

Notes:

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Chapter Table of Contents

Chapter 2.2

Wireless Networking
Aim .............................................................................................................................................. 99
Instructional Objectives..................................................................................................................... 99
Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................................ 99
2.2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 100
2.2.2 Wireless Technology............................................................................................................... 100
2.2.3 Benefits of Wireless Technology ........................................................................................... 101
2.2.4 Types of Wireless Networks .................................................................................................. 102
(i) Ad-hoc mode ...................................................................................................................... 103
(ii) Infrastructure Mode ......................................................................................................... 104
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 107
2.2.5 Wireless Network Components ............................................................................................ 108
(i) Wireless Access Points ...................................................................................................... 108
(ii) Wireless NICs .................................................................................................................... 110
2.2.6 Wireless LAN Standards ........................................................................................................ 110
(i) IEEE 802.11a ....................................................................................................................... 111
(ii) IEEE 802.11b...................................................................................................................... 111
(iii) IEEE 802.11g..................................................................................................................... 112
2.2.7 Wireless LAN Modulation Techniques................................................................................ 113
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 119
2.2.8 Wireless Security Protocols.................................................................................................... 120
(i) Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) .................................................................................... 120
(ii) Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)....................................................................................... 121
(iii) 802.1X ................................................................................................................................ 121
2.2.9 Installing a Wireless LAN ...................................................................................................... 121
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 129
Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 130
Terminal Question ........................................................................................................................... 131
Answer Keys...................................................................................................................................... 132
Activity ............................................................................................................................................ 133
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 134
e-References ...................................................................................................................................... 134
External Resources ........................................................................................................................... 134
Video Links ....................................................................................................................................... 135

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Wireless Networking

Aim

To equip students with knowledge about basic network devices and an overview of
the data link layer along with various protocols

Instructional Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• Explain basic concepts and advantages of wireless technology

• Categorise wireless networks according to their configuration

• List various wireless network components and LAN standards

• Describe modulation techniques for a wireless LAN

• Describe wireless security protocols

• Explain the method of wireless LAN installation

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

• Identify the needs of wireless technology

• Lists various wireless networks

• Identify the advantages of ad-hoc mode wireless network over infrastructure

mode

• Compare the specifications of 802.11 families

• Analyse different wireless LAN modulation techniques

• Compare the efficiency of various wireless security protocols

• Install wireless LAN in Microsoft Windows 8

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2.2.1 Introduction
People move, networks do not. This statement itself can explain the explosion of wireless
networks. Although wireless networking started to enter the business sector in the 1990s,
associated innovation has really been around since the 1800s. This journey includes the
discovery of infrared light to electromagnetic waves. Radiofrequency signal or
electromagnetic signal is at the heart of today’s wireless communication and wireless
networking is at the epicentre of this trend.

Nowadays, we all are familiar with the terms Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, 3G/4G, satellite
services. Whether this is on account of you having made a call utilising a cell phone, got a
message on your pager, checked your email from a PDA or even just seen an advert identified
with it. We have all gone over wireless data or voice network regardless of location, time or
circumstances! Practically, wireless networks enable user connectivity between distant
physical locations without them being at the ends of a cord which, in turn, reduces the cost
and increases the mobility, accessibility and flexibility of data.

This chapter gives an overview of wireless network technology and identifies the benefits of a
wireless network. It also discusses various types of networks and wireless standards. Finally, it
explains how to provide security for wireless networks.

2.2.2 Wireless Technology

Wireless technology allows transmission of information over a distance without using cables,
wires or other forms of electrical conductors, i.e., if a user, application or company wishes to
make data portable, mobile and accessible then wireless networking is the answer. Wireless
access to the network became more popular in public places like libraries, hotels, cafeterias,
guest houses and schools. As you are aware, wireless technology can be defined as “a process
of sending information in the form of radiofrequency through invisible electromagnetic
waves in the air”. Information like voice, data, video, etc., are passed through radiofrequency
in the electromagnetic spectrum”.

As shown below in figure 2.2.1, mobiles, wireless computer parts, cordless telephones, GPS
units and satellite television are some of the devices used for wireless communication.

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Figure 2.2.1: Wireless Network

As we know, wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a

distance without the help of cables, wires, or any other forms of electrical conductors. In such
kind of transmissions, the distance between the communicating devices may vary from a few
metres to thousands of kilometres. Based on the range of distance that data is transmitted
over a wireless network. Wireless communication systems are classified into the following
three categories:

1. Short-range wireless communication: In this type, a signal travels for a very short
distance that is from a few centimetres to several metres, for example, Bluetooth.

2. Medium-range wireless communication: In this type, a signal travels across a distance

which is greater compared to short-term wireless communication that is up to 100
metres, for example, Wi-Fi.

3. Wide area wireless communication: In this type, a signal travels quite far, that is, from
several kilometres to several thousand kilometres, for example, satellite communication.

2.2.3 Benefits of Wireless Technology

Let us discuss a few benefits of wireless technology:

• Convenience: In a wireless network, the users can access network resources from any
convenient location.

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• Mobility: Wireless network allows users to access Internet even outside their normal
work environment.

• Productivity: Users connected to a wireless network can maintain a nearly constant

association with their desired network as they move from place to place. In terms of
business, this implies that an employee can potentially be more productive, as his or
her work can be accomplished from any convenient location.

• Deployment: Initial setup of an infrastructure-based wireless network requires a

single access point. Wired networks, on the other hand, have the additional cost and
complexity of actual physical cables being run to numerous locations (which can even
be impossible for hard-to-reach locations within a building).

• Expandability: Wireless networks can serve a sudden increase in the number of

clients with the existing equipment. In a wired network, additional clients would
require additional wiring.

• Cost: Wireless networking hardware is a modest increase in cost over wired

counterparts. This potentially increased cost is almost always outweighed by the
savings in cost and labour associated with running physical cables.

2.2.4 Types of Wireless Networks

In a wireless network, people can access information and applications and also communicate
without wires. Hence, this provides free movement of applications and can be extended from
anywhere in the world such as city, state, etc.

This technology has its flexibility not only for computer-related fields but also in many other
fields which are not directly related to computers. The main advantage of wireless network is
that it allows people to use the Internet from a place that they prefer.

Wireless network performs in one of the two topologies or configurations:

• Ad-hoc mode

• Infrastructure mode

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Selection of these modes depends on the type of connection made, that is, whether PCs that
involve in the communication connect directly or with an access point. The following section
describes these modes in detail:

(i) Ad-hoc mode

Ad-hoc mode is also referred to as peer-to-peer wireless network which consists of a number
of computers, each of them furnished with a wireless network interface card. It means that
this mode specifies a method for wireless devices to directly communicate with each other.
Ad-hoc mode does not require a centralised access point as each device communicates
directly. This mode forms an appropriate environment where a number of computers share a
single resource like printers and files, whereas, this is not possible for wired LAN resources
unless one of the computers in the LAN serves as a bridge to the wired LAN.

Each wireless adapter must be configured for ad-hoc mode before setting up ad-hoc wireless
network. Along with this configuration, a wireless adapter must also use the same channel
number and SSID on the ad-hoc network.

Ad-hoc wireless network is suitable when there is a small group of devices placed much closer
to each other. As the number of devices increases in the group, their overall performances
decreases and it may be difficult to manage them.

Figure 2.2.2: Ad-Hoc or Peer-to Peer Networking

In the above figure, each of the computers directly communicates with the other with a
wireless interface.

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Advantages of an ad-hoc network:

• Easy to set up: First plug it into wireless network adapters, then configure the
software and run it.

• Inexpensive: Saves the cost of purchasing an access point.

• Speed: Data rates between two wireless network adapters are very fast.

• Direct: Provides direct communication between two or more computers.

(ii) Infrastructure Mode

Infrastructure mode requires a centralised access point to which all other devices are
connected. This access point acts as a server, which controls and constructs the
communication between devices. In the infrastructure mode, the wireless LAN can operate
with a wireless access point.

This mode is used to establish a connection between the wireless network devices within a
specified range. Antennas of access points allow interaction with wireless devices.
Infrastructure mode acts as a bridge between the wireless nodes and wired LAN. This mode
translates analogue form of data into wired Ethernet data.

At least one access point (AP) is essential to set up infrastructure mode network. All local
wireless devices and AP must be configured to use the same network name (SSID).

Most Wi-Fi networks work in the infrastructure mode. Installation of an infrastructure mode
network needs AP software; hence, it is expensive compared to ad-hoc mode. In the
infrastructure mode, the network access point acts as a hub which gives connectivity for the
wireless devices.

There are two types of access points:

1. Dedicated Hardware Access Points (HAP): Hardware access point provides complete
support of most wireless features.

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Figure 2.2.3: Hardware Access Point

2. Software Access Point: This access point runs on a device, which is furnished with
wireless NIC. For example, Vicomsoft InterGate suites are software routers used as a
basic software access point. This type of access point does not offer a full range of wireless
features.

Figure 2.2.4: Software Access Point

Communication and sharing of resources (for example, files, printers) between the users on
the wireless LAN is based on the support provided by an appropriate networking software.

Advantages of an infrastructure network:

• Addition of an access point expands the range of wireless network.

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 Wireless Networking

Figure 2.2.5: Infrastructure Network

• Utilise roaming ability: A user can roam between the interconnected access point
cells without losing connection to the network when multiple access points are placed
on a wireless network.

• Share the Internet: Generally an access point on a network is provided with a firewall
and built-in router. A router allows sharing Internet access service between
computers and a firewall provides network security, that is, it hides user network
access from others.

• It offers centralised security management.

Disadvantages of Infrastructure mode:

• Setting up of infrastructure mode is difficult compared to ad-hoc mode.

• Infrastructure networks reduce data transfer rate in half. This is because, instead of
sending data directly to an intended destination, it transfers it via an access point.

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Self-assessment Questions
1) “Process of sending information through invisible waves in the air” is known as
a) Networking b) Wireless technology
c) Internetwork d) Communication

2) Which of the following is an example for short-range wireless communication?

a) Bluetooth b) Wi-Fi
c) Radio waves d) Satellite communication

3) Which of the following wireless networks is suitable for a small group of devices?
a) Infrastructure mode b) Communication mode
c) Ad-hoc mode d) Communication and ad-hoc mode

4) Which of the following is essential to set up infrastructure mode network?

a) Routers b) Network device
c) Connection point d) Access point

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2.2.5 Wireless Network Components

In a computer network, wireless network components specify various elements, which are
used to either replace the existing wireless network or build new wireless networks. A wireless
network consists of access points that connect various devices to an existing internet
connection to have an interactive communication with each other. Hence, an access point is
one of the most important wireless network components. There are various categories of
wireless network components, including wireless routers and wireless network equipment.

Network devices such as switches, routers, hubs and cards are some of the wireless network
equipment. These wireless network equipment use Ethernet that builds connections to
interface with any kind of resources such as a computer, scanner, printer, etc. Nowadays,
most computers and laptops come with built-in Ethernet adapters which simply need to be
connected directly to a cable or dial-up or DSL modem.

Routers act as a gateway that provides Internet connection to several devices. For
example, Broadband router is a grouping of a switch and an access point and consists of four
Ethernet ports. These routers allow more devices on a network for the broadband connection.
Wireless broadband router is a network device that consists of a built-in dynamic host
configuration protocol (DHCP). This protocol assigns IP address to the devices connected to
the router automatically. A benefit of using wireless network router instead of hub on
network is that it provides security over the network.

Built-in wireless adapters are introduced in most of the computers today. These adapters
automatically detect a wireless network.

(i) Wireless Access Points

An access point is a computer’s software or hardware device that acts as a hub, which
connects users of wireless devices to a wired network. APs provide very high wireless security
and also extend the physical range of services on a network.

AP used to provide a wireless network is also termed as wireless access point (WAP). It
provides a gateway between a wireless adapter and the wired network that commences the
connection between the AP and wireless devices. AP takes wireless data packets from a device
(client) and before transmitting the access to the wired network, converts them into standard
Ethernet data frames.

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WAP is a special-purpose communication device used in the wireless local area network
(WLAN). Access point acts as a central transmitter and receiver of data which is in the form
of radio signals. It is most commonly used to support the public Internet hotspots and other
business networks where larger buildings and spaces need wireless coverage.

Figure 2.2.6: Wireless Access Points

Broadband routers and access points are closely related to each other. Generally, AP hardware
includes antennas, device firmware and radio transceiver. As discussed in the previous
section, a Wi-Fi network works in infrastructure network mode; it does not really need APs.
APs facilitate scaling of Wi-Fi to larger distances and more devices. Older APs used to
support up to 20 devices whereas modern APs support up to 255 devices. APs not only
connect a wireless network but also provide bridging capacity that allows a Wi-Fi network to
connect to other networks.

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 Wireless Networking

(ii) Wireless NICs

WNIC stands for wireless network interface controller or wireless network interface card.
WNICs are used to connect radio-based computer networks (for example, Token ring or
Ethernet) instead of a wired-based computer network. PCI bus or USB port are used to
connect WNICs in a desktop computer. WNICs build connection and communicate through
microwaves using antennas.

Figure 2.2.7: WNIC

Like NICs, WNICs also operate on the physical and data link layer of the OSI model. WNIC
is generally applied to IEEE 802.11 adapters and are also applicable to a NIC using protocols
other than the 802.11 (For example, Bluetooth).

2.2.6 Wireless LAN Standards

Wireless communication is one of the fastest growing technologies. Demand for connecting
computers is increasing everywhere. Wireless local area network (WLAN) is a wireless
network that allows two or more devices to communicate using a wireless distribution
method such as orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM). This type of network is
limited to certain areas, for example, Campus, Office building, etc. Wireless LAN gives users
the ability to move around within a local coverage area and also connect roaming devices to
the wider Internet.

Specification for a wireless LAN is defined by IEEE and is termed as IEEE 802.11. It defines
the basic service set (BSS) and these services are building blocks of a wireless LAN. BSS is
made of a mobile wireless station and a central station, called as access point (AP). Extended
service set (ESS) consists of two or more BSSs with APs. In the ESS, BSSs are connected
through a wired LAN that is a distributed system.

The following are some of the specifications in the 802.11 family:

• IEEE 802.11a

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• IEEE 802.11b
• IEEE 802.11g

(i) IEEE 802.11a

It is alphabetically the first of the variety of 802.11 standards. This standard provides a high
level of performance. IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11b were released at the same time, even
though IEEE 802.11a offered a much higher data rate compared to IEEE 802.11b. The reason
behind this is that IEEE 802.11a operates at 5-GHz ISM band. This also made the availability
of chips more expensive.

802.11a Specification

The performance of 802.11a is impressive. It has the ability to transfer data with data rates up
to 54 Mbps and also has a good range.

PARAMETER VALUE
Date of standard approval July 1999
Maximum data rate (Mbps) 54
Typical data rate (Mbps) 25
Typical range indoors(Meters) ~30
Modulation OFDM
RF band (GHz) 5
Number of spatial streams 1
Channel width (MHz) 20

Table 2.2.1: Summary of 802.11 Wi-Fi Standards

802.11 is a base for 802.11a. This standard uses OFDM (orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing) that enables data transfer rates up to 5 GHz. A user can reduce data rate if
required by 48, 36, 24, 18, 12, 9 or 6 Mbit/s.

(ii) IEEE 802.11b

It is the first LAN standard widely adopted and is inbuilt in many types of equipment such as
laptops, computers and other devices. This standard leads to the idea of implementing

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wireless networking quickly with many Wi-Fi hotspots that are set up in different areas, for
example, offices, hotels, etc., where people can access their emails and other Internet services
while travelling.

IEEE 802.11b operates at 2.4 GHz, this makes 802.11b less expensive compared to 802.11a.

802.11b specification

It provides data transfer with raw data rate up to 11 Mbps.

PARAMETER VALUE

Date of standard approval July 1999

Maximum data rate (Mbps) 11

Typical data rate (Mbps) 5

Typical range indoors (Meters) ~30

Modulation CCK (DSSS)

RF band (GHZ) 2.4

Channel width (MHz) 20

Table 2.2.2: Summary of 802.11b Wi-Fi Standard Specification

This standard uses CSMA/CA technique for transmission of data. This technique requests for
a clear channel to transmit the data and also asks for acknowledgement to denote successful
delivery of data.

(iii) IEEE 802.11g

Standards 802.11a and 802.11b lead to the successful delivery of Wi-Fi network. Among these
two standards, 802.11b has become more popular and it operates at 2.5 GHz ISM band. Cost
of manufacturing chips that operate at 2.5 GHz capacity is lesser than the ones that run at 5
GHz but data rates are lower. Hence IEEE 802.11g was introduced that combined the features
of 802.11a and 802.11b. 802.11g provides higher speed of data rate while operating on 2.4
GHz ISM band.

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802.11g specifications

This standard gives a variety of improvements over the IEEE 802.11b standard. The following
table describes the highlights of its performance:

IEEE 802.11G WI-FI FEATURES

FEATURE 802.11G
Date of standard approval June 2003
Maximum (Mbps) 54
Modulation CCK, DSSS, or OFDM
RF band (GHz) 2.4
Channel width (MHz) 20

Table 2.2.3: 802.11g packet structure

2.2.7 Wireless LAN Modulation Techniques

Modulation is a process of translating low-pass analogue signal or binary data to band-pass
analogue signal. Modulation is fundamental to all wireless communication.

1. Modulation of Digital Data:

Modulation of binary data or digital-to-analogue is a process of translating the characteristics

of an analogue form to a digital form (0s and 1s). It is a technique that impresses the data to
be transferred on the radio carrier. Today, most of the wireless communication takes place in
the digital mode with limited spectrum available. Hence, the main aim of modulation
technique is to compress (i.e., have least amount of spectrum) the data as much as possible.

Objectives of modulation technique are to ensure the spectral efficiency and speed of data
that can be transmitted in a specified bandwidth. The best example for a modulation
technique is a modem. It is a communication device that modulates an electronic signal that
is transmitted over telephone lines. It is later demodulated to receive the same data.

Note: In the analogue transmission, carrier signal or carrier frequency is a high-frequency

signal sent by the sending device. This signal acts as a basis for the information signal.

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The following are the modulation techniques that emerged to accomplish and improve
spectral efficiency:

a) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):

There are three basic approaches to modulate the carrier waveform: modulate the
amplitude, modulate the frequency or modulate the phase. To improve the spectral
efficiency, two or more of these variations are combined. In amplitude shift keying (ASK),
the strength of the carrier waveform is altered to denote binary numbers 0 or 1. In ASK,
both frequency and phase remains constant whereas amplitude changes. But this
technique is affected by noise, that is ASK is highly susceptible to noise interference.

A popular ASK technique is termed as OOK (on/off keying). In OOK, no voltage

represents one of the bit values. This helps to reduce the total amount of energy required
to transmit information.

Figure 2.2.8: ASK, OOK and FSK

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b) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

In FSK, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent the binary digits 0 or 1. In
this, both amplitude and phase of carrier signal is constant. In FSK, frequency of the
signal is constant for each bit duration. This value is completely dependent on the bit (0
or 1). FSK technique removes most of the noise problems.

c) Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal is altered to represent the binary 0 or 1. Both
amplitude and frequency remain constant. Like FSK, phase of the signal remains constant
for each bit duration and its value is completely dependent on the bit (0 or 1). Binary
phase shift keying (BPSK) shifts the carrier sine wave 180° for each modification in the
binary state.

Figure 2.2.9: PSK

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

The QAM technique is a combination of ASK and PSK. This technique helps to maximise the
contrast between each signal unit. The QAM can carry the concept of transmitting more bits
per symbol further. For example, 6 QAM uses three amplitude levels and 12 phase shifts.

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Figure 2.2.10: 6QAM

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

The OFDM combines modulation and multiplexing techniques. This technique improves
spectral efficiency. Entire transmission channel is divided into smaller channels termed as
subchannels or subcarriers. Frequencies of the subcarriers and spacing are selected so that
they are perpendicular (orthogonal) to each one other.

Figure 2.2.11: OFDM Signal Frequency Spectra

b) Modulation of analogue signals

Modulation of analogue signal (analogue-to-analogue) is a process of converting

representation of analogue information to an analogue signal. This approach of
modulation can be accomplished in three ways:

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• Amplitude Modulation (AM): In this, the height of the signal carrier is altered to
denote that the data is being added to the existing signal.

Figure 2.2.12: Amplitude Modulation

• Frequency Modulation (FM): In this, the frequency of the signal carrier is varied
to denote the frequency of the data.

Figure 2.2.13: Frequency Modulation

• Phase Modulation (PM): Phase of the carrier waveform is varied to reflect the
change in the phase of the signal. This is similar to FM but not exactly the same.

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Figure 2.2.14: Phase Modulation

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Self-assessment Questions
5) Which of the following protocols assigns IP address to the devices connected to
router automatically?
a) Dynamic host configuration protocol b) Internet protocol
c) Address resolution protocol d) File transfer protocol

6) BSS stands for

a) Bound service space b) Bluetooth service source
c) Binary service server d) Basic service set

7) IEEE has defined ____________ specification for a wireless network, which covers
the physical and data link layer.
a) IEEE 802.3 b) IEEE 802.11
c) IEEE 802.2 d) IEEE 802.5

8) Bluetooth is a ____________ that connects devices in a small area.

a) Wired WAN technology b) Wireless LAN technology
c) Wired LAN technology d) VLAN

9) ASK, PSK and FSK are examples of the following modulation.

a) Analogue-to-digital b) Digital-to-analogue
c) Analogue-to-analogue d) Digital-to-analogue

10) Which of the following modulation techniques is most affected by noise?

a) QAM b) PSK
c) FSK d) ASK

11) IEEE 802.11a operates at __________ ISM band.

a) 5-GHz b) 2.4-GHz
c) 3-GHz d) 8-GHz

12) 802.11g provides data rate up to__________

a) 11 Mbps b) 5 Mbps
c) 54 Mbps d) 32 Mbps

13) Modulation technique employed by IEEE 802.11a standard is

a) CCK b) OFDM
c) DSSS d) QAM

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2.2.8 Wireless Security Protocols

Wireless security protocols are needed to protect wireless networks. There are some protocols
such as WEP, WPA and WPA2 developed to ensure security in wireless networks. Each of
them has their own strengths and weaknesses. These security protocols encrypt the data that
is transmitted over the air waves to prevent attacks of uninvited guests connecting to a
wireless network.

In general, wireless networks are inherently insecure. In the earlier days, manufacturers tried
to provide easy wireless networks for the clients (end users). Thus, they added “out-of-the-
box” configuration in most of the wireless network equipment to provide easy access to a
wireless network.

Wired networks are more secure than wireless networks because in a wired network the data
is transmitted between devices A and B that are directly connected by a network cable. On the
other hand, a wireless network transmits data in every direction within a limited range and
any device within that range can listen to it.

In the following section, we will discuss some of the wireless security protocols.

(i) Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)

It is a wireless security protocol termed as encryption protocol. Wired equivalent privacy
protocol is designed for the security of wireless networks like wired networks. However, WEP
has many undeterminable security errors and this security level can be easily broken. Also
WEP is difficult to configure.

IEEE 802.11b standard includes WEP security protocols for wireless LAN.

In the wireless LANs, data that is transmitted through radio waves does not have the same
physical structure. They are broadcast in all directions and can get tampered. Thus, WEP is
designed to secure data transmission over a wireless network. WEP encrypts data over radio
waves such that it cannot be understood by any intermediate source that tries to access this
data except the intended recipient. This data is protected as it is transferred from one device
to another. It has been found that WEP is not as secure as one believes. This security protocol
is used at the data link layer and physical layer of OSI model; hence, it does not offer end-to-
end security.

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(ii) Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)

It is a security protocol designed to improve the security features provided by WEP. Wi-Fi
protected access implements a technology that is designed to perform with existing Wi-Fi
products that have been enabled with WEP. In other words, it can be a software upgradation
to an existing hardware device. The following are the two improvements included in WPA
technology over WEP:

• WEP encrypts the data during transmitting. WPA provides improved data encryption
through the temporal key integrity protocol (TKIP). TKIP scrambles the keys using
hashing algorithm and also adds an integrity-checking feature that ensures the keys
have not been altered.

• WEP does not provide any authentication protocol; this flaw is improved in WPA.
WPA provides authentication through extensible authentication protocol (EAP).
WEP manages access to a wireless network based on the computer’s MAC address
whereas EAP is developed on a secure public-key encryption system so that it ensures
that only authorised network users can access the network.

Note: WPA is a short-term standard which will be replaced by IEEE 802.11i standard upon its
completion.

(iii) 802.1X
802.1X is an IEEE standard network protocol for port-based network access control (PNAC).
It is a part of IEEE 802.1 group. IEEE 802.1X provides authentication mechanism to all the
devices that wish to connect to a LAN or WLAN.

IEEE 802.1X encapsulates the Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) over IEEE 802. This
is called as “EAP over LAN” or EAPOL. EAPOL was originally designed for IEEE 802.3
Ethernet, later it was altered to suit other Ethernet standards such as IEEE 802.11 which is
LAN technology and also used as fibre distributed data interface in 802.1X-2004.

2.2.9 Installing a Wireless LAN

Now that you are familiar with the popular wireless technology, let us learn how to set up
wireless LAN in Microsoft Windows 8 OS (Secured WPA2- Wi-Fi Protected Access 2):

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1. Right click on the desktop to see all the applications and then select “Control Panel”.

Figure 2.2.15: Windows

2. Select “Network and Sharing Centre" from the control panel.

Figure 2.2.16: Control Panel

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3. Select “Set up a new connection or network”.

Figure 2.2.17: To set a Connection or Network

4. A small dialog box pops up, now select the “Manually connect to a wireless network”
option.

5. Now configure your network as shown in the below example:

Make the following entries in that box:

a) Enter the "Network name" for example, “NTUSECURE”.

b) Select "WPA2-Enterprise" as the "Security type".

c) Select "AES" as the "Encryption type".

d) Leave "Security Key" blank.

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Figure 2.2.18: Step to Connect Wireless

6. Click “Next” button.

7. Then click on “Change Connection Setting".

Figure 2.2.19: To Change Connection Settings

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8. The "NTUSECURE Wireless Network Properties" will be next.

Figure 2.2.20: Wireless Network Properties

9. A wireless network properties dialog box will display; in that, click on "Security" Tab
and click on “Setting” button.

Figure 2.2.21: Wireless Network Properties (2)

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 Wireless Networking

10. The following dialog box will display:

Figure 2.2.22: Protected EAP Properties

11. Make sure the "Verify the server's identity by validating the certificate" is not checked.
Click the "Configure..." button.

