Functional Language for

Formal Communication
Part One
Functional grammar 1: properties and shapes

Words and expressions

be + (roughly) + adj + in shape  Footballs are spherical in shape. (3D)

 The planets' orbits are all roughly circular in shape. (2D)
be + (roughly) + adj + -ended  The blades of the scissors are round-ended.
be + shaped like a + n  The building is shaped like a horseshoe.
be + n-like + in shape  The building is horseshoe-like in shape.
be + (roughly) n-shaped  The building is (roughly) horseshoe-shaped.
 The maritime museum is (roughly) whale-shaped.
have + (roughly) + adj + -ended  Children’s scissors (usually) have round-ended blades.
have + evenly spaced + n  The rubber mat has evenly spaced grooves to reduce slipping.
n + passive + made of  The floor is made of concrete.
n-shaped + have  This horseshoe-shaped building has two stories.
there is / are + n (shape)  There is a swelling in the tube where it has been welded to the next section.
serve to  The deck serves to provide a stable and level area for relaxing outdoors.
serve as  The deck serves as a stable and level area for relaxing outdoors.

Below is a selection of other words for describing shape

NOUN ADJ
triangle triangular
rectangle rectangular
square X
oblong X
oval
pyramid pyramidal
X spiral
cylinder cylindrical
taper tapering
X flat
segment segmented
curve curved

Other expressions:
know as  The brain produces small and fast pulsations known as beta waves.
refer to as  The large circular buttons on gas cookers are referred to as knobs or dials.
Both are frequently used as past participles.

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Other important vocabulary used to refer to materials that you should be aware of:

light (low density) heavy (high density)

tough (toughness) brittle (brittleness)
soft (softness) hard (hardness)
ductile (ductility) malleable (malleability)
elastic / flexible (elasticity) rigid (rigidity) / plastic
tensile strength compressive strength
shear strength impact strength
low fusibility high fusibility
not corrosion resistant (tendency to rust) corrosion resistant
hollow solid
transparent opaque
permeable impermeable
a good conductor (of heat / electricity) a poor conductor (of heat / electricity)
good sound / thermal insulation poor sound / thermal insulation

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Functional grammar 2: location

Words and expressions

A is lateral to B  The decorative pond is lateral to the gazebo.

A is superior to / above B  The reset button is (immediately) superior to the power switch.
X is between A and B  The oak is between the elm and the beech.
A is inferior to B  The warning light is inferior to the on-off switch.
X is situated at the base of Y
located near
found beside
above
below
inside
outside
parallel to

X is situated innermost
located outermost
found

 The audio input is situated beside the volume control.

 A branch collar is the swelling located at the base of a branch where the branch meets the trunk.

Think also of terms like:

inner surface
middle layer
outer skin

the inside / the outside / the centre / the core / the top / the bottom / the tip / the end / the base
to run through  The path runs diagonally through the centre of the kitchen garden.
A is in alignment with B  The main gate is in alignment with the front porch of the house.
A projects laterally from B  On the rotary lawnmower, the guide wheels project laterally from the
main body of the appliance.
As + verb + on either side of B  Trees stand on either side of the river that runs through the property.
A + verb + opposite + B  The light sensitive detectors are positioned opposite each other, so
when the beam is broken the alarm sounds.

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Functional grammar 3: structure

Words and expressions

Verb structures that are usually active:

consist of  The ear consists of three basic parts: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear.
include (+ list)  The park includes a vegetable garden, a flower garden, a tropical greenhouse and an
aquatic section.
contain  The oil sump must contain enough oil to fully lubricate the motor.

Verb structures that are usually passive:

divided into  The building is divided into two wings.
composed of  Common glass is almost entirely composed of silicon dioxide.
made up of  The Earth is made up of four distinct layers: the inner core, the outer core, the mantle and the crust.
(usually involves a list)
attached to  Branches are attached to tree trunks by interlocking branch and trunk tissue.
joined by  The handbrake cables of a 2CV are joined (together) by a steel plate.
embedded in  The roots of the water lilies are embedded in the mud at the bottom of the pond, while the stem grows up
towards the light.
filled with  The cavity wall is filled with a special insulator that can be injected thanks to a pump.