12. Uncheck the “Automatically use my Windows Logon name and password” option.

Figure 2.2.23: EAP Properties

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13. Click "OK" three times to complete the changes. The "Manually connect to a wireless
network" dialog box will appear and will indicate that NTUSECURE has been
successfully added. Then close this dialog box.

14. Go to the lower right corner of the start screen. Click on the “Settings”.

Figure 2.2.24: Settings Menu

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15. Click on “Available”.

Figure 2.2.25: PC Settings

16. The list of available wireless networks will appear. Select “NTUSECURE” wireelss
network and click on “Connect” button.

Figure 2.2.26: To Connect Networks

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17. A network authentication dialog box will display. Enter windows login account
username with the format: staff\username or student\username followed by the
password username. Finally click on “OK” button.

Figure 2.2.27: Network Authentication

These are the steps to connect a wireless LAN in Windows 8. Now the NTUSECURE
wireless connection will work automatically when you are on the campus and near a
wireless access point.

Self-assessment Questions
14) Which of the following is not a wireless security protocol?
a) WEP b) WPA
c) WPA2 d) DHCP

15) Which of the following wireless security protocols provides an authentication

mechanism to all the devices that wish to connect to a LAN or WLAN?
a) IEEE 802.1X b) WEP
c) WPA d) WEP and WPA

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Summary
o Wireless technology can be defined as a “process of sending information through
radio waves in the air”.

o A wireless network performs in one of the two topologies or configurations such

as ad-hoc mode, infrastructure mode.

o Ad-hoc mode does not require a centralised access point, as each of the devices
communicate directly.

o Infrastructure mode requires a centralised access point to which all other devices
are connected.

o Wireless network components specify the various elements, which are used to
either replace an existing wireless network or build new wireless networks.

o Built-in wireless adapters are introduced in most of the computers produced

today. These adapters automatically detect a wireless network.

o An access point is a computer’s software or hardware device that acts as hub,

which connects users of wireless devices to a wired network.

o WNICs are used to connect radio based computer networks (for example, Token
ring or Ethernet).

o Specification for a wireless LAN is defined by IEEE and is termed as IEEE 802.11.

o Modulation is a process of translating a low-pass analogue signal or binary data to

band-pass analogue signal.

o Modulation of binary data or digital-to-analogue is a process of translating the

characteristics of an analogue form in a digital form (0s and 1s).

o Modulation of digital-to-analogue provides modulation techniques such as: ASK,

FSK, PSH, QAM and OFDM.

o Modulation of an analogue signal (analogue-to-analogue) is a process of

converting representation of analogue information by an analogue signal.

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o Modulation of digital-to-analogue provides modulation techniques such as: AM,

FM and PM.

o Wireless security protocols are needed to protect home wireless networks. WEP,
WPA and IEEE 801.2X are some of the wireless security protocols.

Terminal Question
1. Explain the frame format of an ARP message.

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Answer Keys
Self-assessment Questions
Question No. Answer

1 b
2 a
3 c
4 d
5 a
6 d
7 b
8 b
9 d
10 d
11 a
12 c
13 b
14 d
15 a

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Activity
Activity Type: Online/Offline Duration: 30 minutes

Description: Prepare a presentation on wireless network (15 slides).

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Bibliography
e-References
• Engineers Garage. Wireless Communication and types. Retrieved 9 July, 2015
from http://www.engineersgarage.com/articles/wireless_communication

• Ipoint tech. Wireless Networking. Retrieved 9 July, 2015 from

http://ipoint-tech.com/wireless-networking-wi-fi-advantages-and-disadvantages-
to-wireless-networking/

• Radio-electronics. IEEE 802.11a. Retrieved 10 July, 2015 from

http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/wireless/wi-fi/ieee-802-11a.php

• Dummies. Wireless security protocols. Retrieved 10 July, 2015 from

http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/wireless-security-protocols-wep-wpa-
and-wpa2.html

External Resources

• CCNA Cisco Certified Network Associate: Study Guide. (2011). India: Wiley
publishing.

• Forouzan, B. A. (2007). Data Communications and Networking (4 ed.). New

York: McGraw-Hill.

• Rick Graziani, A. J. (2007). Routing Protocols and Concepts: CCNA Exploration

Companion Guide (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Cisco Press.

• Tanenbaum, A. S. (2007). Computer Networks. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall Of India

Pvt. Limited.

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Video Links
Topic Link
Introduction to Wireless Network
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6pYZ2N9y2fQ
and security
Difference between Ad-Hoc and
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nH-3o-wDJGA
Infrastructure mode
Wireless Access Point https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nTgQQbF9zo

Wireless LAN standards https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HFFBLy7-kxU

WEP vs. WPA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_n21tRQVIvw

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Notes:

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Computer Networks

MODULE - III

Basics of Network,
Transport and
Application Layer
MODULE 3

Basics of Network, Transport and

Application Layer
Module Description

The Internet protocol (IP) is a network-layer (layer 3) protocol which acts as the glue to hold
the whole Internet together. It perform various operations like addressing, data
encapsulation, fragmentation and routing. In term of addressing IP provides a unique address
which is required for each host and network component that is involved in communication
using TCP/IP. But TCP is a protocol which enables two or more hosts or devices in a network
to establish a connection and exchange streams of data or packets. This module discusses
various protocols of network, transport and application layer.

In this module, you will learn about the features of various protocols of network, transport
layer. You will also learn about the services provided by application layer.

By end of this module, you will be able to identify each layer’s function of TCP/IP network
model.

Chapter 3.1
Introduction to Network Layer

Chapter 3.2
Introduction to Transport and Application Layers

Computer Networks
Introduction to Network Layer

Chapter Table of Contents

Chapter 3.1

Introduction to Network Layer

Aim ..................................................................................................................................................... 137
Instructional Objectives................................................................................................................... 137
Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................................................... 137
3.1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 138
3.1.2 Internet Protocol (IP) ............................................................................................................. 138
(i) IP Standards, Versions and Functions............................................................................. 139
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 141
3.1.3 IPv4 Addressing ...................................................................................................................... 142
(i) IPv4 Datagram Format ...................................................................................................... 143
(ii) IPv4 Address Classes ........................................................................................................ 145
(iii) IPv4 Special Address Types ............................................................................................ 148
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 150
3.1.4 Subnet Mask............................................................................................................................. 151
3.1.5 Default Gateway ...................................................................................................................... 152
3.1.6 Public and Private IP Address ............................................................................................... 153
(i) Methods of Assigning IP Address .................................................................................... 154
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 155
3.1.7 IPv6 Address ............................................................................................................................ 156
(i) IPv6 Address Types and Assignments ............................................................................. 158
(ii) Data Encapsulation ........................................................................................................... 160
(iii) The IPv6 Datagram Format ............................................................................................ 160
3.1.8 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) - ICMPv4, ICMPv6 ..................................... 162
3.1.9 Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP).................................................................. 163
3.1.10 Introduction to Routing and Switching Concepts ............................................................ 165
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 167
Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 168
Terminal Questions.......................................................................................................................... 169
Answer Keys...................................................................................................................................... 169
Activity............................................................................................................................................... 170
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 171
e-References ...................................................................................................................................... 171
External Resources ........................................................................................................................... 171
Video Links ....................................................................................................................................... 171

Computer Networks | Basics of Network, Transport and Application Layer

Introduction to Network Layer

Aim

To explain the functions of network layer protocol

Instructional Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe the functions of Internet Protocol (IP)

• Classify IPv4 address

• Describe the fields of IPv4 datagram

• Describe the necessity of using private and public IP addresses for IPv4
addressing

• Explain subnet mask

• Discuss the features and functions of IPv6 address

• Illustrate IPv6 datagram formats

• Describe Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

• Discuss the purpose of IGMP protocol

• Describe basic switching concept

• Explain the functions of router

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

• Identify the class of IP address

• Discuss the importance of subnet mask

• Identify the difference between IPv4 and IPv6 address

• Explain the interoperability between IPv4 and IPv6

• Apply different IP assignment methods

• Analyse ICMP messages to test connectivity

• Identify the features and usage of IGMP

• Differentiate between switching and routing

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3.1.1 Introduction
You must have heard about threats sent over a public electronic communication network.
Generally, in such cases, it is difficult to trace the name of that sender. Then how will the
administrator go forward? The first step is, to trace the Internet protocol (IP) address of that
device. IP address is a unique address that identifies each computer using Internet protocol to
communicate over a network. Any participating network device including routers,
computers, time-servers, printers, Internet fax machines and some telephones can have their
own unique address.

Traditional IP addresses are managed and created by the Internet assigned numbers authority
(IANA). The IANA generally allocates super-blocks to regional internet registries, who in
turn allocate smaller blocks to ISP and enterprises. This 32-bit address scheme provides
roughly 4 billion unique numbers which is running out as more devices are connected to the
IP network. According to ndtv (www.http://gadgets.ndtv.com/) Indian Registry for Internet
Names and Numbers (IRINN) has come up with the next version of Internet addresses ‘IPv6’,
which would make it easy for security agencies to identify each Internet user.

In this unit, you will learn about Internet protocol in detail. You will come to know the reason
behind the IPv4 address exhaustion and also learn how IPv6 resolves this issue. A few more
network layer protocols like ICMP, IGMP and ARP will also be discussed.

3.1.2 Internet Protocol (IP)

The Internet protocol (IP) is a network-layer (layer 3) protocol which acts as the glue to hold
the whole Internet together. It is used across the Internet, home networks and business
networks. It provides connectionless or datagram service between end systems. Internet
protocol is frequently used together with the transmission control protocol (TCP) and
alluded to conversely as both IP and TCP/IP. Connectionless feature of IP made this protocol
extremely popular for its best-effort delivery (not guaranteed) service.

Let us see the advantages of connectionless protocol:

• A connectionless internet facility is very much flexible and robust.

• A connectionless internet service is best for connectionless transport protocols,

because it does not impose unnecessary overhead.

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When we send or receive information through an e-mail or using a web page the message gets
divided into little chunks, called packets. IP specifies the format of these packets called as
datagrams. Each datagram contains address information along with other information that
directs the packets over a network.

IP does not provide any error-control and flow-control mechanism. It uses only error
detection mechanism that helps to discard corrupted packets. IP does its best to deliver the
packets to the intended recipient but with no assurances. IP must be combined with transport
control protocol (TCP) at the transport layer to get better reliability.

Following are the two important primary responsibilities of IP:

• It is a connectionless-oriented datagram protocol that provides best delivery service of

datagrams over an internetwork.

• It provides division and reassembly of datagrams. This will help to support data links
of various maximum transmission unit (MTU) sizes.

(i) IP Standards, Versions and Functions

IP Standards

Internet standards (abbreviated as "STD") is a normative technology applicable to the

Internet. Internet standards are developed with a high degree of technical maturity. These
standards give a significant benefit to the Internet community such as unique IP address for
each node over a network. Generally, an Internet standard defines message formats, schemas,
protocols, etc. Defining Internet protocol is one of the most popular Internet standard
fundamentals.

IP Versions

An appropriate place to start our study of the network layer is with the version of IP. There
are two versions of IP namely:

1. Internet protocol version 4 (IPv4)

2. Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6)

The first version of IP was defined in RFC 791 and it is named as IP version 4 (IPv4). IP
specifies the fields of datagram which consists of a header part and a body or payload part.

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Later, with additions and changes with respect to addresses, a new version of IP was
introduced and termed as Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6). IPv6 is the most recent version
of Internet protocol. It is also sometimes referred to as IP next generation or IPng. Each
version defines an IP address differently.

IP functions

Internet protocol performs the following four basic operations:

• Addressing: In order to deliver datagrams to the appropriate destination, IP must

include a mechanism for host addressing. Thus, IP contains the header field that helps
to identify the source and destination address of the device over the internetwork.
Since IP operates over internetwork, its system is designed to allow unique address
scheme for the devices across randomly large networks. Also it provides facility of
directing routers to distant networks if required.

• Data Encapsulation and Formatting/Packaging: IP as a network layer protocol

accepts data from the protocols UDP and TCP of transport layer. It then encapsulates
that data into IP datagram. IP uses special format during data encapsulation.

• Fragmentation and Reassembly: IP fragments datagrams into small parts because

these datagrams are passed down to the data link layer for transmission on the local
area network (LAN). In the physical or data link layer, maximum frame size using IP
datagram may be different. Therefore, IP has the ability to fragment IP datagrams
into small pieces. These can be easily carried on the LAN. At the end, reassembly
functions are used by the destination or receiving device to regenerate the entire IP
datagram again.

• Routing/Indirect Delivery: When a destination device is available on the same local

network, IP datagrams can be sent directly to the destination device using the
underlying network LAN or WAN or WLAN protocols. Usually, the destination
device will be on a distant network and this device is not directly attached to the
source. In such situations, datagrams are to be sent indirectly. IP accomplishes this by
routing datagrams through routers using some other protocol such as ICMP and
TCP/IP.

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Self-assessment Questions
1) Which of the following statements is incorrect with respect to IP?
a) IP is popular for best-effort delivery service
b) IP provides division and reassembly of datagrams
c) IP provides error control and flow control mechanisms
d) IP is a connectionless-oriented datagram protocol

2) What is the name of the first version of IP which was defined in RFC 791?
a) IPv1 b) IPv2
c) IPv4 d) IPv6

3) IP address is divided into __________ octets.

a) Eight 8-bit b) Four 8-bit
c) Two 16-bit d) Three 16-bit

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3.1.3 IPv4 Addressing

As you know, at the LAN level, all the communicating computers use Ethernet and this
creates a hurdle for WAN-wide communication. For one computer to send a frame to
another computer, the sending computer must know the MAC address of the destination
computer. This begs the question: How does the sender get the recipient’s MAC address? In a
small network, it is easy. The sending computer simply broadcasts a frame with the Mac
address. But what would happen if the entire Internet will start broadcasting? Here, IP
address comes into the picture. Internet protocol address is a network layer address and has
no dependencies on the data link layer. A unique IP address is required for each host and
network component that is involved in communication using TCP/IP.

Like a street address identifies a home in a city, an IP address uniquely identifies a device’s
location on the network. This IP address must be globally unique to the internetwork and
must have a uniform format.

An IP address holds two components: a network ID and a host ID. Network ID is also termed
as network address. This address is used to recognise the device positioned on the same
physical network which is bounded by the IP router. Devices located on the same physical
network must have the same network address and it must be unique to the Internetwork.

Host ID is also termed as host address which must be unique to the network address. Host
address recognises a router, workstation, or other TCP/IP host located on a network. Below
figure shows the IPv4 address structure.

Figure 3.1.1: IPv4 Address Structure

IPv4 addresses are 32 bits in length. This address is divided into four 8-bit octets. Each octet
has a binary value from 00000000 to 11111111 or a decimal value from 0 to 255. IPv4 address
is generally represented in dotted decimal notation. IP address becomes much more human

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readable when it is converted from binary notation to dotted notation. Table 3.1.1 shows an
example of IP address in binary notation and dotted decimal notation as well.

Binary Format Dotted Decimal Notation

11000000 10101000 00000011 00011000 192.168.3.24

Table 3.1.1: IP Address in Binary Format and Dotted Decimal Format

Consider the binary format of the IP address given in above table 3.1.1. Here IPv4 address of
11000000101010000000001100011000 is segmented into 8-bit octets as follows:

11000000 10101000 00000011 00011000.

Each of these octets is converted
into decimal notation: 192 168 3 24

When IPv4 address is represented using decimal notation, each of the octets is separated by a
period: 192.168.3.24.

Note: Hexadecimal notation can also be used to represent IPv4 address. Hexadecimal
notation for the given IP address represented in the binary format is “C0.A8.03.18”.

(i) IPv4 Datagram Format

In the network layer, packets are called as datagrams. A datagram includes two parts, namely,
header and data. The header is 20 to 60 bytes in length. It contains the information that is
essential to route the packets. Figure 3.1.2 shows the structure of an IP datagram.

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Figure 3.1.2: IP Packet Format or Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) Datagram Format

Let us discuss each field in detail.

• Version: This field defines the version of IP currently being used. IPv4 (version 4) is
the first major version of Internet protocol. Its successor is IPv6.

• IP Header Length (IHL): This field specifies the length of the header in 32-bit word.

• Type-of-Service: This field specifies the class of datagrams that provide quality of
service features.

• Total Length: This field specifies the total length (header and data) of IP datagram in
bytes.

Total length = header length + length of data

• Identification: This field consists of an integer that identifies the current datagram.
This field combines various datagram fragments together.

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• Flags: This field consists of 3 bits. The first bit is reserved. The second bit is termed as
“do not fragment” bit. If its value is 1, the device cannot fragment the datagram, if it is
0 then the datagram can be fragmented if necessary. The third bit is termed as “more”
fragment bit. If its value is 1, datagram is not the last fragment. If its value is 0, this is
the last and only fragment.

• Fragment Offset: This is a 13-bit field. This field specifies the relative position of the
datagram with respect to the whole datagram (original datagram).

• Time-to-live: This field is used as a counter that controls the maximum number of
routers visited by the datagram. Alternatively, it maintains a counter that gradually
decreases down to zero, at which point the datagram is discarded.

• Protocol: This field specifies the higher-layer protocol that uses the service of IP layer
or receives the incoming packets as soon as IP processing is completed.

• Header Checksum: This field is used to ensure the IP header integrity.

• Source Address: This field indicates the IP address of the source.

• Destination Address: This field indicates the IP address of the destination.

• Options: This field is not required for every datagram. This field is used for network
testing and debugging.

• Padding: If one or more options are included and the number of bits used for them is
not a multiple of 32, enough zero bits are added to “pad out” the header.

• Data: This field includes the data to be transmitted in the datagram. The data can
either be fragmented or an entire higher-layer message.

(ii) IPv4 Address Classes

As per the requirement of host per network, IP provides the IP hierarchy that specifies several
classes of IP address. In order to provide the flexibility required to support different size
networks, the designers decided that the IP address space should be divided into five different
address classes: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E. All these five classes are
identified by their first 8-bit of the IP address. Classes A, B and C are only available for

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commercial purpose. The following figure 3.1.3 shows the schematic representation of IPv4
address classes.

Figure 3.1.3: Five classes of IPv4 addressing system

The left-most or high-order bits denote the class of the IPv4 address.

Class A address: This Class A address are used to assign a very large number of hosts over a
network. The left-most bit of the first octet in class A is always set to zero. This makes the
address prefix for all class A networks and addresses range from 1 to 127.

00000001 − 01111111
1 − 127

A maximum of 126 (27 -2)/8 networks can be defined using class A address. The calculation
requires that 2 is subtracted because the /8 network 0.0.0.0 is reserved for use as the default
route and the /8 network 127.0.0.0 (also written 127/8 or 127.0.0.0/8) has been reserved for
the "loop back" function. Each /8 supports a maximum of 16,777,214 (224 -2) hosts per

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network. The host calculation requires that 2 is subtracted because the all-0s ("this network")
and all-1s ("broadcast") host-numbers may not be assigned to individual hosts.

Since the /8 address block contains 231 (2,147,483,648) individual addresses and the IPv4
address space contains a maximum of 232 (4,294,967,296) addresses, the /8 address space is
50% of the total IPv4 unicast address space.

Class A IP address format: 0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class B Address: In class B address, the first two bits i.e., left-most bits are set to 10. The class
B address is used for medium - to large-sized organisations. Range of class B IP addresses are
128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. Hence class B IP address has 65534 host addresses and 16384
network addresses.

10000000 − 10111111

128 − 191

A maximum of 16,384 (214) /16 networks can be defined with up to 65,534 (216 -2) hosts per
network. Since the entire /16 address block contains 230 (1,073,741,824) addresses, it
represents 25% of the total IPv4 unicast address space.

Class B IP address format: 10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class C Address: Class C IP addresses are used for small networks. In the class C IP address,
the first three bits of the first octets are set to 110. This forms the address prefix for all class C
networks.

11000000 − 11011111

192 − 223

Class C networks are now referred to as "/24s" since they have a 24-bit network-prefix. A
maximum of 2,097,152 (221) /24 networks can be defined with up to 254 (28 - 2) hosts per
network. Since the entire /24 address block contains 229 (536,870,912) addresses, it represents
12.5% (or 1/8th) of the total IPv4 unicast address space.

Class C IP address format is: 110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH

Class D Address: These addresses are reserved for multicast addresses. The four left-most
bits of the first octet are set to 1110, this forms the address prefix for all class D networks.

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11100000 − 11101111
224 − 239

Range of class D IP address start from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.

Class E Address: This is reserved for future use that is for experimental purpose, only for
research and development. Range of class E IP address is from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254.

(iii) IPv4 Special Address Types

In IPv4 there are few addresses reserved for special purpose. They are referred to as

1. Interpreting all zeros to mean “THIS HOST”

2. A Host on THIS NETWORK

3. Broadcast on LOCAL network

4. Broadcast on DISTANT network

5. LOOPBACK

These addresses along with bit patterns are illustrated in figure 3.1.4. The values zero (‘0’) and
one (1) has special meaning when used in any one of the special addresses listed above.

Figure 3.1.4: Special Addresses

1. Interpreting all Zeros to mean “THIS HOST”

Internet software interprets fields consisting of zeros (0’s) to mean “THIS”. That is an IP
address consisting of all zeros means “THIS HOST”. In decimal dotted notation, the address
is 0.0.0.0. This address is used by hosts when they are being booted but is not used afterwards.

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2. A Host on THIS NETWORK

This address uses the above concept. In an IP address, the network address consisting of all
zeros means “THIS NETWORK” or “CURRENT NETWORK”. These addresses allow
machines to refer to their own network without knowing its network number. Here,
machines need to know their class to know how many zeros to include.

For example, a machine receives a packet in which the portion for network number of the
destination address is ‘0’ and the portion for host number of the destination address matches
its address, the receiver interprets the network number field to mean this network over which
the packet is received.

3. Broadcast on LOCAL network

The address that contains all 1’s means broadcast. If the portion for network number of the
destination address contains ‘1’s and the portion for host number of the destination address
also consist of all 1’s as shown in figure 3.1.4, then the packet is broadcasted on the local
network. That is the packet is sent to all the hosts connected to this network over which the
packet is received. This address is also referred to as limited broadcast address.

4. Broadcast on DISTANT network

Now if the portion for host number of the destination address consist of all 1’s as shown in
figure 3.1.4, then the packet is broadcasted on the distant network whose address is specified
by the portion for network number in the destination address. That is the packet is sent to all
the hosts connected to distant network whose address is given by the network number in
destination address.

5. LOOPBACK

For all addresses of the form 127.xx.yy.zz a value from the class A range is reserved for
loopback testing. It is used to test the connectivity between local networks for testing a
network application. Packets sent to that address are not put out onto the wire. This explicitly
means that packet sent to a network 127 address should never appear on any network. These
packets are processed locally and treated as incoming packets. This allows packets to be sent
to the local network without the sender knowing its number. This feature is used for
debugging network software.

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Self-assessment Questions
4) In _________address, the first two bits i.e., left-most bits are set to 10.
a) Class A b) Class B
c) Class C d) Class D

5) Which of this is not an IP address class?

a) Class F b) Class C
c) Class D d) Class E

6) The________ bits of the _________byte of the IP address determine the class of an IP

address.
a) First four, first b) Last four, first
c) First four, last d) Last four, last

7) An IP datagram must contain

a) Destination address b) Source address
c) Network address d) Source and destination address

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3.1.4 Subnet Mask

An IP address consists of two components: the network ID and host ID. A subnet mask is a
32-bit number used to identify network address and host address of an IP address. Subnetting
further divides the host part of an IP address into a host address and a subnet if additional
subnetwork is required. Bitwise AND operation is used to determine the network address of
an IP address. Subnet mask is formed by setting all network bits to “1” and setting all host bits
to “0”.

For example: Consider an IP address 192.168.1.152 and the Subnet Mask is 255.255.255.0
then:

ANDed

Result

In this way, a subnet mask helps to obtain the network address and host address of an IP
address. Therefore now, it is identifiable that 192.168.1.152 is a host address and 192.168.1.0
is a network address.

Classifications of subnet mask:

• Class A Subnets: In class A IP address, only first 8 bits are used for a network address
and the remaining three octets are used for host address. Hence bits have to be
borrowed from the host address to make more subnets in class A and the subnet mask
has to be changed accordingly.

• Class B Subnets: In class B IP address, 14 bits are used for the network address and
remaining 14 bits are used for the host address. Class B IP address can be subnetted in
the same way as that of the class A, by borrowing bits from host part.

• Class C Subnets: Class C has only 254 hosts in a network, thus it is assigned to a very
small size network.

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3.1.5 Default Gateway

Gateways are the Internet routing devices used to connect other hosts or remote networks.
Usually, gateways operate at network layer and above but most of them at the application
layer. A default gateway plays an important role in the TCP/IP networking. Default gateway
provides default route to communicate with other hosts on remote network.

Role of default gateway can be illustrated through the figure given below:

Figure 3.1.5: Default gateway

As shown above, consider two networks: Network 1 and Network 2. Host A is located on
Network 1 and Host B is located on Network 2. In order for Host A to communicate with
Host B, Host A checks routing table to see if there is any route to communicate with Host B.
If there is no such information, Host A forwards its data traffic for Host B through IP Router
1 which is its own default gateway. The same principle applies if Host B is sending
information to Host A, in this case IP Router 2 is the default gateway.

Default gateways play an important role to make an IP routing perform more efficiently.
Generally, a default gateway is a router or a computer that connects two or more network
segments and also maintains information about the networks (such as how to reach other
networks) in the larger internetwork.

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3.1.6 Public and Private IP Address

IP address is of two types: Public IP Address and Private IP Address.

Public IP Address:

A public IP address is allocated to every computer that connects to the Internet. In a network,
two computers should not have the same public IP address. Public IP address provides
unique address to recognise each device on the Internet and to exchange information. User
cannot alter the IP address (public) that is assigned to a computer.

Internet service provider (ISP) assigns a public IP address to a computer when it is connected
to an Internet gateway. Public IP address of a computer can be either static or dynamic. Static
public IP address is constant and it can be used for hosting services or web pages on the
Internet. Dynamic public IP address is selected from a group of available addresses and it
changes every time one connects to the Internet. Most of the Internet users use dynamic IP
address for their computer, which goes off when the computer is disconnected from the
Internet and when it is reconnected a new IP address is assigned.

Private IP Address:

If the IP address falls within one of the address ranges preserved for a private network (LAN),
then such IP address is referred to as a private IP address. Following are three groups of IP
address space for a private network:

10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255 (Total Addresses: 16,777,216)

172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255 (Total Addresses: 1,048,576)

192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255 (Total Addresses: 65,536)

Internet assigned numbers authority (IANA) has reserved these groups of IP addresses.
Private IP addresses are used for numbering the computers which are located in a local area
network such as home, campus and building which makes it possible to establish a
communication between the computers. For example, consider a small network, where 25
computers are involved in communicating with each other. Each of them can be given IP
addresses starting from 192.168.0.1 to 192.168.0.25. It is important to know that the
administrator of the private network is free to assign an IP address of his own choice.

A computer with a private IP address cannot connect directly outside the LAN, i.e., to the
Internet. A router can be used to connect two separate private networks that support network

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address translation (NAT). If a private network is connected to the Internet via Internet
Service Provider (ISP), then each computer on the Internet has both private IP and public IP
addresses. Private IP generates the communication within the network and public address is
used for communication over the Internet.

(i) Methods of Assigning IP Address

There are three methods of assigning an IP address to a client computer (workstation):

Method 1: Manually assign an IP address

A user can manually allocate an IP address, network mask and also Domain Name Server
(DNS) to a particular network interface. This method is used when there is no DHCP
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server. This method is useful when a user wants to
always have the same IP address.

Method 2: DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

This is one of the popular ways of assigning an IP address. A user sends a request for an IP
address to a DHCP server. This server checks a list of available and assigned IP addresses,
selects one which is unassigned and responds to the user with that IP address and other
information (such as DNS server and default gateways).

Method 3: APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing)

This is also known as zero configuration network. If a computer has not been manually
configured or it is unable to connect to a DHCP server, then it may set up an APIPA address.
When it is set up as an APIPA, then it assigns itself a random address in the range of
169.254.0/16 (169.254.0.1 - 169.254.255.254).

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Self-assessment Questions
8) ________________ is a router or the computer that connects two or more network
segments and also maintains information about the networks in the larger
internetwork.
a) Subnetwork b) Public IP
c) Default gateway d) DHCP

9) A computer with a private IP address connects directly outside the LAN. (True/False)

10) _____________ is known as zero configuration network.

a) IANA b) ARPA
c) DHCP d) APIPA

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3.1.7 IPv6 Address

Internet protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the currently used protocol in the network layer. IPv4 is
used to have host-to-host communication between systems in the Internet. Even though IPv4
is well designed, data communication has evolved since the inception of IPv4 in the 1970s.
IPv4 has some of the following deficiencies that make it unsuitable for the fast-growing
Internet:

• The major problem of IPv4 is address depletion in Internet though solutions like
subnetting, classless addressing and NAT are available to overcome the address
deficiency of IPv4.

• IPv4 fails to provide smooth flow of real-time audio and video transmission in the
Internet with minimum delay strategies.

• No security mechanism like encryption or authentication is provided by IPv4.

Internet Protocol version 6 was proposed to overcome these drawbacks of IPv4. Data length
of IPv4 and Ipv6 are changed along with their packet format.

Let us see the advantages of next generation IP or IPv6 over IPv4:

• Larger address space: The length of IPv6 address is 128-bit. This gives a huge (296)
scope of increment in the address space.

• Better header format: IPv6 uses a new header format in which options are separated
from the base header and inserted as and when required, between the base header and
the upper-layer data.

• New options: New options (for example, Priority field) are added to perform
additional functionalities.

• Allowance for extension: This allows the extension of the protocol if required by the
new technologies.

• Support for resource allocation: This is used to support traffic (real-time audio and
video).

• Support for more security: Provide confidentiality and integrity of the packet.

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• An IPv6 address consists of 128-bit (16 bytes), divided into eight 16-bit blocks
(octets). Hence, Ipv6 provides a very large address-space scheme that can be used to
assign unique addresses to each and every device connected to the Internet.

IPv6 Address Notation: Figure 3.1.6 shows the address structure of IPv6.

Figure 3.1.6: IPv6 Address Structure

Consider 128-bit IPv6 address represented in the binary format.

0010000000000001 0000000000000000 0011001000111000 1101111111100001

0000000001100011 0000000000000000 0000000000000000 1111111011111011

128-bit is divided into eight 16-bit blocks. Convert each block into hexadecimal format and
separate each block by using symbol ‘:’.

2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB

IPv6 provides some rules to shorten address as follows:

Rule. 1: Discard leading zeros:

The leading two zeros can be removed (omitted).

For example: 2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB

In the 5th block, 0063 can be written as 63

That is, 2001:0000:3238:DFE1: 63:0000:0000:FEFB

Rule. 2: Remove zeros if two or more blocks contain consecutive zeros:

For example: 2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB

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In the given IPv6 address, 6th and 7th octet consists of consecutive zeros. This can be replaced
by only one ‘::’. Still 2nd block contains four consecutive zeros, this can be reduced to one zero
as follows:

2001:0:3238:DFE1:63::FEFB

(i) IPv6 Address Types and Assignments

IPv6 Address Types:

Based on connectivity, three types of IPv6 addresses are available:

1. Unicast address: This is similar to the IPv4 unicast address, in which a packet is delivered
to only one user or interface on the Internet as shown in figure 3.1.7.

Figure 3.1.7: Unicast IPv6 Address

2. Multicast address: This is similar to the multicast IPv4 address in which a packet is sent
to multiple devices or interfaces on the Internet but not to all connected systems as shown
in figure 3.1.8 below.

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Figure 3.1.8: Multicast IPv6 Address

3. Anycast address: IPv6 has introduced a new address type that is anycast IPv6 address. In
this type of addressing, a packet is sent to the host or interface closest to the sender in
terms of routing distance. This idea is explained through the figure 3.1.9.

Figure 3.1.9: Anycast IPv6 Address

Methods used for assigning IPv6 address to a client system are the same as that of methods
used for assigning IPv4 address. In addition to these methods, IPv6 proposed one more
unique method, stateless address assignment configuration (SLAAC). In this method, the
client itself picks a desired address based on the prefix being advertised on their connected
interface.

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(ii) Data Encapsulation

A data packet is a basic unit which consists of source and destination address information
along with other information, transmitted across a network. During travelling through the
TCP/IP protocol stacks, the protocol at each layer undergoes many changes (addition or
deletion of fields) from the basic header. Data encapsulation is a process in which a protocol
on the sending host adds information to the packet header as shown below in figure 3.1.10.

Figure 3.1.10: Data Encapsulation

IPv6 datagrams are the encapsulated form of the higher-layer data which are to be delivered
over IPv6 internetworks. IPv6 datagrams have a flexible structure and their data format
matches the needs of the current IP networks. The following section describes the general
format of the IPv6 datagram format.

(iii) The IPv6 Datagram Format

In IPv6, a packet is composed of a mandatory base header and it is followed by a payload.
Payload has two parts namely: Optional extension header and data from the higher layer. The
base header consists of 40 bytes, whereas extension header and data consists of up to 65,535
bytes.

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32-bits

Figure 3.1.11: IPv6 Datagram Format

Above figure 3.1.11 shows the base header with its eight fields.

1. Version: This field size is 4 bits. It is used to specify IP version and it is set to 6.

2. Priority: This field specifies the priority of the packet with respect to its traffic
congestion. Its size is 4-bit.

3. Flow Label: Its size is 3 bytes. It is used to handle the flow of data.

4. Payload Length: Its size is 2 bytes. This field specifies the length of the IPv6 payload
(IPv6 datagram) excluding base header.

5. Next Header: Its size is 1 byte. Define the header that follows the base header in the
datagram or protocol in the higher layer (TCP, UDP and ICMP).

6. Hop Limit: Its size is 1 byte. It serves the same purpose as the TTL (Time to Live)
field in IPv4.

This field is typically used by distance vector routing protocols, like routing
information protocol (RIP) to prevent layer 3 loops (routing loops).

7. Source Address: Its size is 16 bytes. It defines the source IP address of the packet.

8. Destination Address: Its size is 16 bytes. It defines the destination IP address of the
packet.

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3.1.8 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) -

ICMPv4, ICMPv6
As we know, a datagram in Internet travels from router to router until it reaches one that can
deliver the datagram to the final destination. IP is a connectionless protocol, it has no error-
reporting mechanism which can report situations like:

• A router discarding a datagram because it cannot find the final destination

• A host determining if a router or another host is alive

• Besides failures of communication lines and processors, IP fails to deliver a datagram

when the machine is temporarily or permanently disconnected from the network.

The ICMP version 4 (ICMPv4) has been designed to remove these deficiencies found in
Internet protocol version 4. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a network layer
protocol used to generate an error message when a network prevents delivery of IP packets to
the intended destination. This protocol sends a message to the source IP address to indicate
that a service is unavailable and cannot deliver the packet to destination.

When a router is unable to send the packets to the final destination, then that router should
send an ICMP destination-unreachable message. ICMP messages are divided into two
categories: Error-reporting message and query message.

1. Error-reporting messages: These are always sent to the original source when an error
occurs.

2. Query messages: Along with error reporting, ICMP diagnoses any network problems and
communication of this message is accomplished through the query messages.

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Figure 3.1.12: ICMP Encapsulation

ICMPv6 is another protocol that has been modified in the version 6 of the Internet that is
IPv6. ICMPv6 has the same strategies and functions as that of ICMPv4. ICMPv4 has been
modified to become more suitable to the Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6).

3.1.9 Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)

The Internet group management protocol (IGMP) is one of the essential but not entirely
sufficient protocols. This protocol is involved in multicasting. In multicasting, routers are
essential to route multicast packets. IGMP is a protocol that controls group membership. In a
network, multicast routers distribute multicast packets to the devices or hosts or other
routers. IGMP provides information about membership status of host or router to the
multicast routers that distribute the packets in a network.

Hence, IGMP is a group management protocol used to help a multicast router to identify and
update the list of loyal routers related to each router interface.

Messages:

IGMP messages are carried in IP packets with IP control. No transport layer protocols are
used with IGMP messaging. Broadly three types of IGMP messages are available. Figure
3.1.13 classifies the IGMP messages.

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1. Membership queries

2. Membership reports

3. Leave group

IGMP
Messages

Membership
Query Leave Report
Report

General Special

Figure 3.1.13: IGMP Message Types

1. Membership Query: These messages are used by multicast routers to identify which
multicast addresses (hosts) are of interest to systems attached to its network. Following
are the two types of membership queries:

a) General Query: It is used to study which groups have membership on an attached

network.

b) Group-specific Query: It is used to learn about a specific group if it has any member
on the attached network.

2. Membership report: A host sends this report message when it is connected to a multicast
group and also sends this report when responding to membership queries which have
been sent by an IGMP router.

3. Leave group: When a host leaves the group then this message is sent to all routers placed
in a network.

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IGMP message format:

0 7 15 23 31

Figure 3.1.14: IGMP message format

IGMP message format consists of the following fields:

• Type: It is an 8-bit field used to define the type of message. Table 3.1.2 lists various
types of messages along with their values.

Type Value

General or special query 0 x 11 or 00010001

Membership report 0 x 16 or 00010110

Leave report 0 x 17 or 00010111

Table 3.1.2: IGMP Message Type and Value

• Maximum Response Time: It is an 8-bit field used to specify the amount of time in
which a query must be answered.

• Group Address: This field value is 0 and this value defines the multicast address of
the group that is a group id in the special query, membership report and the leave
report.

3.1.10 Introduction to Routing and Switching

Concepts
Routing is a process of transmitting information from source to destination over Internet. It
can be easily understandable in terms of two processes namely: host routing and router
routing.

Host routing is a process that occurs when a packet is forwarded by the source device or
sending host. Sending host must decide whether to forward that packet to a destination host
or to forward it to the nearest route depending on the destination network address.

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Figure 3.1.15: Routing Process

In the given figure, a source host sends the packets for the destination host to Router 1.
Routers perform the routing process; that is a router receives the packets and forwards it to
another router if the destination host is not directly connected to the router. Routing occurs
when the packet is forwarded between the routers or router and the destination host.
Therefore, in the above figure, Router 1 forwards packet to Router 2 which in turn forwards
that packet to the destination host.

Switching concept:

A switch is a network device used to connect different devices on a network. A network can
have any number of switches. To connect multiple devices, point-to-point connection can be
established between the pair of devices. But the number of connections increases as the
number of devices increases. Another solution for connecting multiple devices could be to
have a central device and establish a connection between the devices via this central device.
This is known as star topology. These two solutions are not applicable when we consider a
large internetwork.

Switching is the best solution for this problem. In a switched network, devices called as
switches are interconnected.

Three types of switching techniques are available:

1. Circuit switching

2. Packet switching

3. Message switching

These switching techniques will be studied in detail in further modules.

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Self-assessment Questions
11) Which of the following is not a network layer protocol?
a) IP b) ICMP
c) UDP d) IGMP

12) Which of these protocols is used to generate an error message from a network device
when a network prevents delivery of IP packets?
a) IP b) ICMP
c) IGMP d) ARP

13) What is the length of the IPv6 address?

a) 128-bit b) 32-bit
c) 64-bit d) 48-bit

14) IPv6 address 2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB can also be written as

a) 2001::3238:DFE1:0063::FEFB
b) 2001:0:3238:DFE1:0063:00:00:FEFB
c) 2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:FEFB
d) 2001:0:3238:DFE1:0063::FEFB

15) _________ is a process that occurs when a packet is forwarded by the source device or
sending host.
a) Host routing b) router routing
c) Circuit switching d) Store switching

16) Range of class E IP address is from ________ to _________

a) 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. b) 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x.
c) 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. d) 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254.

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Summary
o The Internet protocol (IP) is a network-layer (layer 3) protocol.

o IP is an unreliable and connectionless-oriented protocol which is responsible for

source-to-destination delivery.

o The first version of IP was defined in RFC 791 and named as IP version 4. Later,
IPv6, a new version of IP, was introduced with some modifications of IPv4.

o IP address uniquely identifies a device’s location on the network and it is

composed of a network ID and a host ID.

o IPv4 addressing system is divided into five classes, namely A, B, C, D and E.

o Unicast IP address is used to accomplish one-to-one communication.

o Broadcast IP address is used for one-to-everyone-on-a-subnet communication.

o Multicast IP address type is used for one-to-many communication.

o A subnet mask is a 32-bit number used to separate an IP address into network

address and host address.

o Default gateways provide a default route to communicate with other hosts on a

remote network.

o Public IP address is allocated to every computer that connects to the Internet.

o Ipv6 provides a very large address-space scheme that can be used to assign unique
addresses to each and every device connected to the Internet.

o In IPv6, a packet is composed of a mandatory base header and it is followed by

payload.

o ICMP is a network layer protocol used to generate an error when a network

prevents delivery of IP packets to the source.

o IGMP is a group management protocol used to help a multicast router to identify

and update the list of loyal routers related to each router interface.

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Terminal Questions
1. Explain IP packet format in detail.

2. What is a loopback address?

Answer Keys
Self-assessment Questions
Question No. Answer

1 c
2 c
3 b
4 b
5 a
6 a
7 d
8 c
9 False
10 d
11 c
12 b
13 a
14 d
15 a
16 d

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Activity
Activity Type: Online/Offline Duration: 15 minutes

Description:

Prepare a table to list the differences between IPv4 and IPv6.

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Bibliography
e-References
• Tutorials Point. IPv4 - TCP/IP Model. Retrieved 13 July, 2015 from
http://www.tutorialspoint.com//ipv4/ipv4_tcpip_model.htm

• Introduction to TCP/IP. Retrieved 14 July, 2015 from

http://ftp1.digi.com/support/documentation/0190074_j.pdf

• Introduction toIPv6. Retrieved 14 July, 2015 from

http://www.yuanlei.com/studies/articles/cs594hpnet-ipv6.pdf

External Resources
• CCNA Cisco Certified Network Associate: Study Guide. (2011). India: Wiley
publishing.

• Forouzan, B. A. (2007). Data Communications and Networking (4 ed.). New

York: McGraw-Hill.

• Rick Graziani, A. J. (2007). Routing Protocols and Concepts: CCNA Exploration

Companion Guide (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Cisco Press.

• Tanenbaum, A. S. (2007). Computer Networks. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall Of India

Pvt. Limited.

Video Links
Topic Link

IP Addressing and How it Works https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KFooN7Mu0IM

The Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SldYZRS8JFg

Address Classes https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yOYFsRCeOuk

IPv6 Addressing Structure https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QjHU3e-2VO0

IP Address & Subnet Mask Basics https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w0RM7PY34Bg

Internet Control Message Protocol
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M78kvjyMrA0
ICMP
Internet Group Management Protocol
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQhbWGTGg4Y
IGMP

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Notes:

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Chapter Table of Contents

Chapter 3.2

Introduction to Transport and Application Layer

Aim ..................................................................................................................................................... 173
Instructional Objectives................................................................................................................... 173
Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................................................... 173
3.2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 174
3.2.2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)................................................................................. 174
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 179
3.2.3 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) ............................................................................................ 180
3.2.4 Overview of Ports and Sockets .............................................................................................. 181
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 186
3.2.5 Application Layer .................................................................................................................... 187
(i) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) ........................................................... 187
(ii) DNS (Domain Name System) ......................................................................................... 189
(iii) HTTP/HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) .......................................................... 190
(iv) FTP, TFTP and SFTP ....................................................................................................... 191
(v) Telnet .................................................................................................................................. 192
(vi) Email: SMTP, POP3 and IMAP...................................................................................... 193
(vii) NTP ................................................................................................................................... 196
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 197
Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 198
Answer Keys...................................................................................................................................... 200
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 201
e-References ...................................................................................................................................... 201
External Resources ........................................................................................................................... 201
Video Links ....................................................................................................................................... 201

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Introduction to Transport and Application Layer

Aim

To facilitate the understanding of transport and application layer protocols

Instructional Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• Explain about ports and sockets

• Outline the functions of transmission control protocol

• Describe user datagram protocol (UDP) in detail

• List various application layer protocols

• Explain the hierarchy of domain name server

• Explain how Telnet establishes connection to a remote system

• Illustrate how to set up email using SMTP, POP3/IMAP

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

• List transport layer protocols

• Compare the functionalities of TCP and UDP

• Illustrate the usage of ports and sockets

• Summarise the functions of application layer protocols

• Identify three main sections of domain name space

• Identify the purpose of using Telnet

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3.2.1 Introduction
As you know, the transport layer of OSI reference or TCP/IP network model provides a
transparent transfer of data between hosts. It is usually responsible for end-to-end
connection, error recovery, flow control and ensuring complete data transfer. The transport
service is said to perform "peer to peer" communication with the remote (peer) transport
entity. The data communicated by the transport layer is encapsulated at a transport layer and
sent in a network layer. The network layer nodes transfer the transport packet data unit
(PDU) intact, without decoding or modifying the content of the PDU. In this way, only the
peer transport entities actually communicate using the PDUs of the transport protocol.

In the Internet protocol suite, this function is most commonly achieved by the connection-
oriented transmission control protocol (TCP). The datagram-type transport, user datagram
protocol (UDP), provides neither error recovery nor flow control, leaving these to the
application. These are transport layer protocols. But in some high-level Internet services, like
electronic mailing, secure communication facility comes from the application layer. These
services also allow users and programs to interact with automated services on remote
machines and remote users.

In this unit, we will discuss two very important protocols TCP and UDP in detail. We will
also discuss how a port and socket play an important role in communication. Finally, we will
discuss several protocols of application layer.

3.2.2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Transmission control protocol (TCP) is a transport layer protocol. Internet protocol (IP) only
deals with delivery of packets, whereas TCP enables two or more hosts or devices in a
network to establish a connection and exchange streams of data (packets). Hence, TCP is
referred to as a byte stream connection-oriented and reliable transmission protocol.

The protocol guarantees reliable and in-order delivery of data from sender to receiver. TCP
also distinguishes data for multiple connections by concurrent applications (for example, web
server and e-mail server) running on the same host. In the Internet protocol suite, TCP is the
intermediate layer between the Internet protocol (IP) below it and an application above it.
Applications often need reliable pipe-like connections to each other, whereas the Internet
protocol does not provide such streams, but rather only best effort delivery (i.e., unreliable

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packets). TCP does the task of the transport layer in the simplified OSI model of computer
networks.

Applications send streams of octets (8-bit bytes) to TCP for delivery through the network and
TCP divides the byte stream into appropriately sized segments (usually delineated by the
maximum transmission unit [MTU] size of the data link layer of the network to which the
computer is attached). TCP then passes the resulting packets to the Internet protocol for
delivery through a network to the TCP module of the entity at the other end. TCP checks to
make sure that no packets are lost by giving each packet a sequence number, which is also
used to make sure that the data is delivered to the entity at the other end in the correct order.
The TCP module at the far end sends back an acknowledgement for packets which have been
successfully received; a timer at the sending TCP will cause a timeout if an acknowledgement
is not received within a reasonable round-trip time (or RTT) and the (presumably lost) data
will then be re-transmitted. The TCP checks that no bytes are corrupted by using a checksum;
one is computed at the sender for each block of data before it is sent and checked at the
receiver.

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TCP Message (Segment) Format:

Like other message formats, a TCP segment also consists of two sections: header and data.
Figure 3.2.1 illustrates the TCP header format.

Figure 3.2.1: TCP Message (Segment) Format

• Source Port: This field identifies the sending port of the application program.

• Destination Port: Receiving port number of the application program that is receiving
the segment. This field identifies the receiving port.

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• Sequence number: This field specifies the sequence number for the first data byte in
the packet.

• ACK (Acknowledgement) number: Once the connection is established, the ACK bit
is set. This number is the next sequence number the sender of the packet expects to
receive.

• Data offset: Data offset indicates the number of 32-bit words in the TCP header. This
indicates where the data begins.

• Reserved: This field is used for future use. It must be zero.

• Control Bits: This field defines six different control bits or flags.

 URG: Urgent pointer field significant

 ACK: Acknowledgment field significant

 PSH: Push function

 RST: Reset the connection

 SYN: Synchronise sequence numbers

 FIN: No more data from sender

• Window: Specifies the size of receive window in bytes.

• Checksum: This field is used for data integrity protection.

• Urgent pointer: This field contains the sequence number of the last byte of urgent
data.

TCP services or functions:

Services provided by TCP to the processes at the application layer are:

• Addressing/Multiplexing: TCP multiplexes the data which is received from different

processes to transfer the data using underlying network-layer protocol.
Simultaneously, by using TCP ports, higher-layer application processes can be easily
identified.

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• Connection Establishment, Management and Termination: TCP provides a set of

procedures that guide devices to establish a TCP connection and communicate over a
network. TCP controls the connection and along with it handles problems that may
arise during establishing a connection and while exchanging the packets. TCP
provides a special purpose procedure when a device has established a TCP
connection.

• Data Handling and Packaging: TCP provides a mechanism in which the data that
has to be sent from a higher layer is packed into messages. Then it is sent to the
destination TCP software. The destination TCP software unpacks the data and sends
it to its application.

• Providing Reliability and Transmission Quality Services: TCP uses an

acknowledgement mechanism to check the safe delivery of data from source to the
intended destination.

• Providing Flow Control and Congestion Avoidance Features: TCP controls and
manages the flow of data between two devices. To do this, TCP uses sliding window
protocol that makes transmission more efficient. It defines a window that spans over a
buffer, as data and acknowledgment are delivered and received from the application
program. It also provide features to deal with congestion that may occur during
transmitting the data between the devices.

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Self-assessment Questions
1) PDU stands for ___________.
a) Protocol delivery unit b) Protocol data unit
c) Packet delivery unit d) Packet data unit

2) TCP and UDP are both ___________ layer protocols.

a) Network b) Data link
c) Transport d) Application

3) Transport control protocol is ___________ protocol.

a) Block-oriented b) Stream-oriented
c) Message-oriented d) Information-oriented

4) Which of the following is incorrect about TCP?

a) TCP offers full-duplex service
b) TCP is a connection-oriented protocol
c) TCP is a reliable transport protocol
d) TCP offers no error and flow control

5) Which of the following is used by TCP to check the safe delivery of data from source
to destination?
a) Error detection and correction mechanism
b) An acknowledgment mechanism
c) Data confirmation mechanism
d) Host-to-host delivery mechanism

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3.2.3 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

User datagram protocol (UDP) is an unreliable transport layer protocol in the Internet. UDP
does not add anything to the services of IP except that it provides process-to-process
communication instead of host-to-host. It is an alternative communication protocol for TCP
used for creating low latency between the applications on the Internet. TCP and UDP both
run on top of the IP, hence these protocols are sometimes referred to as TCP/IP or UDP/IP.

UDP is a connectionless and unreliable protocol. This protocol provides very limited error
checking operations. Thus, UDP is powerless and is used when a process wants to send a very
small message and does not bother about reliability. Sending a message using UDP takes
much lesser interaction between the sender and receiver than using TCP. UDP is more
suitable for multicasting and multimedia applications.

Protocol Header:

A device sends a UDP packet without first creating a connection with the recipient. A UDP
datagram is carried in a single IP packet; hence, UDP is limited to a maximum of payload size
which is about 65,507 bytes for IPv4 and 65,527 for IPv6.

Before transmitting a UDP datagram, a device must complete all its fields in the UDP header
with appropriate information and forward it with the data for transmission by the network
layer.

8 Bytes

UDP Header UDP Data

Source Port Destination Port

Number 16 bits Number 16 bits

Total Length Checksum

16 bits 16 bits

Figure 3.2.2.: User Datagram Format

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UDP contains 8 bytes of Protocol Control Information (PCI). It has the following fields:

• Source port number: It is a 16-bit long field used by a process running on the source
device.

• Destination port number: It is a 16-bit long field used by a process running in the
destination device.

• Total length: It is a 16-bit field that defines the total length of the user datagram
(header + data).

• Checksum: This field is used to find errors over the whole user datagram. If
checksum is not calculated, then this field is filled with ‘0s’.

Applications of UDP:

• It is useful for applications that require simple request-response kind of

communication with little care about error and flow control.

• It is suitable for a process with internal error and flow control mechanism.

• It can be used for some route-updating protocols (such as routing information

protocol-RIP).

• It is suitable for multicast applications.

• It can be combined with real time transport protocol to offer a transport-layer

mechanism for real-time data.

3.2.4 Overview of Ports and Sockets

Port

A port is an end point that offers many kind of communications. It can also be defined as a
logical method connection that two end points communicate with. Port operates at the
transport layer of OSI model.