Verb structures that can be active or passive:

surround  The egg-shaped atrium is surrounded on three sides by a living wall. (passive)
 A wall of vegetation surrounds the atrium on three sides.
support(ed by)  The tree houses are supported by stilts and so do not need the tree to take any of the weight stress of
the building materials. (passive)
 Stilts support the tree houses so the tree does not need to take any weight stress of the building
materials.
connect(ed to)  In a Walking Beam Motor, the beam is connected to a flywheel by an eccentric cog. (passive)
 In a Walking Beam Motor, an eccentric cog connects the beam to a flywheel.
lined with  The roof is lined with insulating material and plywood. (passive)
 Insulating material and plywood line the roof.

Other expressions:
cover  A protective membrane covers the planting bed during the winter months.
(not) arranged symmetrically
 Crocuses that are planted in a lawn are not usually arranged symmetrically.

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Functional grammar 4: consolidation 1
The following applies the terms and expressions demonstrated in the previous units. Read this text:
In architecture, a folly is a building that is usually sited to command a view. Most follies are composed of stone. The
shape of a folly is usually roughly cylindrical, although bell-shaped and other symmetrically shaped ones do exist.
The building is frequently a hollow tower with an internal spiral stairway leading to a viewing platform located at
the top. A lockable door is usually found at the base of the stairway and occasionally decorative bartizans, which are
strategically situated at regular intervals along the stairway, project laterally from the wall of the tower. As
insulation is unnecessary, the walls of most follies are made up of one single layer known as the skin. Any design
feature can be included in the wall of a folly, but it serves primarily to support the viewing platform. Superior to
this platform, there is sometimes a roughly pyramid-shaped or bowl-shaped part referred to as the canopy. This
provides shelter from the weather and shade from the sun. It is supported by stilts that are embedded in the
platform.

Some follies served as hunting towers. When this was the case, shooting holes similar to arrow loops were evenly
spaced at several levels around the towers. They passed laterally through the walls so that game on the outside
could be shot from the comfort of the interior. Because these towers were frequently surrounded by woodland, game
would come out of the trees to graze at the base of the towers. In some cases, more wealthy landowners were known to
construct a series of follies across their hunting reserve connected to each other by tunnels or covered walkways.
A
Add labels to the diagram below:

G
C

Now prepare a short talk (270 to 290 words – no more and no less) using no fewer than fifteen terms and
expressions from the previous functional grammar units to describe a simple structure like the one above. You must
use at least three expressions from each category and you will exploit one labelled diagram to illustrate your
talk.
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Functional grammar 5: measurement (1) – quantity

Look at these pie charts. They show the cultivars found in two different types of wetland:

Note: The words amount / quantity and are used with uncountables, while the word number is used with countables.

amount / quantity  A bog / Bogs contain(s) a large amount / quantity of moss.

large / small  A bog / Bogs contain(s) a large number of mosses and a relatively small number of sedges.
relatively  It / They contain(s) a relatively large number of reeds.
considerable  It / They contain(s) a considerable number of rushes.
very small
minute  Bogs contain a very small / minute / negligible amount / quantity of grass.
negligible
no  Bogs contain no aquatic animal life.
rich / poor  Marshes are relatively rich in grasses but relatively poor in typhas.
high / low  There is a high concentration of moss to be found in bogs.
concentration  There is a low concentration of grass to be found in bogs.
present / absent  Typhas are present in marshes in relatively large quantities, but they are absent in bogs.

Here are more examples from a different field:

adequate / sufficient  An adequate amount / sufficient quantity of butadiene is necessary if the thermoplastic referred to
as ABS is to be shock resistant.

lack of A lack of ...

insufficient (amount / quantity / level / etc) of  A deficiency in carbon dioxide can lead to an increase in
deficiency in in the pH f water.
An insufficient level of ...