Transport layer address is referred to as a port number which uniquely identifies a specific
process among multiple processes running on the destination host. For example, to deliver a

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message, destination port is essential for identifying the application and source port is also
needed for reply.

A port is a 16-bit number between 0 and 65,535. A port number is generally used by host-to-
host protocol to identify the application process or program to which the incoming messages
must be transferred. TCP and USP use ports to map the incoming data to a specific process
which is running on the device.

P
TCP
o SRC
Dest. r Host
Host t

Figure 3.2.3: Port

Some port numbers are used to support common services provided by different protocols
such as:

• FTP 21/TCP

• TELNET 23/TCP

• SMTP 25/TCP

• LOGIN 513/TCP

The internet assigned number authority (IANA) divides port numbers into the following
three ranges:

• Well-known ports: Port numbers ranging from 0 to 1023 are assigned and controlled
by IANA.

• Registered ports: Port numbers ranging from 1024 to 49,151 are registered with
IANA to avoid duplication. These ports numbers are not assigned and managed by
IANA.

• Dynamic ports: Port numbers ranging from 49,152 to 65,535 can be used by any
process. These port numbers are neither managed nor registered with IANA.

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The same port number is assigned to an application if that application uses both UDP and
TCP. The following table 3.2.1 represents the list of port numbers used by TCP or UDP
protocol of transport layer.

Port Protocol Description

7 Echo Echoes a received datagram back to the sender

9 Discard Discards any datagram that is received

11 Users Active users

13 Daytime Returns the date and the time

17 Quote Returns a quote of the day

19 Chargen Returns a string of characters

20 FTP, Data File Transfer Protocol (data connection)

21 FTP, Control File Transfer Protocol (control connection)

23 TELNET Terminal Network

25 SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

53 DNS Domain Name Server

67 BOOTP Bootstrap Protocol

68 Bootpc Client port to download bootstrap information

69 TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol

79 Finger Finger

80 HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol

111 RPC Remote Procedure Call

123 NTP Network Time Protocol

161 SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol

162 SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol (trap)

Table 3.2.1: Port numbers used by TCP and UDP

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Sockets

The socket interface was based on UNIX and it specifies the set of procedures or system calls
used to access files. In a network, a socket is an end point. Socket can be defined as an
endpoint of an inter-process communication or one end-point of a two-way communication
link between two processes running on the network as shown in figure 3.2.4 below.

Figure 3.2.4: Socket

To establish a communication between two processes, they need a socket at each end of the
communication. A socket is defined as a structure and consists of five fields as shown in the
below figure 3.2.5:

Family Type Protocol

Local socket address

Remote socket address

Figure 3.2.5.: Socket structure

• Family: Specifies the group of protocols such as IPv4, IPv6 and so on.

• Type: Specifies the type of socket.

• Protocol: This field is set to zero for TCP and UDP.

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• Local socket address: Specifies an address which is composed of local IP address and
port address of local application program.

• Remote socket address: Specifies an address which is composed of remote IP address

and port address of remote application program.

Socket types:

There are three types of sockets:

• Stream socket: A pair of sockets used by TCP to establish a connection between one
application program to another application program on the Internet. These sockets
are used with connection-oriented protocol (for example: TCP).

• Datagram socket: UDP uses a pair of these sockets to connect one application
process to another application process. These sockets are designed to be used with
connectionless protocol (for example: UDP).

• Raw socket: There are designed for the protocols like OSPF or ICMP that directly use
the services of IP.

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Self-assessment Questions
6) Which of the following functions is performed by UDP?
a) Process-to-process communication
b) Host-to-host communication
c) End-to-end reliable delivery of data
d) Error control and data flow control

7) Which of the following fields of UDP is used for error detection?

a) Urgent pointer b) Checksum
c) Sequence number d) Control flags

8) UDP packet is also termed as ______________

a) Segments b) Frames
c) Packets d) User datagram

9) Port numbers ranging from 1024 to 49151 are _______________

a) Well-known ports b) Registered ports
c) Dynamic ports d) Static ports

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3.2.5 Application Layer

Application layer is the top-most layer of the OSI model. This layer is referred to as an
abstraction layer that defines the interface methods and shares protocols used by a host in a
communication network. The protocols of the transport layer and application layer are
mainly concerned with human interaction and the implementation of software application.

Application layer directly interacts with end users. This layer is used by the network
applications. Users make use of the functions that are implemented using these applications
to accomplish several tasks over the Internet. Hence, application layer provides services for
the user application.

Following are the services provided by the application layer:

• Simple mail transfer

• File transfer

• Web surfing

• Web chat

• Email clients

• Network data sharing

• Virtual terminals

• Data operations

This layer handles some other responsibilities such as error handling, error recovery and flow
of data over network. It is also used to develop network-based applications. There are more
than 15 protocols that provide various functions at this layer. Most popular protocols among
them are: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DHCP, NFS, Telnet, SNMP, POP3, NNTP and IRC.

(i) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

All the devices that are connected to the Internet must have the following information:

• IP address

• Subnet mask

• IP address of router

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 Introduction to Transport and Application Layer

• IP address of a name server

Generally, this information is kept in a configuration file. This file is accessed by a device
during the boot process. But for devices with a new disk which boots for the first time or a
device that moves from one subnet to another, accessing the file might be difficult. To
overcome this drawback, DHCP protocol is designed that provides the information
dynamically.

Dynamic host configuration protocol is a client-server protocol that gives an IP address and
other information (such as the default gateway and the subnet mask) of an IP host
dynamically.

This protocol can be used to set address to host dynamically. To access a network and its
resources, each device on a TCP/IP based network must have a unique unicast IP address. If
DHCP server is not available, configuration of IP address for a new device which is moved
from one subnet to another is done manually. With DHCP, this entire process is automated
and managed centrally. That is, when a DHCP client requests for a new IP address, DHCP
server finds it in the pool of available and unused IP addresses and assigns the required IP
address for a temporary period of time.

When a DHCP client sends a request for an IP address to a DHCP server, the server first
checks its static database. If the static database contains an entry corresponding to the
requested physical address, it returns the permanent IP address to the client. If the IP address
does not exist, the server searches for the IP address from the pool of available and unused IP
addresses, assigns the IP address to the client and finally adds an entry to the dynamic
database.

The DHCP server stores the following configuration information in a table:

• Stores TCP/IP configuration parameters for all devices (clients) on the network

• IP addresses available in the pool to assign as per client’s requests

• Stores the reserved IP addresses corresponding to the particular DHCP clients

• Stores lease duration that is a time period issued by the DHCP server to a client to use
the given IP address

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(ii) DNS (Domain Name System)

The domain name system (DNS) is a hierarchical distributed naming scheme or system for
devices or other resources connected to the Internet or a private local area network. DNS is
also referred to as domain name space; it is designed to have a hierarchical name space. DNS
is an Internet service that translates domain names into IP address. Domain names are easily
memorisable by human beings, compared to the numerical IP addresses. For example, the
domain name ‘www.example.com’ is used to represent an IP address such as 198.105.232.4.
The IP address may be of a server computer hosting a web site or the web site itself or any
other service communicated via the Internet. Figure 3.2.6 shows the hierarchical structure of
DNS.

Figure 3.2.6: Domain Name System (Space)

Hierarchal domain name space is represented in the form of a tree structure with the root at
the top. Each node in the tree represents a label and has a domain name. Domain name is a
sequence of labels separated by a dot (.) as shown in below figure 3.2.7.

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Figure 3.2.7: Domain Names and Labels

The DNS is the Internet’s primary directory service. DNS distributes the responsibility of
setting domain names and mapping these names to the respective IP address by authorising
authoritative name servers for each domain.

(iii) HTTP/HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) is one of the most popular application layer protocols
used to access data on the World Wide Web (WWW). HTTP transfers the data in various
forms such as audio, video, text, hypertext and so on. It mainly defines how to format
messages during transmission and what actions the browser and web servers should take to
respond to various commands. For example, when a user enters URL in the web browser,
HTTP gets this request and sends a command to the web server directing it to obtain and
transfer the requested web page.

HTTP transaction:

Below figure 3.2.8 represents the HTTP transactions between the client and server. The client
initiates the process by sending a request message and the server responds to the message by
sending a reply message.

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Client Server

Request

Response

Figure 3.2.8: HTTP Transactions

HTTP has two types of messages: Request and response. This protocol is also referred to as
stateless protocol because HTTP command executes independently. HTTP defines how data
is organised and transmitted across the Internet. This protocol relies on the network layer
protocol such as TCP to function. HTTPS stands for hypertext transfer protocol secure and is
used to secure transmitted data from eavesdropping. HTTPS is a protocol within a
connection and is encrypted by the transport-layer security. The main benefit of HTTPS is to
provide authentication to the website and to secure privacy and integrity of the exchanged
data.

(iv) FTP, TFTP and SFTP

File Transfer Protocol (FTP):

File transfer protocol (FTP) is a standard protocol provided by Internet, which is used to
transfer files from one host to another host. It is a common task that takes place over the
network. Transferring a file from one device to another looks very simple and
straightforward, but there might be problems while transferring the files. There may be a
possibility that two devices use different ways to represent text and data or different directory
structures. Such kinds of problems are solved by FTP.

FTP establishes two connections between the client and the server that differ in their
applications. One connection is used for transferring the data and another is used for
controlling information. FTP takes care of separation of commands and data transfer. The
primary use of FTP is to download and upload a file to a website. But more often

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downloading is done via HTTP. FTP server handles downloading of files for websites which
have very high traffic.

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP):

TFTP is an application layer protocol used to transfer files in a simpler way than FTP. This
protocol is used where directory visibility and authentication is not required. FTP uses TCP
for transferring data whereas TFTP uses UDP. TFTP lacks most of the essential features and
security levels provided by FTP. TFTP is designed formally in request for comments (RFC)
1350.

TFTP vs. FTP:

• Original version of TFTP allows transfer of file of size 32 megabytes while FTP allows
transfer of files of large size.

• Unlike FTP, TFTP does not have any login feature.

• TFTP uses UDP to transfer data, while FTP uses TCP.

Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP):

The secure shell (SSH) file transfer protocol is also termed as Secure FTP or SFTP. SFTP is a
network protocol used to perform file transfer, file access and file management functionalities
over a secure connection. SFTP is designed by Internet engineering task force (IETF) to
provide secure file transfer functionality which is an extension to the secure shell protocol
(SSH) version 2.0.

SFTP functionalities are similar to the original or old version of FTP with better advanced
functional features. But not all SFTP server implementations utilise the advantage of
advanced features. This protocol allows businesses to protect their transfer billing data, data
recovery files and funds.

(v) Telnet
Telnet is a user command and underlying TCP/IP protocol for accessing computers over
internetwork. Telnet programs run on the user computer to allow it to connect to a server on
the network. When Telnet commands are executed through the Telnet program on a user
computer, it appears as if the commands are executed on the server console.

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Using Telnet, the user can access someone else’s device remotely. FTP and HTTP allow users
to request only for files whereas Telnet allows user to actually be logged in as a user of that
device (computer). This application of Telnet enables users to manage web servers remotely.

User can easily connect a telnet server of the remote host using Telnet client software. Once
the connection has been established, the client becomes a virtual terminal and it allows the
client device to communicate with the server. In most cases, log-in information is needed to
communicate with the server, but telnet allows you to log in as a guest or public user without
having an account.

(vi) Email: SMTP, POP3 and IMAP

There are two popular applications for exchanging information on the Internet. Electronic
mail is used to exchange information between people and file transfer is used to exchange files
between two or more computers.

Electronic mail is the most popular network service used for sending a single message
(including text, voice, audio, video or graphics) to one or more recipients. Simple mail
transfer protocol (SMTP) is the mechanism used to accomplish an email process in the
Internet. SMTP, POP3 and IMAP are TCP/IP protocols used for mail delivery.

Sending mail:

User must create a mail before sending it, similar to a postal letter. It has an envelope and a
message.

• Envelope: It consists of a sender and a receiver address.

• Message: Message consists of a header and a body. Header includes sender, receiver
and the subject of the message. Body of the message consists of the actual information
that has to be sent.

Receiving mail:

The email system frequently checks the mailbox and the user gets a notice whenever there is a
new mail.

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Address: To send a mail, the mailing system must use an addressing scheme which has
unique addresses. There are two parts of an address, namely, local part and a domain name in
addressing system used by SMTP.

• Local part: Specifies a user name called user mail.

• Domain name: These are the mail exchange servers. An organisation can choose one
or more hosts to send and receive email (for example, if the name of the organisation
is IBM, then the domain name for that organisation may be www.ibm.com).

Actually, mail transfer is done through the mail transfer agents (MTA). A user who wants to
send a mail must have a client MTA; and to receive this mail, a system must have a server
MTA. In Internet, SMTP is required to transfer mail.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): This protocol is used when an email is transmitted
from one email server to another or when an email is sent from a client such as Outlook
Express to an email server. This protocol sends messages only in 7-bit ASCII format. That is,
SMTP has some limitations, it cannot be used for languages which are not supported by 7-bit
ASCII characters. SMTP sends only binary files, videos and audios.

Multipurpose internet mail extension (MIME) has been introduced to transfer the non-ASCII
data. It is not a protocol and cannot replace SMTP, but it is just an extension to SMTP. MIME
translates the non-ASCII data to ASCII data and sends it to the client SMTP at the sending
side. At the receiving end, server SMTP takes the ASCII data and sends it to the MIME that
translates it into the original data form.

Post Office Protocol, version 3 (POP3): This protocol is used to download email from an
email server. Generally, client POP3 software is installed on the recipient system and server.
POP3 software is installed on the mail server. POP3 does not offer any features except
downloading.

Using TCP port 110, the client establishes a connection with the server and then it sends a
request for the particular mailbox using user name and password. The user can then retrieve
the list of mail messages one by one. Process of downloading mail from the server mail is
shown in the following figure 3.2.9.

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Figure 3.2.9.: Post Office Protocol (POP3) User Authentication Process

POP3 has two modes: delete and keep. In the delete mode, mail is deleted from mailbox and
in the keep mode, mail resides in the mailbox.

Internet Main Access Protocol (IMAP): POP3 lacks in providing some features. POP3 does
not:

• Allow user to arrange the mail on the server

• Provide different folders on the server to manage mails

• Allow user to partially check the message content before downloading it

IMAP is introduced to avoid deficiencies found in POP3. This protocol shares many features
with POP3. It includes many more features than the POP3. IMAP provides the following
functionalities:

• Before downloading a mail, the users can check the email header.

• Before downloading a mail, the users can search for an email with a specific string of
characters.

• It allows the user to partially download an email.

• User can create, delete or rename the mailbox on the mail server.

• User can create a hierarchy of mailbox.

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(vii) NTP
NTP stands for network time protocol, which is a networking protocol. This protocol is used
for synchronising clocks between the computers across the Internet. It is a system based on
Internet time servers that coordinates the time of computer clocks over the network. The
NTP servers run software that sets the clock’s time of day for the computers. This protocol
makes use of UDP port 123. It has algorithms that help to adjust time of day accurately but is
reported to account for Internet network transmission delay.

Computers running OSs such as Windows, Linux, etc. are configured to use an NTP server.
For example, “Date and Time” property of Control Panel option provides the list of Internet
Time tab, this allow a user to select an NTP server and turning clock time synchronisation on
or off.

Features of NTP

• To define correct time, an NTP needs some ‘reference clock’.

• NTP automatically selects and synchronises the system time from the list of available
sources, hence it is referred to as a fault-tolerant protocol.

• NTP is highly scalable: A synchronisation network may consist of several ‘reference

clocks’.

• NTP makes use of past measurements to determine (guess) present time when the
network connection is unavailable.

• NTP maintains approximations for the accuracy of the local time.

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Self-assessment Questions
10) Which of the following is not an application layer protocol?
a) FTP b) UDP
c) SMTP d) HTTP

11) Domain name system translates the domain names into__________

a) Physical address b) IP address
c) Path address d) Frame address

12) DHCP provides ___________ to the client.

a) IP address b) MAC address
c) Computer address d) Server address

13) Identify the incorrect statement about FTP?

a) It stands for file transfer protocol
b) It uses two TCP connections for file transfer
c) It sends exactly one file over data communication
d) It controls information in band

14) Telnet uses TCP port number __________to establish a connection with the server.
a) 25 b) 21
c) 23 d) 22

15) NTP stands for____________

a) Network time protocol b) Network transport protocol
c) Network temporary protocol d) Network transfer protocol

16) Which of the following statements is correct related to SMTP?

a) It is a file transfer protocol
b) It transfers only 7-bit ASCII characters
c) It translates the binary data to other form during mail transmission across the
Internet
d) It downloads the file from the server system

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Summary
o TCP ensures the delivery of data and also order of packets that are sent over the
network.

o UDP is an alternative communication protocol to TCP used for creating low-

latency communication between the applications on the Internet.

o A port number is generally used by the host-to-host protocol to find out to which
application process or program it must transfer incoming messages.

o Socket is an endpoint of an inter-process communication or one end-point of a

two-way communication link between two processes running on the network.

o Application layer directly interacts with end users.

o Dynamic host configuration protocol is a client-server protocol that gives an IP

address and other information of an IP host dynamically.

o The domain name system (DNS) is a hierarchical distributed naming scheme or

system for devices or other resources connected to the Internet or a private local
area network.

o Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) is an application layer protocol used to access

data on the World Wide Web (WWW).

o HTTPS stands for hypertext transfer protocol secure and is used to secure
transmitted data from eavesdropping.

o The file transfer protocol (FTP) is a standard protocol provided by Internet used
to transfer files from one host to another host.

o TFTP is an application layer protocol used to transfer the files where directory
visibility and authentication is not required.

o SFTP is a network protocol used to perform file transfer, file access and file
management functionalities over a secure connection.

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o A telnet is a user command and uses underlying TCP/IP protocol for accessing
computers over internetwork.

o Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) is the mechanism used to accomplish email
process in the Internet.

o POP3 protocol is used to download email from an email server.

o NTP is used for synchronising the clocks between the computers across the
Internet.

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 Introduction to Transport and Application Layer

Answer Keys
Self-assessment Questions
Question No. Answer

1 d
2 a
3 b
4 d
5 b
6 a
7 b
8 d
9 b
10 b
11 b
12 a
13 d
14 c
15 a
16 b

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Bibliography
e-References
• Transport Layer Protocol. Retrieved 15 July, 2015 from
http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~cs458/material/Redbook-ibm-tcpip-Chp5.pdf

• Diffen. TCP vs. UDP. Retrieved 15 July, 2015 from

http://www.diffen.com/difference/TCP_vs_UDP

• Vicomsoft. DHCP. Retrieved 16 July, 2015 from

http://www.vicomsoft.com/learning-center/dhcp/

• Application Layer Functionality and Protocols. Retrieved 16 July, 2015 from

http://ptgmedia.pearsoncmg.com/images/9781587132087/samplechapter/158713
2087_03.pdf

External Resources
• CCNA Cisco Certified Network Associate: Study Guide. (2011). India: Wiley
publishing.

• Forouzan, B. A. (2007). Data Communications and Networking (4 ed.). New

York: McGraw-Hill.

• Rick Graziani, A. J. (2007). Routing Protocols and Concepts: CCNA Exploration

Companion Guide (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Cisco Press.

• Tanenbaum, A. S. (2007). Computer Networks. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall Of India

Pvt. Limited.

Video Links
Topic Link
TCP and UDP https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_lCsUGwr3U

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ndtUwbo6KBY&l
Ports and Sockets
ist=PL8lNYIt_LuG5mr_M_K2jr9OnsNz9XAm11
Application Layer Protocols:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CMBQFmEuOO0
HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, etc.

Network Time Protocol https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lr9hhvdy0ms

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 Introduction to Transport and Application Layer

Notes:

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Computer Networks

MODULE - IV

WAN Technology
MODULE 4

WAN Technology
Module Description

Information exchange between disparate sites separated by geographical boundaries is vital

for businesses. The solution for this issue is provided by Wide Area Networks (WAN). WANs
help in extending the LANs to other LANs at remote sites. This module discusses the WAN
technology types in detail. It compares the switching methods used to communicate with
each other across high-speed digital network. Different types of WAN connections and their
configurations are explained along with the technologies and devices used in accordance with
WANs. This module also discusses about remote access method.

In this module, you will learn about WAN technology and remote access connectivity.

By end of this unit, you will be able to establish connection remotely.

Chapter 4.1
Overview of WAN Technology

Chapter 4.2
Introduction to Remote Access and Network Security

Computer Networks
Overview of WAN Technology

Chapter Table of Contents

Chapter 4.1

Overview of WAN Technology

Aim ..................................................................................................................................................... 203
Instructional Objectives................................................................................................................... 203
Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................................................... 203
4.1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 204
4.1.2 Introduction to WAN ............................................................................................................. 204
4.1.3 WAN Switching ...................................................................................................................... 206
(i) Circuit Switching ................................................................................................................ 207
(ii) Packet Switching ............................................................................................................... 208
(iii) Message Switching ........................................................................................................... 208
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 209
4.1.4 The Last Mile ........................................................................................................................... 210
4.1.5 Connecting to the Internet..................................................................................................... 210
(i) Dial-up ................................................................................................................................. 211
(ii) DSL...................................................................................................................................... 213
(iii) CATV ................................................................................................................................ 213
(iv) Satellite-based Services .................................................................................................... 215
Self-Assessment Questions ..................................................................................................... 217
(v) Cellular Technologies ....................................................................................................... 218
(vi) Leased Lines ...................................................................................................................... 219
(vii) SONET/SDH ................................................................................................................... 221
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 222
Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 223
Terminal Questions.......................................................................................................................... 223
Answer Keys...................................................................................................................................... 224
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 225
e-References ...................................................................................................................................... 225
External Resources ........................................................................................................................... 225
Video Links ....................................................................................................................................... 225

Computer Networks | WAN Technology

Overview of WAN Technology

Aim

This chapter facilitates understanding of the concepts of WAN Technology

Instructional Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe WAN in terms of connectivity

• Explain the working of circuit, packet and message switching

• Categorise WAN technology types and properties

• Explain the structure of a telephone system

• Describe how cable television works

• Discuss how wireless technology is also used in cellular telephony

• Classify the satellites based on the location of the orbit

• Illustrate the architecture of SONET system

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

• Illustrate the different techniques used in WAN

• Identify how circuit switching, packet switching and message switching differ
from each other

• Compare the different ways to connect WAN to Internet

• Describe the many technologies based on WAN

• Identify the use of PSTN

• Compare cable TV network with fixed telephone system

• Demonstrate how SONET networks can be constructed using synchronous

digital hierarchy (SDH)

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4.1.1 Introduction
Till now you have read lot about network. Computers connect to other computers locally in a
local area network (LAN) or remotely through a number of different methods. Remote
connections have been around for a long time. Before the Internet, network users and
developers created ways to take a single system or network and connect it to another faraway
system or network. This wasn’t the Internet! These were private interconnections of private
networks. Compared to today’s options, those connections were very expensive and slow.

At this point in this book, you may think that entire Internet is just a big TCP/IP network and
the connections are made by Ethernet. But when we talk about wireless, the vast majority of
the long-distance connections that make up the Internet use a unique type of signal called
SONET. Sonet was designed to handle special heavy-duty circuits with names like T1. But
what about individuals and small companies who cannot pay hundred of dollars a month for
a T1? A number of last-mile solutions like, dial-up, DSL and satellite have appeared over the
years.

This chapter discusses the WAN technology types in detail. It compares the switching
methods used to communicate with each other across high-speed digital network. Different
types of WAN connections and their configurations are explained along with the
technologies and devices used in accordance with WANs. Finally, it discusses several
methods to establish remote connections.

4.1.2 Introduction to WAN

Information exchange between disparate sites separated by geographical boundaries is vital
for businesses. The solution for this issue is provided by Wide Area Networks (WAN).
WANs help in extending the LANs to other LANs at remote sites. But it would cost a
fortune to install own cables and connect all the remote locations of one company. The cost-
effective way to connect the LANs in remote locations is by leasing the existing installations
that many service providers have put in place.

As you know, WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad
geographic area and often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as
telephone companies. A simple structure of WAN is given below in figure 4.1.1.

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Figure 4.1.1: WAN Structure

The physical components of WANs define electrical, mechanical and operational

connections. The data link layer defines WAN protocols that define the data encapsulation
process and the way it is transmitted across the WAN. WAN technologies operate at the
physical, the data link and the network layer of the OSI reference model as shown in figure
4.1.2 below.

Figure 4.1.2: WAN technologies operate at the lowest levels of the OSI model.

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 Overview of WAN Technology

4.1.3 WAN Switching

Wide area network is data communication that covers a large or broad area and telephone
lines or radio waves transmit data communication. The device which filters and forwards
packets between LAN segments is known as a switch. It is a multiport networking device. A
switched network makes the WAN technology cheaper compared to dedicated lines by
allowing many users to access the same lines. Moreover, switched networks provide
companies with scalability, enabling expansion of the network easily because remote sites can
be connected to the switched network. WAN switching technologies are circuit switching,
virtual switching, cell switching and packet switching. These different methods increase the
network performance and reliability as well. The below figure 4.1.3 represents two routers at
the remote ends of a WAN and illustrates how they are connected by a WAN switch.

Figure 4.1.3: Two Routers Connected by WAN Switches.

Generally, a WAN is composed of various routers and a set of switches. Different topologies
(such as full mesh and half mesh) can be used to connect the switches in a network.

Three types of WAN switching techniques are:

1. Circuit switching

2. Packet switching

3. Message switching

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(i) Circuit Switching

Circuit switching is the most common WAN switching method in which a dedicated physical
circuit is established, maintained and terminated through a carrier network for each
communication session. It operates much like a normal telephone call in telephone company
networks. An example of circuit-switching WAN technology is Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) which will be discussed later in this chapter in detail. It is more like a phone
call setup. Data transfer cannot occur before the establishment of the end-to-end connection.
It uses dial-up modems and ISDN and it is also used for low-bandwidth data transfers. In
circuit switching, a network path is restricted for a certain amount of time by two or more
parties and then switched for use to another set of properties. It is used in the public network.
The below figure 4.1.4 shows the network setup for circuit switching:

Figure 4.1.4: Circuit Switching

Circuit switching provides two types of transmissions:

1. Datagram transmission

2. Data-stream transmission

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(ii) Packet Switching

Packet switching is a WAN-switching method in which the packets are transmitted through a
single point-to-point link from source device to destination device. This link is shared by all
other devices to share data over the network. ATM is the best example for packet switching.

Figure 4.1.5: Packet Switching

As you can see in above figure 4.1.5, information is divided into packets in case of packet
switching. These packets include information regarding source, destination and intermediate
device addresses. In packet switching, each packet takes different routes to meet their final
destination. Today, data that is sent using digital signals over a network uses packet switching
technique. Network users can share the same paths at the same time using packet switching.

(iii) Message Switching

In message switching, there is no need to establish direct physical connection between sender
and receiver. This is because, here each message is treated like an independent unit and has
source and destination address of its own. When a complete message is transmitted from one
device to another over a network, the intermediate device that receives this message will store
it and will not forward the message until the next device is ready to accept it. For this reason,
message switching is also known as Store and Forward Switching. Since the intermediate
devices can wait for an opportunity to transmit the message, the network can avoid or reduce
traffic as it has some control over the utilisation of communication lines.

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Figure 4.1.6: Message Switching

Self-assessment Questions
1) WAN technologies do not operate at which of the following layers of the OSI
reference model?
a) Data link layer b) Physical layer
c) Network layer d) Application layer

2) A local telephone network is an example for_________

a) Circuit switching network b) Packet switching network
c) Message switching network d) Line switching network

3) In the ________ network, network path is restricted for a certain amount of time by
two or more parties and then switched for use to another set of parties.
a) Line switching b) Packet switching
c) Message switching d) Circuit switching

4) Most message switches over the network use this principle: _________
a) Stop and wait b) Store and filter
c) Filter and forward d) Store and forward

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4.1.4 The Last Mile

Last-mile technology is any information-transfer technology that conveys signals through the
expansive telecom backbone along the generally short separation to and from the home or
business. In many areas, this technology describes a major remaining challenge, because in
the remote areas, the cost of offering high-bandwidth, high-speed services to an individual
subscriber can be higher than the service provider would like it to be. Placing fibreoptic cables
or wires becomes very expensive as they require high maintenance. Professionals expect that
broadband wireless networks will solve this problem and also meet everyone’s need.

Last mile technology is the last and final connectivity between the individual customer and
telecommunication service provider. It is important to understand that distance between
them can be more than a mile, specifically in the rural areas. In the rural areas, last-mile fibre
carrier can be used to offer connectivity that will be a challenge for the telecommunication
service. Last-mile fibres are very expensive and demand high level of maintenance since they
provide high-tech, high bandwidth and high-speed services to all subscribers. But in the early
1980s, fibre optic cabling became the primary tool for long-distance communication all over
the world. Then strong competition began between various competing carriers and everyone
was making their own fibre transmission standards. In an incredible moment of corporate
cooperation, in 1987, all of the primary fibreoptic carriers decided to drop their own
standards and move to a new international standard called Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET). SONET remains the primary standard for long-distance, high-speed fibreoptic
transmission system.

4.1.5 Connecting to the Internet

Most of the WANs are created for their respective organisations. A WAN that is used within
an organisation is private to that area. An Internet service provider (ISP) provides public
WANs to connect an organisation’s LAN to the Internet. Various techniques are available to
connect different WANs such as circuit switching, packet switching, cell relay and leased
lines. Similarly, various equipments and technologies are used to connect WANs to the
Internet; some of them will be discussed in the following section:

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(i) Dial-up
As you know, many different types of telephone lines are available, but all the options can be
classified into two groups: dedicated and dial-up. Dedicated lines are always off the hook and
do not have phone numbers. But dial-up have phone numbers. To make a connection, you
have to dial. Two technologies make up the overwhelming majority of dial-up connections:
PSTN and ISDN.

• PSTN: PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN is also known as
plain old telephone service (POTS). It is the oldest, slowest and most common
original phone connection. It is owned by both commercial and government
organisations. PSTN is an aggregation of circuit-switching telephone networks. It was
designed to work with only one type of data, i.e., sound. Then computers were also
not that common. Now it is completely digitalised except for the final link from the
central (local) telephone office to the end user.

Most of the WAN connections in US and Canada are created through PSTN. It uses
local exchange carriers (LECs) and interexchange carriers (IXCs) as shown in the
given figure 4.1.6.

Figure 4.1.7: PSTN in US and Canada

 Local Exchange Carriers (LECs): These perform functions that allow access to
the PSTN in a small or limited geographical area. The area that is served by LECs
is referred as a Local Access and Transport Area (LATA).

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 Overview of WAN Technology

 Interexchange Carriers (IXCs): These are used to integrate data and voice traffic
that comes from various LECs. IXCs provide infrastructure that connects LATAs
to inter LATAs that move traffic throughout the specific range of area.

PSTN is a contrast to the newer digital technologies such as FDDI and ISDN. PSTN
accomplishes much of the Internet’s long-distance infrastructure. Internet service
provider (ISP) pays long-distance providers for accessing their infrastructure and also
allows circuits to share messages among many users using packet-switching
technique.

• ISDN: With continual demand from PSTN customers for higher throughput from
their phone lines, phone companies were motivated to come up with a way to
generate higher capacities. Their answer was fairly straightforward: Make the last mile
digital by adding special accessories. Finally, phone companies felt they could achieve
a true, steady, dependable throughput of 64 Kbps per line over the same copper wires
already used by PSTN lines. This process of sending telephone transmission across
fully digital lines end-to-end is called Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN)
service.

ISDN is an international communication standard for transmitting data, video, voice

and other forms of information over digital telephone lines. The physical connections
for ISDN bear some similarity to PSTN modems. You generally need to be within
approximately 18,000 feet of a central office to use ISDN. It is an alternative to the
low-speed modem WAN connection but at a higher cost. ISDN provides the delivery
of data or voice over the same physical connection. The connections built using ISDN
are much faster than the regular modem connections. A special telephone wire or line
is required to access ISDN. This line is paid through monthly subscription.

A dial-up number is associated with the receiving computer to establish an ISDN

connection. This connection will break when any of the end points is disconnected or
hangs up. Compared to conventional phone lines, the ISDN line is faster. Now, ISDN
has been replaced by faster and less expensive methods like DSL, cable modems,
though every major telephone company still provides ISDN.

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(ii) DSL
DSL stands for digital subscriber line. Many telephone companies offer this fully digital,
dedicated connection. Like ISDN, you must be within 18,000 feet of a central switch to use
DSL. The closer you are, the faster your connection will be. It is a technology used to bring
information with high bandwidth to small businesses and homes over ordinary copper
telephone lines. One nice aspect of DSL is that it uses the available twisted-pair cables as a
telephone line to transport the data. The same DSL lines you use for data can simultaneously
transmit your voice calls. The word ‘xDSL’ represents the different versions of DSL such as
SDSL, HDSL, HDSL-2, ADSL, G.SHDL, IDSL and VDSL.

DSL Advantages
• Independent services: There is no loss of telephone service when high-speed data
is lost.

• Security: Each subscriber is configured before they get access to the telephone line
services.

• Integration: DSL can easily interface with WAN technology like ATM.

• DSL carries high bandwidth signals.

• Low-cost line charges from the phone company.

• Good for unpredictable traffic patterns.

DSL Disadvantages
• No current standardisation.

• Expensive

• Distance-dependent

• Access: Limited to certain areas due to which rural areas get shorted.

• Asymmetry: Downstream/Upstream ratios may be unacceptably high

• Limited availability

(iii) CATV
The first big challenge for DSL came from cable companies. Cable companies realised that if
they could provide the Home Shopping Network and the History channel through cable TV,

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then “why not Internet?”. To deal with the issues like bidirectional communication, some
major changes were done, by which cable modem service quickly became popular in the US.
Nowadays, cable modems are as common as cable TV boxes.

CATV was originally called as “Community Antenna Television” and now more often termed
as “Community Access Television”. It has been a one-directional medium designed to carry
broadcast analog video signal to the maximum number of end users at minimum cost.

CATV is commonly termed as “cable TV”. CATV not only brings television programs to
people who are connected to a community antenna but also forms a popular way to interact
with WWW and other forms of entertainment services and multimedia information.

Advantages of Cable TV

• Top speeds: Cable modem provides top speeds that vary from provider company
to company.

• On-demand service: These enable the viewers to select different types of

entertainment like sports, movies, etc. and watch according to their wish.

• No overbuying of channels: Payment is made only for those channels which are
selected by the user.

• Provision for telephony service: Same cable can carry all kinds of telephony
services.

• Unaffected by bad weather: It remains uninterrupted due to presence of optic

fibres.

• No converter needed: Most of the cable TVs are digital and no need to purchase
analog-to-digital converter box to receive regular programs.

• Easy installation: There is no need to have a dish; cable TV can be easily installed.

Disadvantages of Cable TV

• More expensive: Cable TV is very expensive.

• Less channels: It provides only local and community channels.

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• No interactive feature: Cable TV does not offer interactive features such as

Personal Video Recording (PVR) which is offered by satellite TV providers.

• Limited subscribers: Imposes limits on the number of subscribers

• Poor quality service: Lack of proper coordination between the cable provider
company and the cable operator may lead to poor quality of service.

(iv) Satellite-based Services

Being in the countryside and getting high-speed Internet is only possible with satellite.
Satellite-based Internet services is the ability to transmit and receive data between computers
through a satellite. A satellite dish antenna and a transmitter/receiver are used as equipments
that operate in the microwave section of the radio spectrum.

Satellite access comes in two types: one-way and two-way. One-way means that you
download via satellite but you must use a PSTN/dial-up modem connection for uploads.
Two-way means the satellite service handles both the uploading and downloading. Speed of
upstream data is slower than the speed of downstream data. Infrastructurewise, satellite-based
connection requires a small satellite antenna, identical to the ones used for satellite television.
This antenna connects to a satellite modem, which, in turn, connects to your PC or your
network as shown in figure 4.1.8 below.

Figure 4.1.8: Satellite Connection

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 Overview of WAN Technology

The two major applications of satellite-based services are VSAT and grid computing.

1. VSAT: VSAT stands for very small aperture terminals. In short, VSAT is a technology
that consists of three major elements - Satellite, a central hub (with a big dish antenna)
and a number of smaller nodes (smaller dish antennas). Any of the network topologies
such as star topology can be used to place all nodes (small dish antennas) in a remote
location using satellite network.

Central hub performs as a server and all nodes communicate with the central hub through
satellite.

Advantages of VSAT Satellite Networks

• Allows access in remote locations

• Rapid deployment

• Easy to establish Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

• Improves the quality of services

• Scalable

2. Grid computing: It is a distributed architecture, which consists of a huge number of

computers and is connected through a satellite network. The main benefit of grid
computing is to solve most complex problems. In grid computing, all computers and
servers communicate through satellite-run independent tasks. For example, Weather
forecasting unit.

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Self-assessment Questions
5) PSTN stands for __________ Switched Telephone Network
a) Public b) Private
c) Physical d) Parallel

6) Telephone services carried by PSTN are also referred to as___________

a) Primary Old Transport Services b) Plain Old Telephone Service
c) Private Telephone Services d) Public Old Telephone Services

7) Which of the following is incorrect about ISDN?

a) It is a communication standard for variety of data over digital telephone lines
b) It supports data transfer rate of 64 kbps
c) Uses the same physical connection to transfer different types of data
d) It stands for Internet Service Digital Network

8) DSL uses _______cables as telephone lines to transport the data.

a) Twisted-pair b) Copper
c) Wireless d) Optical

9) ______________ not only brings television programs to people who are connected to
a community antenna but also forms a popular way to interact with WWW and other
forms of entertainment services and multimedia information.
a) PSTN b) DSL
c) CATV d) ISDN

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(v) Cellular Technologies

In today’s world, people use their smartphones for all purposes. Who is not familiar with
terms like 2G, 3G and 4G? Although cellular technologies are quite complex but these are
generations that speak to the progressions of that technologies. A cellular network or mobile
network is a wireless network distributed across land areas which are termed as cells. Each
cell represents a fixed-location transceiver, known as base station or cell site. The frequency of
signal varies in each cell. Hence, each cell uses a different set of frequencies to avoid
interference and gives assured bandwidth within a cell.

Generally, a cellular network consists of mobile communication devices, cellular base stations
and mobile telephone switching offices (MTSO). Each base station is composed of a
controller and a radio transceiver offers radio communication to its cell where the mobile
unit is located. Mobile communication devices include car phones, held phones, personal
digital assistants, pen-based computers, notebook computers and portable data connection
devices. It is important to note that only 2% of the traffic is data and the rest of the traffic
comes from cellular phones which are the most popular mobile units.

Figure 4.1.9: Cellular System

Mobile units must register with the system by subscribing to a carrier signal before
communicating through the network. Carrier services provide roaming facility to the users by
offering services outside their coverage area, as they have arrangements with other service
providers. In this situation, an alternative cellular provider initiates the call. Hence, cellular

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technology broadens the boundaries of the available telecommunication infrastructure by

establishing connections between the mobile units and public network which is operated by
the local exchange or longer distance carriers. Cellular providers offer special features and
functions to their customers and also use public phone system’s features and functions.
Therefore, cellular technology becomes more flexible and it yields the benefits (features and
functions) of almost all private and public networks.

Fundamental Element in Cellular Technology

A fundamental element of cellular technology is the radio spectrum that consists of many
bands. These bands are allocated and used for personal, commercial and military
applications. A radio spectrum that has 50 MHz frequency is allocated to cellular networks
which are available at 824-849 MHz and 869-894 MHz bands. Many users located in the same
area can access the network simultaneously by dividing these bands into 832 channels.

Competing Wireless Communications Technologies

The improvement in radio technology resulted in the development and deployment of

various forms of wireless communication systems. Personal communication systems (PCS),
paging, satellite communication, cordless telephones, specialised mobile radio (SMR) are the
major competitors of cellular communications.

• PCS works at a radio frequency of 1850-1990 MHz. PCS has greater capability to
carry data and voice traffic. It is less expensive compared to cellular communications.

• Cordless telephony is another competitor that offers wireless communication between

a base station and handset which are connected to a public phone system.

• Paging is an inexpensive one-way transmission of full text and alphanumeric data.

• SMR operates at 800 MHz and it integrates voice and data across the same wireless
network.

(vi) Leased Lines

A leased line is a service contract between the service provider and a customer. In this
contract, a provider must agree to deliver a symmetric or a bidirectional telecommunications
line between two or more locations (device) for a monthly rent.

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In other words, a leased line is a telephone line which has been leased for a private purpose. It
is also referred to as a dedicated line in some situations.

Generally, leased lines are always active, unlike dial-up connections and are used by
businesses to have efficient communication between geographically distant offices. Monthly
rent that has been agreed upon depends on some of the primary factors such as speed of the
circuit and distance between the two end points. The connections that are established
between two end points do not carry any interference (noise) and the carrier signal provides
the assured level of quality.

For example, T-1 is a type of leased line channel that offers 1.544 Mbps maximum
transmission speed. You can divide a connection used for data and voice communication into
two different lines. Division of connection is known as multiplexing.

Applications of Leased Lines

There are varied applications of leased lines. Here are a few:

• Point-to-point for Data Only: Leased lines provide private lines to have a secure
dedicated data circuit between two locations and maintain a constant speed.

• Point-to-point for Voice and Data: Leased lines allow transmitting voice and data
on the same connection and this type of configuration is offered only on a higher
bandwidth circuit.

• Multiplexing: It is a process that connects various remote sites to a single site. A

connection originating from a host is connected to the multiplexer that is located at
the end of the service provider. A multiplexer divides the host circuit into smaller
circuits which are transmitted to the remote sites.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Leased Lines

Here are the advantages and disadvantages of leased lines:

Advantages

• Leased lines provide high-speed, reliable and permanent connection compared to

a temporary connection provided by a dial-up connection.

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• Because of less noise, digital signalling and fewer exchanges, quality of the
connection is much superior to the connection normally available through dial-
up.

Disadvantages

• Price of leased bandwidth is high compared to the dialup bandwidth.

• At present, entry level port prices are also high.

• Permanent connection to the Internet exposes the organisation to a variety of

threats such as viruses, macros, Trojan horses, hacking, etc.

(vii) SONET/SDH
SONET stands for synchronous optical network. It is an ANSI standard used for the
transmission of various kinds of information such as text, audio, voice, etc., over fibreoptic
cables. These cables are widely used by long-distance carriers. SONET has been designed to
offer standard interface for the connecting cables to enable the communication carriers.
Exchange Carriers Standard Association (ECSA) is an organisation that formulates the
SONET; later, it was incorporated into an ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
recommendation and termed as Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH).

SONET was originally designed in the mid-1980s. SONET operates at the physical layer and
deals with concepts related to multiplexing, framing, controlling and transmitting data
(information) synchronously over optical cables. The main purpose of SONET is to describe a
standard means for multiplexing a number of slower signals onto a larger and faster signal for
transmission.

In relation to this multiplexing capability, two signal definitions lie at the heart of the
SONET standard:

• Optical carrier (OC) levels: These are used by fibreoptic media and translate speed
and carrying capacity of signals.

• Synchronous transfer signals (STS): These are equivalent to OC levels and are used
by non-fibre media.

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The following figure 4.1.10 shows basically what happens during a SONET transmission:

Figure 4.1.10: SONET Transmission

As explained, SONET is a standard for an optical transport. Transmission that takes place
through SONET system is of optical form and does not begin and end the same way.
Transmissions are multiplexed onto the SONET medium.

Self-assessment Questions
10) Which of the following is not a main part of a basic cellular system?
a) A cell site b) A mobile unit
c) A mobile telephone switching office d) Cable

11) In the cellular network, each network represents a fixed-location transceiver, which is
referred to as ________
a) Network area b) Base station
c) Cell system d) Mobile network

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Summary
o A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad
geographic area and that often uses transmission facilities provided by common
carriers, such as telephone companies.

o A set of switches and routers are interconnected to form a wide area network. The
different types of switches are: circuit, packet and message.

o ISDN has long been an alternative to the slower modem WAN connections but at
a higher cost. ISDN allows the transmission of voice and data over the same
physical connection.

o Digital subscriber line (DSL) technology is a modem technology that uses existing
twisted-pair telephone lines to transport high-bandwidth data, such as
multimedia and video, to service subscribers.

o Satellite Internet connection is an arrangement in which the upstream (outgoing)

and the downstream (incoming) data are sent from and arrive at a computer
through a satellite.

o A cellular network or mobile network is a wireless network distributed over land

areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a
cell site or base station.

o A backbone network allows several LANs to be connected.

o A leased line is a telephone line that has been leased for private use.

o SONET or Synchronous Optical Network is an ANSI standard for the

transmission of different types of information.

Terminal Questions
1. What are leased lines?

2. What are the major elements of VSAT?

3. What is grid computing?

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Answer Keys
Self-assessment Questions
Question No. Answer

1 d
2 a
3 d
4 d
5 a
6 b
7 d
8 a
9 c
10 d
11 b

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Bibliography
e-References
• Cisco. Digital Subscriber Line. Retrieved 17 July, 2015 from
http://docwiki.cisco.com/wiki/Digital_Subscriber_Line
• Cisco. Introduction to WAN technologies. Retrieved 17 July, 2015 from
http://docwiki.cisco.com/wiki/Introduction_to_WAN_Technologies
• Technet. WAN technologies. Retrieved 20 July, 2015 from
https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb962087.aspx#ID0EHD
• Cellular Technology. Retrieved 20 July, 2015 from
http://scis.nova.edu/~raciti/cellular.html

External Resources
• CCNA Cisco Certified Network Associate: Study Guide. (2011). India: Wiley
publishing.

• Forouzan, B. A. (2007). Data Communications and Networking (4 ed.). New

York: McGraw-Hill.

• Rick Graziani, A. J. (2007). Routing Protocols and Concepts: CCNA Exploration

Companion Guide (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Cisco Press.

• Tanenbaum, A. S. (2007). Computer Networks. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall Of India

Pvt. Limited.

Video Links
Topic Link
Introduction to WANs https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sj8dUQmhePo
Circuit-switched WAN Technologies https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bjv_J-rkYAs
Packet-switched WAN Technologies https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6lkbh5DLp8U
ISDN https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XYl5rDr88UA
What is DSL? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mI6Uh6D3NvA
CCNA Routing & Switching: Leased lines https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9L3H1gW9ASk
SONET/SDH https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6-G7gMwpuw

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Notes:

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Chapter Table of Contents

Chapter 4.2

Introduction to Remote Access and Network Security

Aim ..................................................................................................................................................... 227
Instructional Objectives................................................................................................................... 227
Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................................................... 227
4.2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 228
4.2.2 Dial-up Remote Access........................................................................................................... 228
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 231
4.2.3 Virtual Private Networking ................................................................................................... 232
4.2.4 SSL VPN ................................................................................................................................... 234
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 235
4.2.5 Remote Terminal Emulation (RTE) ..................................................................................... 236
4.2.6 Network Security ..................................................................................................................... 237
(i) Authentication and Authorisation ................................................................................... 239
(ii) Tunneling and Encryption Protocols ............................................................................. 240
(iii) IPSec, SSL and TLS .......................................................................................................... 242
(iv) Firewall .............................................................................................................................. 246
(v) Other Security Appliances ................................................................................................ 247
(vi) Security Threats ................................................................................................................ 248
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 251
Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 253
Answer Keys...................................................................................................................................... 254
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 255
e-References ...................................................................................................................................... 255
External Resources ........................................................................................................................... 255
Video Links ....................................................................................................................................... 255

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Aim

To impart students with a basic knowledge of network accessibility and network

security

Instructional Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• Explain dial-up remote access

• Explain virtual private networking technology

• Show how IPSec protocol adds authentication and confidentiality to the IP

protocol

• List IPSec security protocols along with their purposes

• Describe the use of SSL protocol

• Discuss the security parameters of SSL

• Describe network firewall along with its classifications

• Discuss various network security threats

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

• Explain how VPN provides privacy for LANs

• Identify the drawbacks and solutions of virtual private networking

• Illustrate network authentication and authorisation

• Explain how IPSec transport mode differs from tunnel mode

• List the protocols defined by SSL

• Differentiate between packet filter firewall and proxy-based firewall

• List network security issues

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4.2.1 Introduction
By now you have learnt about various connection options for homes and small offices. Now
most challenging is to take a decision on it. Based on the area you are located at, you need to
find out the available services. And next is to identify your bandwidth requirement. Second
one is the question of great debate. Most services are more than happy to increase service
levels if you find that a certain level is too slow. Generally, it is more advisable to start with a
slow level and then increase if required. After being familiar with DSL and ISDN, finally it is
time to get into the world of satellite. You can also use its handy search feature to determine
the types of service for DSL, cable and other services along with their cost as well.

Nowadays, businesses are no longer limited to a small shop or place. Maybe you need to book
a flight ticket from a remote place of the world. As people travel, information has to remain
accessible. Immediate solution is remote access. It enables a user to connect to a server at the
business location and log into the network as if they were in the same building as the
company. Till then it was fine, but the biggest issue with such a communication method and
wireless networking device is security. Merchants make a special effort to make setting up
their gadgets simple, so usually the main thing that you need to do to join a remote system is
turn your remote gadgets on and let them locate one another, which actually may cause a
disaster in terms of security.

This chapter deals with two main aspects: first is a discussion about remote access method
and last but not the least is security.

4.2.2 Dial-up Remote Access

Dial-up remote access is an access technology available as a part of routing that provides a
standard dial-up network. It has the potential to increase productivity and make a network
secure against unauthorised access. Using dial-up remote access, a user (remote access client)
who is located on the remote site can use the telecommunication infrastructure to establish a
virtual or physical circuit on a remote access server for temporary purpose.

Providing remote access to the remote sites or different branch offices requires balancing the
cost and flexibility of solutions with needs of clients. As technology is coming up with new
improvements, dial-up remote access is emerging as one of the most effective forms of
establishing a network.

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Benefits of dial-up remote access are:

• Even though dial-up remote access is emerging, it still is cost effective and flexible.

• It needs only plain old telephone service (POTS) or ISDN lines.

• It allows many users to have connections with various resources simultaneously.

• It allows travelling or telecommuting remote users to connect to their network as if

they were located on site.

• It enables a remote access client to use the WAN infrastructure to connect to a remote
access server.

Components of a Dial-up Remote Access Connection:

You may be aware that all operating systems come with dial-up support programs, but
following are the components that you need to provide to set up a dial-up remote access
connection:

• A modem (to set up a connection, most operating systems check for this)

• A telephone number to dial (provided by ISP)

• User name and password (provided by ISP)

• Type of connection (dial-up always uses PPP)

• IP information

With the above-mentioned specifications, a dial-up connection can be set up in Windows 7 as

shown in figure 4.2.1 below. Go to start menu  Click on the control panel  Click on
Network and Internet  Click on Network and Sharing Center  Click on Set up a new
connection or network

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Figure 4.2.1 Dial-up on Windows 2007

Following are the components required to make a remote access dial-up connection:

• Remote access client

• Remote access server

• WAN infrastructure

Figure 4.2.2: Dial-up Remote Access Connection

1. Remote Access Client: Remote Access Client can connect to a remote access server using
dial-up to establish a remote communication.

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Introduction to Remote Access and Network Security

2. Remote Access Server: These servers accept a dial-up connection and then transmit
packets to the network and all remote access clients which are connected to it.

3. WAN Infrastructure: Establishes physical or virtual connection between the remote

access clients and remote access server. This is accomplished by a dial-up device that is
installed at the remote access server, clients and WAN infrastructure.

Self-assessment Questions
1) Using _______, a user who is located on the remote site can use the
telecommunication infrastructure to establish a virtual or physical circuit.
a) Dial-up remote access b) A network device
c) Communication lines d) A communication device

2) Which of the following is a component of dial-up remote access connection?

a) Remote access client b) Remote access server
c) WAN infrastructure d) All of a, b and c

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4.2.3 Virtual Private Networking

Remote connections have been around for a long time even before the Internet existed. The
greatest downside to remote connections was the expense to connect. Only telephone was the
option to connect if you were on one side of the continent and had to connect to your LAN
on the other side of the continent. E-businesses have expanded their networks as the
popularity of Internet has grown. Initially, organisations used intranet which was a private
network (LAN) that used the internet model. But access to this network was limited to users
inside the organisation. Later, organisations started developing their own virtual private
networks (VPNs) to fulfill the needs of employees located in a different place (remote place)
and distant offices.

A virtual private network (VPN) is a technology that is used to generate an encrypted

connection over a less secure network. A VPN makes use of the Internet to connect remote
sites through ‘virtual’ connections instead of a real-world connection such as a leased line.
Hence, VPN creates a network that is private but virtual. It is private because it guarantees
privacy inside the organisation. It is virtual because it does not use real private WANs. The
structure of a virtual private network is shown in figure 4.2.3 below.