 As regulations on the exploitation of rivers and beaches are tightened for environmental reasons, other building materials have to
be found when gravel is deficient / absent / lacking.

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Functional grammar 6: process (1) – cause and effect

Words and expressions

A B A causes / results in B (A is the cause and B is the effect. In other words,
the cause in mentioned first, followed by the effect).
A B C D A leads to
D is he final result of a series of actions. But the
cause is still mentioned first, followed by the
consequence.
A B B is caused by A
B occurs as a result of A The effect is mentioned first, followed by
B results from A the cause.

cause / result in / lead to  Exposure to salt water causes shortened component life in winch locking systems.
+ noun (+ prep + noun)  Exposure to salt water in winch locking systems results in shortened component life.
 If a diver ascends too quickly, nitrogen in the blood forms bubbles and
leads to the condition known as decompression sickness.
be + caused by + noun + prep  Shortened component life in winch locking systems is caused by exposure to salt water.
(passive)
occur as a result of
+ noun + prep  Most material failure occurs as a result of misuse by the user, and is not due to faulty
devices.

result from + noun + prep  Flooding results from rainstorms or high snow-melt when the available water exceeds the
infiltration rate of soil.

depend on + noun  Effective heat evacuation depends on convection across the outer area
adjacent to the passage of cooling fluids.
 The effective evacuation of heat depends on convection across the outer
area adjacent to the passage of cooling fluids.

allow / permit /  Dive bottles permit scuba divers to stay underwater significantly longer enable + noun + inf
than with breath-holding techniques like snorkeling.
 The lubricant enabled heat transfer to take place with greater efficiency.

prevent + noun + from + -ING  The safety catch on the hook of the crane didn’t prevent the load
from falling.
As a result, + sentence  The flame heats the air inside the sky lantern. As a result, the lantern gains
altitude.

Here are some final examples:

as / because / since  Wrought iron is preferable to cast iron as the former has greater tensile
strength than the latter.
 Quantum mechanics must be used to explain the behaviour of
electrons since this is not explained by classical mechanics.

Consequently,
Hence,
For this reason,  Purple paint colors have the shortest wavelengths on the spectrum. For this
Thus, reason, they absorb light easily.
Therefore,

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Functional grammar 7: measurement (2) – proportion

Look at these raised beds. They show you how to isolate plants from the rest of a garden environment:

Words and expressions

ratio between X and Y + be  The ratio between the length and breadth of the first bed is 2:1 (two to one).
 The ratio between the length and width of the fifth bed is
almost / approximately 3:1 (three to one).

comp adj + than  The fourth bed is (slightly) wider than the third bed.

more / less in proportion to  The width of the fifth bed is less in proportion to its length.

relatively + adj  The fifth bed is relatively narrow.

proportionately + comp adj  The fifth bed is proportionately narrower than the third bed.

be + directly / inversely  For an ideal gas at constant pressure, its volume is directly p r oportional proportional to
to its absolute temperature (in degrees Kelvin).
 The energy possessed by a light wave is inversely proportional to its
wavelength.

The + comp adj + the ratio  The higher the ratio between horsepower and blade diameter,
between X and Y, the longer a lawnmower motor will last .
the + comp adj + noun + vb
 The lower the ratio between surface area and volume , the more
slowly a building gains or loses heat .

more / less + adj + noun  The more compact the shape of the body of an animal , the more
comp adv + noun + vb slowly it cools down.

 The less generous the amount of light provided to plants , the more
quickly they will die.

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Note also the following terms which are frequently, but not exclusively, used when refering to measurement:

DEPEND ON COMPARED WITH RATE DETERMINE OBSERVE

CONVERSELY ROUGHLY FACTOR RELATIVELY CONCLUDE

 The rate of evaporation from irrigated crops in sub-tropical climates depends on wind speed.