Figure 4.2.3: Virtual Private Network

The main concern of VPN is that all computers should be on the same network with the same
network ID which is very difficult. To come up with the solution of this problem, network
engineers implemented various functions, these work at different layers of the TCP/IP model.

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The most common types of VPNs are:

• Remote-access VPNs: It is also referred to as a virtual private dial-up network

(VPDN). A company or organisation uses a user-to-LAN connection where its
employees are connected from a remote location to its private network. In this type,
VPN uses the Internet to provide remote users secure access to their organisation’s
network. These VPNs allow protected and encrypted connection between its private
network and remote users (employees) through a third party service provider.

• Site-to-site VPNs: It uses a gateway device to form connections in a network. IPSec is

used by most site-to-site VPNs while connecting to the Internet. Site-to-site VPN can
be used to securely connect entire networks to each other. For example, connecting
various branch offices to its main headquarters.

Following are the benefits of a well-designed VPN in an organisation:

• Helps to enhance the geographical connectivity

• Minimises the operational cost compared to traditional WANs

• Minimises transmission time

• Improves productivity

• Simplifies network topology

• Offers universal networking opportunities

• Gives faster return on investment (ROI) than traditional WAN

A well-designed VPN includes the following features:

• Security

• Reliability

• Scalability

• Network management

• Policy management

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4.2.4 SSL VPN

Cisco has made a major push for organisations to embrace VPN equipment that empowers
VPNs using SSL. An SSL VPN is nothing but a form of VPN. It can be used with a standard
web browser and does not require any installation of client software on the end user’s system
unlike traditional IPSec VPN.

An SSL VPN permits end users to access limited network resources where all network traffic
is encrypted through the protected and authenticated way, irrespective of geographical
location. This protocol offers a high level of compatibility between the client system and the
remote network.

Figure 4.2.4: SSL VPN

The SSL VPN is also referred to as WebVPN. It allows remote users to access enterprise
networks from anywhere on the Internet. SSL is used to provide remote access and it enables
the SSL VPN gateway. This gateway makes use of a web browser to build a secure VPN
tunnel. This allows end users to access a broad range of web resources and web-based
applications with the help of HTTP over SSL.

The SSL VPN includes two options:

1. Web Proxy: A web-based interface enables users to access all available resources. These
resources look like bookmarks on the SSL VPN start page and provide secure access to
the user through an internal IP address. Hence, this interface allows the user to perform
activities like file sharing and accessing web-based applications.

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2. Network Connect: Instead of working through a web interface, a user can download a
local VPN client that uses the SSL protocol. The SSL protocol is capable of providing
additional connectivity if required. A unique IP address is assigned from a pool of
addresses which are based on their role in the network connect client. Whenever an
updated version of SSL VPN is detected, SSL VPN client is updated automatically.

Benefits of including secure network access with SSL VPN:

• Allows extending the network easily and in a secure manner so that its available
resources reach all the users in a network.

• Easily customises access permission and enhances the limit of corporate network to
individuals.

• Forms a secured network and minimises the cost of building a network with SSL
VPN.

• SSL VPN solutions can be personalised for the various organisations (companies)
which differ in their size and features related to delivery of remote access and
advantages such as:

 Lower desktop support costs

 Threat protection

 Flexible and cost-effective licensing

 Reduced cost and management complexity

Self-assessment Questions
3) VPN stands for
a) Virtual protected network b) Virtual primary network
c) Virtual private network d) Virtual physical network

4) Which of the following allows users to access enterprise networks from anywhere on
the Internet?
a) SSL VPN b) ISDN
c) DSL d) TLS

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4.2.5 Remote Terminal Emulation (RTE)

Remote terminal emulation emulates a remote terminal coupled to a computer system within
some other display architecture. It creates a connection with a computer which is located far
away and enables you to operate that computer as if you are sitting in front of it. Also, remote
terminal emulation is the ability to make a given computer appear like an actual terminal or
client computer networked to a server or mainframe computer.

A terminal emulation program operates as any application. However, if emulating an older

terminal or mainframe, the interface may be text only.

Some well-established companies (banks, insurance companies and governments) may have
decades-old programs running on mainframe computers. The terminals are long and
obsolete but are now emulated by terminal emulation software, which can access applications
on mainframes still in use.

A remote terminal emulator comprises of:

• A processor

• A memory operatively coupled to the processor

A RTE process executes in the processor and follows one or more occurrences of use of a
system under test through a remote coupled terminal.

The receive time is the total time required by a computer in response to a command signal
which is transmitted by RTE. This time is recorded by RTE itself and it describes the total
duration required for the completion of the transmission of the command signal to
identification of a pattern described by the RTE.

As a result, the receive time recorded reflects the time required by the computer system to:

• Process and carry out the command transmitted by the RTE

• Transmit response data back to the RTE.

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4.2.6 Network Security

Security is the biggest concern of a wireless network. Network security includes a set of
policies and provisions which are adopted by a network administrator. These help to prevent
the misuse or denial of a computer network and also help to monitor the unauthorised access
and network accessible resources.

Network security is the process of protecting the hardware and software from unauthorised
access, malfunction and modification. It creates a secure platform for computers. Using
network security, the sensitive data is secured from threats.

Need for network security:

• Protect sensitive data while allowing specific access

• Provide authentication and access control for resources

• Protect from malicious data modification

• Protect from vulnerability

Network security tools:

• Data backup system: Backups are very useful in case of any hardware or software
damage.

• Operating system: An operating system must be updated for current patches and
updates. OS must have good security tools and features.

• Firewalls: Firewall is a network security system that controls the incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on an applied rule set.

• Antiviral products: Antivirus software was originally developed to detect and remove
computer viruses.

• IP security: Using IP security, the data is encrypted and then sent to the receiver.

• Modems: Secured modems are used in networks to prevent unauthorised access.

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There are various components needed to have a network security system. Along with this, it is
very essential that all components work together. This will minimise maintenance and also
improve the security level.

Components of network security include:

• It provides anti-virus and anti-spyware protection.

• Firewall is used to block unauthorised access to a network.

• Intrusion prevention systems (IPS) are used to find rapidly spreading threats.

• Virtual private networks (VPNs) provide secure remote access.

Routers and switches are designed to facilitate communication within a network and have a
default operational mode to forward all traffic unless they are configured otherwise. This
specific function of transmitting all traffic results in configuring minimal security to these
devices and rendering them an easy target for malicious attacks.

Lack of security leads to:

• Loss of privacy

• Data theft

• Impersonation

• Loss of integrity of the data

Hence, to counter these issues, setting up a security cover is absolutely necessary.

Follow these general steps before adding any new device into the network:

Step 1: Formulate and establish organisational security policies.

Step 2: Secure the new switch devices by securing access to the switch and the protocols. This
reduces the threats that are launched via the switch.

Before deciding the different ways to secure the network, one must determine the level of
security required and formulate a security policy. A well-established and reasonable security
policy will include the following characteristics:

• Process for auditing existing network security.

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• General security framework (helps in implementing network security).

• Guidelines for behaviour towards the electronic data that is not allowed into the
network.

• Listing of the security tools and procedures needed.

• Set rules and responsibilities for users and administrators.

• Procedure to handle the incidents related to network security.

• Set an enterprise-wide, all-site security and enforcement plan.

(i) Authentication and Authorisation

Authentication, authorisation and accounting (AAA) is a term used for a framework for
managing and enabling access to network resources such as computers, routers, etc., forming
policies and providing the data necessary to bill for services. AAA is the combination of
processes that create an effective network infrastructure and security.

Authentication in a wired network generally takes the form of a centralised security database
that contains user names, passwords and permissions. Wireless network clients can use the
same security database as wired clients only with some extra step for authentication.
Authentication is a process that defines a way of recognising a user across the network who
wants to connect or use network resources or access information from another. It is typically
fulfilled by having a valid username and password before access is permitted. This process
completely depends on each user who has a unique set of criteria for authentication.

The AAA server cross-checks individual user authenticated information that is user name
and password with the database; if a match is found, then the user is granted access to the
network. If not, network access is denied.

Following authentication, a user must get authorisation to do certain tasks. For example,
After logging into the system, a user may try to change certain commands in the system.
Authorisation is a process that helps to determine whether the user has permission to
perform specific tasks (especially system related). Hence, authorisation-enforcing policies
decide what type of data, resources, or services a user has permission to perform. Process of
authorisation occurs in the criteria of authentication. Once the user is authenticated, he/she

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may be authorised for various types of access or activity. The final step in AAA is accounting
that measures the total time resources are consumed by a user during access.

In wireless networking, the IEEE 802.1X standard enables the user to set up a network with
some seriously secure authentication using a remote authentication dial-in user service
(RADIUS) server and password encrypted with extensible authentication protocol (known as
EAL; will be discussed in the following section). Let us see how a RADIUS server functions.

The client computer is called as supplicant. It contacts the wireless access point (WAP) also
known as network access server (NAS) and requests permission to access the network. The
NAS contacts the RADIUS server to check if the supplicant appears in the RADIUS server’s
security database. If the applicant appears and the user name and password are correct, the
RADIUS server sends a response to the supplicant through the WAP. The response in the
form of a packet which consists of an access accept code and authentication section proves
that the packet actually came from the RADIUS server. Then the remote user gets access to
the network resources. Figure 4.2.5 shows how a RADIUS server works.

Figure 4.2.5: Authenticating using RADIUS

Authentication is provided between NAS and RADIUS server by IPSec.

(ii) Tunneling and Encryption Protocols

VPNs create a private network that uses the concept of tunneling to extend it across the
Internet. VPN forms a secure tunnel between two end services such as firewall, route, or VPN
device. Tunneling enables the encapsulation of a packet of one type of protocol within the

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datagram of another protocol. For example, VPN uses Point-to-Point (PPP) tunneling
protocol to encapsulate the IP packets over a network. A VPN solution is based on layer two
tunneling protocol (L2TP), point-to-point tunneling protocol (PPTP), or secure socket
tunneling protocol (SSTP).

PPTP, L2TP and SSTP are completely dependent on the features specified by the PPP. This
protocol is developed to transmit data across a dedicated point-to-point connection or dial-
up connection. Generally for IP, PPP forms PPP frames by encapsulating IP packets and
sending these frames across point-to-point link. A tunneling protocol is one that encloses in
its datagram another complete data packet that uses a different communication protocol.

Encryption is the process that is used to encode data so that a device with a specified decoder
will be able to read and use that data. Encryption is mainly used to secure data or files on the
system or e-mail that the user sends over the network. It consists of encryption keys that
determine what operation has to be performed in order to encrypt or decrypt the data.

Following are some of the protocols which are used to encapsulate and encrypt the data:

IPIP tunneling: Tunneling IP packets in IP packets.

• IPSec: Internet Protocol Security is a collection of security measures (data privacy,

integrity and authentication) that manage the encryption of data in addition to
tunneling. It is a VPN tunneling protocol.

• L2F: Layer2 Forwarding works at the data link layer of the OSI model. It uses
authentication scheme supported by PPP. It is being replaced by L2TP.

• L2TP: Layer2 Tunneling Protocol. (RFC 2661) is a combination of L2F and PPTP and
works at the link layer. It uses IPSec for encryption.

• PPTP: Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (RFC 2637) works at the link layer. A VPN
tunneling protocol is used to send secure communications from point to point. It
supports 40-bit and 128-bit encryption and any authentication scheme supported by
PPP.

• Socks: It is a protocol that is handled at the application layer.

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(iii) IPSec, SSL and TLS

A network is composed of hosts and routers. A host can be a device, server or wireless device.
A router is connected to a network to send information in the form of packets. Network-
based security offers multiple services to protect the information from internal and external
threats. It works with both the endpoint computer and the internal company firewalls. IPSec,
SSL and TLS are some of the network-based security protocols used to protect data
communication over the Internet.

1. IPsec - Internet Protocol Security:

IP Security (IPSec) is a collection of protocols used to provide security for a packet at the IP
level by authenticating and encrypting each packet of a communication session. In short,
IPSec is a framework which provides a set of protocols that support secure exchange of IP
packets at the IP layer. It is organised mainly to implement virtual private networks (VPNs).
This protocol uses some of the cryptographic security services which enable protected
communication over Internet protocol networks:

• Data confidentiality: IPSec encodes the data before transferring it over a network.

• Data integrity: IPSec provides the exact delivery of data and ensures that data has not
been modified during transmission over a network.

• Data origin authentication: Enables the IPSec receiver to authenticate the source of
the IPSec packet sent, which is completely dependent on the data integrity service.

• Antireplay: IPSec receiver can accept or reject the replayed packets.

IPsec performs at two encryption modes: transport mode and tunnel mode. The mode
defines where the IPsec header is added to the IP packet as shown in below figure 4.2.6.

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Figure 4.2.6: IPsec modes

• Transport mode: In this mode, the IPsec header as ESP (encapsulating security
payload) is added between the IP headers and only the data part of IP packet
(payload) is encrypted.

• Tunnel mode: In this mode, the IPsec header is placed in front of the original IP
header and both payload and header are encrypted. A new IP header is added at the
start of the packet. The IPsec header, the preserved IP header and the rest of the
packet are treated as payload.

2. SSL (Secure Sockets Layer):

SSL stands for Secure Sockets Layer. It is a protocol suite used to offer security for
transmitting private data over the Internet. The major role of SSL is to provide security for
web traffic. Security includes confidentiality, integrity and authentication. SSL protects
sensitive information through the use of cryptography. The data is encrypted across networks
to protect the information.

SSL uses a cryptographic system to accomplish the security of data over the Internet. This
system provides two keys to encode (encrypt) the data across the communication session:
private key and public key. Private key or secret key is known only to the recipient of the

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message and public key is available to everyone in the network. Figure 4.2.7 depicts how SSL
works.

Figure 4.2.7: Secure Sockets Layer

The main objectives of SSL are:

• Authenticating the client and server to each other: SSL protocol supports the use of
cryptographic techniques to authenticate the communication between client and
server.

• Data integrity: Ensures data integrity across the communication session.

• Securing data privacy: The data must be protected from interception and be readable
only by the recipient.

SSL is not a single protocol but rather it is a set of protocols that can be divided into two
layers as shown in figure 4.2.8 below:

• The protocol to ensure data security and integrity.

• The protocol that is designed to establish an SSL connection.

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Figure 4.2.8: SSL protocols

SSL uses these protocols to address the specific tasks. SSL record protocol is responsible for
data encryption. It is also used to encapsulate data sent by other SSL protocols. The other
protocols cover the area of session management. SSL operates above the TCP/IP protocol of
the OSI model. TCP/IP protocol performs the transmission and routing of data over a
network. The protocols IMAP and HTTP encrypt the data which is transmitted in the
application layer of the IP suite.

3. TLS - Transport Layer Security:

It is a protocol that guarantees the privacy of documents and their users which are involved in
the communication across the network. TLS ensures that no third party listens or modifies
the communication that takes place between two parties. It can be considered as a successor
to the SSL.

• TLS includes two layers: TLS record protocol and TLS handshake protocol.

• TLS Record Protocol: This protocol makes use of an encryption technique that is
data encryption standard (DES) to provide connection security. It can also be used
without encryption.

• TLS Handshake Protocol: This protocol is used to authenticate client and server to
each other. It facilitates conversation regarding encryption techniques and keys used
to encrypt before exchange of data.

SSL is commonly used to define TLS. The combination of SSL/TLS protocol accomplishes the
best security level across the web applications such as email, web browser and where data
needs to be securely interchanged over a network (For example, VPN connection, file
transfer).

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(iv) Firewall
A firewall is a network security system, either hardware or software, that controls the
incoming and outgoing network traffic based on an applied rule set. It is placed between the
trusted secure network and untrusted systems (Internet, assume not to be trusted) and
establishes a barrier between them. It is also known as choke point. A firewall blocks
unauthorised access to the network. A firewall identifies what to let in to and out of the
network as illustrated in below figure 4.2.9.

Figure 4.2.9: Firewall

Firewalls can be implemented either by using hardware or software, but an ideal firewall
configuration is composed of both hardware and software. Firewalls not only limit access to
the system but also allow remote access to a private network through logins and
authentication certificates. Hardware firewalls can be brought as a stand-alone product and
are also available as a built-in part of systems (can be found in broadband router) and
network set-up.

Software firewalls are to be installed in the system; they allow users to customise some control
over protection features and functions. Software firewalls secure the system from outside
attempts to gain access of the system.

For example, a router used to pass data between networks consists of firewall components; on
the other hand, firewalls that act as routers perform the basic routing functions. They also act
as a DHCP or VPN server to offer some other functionality to secure the internal network.

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Classifications of firewalls:

a) Packet filter firewall: These are firewalls that operate at the network layer. They can only
filter the packets based on the information available at the network layer and the
information includes IP address of source and destination.

• They may have different filtering rules for incoming and outgoing packets.

• Packet filters are more effective since the packets are processed up to the network
layer and only the header information is examined.

b) Stateful-packet filter: As the name suggests, it indicates the state of the packet. Stateful
packet filter operates in the transport layer since it contains information about
connections.

• It keeps track of transmission control protocol (TCP)

• The main benefit is that in addition to the features of the packet filters, it also
contains ongoing connection of the packets.

• It is slower than packet filters.

c) Application proxy packets: These are firewalls that protect network resources by filtering
messages at the application layer as proxy. It is also called as gateway firewall.

• It has a complete view of connections and is able to filter the bad or unwanted
data at the application layer.

• Incoming packet is destroyed and a new packet is created when the data passes
through the firewall.

(v) Other Security Appliances

A network server appliance is an inexpensive personal computer which is used by an
organisation to enable the simplicity of a remote organisation and some business-related
activities. These are typically housed on a web server. A security appliance can be defined as a
type of server appliance designed to secure a computer network from unwanted traffic.

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Types of security appliances:

• Active devices: These security appliances are used to block unwanted traffic, for
example, antivirus, firewalls.

• Passive devices: These security appliances are used to find and report on the
unwanted traffic, for example, intrusion detection appliances.

• Preventative devices: These security appliances are used to examine networks and
find unwanted traffic or security problems (such as vulnerability assessment
appliances).

• Unified Threat Management (UTM): These appliances integrate the security features
of different appliances into a single appliance.

First three security appliances will be discussed in the next section. Let us know more
about unified threat management:

• Combines gateway, firewall, antivirus and intrusion prevention capabilities into a

single appliance.

• Secures users from various threats.

• Provides a method to handle various appliances from a location.

• Creates and controls universal security policies.

• Offers real-time screening and logging.

• Creates a single interface to administer security.

(vi) Security Threats

Most of the organisations, even though they have implemented security programs, are poorly
prepared to detect and respond to attacks. In order to secure the organisation’s information
which is exchanged between users over the Internet, one must know the threats they face and
the system which stores, transports and executes it. A threat is an object, person or other
entity which constitutes an ongoing danger to information or data.

It is very difficult to handle the information security across the network because of the
presence of various types of threats. It can be internal or external threats. The security attacks
vary in their complexity and threat level. Most of these attacks are with malicious intent but

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quite a few are due to user ignorance. Most of the attacks are planned and executed through
the Internet.

Here are a few of the common attack profiles:

• Application layer attacks: These attacks occur on well-known gaps in the software
that are found running on the servers. The targets include FTP, mails and HTTP.

• Auto-rooters: “Rootkits”, commonly used by hackers, are smuggled into the system
and these probe, scan and capture data on a strategically placed computer in the
network. These help the hacker to monitor the activities in the network.

• Backdoors: These paths lead right into a computer of a network! Simple invasions
and Trojan horses are implanted into the network through these backdoors.

• Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attacks: These
attacks make a service unavailable within a network: Here are a few examples:

 TCP SYN Flood

 “Ping of Death” Attacks

 Tribe flood network (TFN) and Tribe flood network 2000 (TFN2K)

 Stacheldraht

• Brute force: It is an application of a network resource to try every possible

combination of a password. This is also known as password attack. These attacks are
rarely successful against the system. There should be a control, which limits the
number of wrong entries per unit of elapsed time. This technique is very effective
against brute force attacks.

• Spoofing: Spoofing is a method used to get unauthorised access to computers where

the intruder sends messages along a source IP address which has been forged to
denote that the messages are coming from a trusted host.

• Spam: Spam is unwanted commercial e-mail. While most consider spam a minor
trouble rather than an attack, it has been utilised as a means of enhancing malicious
code attacks.

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• Deliberate software attacks: These attacks take place when an individual or a group
plans and organises software to attack a system. Most of this software is known as
malicious code or malicious software or malware. These software programs are
designed to violate or destroy service to the target systems. Some of the more general
occurrences of malicious code are viruses and worms, Trojans, logic bombs and back
doors.

Countering the Security Threats

For countering these security attacks at various levels, here are the common ways to secure
any network.

• Ensuring physical security: Physical security prevents unauthorised physical access

to switches. This can be achieved by placing the switches in a secure location, in a
room or closet with access to authorised personnel only.

• Firewall implementation: Establish a secure connection using a firewall between a

private network and the Internet.

• Securing the switches and switch protocols: This prevents access to the switches by
unauthorised users, either directly or from a remote location.

• Securing ports: The feature which restricts a switch port to a specific number of
MAC addresses is known as port security. The switch learns these addresses
dynamically or can be manually configured.

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Self-assessment Questions
5) What is a firewall in a computer network?
a) Physical boundary of a network
b) An operating system of a computer network
c) A system designed to prevent unauthorised access
d) A web browsing software

6) Which of the following can be software?

a) Routers b) Firewalls
c) Gateways d) Modems

7) _________is the process that is used to encode data so that a device with a specified
decoder is only able to read and use that data.
a) Encryption b) Authentication
c) Authorisation d) Repudiation

8) Which of the following security services is not provided by IPSec?

a) Data confidentiality b) Data integrity
c) Data privacy d) Data origin authentication

9) ___________ensures that no third party listens or modifies the communication

applications that take place between two parties.
a) TLS b) SSL
c) IPSec d) DSL

10) Which of the following protocols is not included in the SSL protocol suite?
a) SSL record protocol b) SSL handshake protocol
c) SSL application protocol d) SSL message protocol

11) A firewall that protects network resources at the application layer is___________.
a) Packet filter b) Stateful packet filter
c) Proxy packets d) Modem

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12) AAA stands for

a) Authentication, authorisation and accounting
b) Authorisation, accurate and authentication
c) Accurate, authorised and authenticated
d) Authentication, authorisation and accurate

13) “Ping of Death” attacks is an example for

a) Deliberate software attacks
b) Auto-rooters
c) Denial of service and distributed denial of service attacks
d) Brute force

14) Which of the following protocols enables the encapsulation of a packet of one type of
protocol within a datagram of another protocol?
a) Tunneling protocol b) Encryption protocol
c) IPsec d) SSL

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Summary
o Dial-up remote access is an access technology available as a part of routing that
provides a standard dial-up network.

o A virtual private network (VPN) is a technology that creates an encrypted

connection over a less secure network.

o A secure sockets layer virtual private network (SSL VPN) is a form of VPN that can
be used with a standard web browser.

o Remote terminal emulation is the ability to make a given computer appear like an
actual terminal or client computer networked to a server or mainframe computer.

o Network security consists of the provisions and policies adopted by a network

administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorised access, misuse, modification
or denial of a computer network and network-accessible resources.

o Authentication, authorisation and accounting (AAA) is a framework for

intelligently controlling access to computer resources, enforcing policies, auditing
usage and providing the information necessary to bill for services.

o IPsec uses cryptographic security services to protect communications over Internet

protocol (IP) networks.

o SSL provides a secure connection between Internet browsers and websites,

allowing transmission of private data online.

o TLS and its predecessor, SSL, are cryptographic protocols designed to provide
communication security over a computer network.

o A firewall typically establishes a barrier between a trusted secure internal network

and another network that is assumed not to be secure and trusted.

o A threat is an object, person or any other foreign entity which constitutes an

ongoing danger to information or data.

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 Introduction to Remote Access and Network Security

o Most of the attacks are planned and executed through the Internet. Application
layer attacks, auto-rooters, backdoors, spoofing, etc., are a few common attack
profiles.

Answer Keys
Self-assessment Questions
Question No. Answer

1 a
2 d
3 c
4 a
5 c
6 b
7 a
8 a
9 a
10 d
11 c
12 a
13 c
14 a

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Introduction to Remote Access and Network Security

Bibliography
e-References
• Technet. Dial-up Remote Access. Retrieved 20 July, 2015 from
https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc787124(v=ws.10).aspx

• Cisco. Network Security. Retrieved 21 July, 2015 from

http://www.cisco.com/cisco/web/solutions/small_business/resource_center/article
s/secure_my_business/what_is_network_security/index.html

• Webopedia. IPsec. Retrieved 21 July, 2015 from

http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/I/IPsec.html

External Resources
• Forouzan, B. A. (2007). Data Communication and Networking. New Delhi:
McGraw-Hill.

• Leondes, C. T. (2002). Communication Network System. California: Academic

Press.

• Leon-Garcia, I. W. (2004). Communication Networks. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-

Hill.

• Manoj, C. S. (2004). Ad Hoc Wireless Networks. New Jersey: Pearson Education.

• MIR, N. F. (2007). Computer and Communication Networks. New York: Pearson

Education.

Video Links

Topic Link

Dial-up Remote Access https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XKuPhvot0o8

Virtual Private Networking https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q4P4BjjXghQ

VPN: IPSEC and SSL https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eE3buDgAwi8

Network Security https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kcks1FLBVOI

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Notes:

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Computer Networks

MODULE - V

Network Operating
Systems and
Troubleshooting
Networks
MODULE 5

Network Operating Systems and

Troubleshooting Networks
Module Description

A network operating system (NOS) is a computer operating system that is designed mainly to
support a workstation, personal computer and in some instances, older terminals that are
connected on a local area network (LAN). It is also defined as a software that runs on a server
and defines how resources are shared on the network. A network may have various problem
related to connectivity, device failure or web server issues. This module explains general
features of NOS. It also analyses various ways to troubleshoot the network.

In this module, you will learn how NOS supports in a successful network transmission.

By end of this module, you will be able to troubleshoot network component by using various
software and hardware tools.

Chapter 5.1
Introduction to Network Operating Systems

Chapter 5.2
Troubleshooting Networks

Computer Networks
Introduction to Network Operating Systems

Chapter Table of Contents

Chapter 5.1

Introduction to Network Operating Systems

Aim ..................................................................................................................................................... 257
Instructional Objectives................................................................................................................... 257
Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................................................... 257
5.1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 258
5.1.2 Overview of Network Operating Systems ............................................................................ 258
(i) Features of Network Operating Systems ......................................................................... 259
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 261
5.1.3 Microsoft Operating System .................................................................................................. 262
5.1.4 Novell NetWare ....................................................................................................................... 266
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 268
5.1.5 UNIX Operating System ........................................................................................................ 269
5.1.6 LINUX Operating System ...................................................................................................... 271
5.1.7 Macintosh Networking........................................................................................................... 272
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 274
Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 275
Terminal Questions.......................................................................................................................... 275
Answer Keys...................................................................................................................................... 276
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 277
e-References ...................................................................................................................................... 277
External Resources ........................................................................................................................... 277
Video Links ....................................................................................................................................... 277

Computer Networks | Network Operating Systems and Troubleshooting Networks

Introduction to Network Operating Systems

Aim

To introduce the students to the concepts of network operating systems, giving them
a brief overview on the different types of network operating systems

Instructional Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• Discuss the features of network operating systems

• List the features of network operating systems

• Discuss briefly all the variations of Microsoft Windows 9x family and

Windows NT family

• Explain the significant versions of NetWare: NetWare 3x, 4x, 5x and 6x

• Describe how UNIX/Linux operating system performs networking

• Explain how Macintosh NOS differs from other NOS

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

• Differentiate between an operating system and a network operating system

• Summarise the features of network operating systems

• Describe in detail how different operating systems perform networking

• Configure a Windows Client to connect to any version of a Windows server

• List the features of Novell NetWare versions

• List the upgraded networking functions of the Macintosh operating system

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 Introduction to Network Operating Systems

5.1.1 Introduction
Nowadays, it is very obvious that we all are familiar with at least any one of the operating
systems. It may be Linux or MAC OS or any version of Windows. But are you aware of a
network operating system? Let us see what it is.

A network operating system (NOS) is nothing but a computer operating system that is
designed mainly to support a workstation, personal computer and in some instances, older
terminals that are connected on a local area network (LAN). A few examples of network
operating systems are: Novell’s NetWare, Microsoft’s LAN manager. A NOS facilitates printer
sharing, common file system and database sharing, application sharing and the ability to
manage a network name directory, security and other housekeeping aspects of a network.
Generally, NOS is a software that runs on a server and defines how resources are shared on
the network. Even though not many options are available, still choosing a NOS is very
challenging for an organisation because it shapes the total look and feel of the network
environment.

This chapter begins with the general features of a network operating system. Finally, it
provides an overview of different NOS.

5.1.2 Overview of Network Operating Systems

Computer operating systems are at the core of any computing device without which the
device cannot function. Similarly, network operating systems operate a network of
computers.

Computer without OS is just like a box. It is the same case for the network; without a network
operating system (NOS), a network is just a number of computers connected together. NOS
allows computers in a network to exchange data through connections. NOS is a software that
enables the connection and communication between computers and other devices in a local
area network. NOS can also be defined as a set of software programs that tell computers and
other peripheral devices to accept requests for services across the network and provide
responses with respect to these requests.

Depending on the NOS manufacturer, a desktop computer’s network software can be either
added into the computer’s own operating system or integrated with it. For example, UNIX

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Introduction to Network Operating Systems

and Mac OS have built-in networking functions. NOS software is integrated into a number of
operating systems.

The most familiar and common examples for NOS are:

• AppleShare

• Microsoft Windows Server

• Novell Netware

Actually, NOS is running on the network server that supplies the network administrator with
the ability to centrally control network resources and network users.

(i) Features of Network Operating Systems

Following are the features of a network operating system:

• A network operating system (NOS) manages the users, devices and utilities which are
connected together in a network.

• It includes utilities that help to ensure whether the data is transmitted to the correct
user or computer.

• It provides support for the multiple processors, applications and hardware that make
up the system.

• It provides security during transmitting the data and also manages the authorisation
and authentication information about individuals and other devices accessing the
network.

• It enables the services which are related to user access (such as who can access what)
and creates user accounts with their log-in details within and outside the network
system.

• It handles services which are related to storage, backup, printing, etc., for systems and
users accessing a network.

• It manages access to LAN, WAN, the Internet and Intranet (web services).

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 Introduction to Network Operating Systems

• It manages multiple user accounts simultaneously and enables concurrent access to

shared resources by various users.

• It can distribute all the functions of operating system over a number of networked
computers.

• It monitors the network system and security and provides proper security against
unwanted traffic.

• The main features to consider when selecting a NOS include:

 Performance

 Management and monitoring tools

 Security

 Scalability

 Robustness/fault tolerance

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Self-assessment Questions
1) _________is a software that enables the connection of computers and other devices
into a local area network.
a) Network connector b) Network operating system
c) Operating system d) Computer

2) Windows 95 OS was developed to support peer-to-peer networking architecture with

true internetworking capabilities. (True/False)

3) Which of the following network operating systems does not truly implement
multitasking?
a) Windows 98 b) Windows NT
c) Windows XP d) MS DOS

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5.1.3 Microsoft Operating System

Microsoft Windows are a series of operating systems and environments developed and
marketed by Microsoft Corporation. Over the years, they have released various versions of
Windows-based server operating systems.

Operating systems developed by Microsoft firm are categorised into two groups:

1. MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System): MS-DOS is a non-graphical command

line operating system that was created for IBM compatible computer systems. It deals
with the textual interface and runs applications by executing commands through the
command prompt.

2. Microsoft Windows: The first version of Windows OS was released in 1985. Microsoft
Windows is a GUI-based operating system developed by Microsoft Corporation. It is
commonly used in personal computers (PCs). It has become the standard for individual
users in most corporations as well as at homes.

Microsoft Windows is a family of operating systems and the following details the history
of Windows OS for PCs:

• MS-DOS (Microsoft disk operating system): Developed by Microsoft for IBM.

• Windows 1.0 – 2.0 (1985-1992): This OS facilitates users to point and click to access
Windows.

• Windows 2.0 (1987): Designed for the Intel 286 processor and this version provides
additional features such as desktop icons, keyboard shortcuts and improved GUI.

• Windows 3.0 – 3.1 (1990–1994): Facilitates GUI with 16 colours and this is the first
version that provides the “look and feel” of Microsoft Windows.

• Windows 95 (August 1995): Mainly it supports 32-bit applications. This version of

Windows essentially removed DOS as the underlying platform.

• Windows 98 (June 1998): This OS comes with new technologies such as FAT32,
AGP, MMX, USB, DVD, etc. and also added features like Active Desktop, which
integrates the web browser with the OS.

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• Windows ME - Millennium Edition (September 2000): This version of Windows OS

removed the “boot in DOS” option.

• Windows NT 3.1 - 4.0 (1993-1996): It is a 32-bit OS system which supports

multitasking. It consists of two versions: Windows NT server that acts as a server and
Windows NY workstation for client workstations.

• Windows 2000 (February 2000): This OS is designed for business desktops and
laptops. It enables connection to Intranet and Internet sites and also allows access to
shared resources available in a network.

• Windows XP (October 2001): This new version of Windows OS provides a more

stable and reliable environment than the older versions and it comes in two variants,
Home and Professional.

• Windows Vista (November 2006): This OS is noticeably more responsive than

Windows XP. It provides a very simplified and centralised configuration
management.

• Windows 7 (October 2009): This version comes with new features such as Internet
Explorer 8, multi-touch support, start-up time, improved security, etc.

• Windows 8 (2012): This OS replaces the traditional Microsoft OS look and feel with
the newly designed interface. This interface is the first OS that debuted in the
Windows Phone 7 mobile OS.

• Windows 10 (2015): Started rolling on 29th July 2015.

Microsoft Windows is often referred to as an integrated operating system. This OS provides a

high level of integration between the kernel functions and other Microsoft software (such as
Microsoft Office Suite). Microsoft Windows is today the most popular OS used on laptops,
small business solutions and personal home computers.

In the early 90s, Windows for workgroups was introduced; Windows 95 was released in 1995.
This OS supported peer-to-peer networking architecture but did not have true
internetworking capabilities. This OS was very inexpensive and utilised by small workgroups
where it enabled sharing of resources, email transactions and connection to the Internet.

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Protocols used by Windows for Workgroups and Windows 95 allow users or computers to
share their files and devices over LANs. They also offer access to the network through either a
dial-up modem or directly through a NIC using protocols TCP/IP and IPX/SPX.

Windows NT Server

It was introduced in the mid-90s and it has the capacity to manage workgroups similar to
Windows for Workgroups/Windows 95. Windows NT server differs from Workgroups 95 in
its network architecture, because Windows for Workgroups/95 is a peer-to-peer networking
OS whereas Windows NT server is a client/server networking OS. This OS makes use of
routable protocols, which makes it a true internetworking OS and enables the server or
network administrator to establish a connection between the LANs and WANs.

Features of Windows NT Server

• Windows NT server not only provides services to OS/2 but also to the Novell
NetWare clients.

• Windows NT server includes all the advantages of Windows OS and some other
features (like server reliability, server availability) which make it more robust.

• Windows NT server provides network security, it allows the network administrator

(server) to not only set a password for resources available in a network but also to
individuals or groups.

• The Windows NT OS server stores all the information and manages access to all other
services making the OS more efficient.

• It does not require a very strong server system which will act as a NOS administrator.

Security in the Windows NT Server:

• It has more than one level of security and this NOS offers settings like:

 No access for unauthorised users.

 Access that restricts the user to read-only capabilities.

 Access that allows read and write usage.

 Access that allows user to change access permissions for network users.

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• Log-in details consist of username and password essential to access services on the
network for each user.

• A domain is a security model which is set up to describe user account with their log-
in details.

• A domain controller (DC) is a computer system that stores all the user account
information as a database. A server which has control over the DC can manipulate
these accounts and passwords through the utility User Manager for Domain that
comes with Windows NT Server.

• Windows NT Server allows to have a centralised control over network.

Windows NT domain model:

Most organisations often have two servers namely:

• Primary domain controller (PDC)

• Backup domain controller (BDC)

PDC controls security policies and users database. BDC keeps a copy of the PDC; if failure of
PDC occurs, then BDC easily switches to the PDC. Windows NT Server allows networks to
connect multiple domains.

There are four basic domain models:

1. Single domain model: All the management functions are centralised and defined as a
set of user accounts and security.

2. Master domain model: In this model, a master domain server defines a set of security
policies and user account’s data for all other domain servers.

3. Multiple master domain model: This model has various master domain servers and
each one specifies their own specific domain.

4. Multiple trust domain model: This model is an example for peer-to-peer network
architecture, hence it becomes decentralised and security is equal as with Windows
for Workgroups and Windows 95.

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5.1.4 Novell NetWare

In 1983, when the first version of NetWare was originated for the OS DOS, all other products
were based on the concept of disk sharing. NetWare came up with a very simple concept
called file sharing. In 1984, IBM validated NetWare and helped to produce NetWare
products. Novell is the leading provider for infrastructure software developed with NetWare.
Novell Netware OS is based on the belief that a network OS does not need very complex and
over biased GUI on the server.

Open enterprise server (OES) was published with various versions of NOS in different
variants such as:

• NetWare 3.0 (1989)

• NetWare 5.0 (1993)

• NetWare 5.1 (2005)

• NetWare 6.0 (2005)

• NetWare 6.5 (2010)

Novell NetWare is another OS mainly designed for network, especially for a LAN OS. Novell
NetWare OS is based on a client/server NOS. This OS evolved from NetWare 2.X which is
now out of date. Netware 2.X was developed for small workgroup environments. Later, a new
version of Netware 2.X was released and termed as NetWare 5.X. This version came with
additional features and was specially aimed at global enterprise network environments.
NetWare OS enabled sharing, translating, managing and synchronisation of data all over the
network-computing environment.

Features of Novell NetWare

• It provides a feature namely NetWare directory services (NDS), this allows a user to
log on from anywhere on the network.

• It does not provide a computer OS for client workstations.

• Multiprocessor kernel: This allows NetWare OS to employ multiple processors. This

procedure (process) is known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP). This process
describes a function that allows sharing memory and system bus paths. SMP

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processes a single application in a parallel way that minimises the total execution
time.

• NLMs: How Windows uses services, NetWare uses netware loadable modules
(NLMs). These NLMs provide services from the network administrator. NLMs are
programs or processes that execute in the background on the server like daemons.
NLMs programs run on the server to provide services to the network.

• PCI Hot Plug: This enables the dynamic configuration of PCI network equipment
while the system is running.

• Interoperability: Novell NetWare NOS can set Novell clients for Windows OS to
operate with one of the three network protocols such as IP, IP and IPX, or IPX only.

• Authentication: It provides centralised login authentication. This helps to restrict

unauthorised access to the network.

• Security: Novell NetWare NOS provides support for a public key infrastructure that
helps to manage encryption of data across the network and allows usage of data only
by those who have that public key.

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Self-assessment Questions
4) Windows for Workgroups/Windows 95 is a __________ networking OS and
Windows NT server is a _________ networking OS.
a) Peer-to-peer, peer-to-peer b) Peer-to-peer, client/server
c) Client/server, peer-to-peer d) Client/server, client/server

5) Novell NetWare NOS provides support for a public key infrastructure that helps to
manage _____________of data across the network and allows usage of data only by
those who have that public key.
a) Data sharing b) Encryption
c) Transmission d) manipulation

6) Linux is a/an ________network operating system

a) Open source b) Microsoft
c) Windows d) Mac

7) PDC stands for

a) Private directed computer b) Primary domain controller
c) Private domain control d) Primary direct controller

8) Which of the following functions is performed by PDC?

a) Control security policies and users database
b) Store the backup file
c) Coordinate network processes through controller
d) Maintain the data in the clients systems

9) NetWare comes up with a new concept called __________

a) Disk sharing b) Client/Server
c) File sharing d) Resource sharing

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5.1.5 UNIX Operating System

UNIX is a computer operating system that controls and coordinates a computer system and
its peripherals. Features of UNIX OS are similar to features of OS Windows and MacOS.
UNIX is mainly used to accomplish the base mechanism for booting OS, storing, retrieving,
running applications, etc.

UNIX is the oldest network operating system and LINUX is a free version of UNIX. UNIX
was introduced by Bell Labs. It is a very powerful NOS and can be used in either peer-to-peer
network or client/server network. It is the first OS written in C programming language.

UNIX (and Linux by extension) systems offer the following features:

• Fully protected multitasking: UNIX OS can simultaneously execute multiple

applications. It does not cause any OS crash while processing multiple processes.

• High performance and stability: UNIX OS is the best choice for a server because it
has the ability to run for several years without crashing. Multitasking feature of UNIX
with rapid rate makes it powerful for server systems.

• Multiuser capabilities: Multiple users can log in to the same system simultaneously.

• Tons of high-quality software: Linux is packed with tons of free, high-quality

software (that is from Apache Server to the Mozilla.org open source web browser).

• Easy customisation: UNIX and LINUX allow users to customise their OS kernel.

• Modular architecture: UNIX OS architecture is built with kernel that allows adding
modules or programs based on the user needs.

• A shell interface: It is just like a black board with white words where users can type
commands and execute those commands.

• A graphical user interface: All the versions of UNIX provide graphical user interface.

• Support for dumb terminals: UNIX is commonly used with dumb terminals. Dumb
terminals are output devices that accept output result from CPU. UNIX uses dumb
terminals to get and produce data during command execution from computer
memory.

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UNIX OS provides very reliable networking. Hence most of the companies use UNIX to
provide networking services to their employees and end users (clients) and effective interface
to the Internet. Because of security and reliability features of UNIX OS, it has become the
popular choice in commercial and university environment compared to the popularity of web
and Internet services organised on Windows NT.

UNIX NOS is based on the TCP/IP protocol which establishes Internet connection with
UNIX platform. TCP/IP commonly used on UNIX can also be used on Windows OS with
some exceptions. Some of the features of TCP/IP which are unique to UNIX NOS are:

1. Network File System (NFS):

• NFS offers sharing of hard disk over TCP/IP networks as shown in figure 5.1.1.

• TCP/IP is a basic directory-sharing protocol used in UNIX.

Figure 5.1.1: NFS

• NFS is also available for Windows OS but is only used for interoperation with UNIX
hosts.

2. Remote login services (RLOGIN and TELNET):

UNIX has a multitasking feature which makes applications and processes extremely robust as
compared to Windows NT. In addition to this, UNIX uses RLOGIN and TELNET protocols
to support logging over network connections.

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3. Graphical user interface windowing system (X Windows):

• X-Windows is a distributed graphical user interface system.

• Using X Windows, user can execute an application in one system and this application
interacts with the user of another system through a network connection.

• X Windows allows computers to share their video displays, keyboards and pointing
devices with applications running on other computers.

• Windows NT has provided graphical session-based terminal services which are

similar to X Windows but with less flexibility.

• X Windows server software can display resultant of an application running on UNIX

host on a Windows OS computer, when X Window software is available for Windows
OS.

5.1.6 LINUX Operating System

Linux introduced the concept of free and open-source software development and
distribution. It is a free operating system that was developed by Linux for Intel x86 – based on
personal computers, due to its portability feature on any computer hardware platform. It is
one of the most widely used operating systems. Most of the servers and super computers use
Linux as their operating system.

• Linux distributions include Linux kernel, libraries, supporting utilities and many
application software.

• The source code can be used, modified and distributed commercially or non-
commercially by anyone under the license known as GNU General Public License.

• Linux is well known as a stable platform for running various Internet services; the
amount of Internet software is endless.

• Distribution of Linux is based on the package management system (PMS).

• Like UNIX, Linux can be just as well used and administered from a remote location,
using one of several solutions for remote execution of programs.

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• Linux has an ideal firewall system, light and cheap, but can be used in several other
network functions such as routers and proxy servers.

• PMS is a collection of software tools that automate the process of installing,

upgrading, configuring and removing software packages from the computer’s
operating system.

• PMS regularly maintains a database for software dependencies, vendor and version
number information to prevent software mismatch and missing prerequisites.

Linux is mainly popular for its use in servers. It is also used as an OS for a variety of devices
such as supercomputers, video games, computer hardware, embedded services such as routers
and mobile phones. Linux is tightly integrated with networking and provides a wide variety of
tools and applications.

Networking Features of LINUX Operating Systems are

• Network configuration files

• Firewalls and intrusion detection

• Supported networking protocols

• Secure execution of remote applications

• Remote execution of commands and applications

• Commands for configuring and probing the network

• Daemons and client programs enabling different network applications

• File sharing and printing

• Basic network interconnection

5.1.7 Macintosh Networking

Mac OS is a computer operating system for Apple Computer’s Macintosh line of PCs. Mac
OS X is its popular version used as a desktop interface with 3-D appearance characteristics.
This OS has a modular design that enables addition of extra features to the OS for the future.
Mac OS runs Mac application as well as UNIX application.

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Features of Mac OS:

• AppleShare provides network services for the Mac OS operating systems.

• AppleShare uses AppleTalk transport protocols such as TokenTalk, LocalTalk,

EtherTalk or FDDITalk to support sharing of files and printers over different types of
physical networks.

• Apple Macintosh computers use TCP/IP software for establishing connection and
communication throughout the Internet.

• Mac OS is based on peer-to-peer networking for organising small workgroup settings.

It is not adopted in the large-scale LAN environments.

MAC OS X Server

• Client Support: MAC OS X server uses NFS (Network File System) and File Transfer
Apple File Protocol 3.0 to share files with Macintosh clients through TCP/IP.

• Interoperability: NFS makes files or folders available for Linux and UNIX user.

• File Sharing: Mac OS X Server provides Windows clients with Server Message Block
file-sharing ability by using open source SAMBA.

• File and Print Services: This OS Server supports the protocols such as TCP/IP, FTP
and NFS to enable the sharing of files and printer services and also enable Internet
services on the Windows, UNIX and Linux users.

• Security features:

 Enable rights for user-level access.

 Provides secures client/server communication using secure socket layer (SSL) that
provides features related to encryption and authentication.

 Provides secure remote administration through secure shell (SSH) that provides
authentication and encryption mechanism.

 Kerberos is a network authentication protocol that provides central

authentication authority over a network.

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Self-assessment Questions
10) NLMs stand for
a) Network LAN models b) Network linear model
c) Netware local modules d) NetWare loadable modules

11) Which of the following NOS can be used in both peer-to-peer network and
client/server network?
a) Novell Netware b) Windows NT Server
c) UNIX d) MS-DOS

12) Mac OS uses _____ protocol that offers secured client/server communication.
a) Transport control b) Secure socket layer
c) Used datagram d) Secures server client

13) Mac OS Server supports the protocols TCP/IP, FTP and NFS to enable the sharing of
files and printer services and also enable Internet services on the Windows, UNIX and
Linux users. Which one of the following is not a multitasking operating system?
a) TCP/IP, FTP b) IP, NFS
c) TCP/IP d) TCP/IP, FTP, NFS

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Summary
o A network operating system can be a part of a computer operating system or a
separate application that runs on top of the computer operating system.

o By multitasking, computers can perform more than one task at a time.

o Server software is the means by which NOS provides services to other computers
on a network.

o Microsoft Windows is a series of operating systems and environments developed

and marketed by Microsoft Corporation.

o Windows NT Server is a client/server networking operating system that uses

routable protocols, making it a true Internetworking Operating System enabling
network administrators connect LANs to WANs.

o NetWare evolved from a very simple concept: file sharing instead of disk sharing.

o Novell NetWare Operating Systems, which is also a client/server based NOS, is

not domain-based but binary-based.

o UNIX is the oldest network operating system and can be used on either peer-to-
peer or client/server networks.

o Linux (also known as GNU/Linux) is one of the most prominent examples of free
software and open source development which means that typically all underlying
source code can be freely modified, used and redistributed by anyone.

o Linux is predominantly known for its use in servers.

o Mac OS is the computer operating system for Apple Computer's Macintosh line of
personal computers and workstations.

Terminal Questions
1. What is a network operating system (NOS)?

2. What is a domain controller (DC)?

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Answer Keys
Self-assessment Questions
Question No. Answer

1 b
2 False
3 d
4 b
5 b
6 a
7 b
8 a
9 c
10 d
11 c
12 b
13 d

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Bibliography
e-References
• Network Operating Systems. Retrieved 24 July, 2015 from
http://k-12.pisd.edu/currinst/network/if5_1st.pdf

• Open book project. Operating Systems. Retrieved 24 July, 2015 from

http://openbookproject.net/courses/intro2ict/system/os_intro.html

External Resources
• CCNA Cisco Certified Network Associate: Study Guide. (2011). India: Wiley
publishing.

• Forouzan, B. A. (2007). Data Communications and Networking (4 ed.). New

York: McGraw-Hill.

• Rick Graziani, A. J. (2007). Routing Protocols and Concepts: CCNA Exploration

Companion Guide (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Cisco Press.

• Tanenbaum, A. S. (2007). Computer Networks. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall Of India

Pvt. Limited.

Video Links
Topic Link
Overview of Network Operating https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WiESqnJWVtI&l
System ist=PLvBkh1yoeRpLhVutgmB107yad6eRKQX3X

Unix Operating System https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N-JDrglL8es

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Notes:

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Chapter Table of Contents

Chapter 5.2

Troubleshooting Networks
Aim ..................................................................................................................................................... 279
Instructional Objectives................................................................................................................... 279
Learning Outcomes .......................................................................................................................... 279
5.2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 280
5.2.2 Command-line Interface Tools ............................................................................................. 280
5.2.3 Network and Internet Troubleshooting ............................................................................... 282
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 285
5.2.4 Basic Network Troubleshooting............................................................................................ 286
(i) Information Gathering - Identify Symptoms and Problems ........................................ 286
(ii) Identify the Affected Area ................................................................................................ 287
(iii) Probable Cause and Implement a Solution .................................................................. 288
(iv) Test the Result................................................................................................................... 289
(v) Recognise the potential effects of the solution............................................................... 290
(vi) Document the Solution ................................................................................................... 290
5.2.5 Using Network Utilities.......................................................................................................... 291
(i) Ping ...................................................................................................................................... 291
(ii) Traceroute/Tracert ............................................................................................................ 293
(iii) ipconfig .............................................................................................................................. 295
(iv) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) .............................................................................. 297
(v) nslookup ............................................................................................................................. 298
(vi) nbtstat ................................................................................................................................ 300
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 300
5.2.6 Hardware Troubleshooting Tools......................................................................................... 302
5.2.7 System Monitoring Tools ....................................................................................................... 302
Self-assessment Questions ...................................................................................................... 305
Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 306
Answer Keys...................................................................................................................................... 307
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 308
e-References ...................................................................................................................................... 308
External Resources ........................................................................................................................... 308
Video Links ....................................................................................................................................... 309

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Aim

To equip students with a basic knowledge and understanding on troubleshooting

network problems

Instructional Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• Explain the functions of command-line interface

• Illustrate how to troubleshoot network Internet problems

• Describe the method to determine the quality of Internet connection

• Give a detailed discussion on basic network troubleshooting

• List the basic network utilities along with their description

• Discuss how to troubleshoot hardware tools

• List a few popular system monitoring tools

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

• List command-line interface tools along with its advantages

• Solve various Internet-related problems using netsh winsock command

• Summarise the steps of the network troubleshooting model

• Illustrate the usage of the different network utilities

• Use network utilities to troubleshoot network issues

• List most commonly used hardware components in a network infrastructure

• Identify the needs of system-monitoring tools

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5.2.1 Introduction
While working on your personal computer, you must have seen the message “Troubleshoot
the Problem”. But what exactly does troubleshoot mean? And how does the system
troubleshoot the problem? I have noticed that they tend to follow the same steps for similar
problems- looking in the same places, typing the same commands and so on. Nowadays,
various tools are also available to troubleshoot various problems. They may be software or
hardware tools that provide information about your network and how to carry out repairs.

To configure a network, ‘ping’ is a very popular troubleshooting tool which can fix lots of
network problems compared to any other available tool. That is mainly a software tool. Even
software tools can be classified into two groups: those that come built into every operating
system and those that are third party tools. Typical built-in tools are ping, tracert/traceroute,
ipconfig/ifconfig, arping, nslookup/dig, hostname, route, nbstat and netstat. Third party tools
fall into the categories of packet sniffers, port scanners and throughput testers. Lots of
hardware tools are also available which are used to configure a network. Among them, some
of the tools are used to troubleshoot scenarios also.