 Mowing determines the speed at which lawns are invaded by pests. If a lawn is mown too short,
wind-borne seeds may colonize exposed areas. Conversely, a lawn permitted to grow too high will allow
weeds to go to seed.

 Human emissions of CO2 are small compared with natural sources.

 In many Canadian rivers, the current ratio of jacks (young salmon) to adults is roughly 30 to 1.
Specialists have concluded that ocean feed conditions are excellent and that next year will be a big year
for salmon.

 Natural convection is a factor in heat distribution within a greenhouse.

 To observe the decay of a particle with a lifetime as long as a proton, an experiment must run for a relatively long time.

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Functional grammar 8: consolidation
The following applies the terms and expressions demonstrated in other units. Read this text:
A pump is an apparatus or machine for raising, driving, exhausting, or compressing fluids or gases by means of a piston,
plunger, or set of rotating vanes. In agriculture, raising water for irrigation is a frequent preoccupation of farmers, especially in
regions where rainfall is sparse. In many of these regions the farmers are poor. For this reason, they have to rely on low-tech
means to displace water for crops. The most common form of displacement pump is the piston pump, also referred to as the
bucket pump. These work by raising a piston in a submerged pipe causing water to rush into the cylinder on the up-stroke in
order to fill the vacuum, and to be expelled from the outlet at the top of the pipe. This applies, of course, only up to a certain
limit in the height to which water can be pulled by a vacuum. An alternative to a piston in a cylinder for drawing water is to fit
one wall of a pump chamber with a flexible diaphragm that is usually made of tyre rubber. When the diaphragm is moved in
and out, it displaces water. Such pumps are efficient since flexing a diaphragm involves much less friction than sliding a piston
with seals up and down a cylinder. In addition, no seal is needed at the pump rod, which further reduces friction loss compared
with piston pumps. Furthermore, they are self-priming and capable of functioning well with gritty or muddy water.

The diagram below shows a typical homemade diaphragm pump used by farmers in Ethiopia. The pump is divided into three
main sections: the valve system, the pump chamber and the lever action. The valve system consists of the inlet tube and inlet
valve and the outlet tube and the outlet valve. Usually, the valves are made from tyre rubber and are spring loaded with
compression springs.

The pump chamber is located between the valve system and the lever mechanism. It contains the pump diaphragm. This
membrane is stretched across the width of the chamber. Above the diaphragm is an extension spring known as the diaphragm
spring. It returns the diaphragm to its original position when it is no longer held down by the diaphragm shaft.

The lever action, which is in fact outside the pump housing, is made up of the diaphragm shaft, the lever spring (yet another
extension spring) and the lever. When the bicycle is pedaled, the rear wheel performs the function of a cam. Due to the rise
and fall of the periphery of the rear wheel, the pressure on the lever varies alternately forcing it away from the pump and
allowing it to return. When the outer end of the lever is permitted to descend towards the pump, the diaphragm is forced
upwards by the diaphragm spring, thus increasing the vacuum in the pump chamber. As a result, the inlet valve opens and the
outlet valve shuts. Meanwhile, water is sucked from the source into the pump via the inlet.

As the rear wheel turns further, the pressure on the outer end of the lever is increased. Consequently, the lever is forced
away from the pump by the periphery of the wheel. This forces the diaphragm downwards. Therefore, the pressure in the
camber is increased, causing the inlet valve to shut and the outlet valve to open. As the lever reaches the maximum of its
travel, water is forced out of the chamber towards the irrigation ditches. The diaphragm spring then starts to return the
diaphragm to its original position.

Label the diagram below:

E F
D G
C

H
B

Now write a short description of your own (450 to 500 words) using no fewer than fifteen terms and expressions
from previous units, including at least three terms of measurement (quantity), three of cause and effect and three
of measurement (proportion). Include a labelled drawing or diagram to illustrate your talk.

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