This chapter begins with a discussion on command line interface tools. Then it analyses
various ways to troubleshoot the network. Finally, it shows how various software and
hardware tools perform in network troubleshooting.

5.2.2 Command-line Interface Tools

The command line interface (CLI) is a mechanism for interacting with a computer operating
system or software by typing commands to perform specific tasks. Command line interface is
used to perform several tasks, such as system maintenance, configuration and diagnostic
tasks. Commands like ping, tracert, ntslookup are important diagnostic software tools used
to encapsulate common management functions.

A command line interface (CLI) is a user interface to a computer’s OS in which a user types
commands on a specified line and gets a response back from the system with respect to those
commands. An example for command line interface is MS-DOS prompt application in
Windows OS. Nowadays, users prefer graphical user interface (GUI) rather than the CLI
provided by OSs like Windows, MAC OS, UNIX, etc.

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A difference between command line interface and Windows application is that the Windows
application uses GUI whereas CLI does not use graphical display; instead, it uses command
prompt window where a user can write commands. These command lines instruct Windows
to perform a particular task. Each command line begins with the name of the program that
the user wants to run followed by the arguments which represent the additional information.
These arguments tell the program about the operation to be performed.

For example, Ping is a widely used command line tool. This network utility provides a quick
and easy way to check whether a site or service user system is online. Most network
administrators use ping command line tool when they are faced with a network-related
problem. Ping is generally used to find the source of the problem.

Using Ping: To use this command, simply open a command prompt and type ping followed
by the domain name or IP address of the host that has to be checked.

For example: Ping www.google.co.in

Once the enter key is pressed, any one of the following responses is displayed based on the
result:

• Ping request could not find host: Address does not exist.

• Reply from: …. Address you entered is alive and responding to pings.

• Request timed out: Address is found but is not responding to ping requests.

Solving problems related to a network can be very difficult and frustrating. A user can use
network windows network diagnostic tool to check an internet connection which is enough
to solve most problems. Sometimes, users may refer the command line way to troubleshoot
the network problems.

Following are the advantages of using command line instead of visual interface:

• Users can check an individual item and isolate all the factors causing the problems.

• Users can use script to automate the process.

• Use of the command line leads to more alternative options, so that users can check
the system in depth.

• Users can perform batch processes with a single command.

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Following are some of the command line tools used to solve network problems:

• Ipconfig

• Netstat
• Nslookup
• Nbtstat
• Tracert

5.2.3 Network and Internet Troubleshooting

There are some network problems which occur while a user is working on the networked
environment or the Internet. For example, while trying to view a web site, pages may load
slowly or not at all. When this occurs, it is useful to define where the problem is occurring
(For example, Network connection problems, web server experiencing issues, etc.).

To troubleshoot such network problems, a user can use various tools. Most of these tools run
from the command line. Online versions of these tools are also available and a user can use
these in a different web browser.

Explained below are some of the basic network troubleshooting techniques and tools used to
fix network problems using command line.

1. How to troubleshoot network Internet problem- Internet is not working

If the Internet is not working, then perform the following task in the Windows command line
and execute it:

ping google.com

When the above command line is run, a user will get a reply from Google. This reply indicates
that the Internet is working; problem is with the web browser that is used to browse the
Internet. Then try to use alternative web browsers.

If there is no reply from Google, then it indicates that the modem or router is not reaching
the Internet. Ensure that the router has DHCP enabled and there should be proper ISP
address for the WAN.

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2. Resetting winsock catalog and solving a network problem

Netsh winsock reset is a useful command, which can be used to reset winsock catalog to clean
state or back to default setting. This tool can be used to analyse the following network
problems:

• Internet connection problems after removing all kind of threats

• Loss of network connection after installing antivirus software

• Problem while accessing web pages

• No network connectivity due to registry errors

• Network problem related to DNS lookup

Run the command netsh winsock in the system by using the following steps:

1. Go to start, click on all programs, then click on accessories.

2. Right click on the command prompt and click run as administrator.

Figure 5.2.1: Run as Administrator

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3. Type the command netsh winsock reset in the command prompt as shown in the
below image and then press enter key.

Figure 5.2.2: Command Prompt

4. Restart the computer in order to successfully complete execution of this command

and then test to access the Internet.

3. Determine the quality of Internet connection

The speedtest.net and pingtest.net are examples of websites which provide tools that are used
to determine the quality of the Internet and availability of bandwidth to a specific host. The
speedtest.net website provides a good tool that helps to recognise the amount of bandwidth
available to a specific host at a specific point in time.

Figure 5.2.3: Speedtest.net Website

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The pingtest.net website is used to find out the quality of the Internet connection. Tool
provided by this website measures the ping response and jitter amounts over a small time
period and based on that result, determines the quality of the Internet connection.

Figure 5.2.4: Pingtest.net Website

Self-assessment Questions
1) A ____ is a user interface in which commands are written by a user and executed on
the command line prompt.
a) Command line interface b) Control line interface
c) Command language interface d) Command line internet

2) Which of the following websites provide tools that are used to determine the quality
of the Internet and availability of bandwidth to a specific host?
a) ping.net b) troubleshoot.net
c) speedfrq.net and speedban.net d) speedtest.net & pingtest.net

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5.2.4 Basic Network Troubleshooting

Network-related issues need a lot of investigation and troubleshooting.

Correctly and swiftly identifying these problems is not done by accident; rather, effective
troubleshooting requires attention to some specific steps and procedures. Although some
organisations have documented troubleshooting procedures for their IT staff members, many
do not have any such process. Whether a user utilises these exact steps for troubleshooting is
debatable, but the general principles remain the same. The network objectives list the
troubleshooting steps as follows:

Step 1: Information gathering-identify symptoms and problems.

Step 2: Identify the affected areas of the network.

Step 3: Determine if anything has changed.

Step 4: Establish the most probable cause.

Step 5: Determine if escalation is necessary.

Step 6: Create an action plan and solution identifying potential effects.

Step 7: Implement and test the solution.

Step 8: Identify the results and effects of the solution.

Step 9: Document the solution and the entire process.

The following upcoming sections examine each area of the troubleshooting process.

Troubleshooting Model

(i) Information Gathering - Identify Symptoms and

Problems

Troubleshooting a network can be troublesome under the most favorable circumstances;

however, attempting to do it with restricted data makes it that much harder. Attempting to
troubleshoot a network without all the necessary data can and regularly will, make the user

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troubleshoot the wrong issue. Without the right data, a user could truly displace a toner
cartridge when somebody simply utilises the wrong secret key or password.

On account of this, the initial step in the troubleshooting procedure is to determine precisely
what the side effects of the issue are. This phase of the troubleshooting procedure is about
data gathering.

(ii) Identify the Affected Area

Some PC or computer issues are confined to a single client in a single location; others affect a
few thousand clients spread over various locations. Setting up the affected region is an
imperative part of the troubleshooting procedure and it regularly directs the systems used in
determining the issue.

Note: A user might be given either a description of a situation or a description expanded by a

network outline. In either case, the user should check the description of the issue deliberately,
in order. In most cases, the right answer is practically logical and the wrong answers can be
distinguished effortlessly.

Problems that influence many clients are frequently connectivity issues that harm or disable
access for many clients. Such issues can frequently be related to a disconnection at the nearest
wiring, network equipment and server rooms. The troubleshooting procedure for issues
disconnected to a single client often starts and ends at that client's workstation. The trail may
in reality lead a user to a wiring closet or server, yet it is not likely that the troubleshooting
procedure would start there. Understanding who is influenced by an issue (problem) can give
the first signs about where the issue exists.

As a practical case, imagine that a user is troubleshooting a customer connectivity issue

whereby a Windows customer is not able to get to the network. The user can attempt to ping
the server from that system and, if this fails, ping the same server from one or two more
customer systems. In the event that all tried customer systems cannot ping the server, the
troubleshooting process will not concentrate on the customers. However, it moves towards
something familiar to all three, for example, the DHCP server or network switch.

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(iii) Probable Cause and Implement a Solution

Following are examples that illustrate probable causes and how to implement a solution to
these to solve problems:

Probable Cause 1: Cables are not connected properly.

Implement a solution:

a) Verify whether the cables are properly connected or not.

b) Cables between the hub or router and the computer.

c) Cables between the all-in-one printer and the hub or router.

d) Cables to and from modem or printer.

Probable Cause 2: Local Area Network card (LAN card) is not set up properly.

Implement a solution:

a) Check the setup of LAN card.

• In Windows: To check LAN card

 Open the control panel.

 Double-click system.

 In the system properties dialog box, click the hardware tab.

 Click device manager.

 Make sure that the card shows up under network adapters.

 Refer to the documentation that came with the card.

• In Macintosh: To check LAN card

 Click the Apple icon on the menu bar.

 Select ‘About This Mac’ and then click on more info. The system profiler is
displayed.

 In the system profiler, click network.

 Make sure the LAN card appears in the list.

Probable Cause 3: System does not have an active network connection.

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Implement a solution:

Following are the steps to check if a system has an active network connection.

Check the two Ethernet indicator lights on the top and bottom of the RJ-45 Ethernet jack on
the back of the printer. The lights indicate the following:

• Top light: If this light is a solid green, the device is properly connected to the network
and communications have been established. If the top light is off, there is no network
connection.

• Bottom light: This yellow light flashes when data is being sent or received by the
device over the network.

To establish an active network connection

a) Check the cable connections from the all-in-one printer to gateway, router or hub to
ensure connections are secure.

b) If the connections are secure, turn off the power on the all-in-one printer and then
turn it on again. Press the on/off button on the control panel to turn the printer off
and press it again to turn it back on. Also, turn off the power on the router or hub and
then turn it on again.

(iv) Test the Result

With the arrangement set up, a user should be prepared to implement a solution, that is,
apply the patch, replace the equipment specially hardware, plug in a link, or execute some
other solution. Ideally, a user’s first solution would settle the issue, but this is not generally the
case. If the first solution does not solve the problem, you have to retrace steps and begin once
again.

It is important that a client or user always tries to implement only one solution at a time.
Attempting several solutions at once can make it unclear as to which one really corrected the
problem.

The testing procedure is not generally as simple as it sounds. In the case of verifying a
connectivity issue (i.e., problem), it is not so hard to determine whether a user’s solution was

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successful. Conversely, changes made to an application or to databases are commonly harder

to test.

Process of testing may need the participation of others such as users, managers and other IT
staff and professionals connected with third party applications and so on.

(v) Recognise the potential effects of the solution

After identifying a cause, build a plan for the solution before implementing it. This is mainly
a concern for a server system where taking a server offline is complicated and might affect the
entire network. Planning a solution is essential after identifying the cause of a problem on the
server. The plan for a solution should include detailed information of the server or network
problem such as when the network should be taken offline and for how long, who will be
involved in finding the correct solution, etc.

Thus, planning plays a vital role in the entire process of troubleshooting the network
problems and can include formal or informal procedures. The individuals who do not have
experience troubleshooting servers may be surprised about all the customs (norms), but this
consideration to detail guarantees the least amount of server or network downtime and the
highest data availability.

To the extent that workstation troubleshooting is concerned, rarely formal planning

procedure is needed and this makes the solution method much easier. Planning for
workstation troubleshooting normally includes organising suitable time with end clients or
users to implement a solution.

(vi) Document the Solution

Although it is a fact that documentation is regularly disregarded in the troubleshooting
process, it is as essential as any of the other troubleshooting strategies. Reporting or
documenting a solution includes keeping a record of the considerable number of steps taken
during solving a problem.

For the documentation to be useful to other system managers later on, it must incorporate a
few key bits of data.

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At the point of recording a method, incorporate the following data:

• Date - When was the solution implemented?

• Why - Documenting why the fix was made is important because if the same problem
appears on another system, the user can use this information to reduce time finding
the solution.

• What - The successful solution should be documented in detail, along with

information about any changes to the configuration of the system or network that
were made.

• Results - It is a good practice to document information for both success and failure
attempts. The documentation of failures can prevent one from going down the same
road twice and the documentation of successful solutions can reduce the time it takes
to get a system or network up and running.

• Who - If the name of the person who made a fix is in the documentation, the person
can easily be tracked down. This can help in situations where information is left out of
the documentation or more details about the solution are required.

5.2.5 Using Network Utilities

Network utilities are software utilities that are designed to analyse or summarise the network
issues and configure several aspects of computer networks. Most of the network utilities were
initiated on UNIX operating system, but later other OSs adopted the same.

Many of the network issues can be resolved by the use of simple troubleshooting
techniques available such as: ping, traceroute, ipconfig, ARP, nslookup, etc.

(i) Ping
Ping is a network utility used to test basic connectivity between the source host (requesting
host) and a destination host. Internet control message protocol is used to perform this task
which has the ability to send a packet to a destination host and has a mechanism to listen for a
response from the host.

Ping command can be useful for troubleshooting problems with remote hosts. Ping indicates
whether the host can be reached and how long it takes for the host to send a return message.

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This utility is mainly used to specify where a specific networking problem exists. For
example, if an Internet connection is down, ping utility can be used to check whether a
problem exists within the LAN or with the network of the internet service provider.

Ping command: The following screenshot depicts the usage of ping command and definition
of its various parameters:

Figure 5.2.5: Ping Command

Following steps define how to use ping to troubleshoot network issues:

Step 1: Go to the windows command prompt

Step 2: Type cmd in the run box

Step 3: A command prompt window opens, type ping [IP address] or [domain name] as
shown in the image below:

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Figure 5.2.6: Ping Domain Name

Step 4: Here domain name www.google.com is the 32-bit IP address of the source
computer. If the user gets a reply from a remote computer, it suggests that t he physical
connection between computers is quite good. A message such as “Request Time Out”
means that there is a physical connectivity problem between the two systems.

Figure 5.2.7: Result for Ping Domain

(ii) Traceroute/Tracert
Tracert in Windows (TRACEROUTE in UNIX system) is short for “trace route”. It traces the
route for communication between two computers. Tracert enables users to check the
route/path to the destination IP address that a user wants to reach to record the results. It uses
TRACERT hostname command to execute, where hostname refers to the name or IP address
of the user system.

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Trace route shows the route that is taken while connecting two computers over the Internet.
Trace route helps to analyse whether it is an ISP problem (local problem) or other issues,
when a system cannot connect to a certain system or site in a network.

Tracert command: The following figure 5.2.8 illustrates the usage of tracert and definition of
parameters:

Figure 5.2.8: Tracert Command

Trace goes through each and every node on the network until it reaches its destination. Three
ping response times are given for each “hop” on the route that is shown in milliseconds. For
example, go to the windows command prompt and run the below command:

Tracert [IP address] or [domain name]

Figure 5.2.9 shows how you can trace the IP address by using tracert command:

Figure 5.2.9: Tracert IP Address

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(iii) ipconfig
Ipconfig is a network utility, used to get the network settings that is currently being assigned
and set by a network. This tool generally helps to check a network connection and also to
verify system network settings.

From the command prompt, type 'ipconfig' to run the utility with default options.

Figure 5.2.10: ipconfig Command

The output of the default command represents the IP address, subnet mask and default
gateways for all virtual and physical network adapters.

The 'ipconfig' supports various command line options which are described below: To get the
list of options, first write the following syntax on the command line prompt:

Ipconfig/?

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Figure 5.2.11: Use of ‘ipconfig /?’ Command

This command line displays the set of available options.

• ipconfig/all: Displays the IP addressing information for each adapter; in addition to

this, it also displays WINS and DNS settings for each adapter.

• ipconfig/release: This option terminates any active TCP/IP connections on all

network adapters and releases those IP addresses for use by other applications.
“ipconfig /release” can be used with specific Windows connection names. In this case,
the command will affect only the specified connections. The command accepts either
full connection names or wildcard names.

For example: ipconfig /release "Local Area Connection 1"

ipconfig /release *Local*

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• ipconfig/renew: This option re-establishes TCP/IP connections on all network

adapters. As with the release option, ipconfig /renew takes an optional connection
name specifier.

(iv) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

An ARP command is used to discover the physical address of a destination NIC by sending a
message. The physical address of a card is the same as the medium access control (MAC)
address, which is a unique ID given by the manufacturer. The application software that needs
to send data will have the IP address of the destination, but the sending NIC must use ARP to
discover the corresponding physical address. It gets the address by broadcasting an ARP
request packet that announces the IP address of the destination NIC.

All stations listen to this request and the station having the corresponding IP address will
return an ARP response packet containing its MAC address and IP address. All stations keep
a mapping table of the sending station’s IP address and MAC address for a period of time or
until the next ARP response comes from that station having that IP address.

ARP command: The following image represents the usage of ARP command with its syntax:

Figure. 5.2.12: ARP Command

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For example: The following image represents how the ARP command is used to get the
physical address of user systems using its IP address (192.168.0.1):

Figure 5.2.13: arp IP Address

(v) nslookup
A name server lookup (nslookup) is a command-line administrative tool for testing and
troubleshooting DNS servers. It will look up the IP addresses associated with a domain name.

For example: In command line, type nslookup www.google.co.in to get the IP address
associated with this domain name.

Figure 5.2.14: nslookup Command

netstat

“netstat” stands for network statistics. This command is used to get information about
incoming and outgoing network connections and also other network information. netstat
shows network status by giving the contents of various network-related data structure in

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different formats. It displays protocol statistics and current TCP/IP network connections. The
format depends on which parameters are used.

Usage of netstat

NETSTAT [-a] [-e] [-n] [-s] [-p proto] [-r] [interval]

Definition of parameters:

• -a: Displays all connections and listening ports.

• -e: Displays Ethernet statistics, this may be combined with the -s option.

• -n: Displays addresses and port numbers in numerical form.

• -p proto: Shows connections for the protocol specified by proto; proto may be TCP or
UDP. If used with the -s option, it displays per-protocol statistics

• -r: Displays the routing table.

• -s: Displays per-protocol statistics; by default, statistics are shown for TCP, UDP and
IP; Along with this, -p option may be used to specify a subset of the default.

• Interval: Redisplays selected statistics, pausing for interval seconds between each
display. Press CTRL + C to stop redisplaying statistics. If omitted, netstat will print
the current configuration information once.

For example:

Figure 5.2.15: netstat Command

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(vi) nbtstat
Nbtstat is a diagnostic tool for NetBIOS over TCP/IP. It is designed to troubleshoot NetBIOS
name resolution problems. There are various commands in Nbtstat that allow options such as
local cache lookup, WINS server query, broadcast, LMHOSTS lookup and Hosts lookup.

Usage of Nbtstat
Syntax:

nbtstat [-a RemoteName] [-A IPAddress] [-c] [-n] [-r] [-R] [-RR] [-s] [-S] [Interval]

Figure 5.2.16: nbtstat Command

Self-assessment Questions
3) Ping network utility can
a) Measure round-trip time b) Report packet loss
c) Report latency d) Report packet alteration

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4) If you want to find the number of routers between a source and destination, the utility
to be used is
a) Route b) Ipconfig
c) Ifconfig d) Traceroute

5) Which of the following tools is used for testing and troubleshooting DNS servers?
a) Nslookup b) Ipconfig
c) Ifconfig d) Traceroute

6) Which of the following tools is used to troubleshoot NetBIOS name resolution

problems?
a) Nslookup b) Ipconfig
c) Nbtstat d) Traceroute

7) The _____ network tool is used to get the physical address of a user system using its
IP address.
a) Nslookup b) ARP
c) Nbtstat d) Traceroute

8) ICMP is used in
a) Ping b) Netstate
c) Ifconfig d) Trackroute

9) Which of the following commands is not an example for a network utility?

a) Ipconfig b) Netstat
c) Nspnet d) Nbtstat

10) Command line used to display all the available options of ipconfig network utility is
___________
a) ipconfig/? b) ipconfig?
c) ipconfig/# d) ipconfig all

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5.2.6 Hardware Troubleshooting Tools

Troubleshooting a hardware problem is not a difficult task. It generally involves various
procedures, methods and includes baselining and performance monitoring. The key to
determine the failure of a hardware network is to know what devices are used on a network
and functions of each device in that network.

Networking Troubleshooting and Failure

Function
Device Signs
When a hub fails in a network, all
devices connected to it will be unable
to access the network. In addition to
These are used with star network
this, hubs broadcast and forward data
topology. They use twisted pair to
Hubs to all the connected devices or ports
connect various systems to a server
that will increase network traffic.
(centralised physical device)
When the network traffic is high and
network is operating slowly, then it
might be essential to replace slow hubs
A failed switch disables several
Switches These are also used with star topology
network devices to access the network
A device cannot access remote
Routers usually separate broadcast networks if a router used to connect it
Routers domains and connect multiple fails to perform its function. Testing
networks router connectivity can be done using
utilities such as ping and tracert
Bridges are used to connect network
A failed bridge would not allow the
segments within the same network.
Bridges flow of traffic between network
Bridges are used to control the flow of
segments
data between these network segments
A failed access point cannot allow a
Wireless These devices are used to establish the
client to access the wired network. In
Access bridge between the wired and wireless
case of failure, verify the different
Points network
configuration settings

Table 5.2.1: Hardware Components in a Network Infrastructure

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5.2.7 System Monitoring Tools

System monitoring tools are mainly used to monitor system performance. System monitoring
tools assist in troubleshooting network hardware and enforcing network security measures.
These tools can also be used to analyse the network traffic. The monitoring tool, once selected
and installed, should be able to gather vital information on system statistics, analyse it and
display it graphically.

System monitoring tools need to give details on the applications that exist on the hardware.
Also, it is important to work with results that include the full range of operating systems
(Windows, UNIX and Linux).

Given below are examples of some popular system monitoring tools available in the market
and how they are used in system-related monitoring tasks.

• IBM Tivoli Monitoring: Tivoli monitoring is an enterprise system monitoring tool. It

provides management of distributed and host systems through one enterprise
comfort. This tool allows a user or client to monitor and view the entire enterprise. It
gathers data related to applications from agents and then passes the data to the
management server for collection and filtering. Its database runs on DB2 (DataBase2).
It has connections with applications and databases, such as Oracle, enabling support
outside of standard server monitoring.

• Big Brother: Another system monitoring tool used in a production environment is

Big Brother from Big Brother Software. Available in both shareware and for-fee
versions, Big Brother is a web-based system that allows monitoring virtually any kind
of server; in fact, it supports more than 200 types of devices.

Following are some of the system monitoring tools or network utilities related to system
monitor available in Linux operating system:

• Top: This is a small tool which is pre-installed in many UNIX systems. This tool is
used when a system user wants to overview all the processes or threads running in the
system.

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Figure 5.2.17: top Command

• powertop: This helps detect problems that are related to power consumption and
power management. It can also help experiment with power management settings to
achieve the most efficient settings for the server.

• df: It is an abbreviation for disk free and is a pre-installed program in all UNIX
systems used to display the amount of available disk space for file systems which the
user has access to.

Figure. 5.2.18: df Command

• Net-SNMP: SMTP stands for simple mail transfer protocol. The Net-SMTP is a tool
suite used to gather accurate information about a server using SMTP protocol.

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Self-assessment Questions
11) The command ____ is used to reset winsock catalog back to default setting.
a) netsh winsock b) ipconfig
c) clean winsock d) renew winsock

12) The ____ option re-establishes TCP/IP connections on all network adapters.
a) Ipconfig b) ipconfig/renew
c) ipconfig/release d) ipconfig/all

13) Which of the following is not a network device?

a) Router b) Hub
c) Gateway d) Cables

14) The ____________ system monitoring tool helps to detect problems that has to do
with power consumption and power management.
a) top b) powertop
c) df d) Net-SNMP

15) Tivoli monitoring is an enterprise system monitoring tool. (True/False)

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Summary
o A command line interface (CLI) is a user interface to a computer’s OS in which a
user types commands on a specified line and gets a response back from the system
with respect to those commands.

o Network utilities are the tools used to troubleshoot network-related problems.

The most commonly used network utilities are ping, ipconfig, traceroute, etc.

o Documenting a solution includes keeping a record of the considerable number of

steps taken during solving a problem.

o The traceroute (or tracert on Microsoft Windows) tool enables viewing of the
complete route that network packets take from the computer to a remote host.

o Ping is an excellent connectivity testing tool. If the test is successful, the

assumption is that all lower layers are functional and a bottom-up troubleshooting
can be done from the network layer.

o The address resolution protocol (ARP) is a protocol used by Internet protocol

(IP), specifically IPv4, to map IP network addresses to the hardware addresses
used by a data link protocol.

o There are several tools that can be used to monitor the performance of a system.
The monitoring tool, once selected and installed, should be able to gather vital
information on system statistics, analyse it and display it graphically or otherwise.

o The netstat network utility which stands for network statistics, is used to get
information about incoming and outgoing network connections and also other
network information.

o System monitoring tools are mainly used to monitor system performances. Some
of the system monitoring tools used in Linux operating system are df, powertop,
Net-SNMP, etc.

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Answer Keys
Self-assessment Questions
Question No. Answer

1 a
2 d
3 d
4 d
5 a
6 c
7 b
8 a
9 c
10 a
11 a
12 b
13 d
14 b
15 True

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Bibliography
e-References

• Troubleshooting Overview. Retrieved 25 July, 2015 from

http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/internetworking/troubleshooting/guide/tr1901
.pdf

• Techtarget. Command Line Interface (CLI). Retrieved 25 July, 2015 from

http://searchwindowsserver.techtarget.com/definition/command-line-interface-
CLI

• Techtarget. Windows 7 command-line tools and programs. Retrieved 27 July,

2015 from http://searchitchannel.techtarget.com/feature/Windows-7-command-
line-tools-and-programs

• How-to-geek. Common Network Utilities. Retrieved 27 July, 2015 from

http://www.howtogeek.com/190148/8-common-network-utilities-explained

External Resources

• CCNA Cisco Certified Network Associate: Study Guide (With CD) 7th Edition
(Paperback), Wiley India, 2011

• CCENT/CCNA ICND1 640-822 Official Cert Guide 3 Edition (Paperback),

Pearson, 2013

• Routing Protocols and Concepts CCNA Exploration Companion Guide (With

CD) (Paperback), Pearson, 2008

• CCNA Exploration Course Booklet : Routing Protocols and Concepts, Version 4.0
(Paperback), Pearson, 2010

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Video Links
Topic Link
Network Troubleshooting https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oqIhQ5Y0mrg

Internet Connection Troubleshooting

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OPcmhWGblWU
Tips
Network Troubleshooting using
PING, TRACERT, IPCONFIG, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AimCNTzDlVo
NSLOOKUP COMMANDS

IBM Tivoli Monitoring https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wgWNBdJ3aeg

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Notes:

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