Kubernetes Tutorials

This section of the Kubernetes documentation contains tutorials.
A tutorial shows how to

accomplish a goal that is larger than a single task. Typically a tutorial has several sections, each
of which has a sequence of steps. Before walking through each tutorial, you may want to
bookmark the Standardized Glossary page for later references.
Basics
• Kubernetes Basics is an in-depth interactive tutorial that helps you understand the
Kubernetes system and try out some basic Kubernetes features.
• Introduction to Kubernetes (edX)
• Hello Minikube
Configuration
• Example: Configuring a Java Microservice
• Configuring Redis Using a ConfigMap
Stateless Applications
• Exposing an External IP Address to Access an Application in a Cluster
• Example: Deploying PHP Guestbook application with Redis
Stateful Applications
• StatefulSet Basics
• Example: WordPress and MySQL with Persistent Volumes
• Example: Deploying Cassandra with Stateful Sets
• Running ZooKeeper, A CP Distributed System
Services
• Connecting Applications with Services
• Using Source IP
Security
• Apply Pod Security Standards at Cluster level
• Apply Pod Security Standards at Namespace level
• AppArmor
• Seccomp
What's next
If you would like to write a tutorial, see Content Page Types for information about the tutorial
page type.
Hello Minikube
This tutorial shows you how to run a sample app on Kubernetes using minikube. The tutorial
provides a container image that uses NGINX to echo back all the requests.
Objectives
• Deploy a sample application to minikube.
• Run the app.
• View application logs.
Before you begin

This tutorial assumes that you have already set up minikube. See minikube start for installation
instructions.
You also need to install kubectl. See Install tools for installation instructions.
Create a minikube cluster

minikube start
Open the Dashboard

Open the Kubernetes dashboard. You can do this two different ways:
• Launch a browser
• URL copy and paste
Open a new terminal, and run:
# Start a new terminal, and leave this running.

minikube dashboard
Now, switch back to the terminal where you ran minikube start.
Note:
The dashboard command enables the dashboard add-on and opens the proxy in the default web
browser. You can create Kubernetes resources on the dashboard such as Deployment and
Service.
If you are running in an environment as root, see Open Dashboard with URL.
By default, the dashboard is only accessible from within the internal Kubernetes virtual
network. The dashboard command creates a temporary proxy to make the dashboard accessible
from outside the Kubernetes virtual network.
To stop the proxy, run Ctrl+C to exit the process. After the command exits, the dashboard
remains running in the Kubernetes cluster. You can run the dashboard command again to create
another proxy to access the dashboard.
If you don't want minikube to open a web browser for you, run the dashboard command with
the --url flag. minikube outputs a URL that you can open in the browser you prefer.
Open a new terminal, and run:
# Start a new terminal, and leave this running.

minikube dashboard --url
Now, switch back to the terminal where you ran minikube start.
Create a Deployment
A Kubernetes Pod is a group of one or more Containers, tied together for the purposes of
administration and networking. The Pod in this tutorial has only one Container. A Kubernetes
Deployment checks on the health of your Pod and restarts the Pod's Container if it terminates.
Deployments are the recommended way to manage the creation and scaling of Pods.
1. Use the kubectl create command to create a Deployment that manages a Pod. The Pod
runs a Container based on the provided Docker image.
# Run a test container image that includes a webserver

kubectl create deployment hello-node --image=registry.k8s.io/e2e-test-images/agnhost:
2.39 -- /agnhost netexec --http-port=8080
2. View the Deployment:
kubectl get deployments
The output is similar to:
NAME READY UP-TO-DATE AVAILABLE AGE

hello-node 1/1 1 1 1m
3. View the Pod:
kubectl get pods
NAME READY STATUS RESTARTS AGE

hello-node-5f76cf6ccf-br9b5 1/1 Running 0 1m
4. View cluster events:
kubectl get events
5. View the kubectl configuration:
kubectl config view

View application logs for a container in a pod.
6.
kubectl logs hello-node-5f76cf6ccf-br9b5
I0911 09:19:26.677397 1 log.go:195] Started HTTP server on port 8080

I0911 09:19:26.677586 1 log.go:195] Started UDP server on port 8081
Note: For more information about kubectl commands, see the kubectl overview.
Create a Service
By default, the Pod is only accessible by its internal IP address within the Kubernetes cluster. To
make the hello-node Container accessible from outside the Kubernetes virtual network, you
have to expose the Pod as a Kubernetes Service.
1. Expose the Pod to the public internet using the kubectl expose command:
kubectl expose deployment hello-node --type=LoadBalancer --port=8080
The --type=LoadBalancer flag indicates that you want to expose your Service outside of
the cluster.
The application code inside the test image only listens on TCP port 8080. If you used
kubectl expose to expose a different port, clients could not connect to that other port.
2. View the Service you created:
kubectl get services
NAME TYPE CLUSTER-IP EXTERNAL-IP PORT(S) AGE

hello-node LoadBalancer 10.108.144.78 <pending> 8080:30369/TCP 21s
kubernetes ClusterIP 10.96.0.1 <none> 443/TCP 23m
On cloud providers that support load balancers, an external IP address would be

provisioned to access the Service. On minikube, the LoadBalancer type makes the Service
accessible through the minikube service command.
3. Run the following command:
minikube service hello-node
This opens up a browser window that serves your app and shows the app's response.
Enable addons
The minikube tool includes a set of built-in addons that can be enabled, disabled and opened in
the local Kubernetes environment.
1. List the currently supported addons:

minikube addons list
addon-manager: enabled
dashboard: enabled
default-storageclass: enabled
efk: disabled
freshpod: disabled
gvisor: disabled
helm-tiller: disabled
ingress: disabled
ingress-dns: disabled
logviewer: disabled
metrics-server: disabled
nvidia-driver-installer: disabled
nvidia-gpu-device-plugin: disabled
registry: disabled
registry-creds: disabled
storage-provisioner: enabled
storage-provisioner-gluster: disabled
2. Enable an addon, for example, metrics-server:
minikube addons enable metrics-server
The 'metrics-server' addon is enabled
3. View the Pod and Service you created by installing that addon:
kubectl get pod,svc -n kube-system

pod/coredns-5644d7b6d9-mh9ll 1/1 Running 0 34m
pod/coredns-5644d7b6d9-pqd2t 1/1 Running 0 34m
pod/metrics-server-67fb648c5 1/1 Running 0 26s
pod/etcd-minikube 1/1 Running 0 34m
pod/influxdb-grafana-b29w8 2/2 Running 0 26s
pod/kube-addon-manager-minikube 1/1 Running 0 34m
pod/kube-apiserver-minikube 1/1 Running 0 34m
pod/kube-controller-manager-minikube 1/1 Running 0 34m
pod/kube-proxy-rnlps 1/1 Running 0 34m
pod/kube-scheduler-minikube 1/1 Running 0 34m
pod/storage-provisioner 1/1 Running 0 34m

service/metrics-server ClusterIP 10.96.241.45 <none> 80/TCP 26s
service/kube-dns ClusterIP 10.96.0.10 <none> 53/UDP,53/TCP 34m
service/monitoring-grafana NodePort 10.99.24.54 <none> 80:30002/TCP
26s
service/monitoring-influxdb ClusterIP 10.111.169.94 <none> 8083/TCP,8086/
TCP 26s
4. Disable metrics-server:
minikube addons disable metrics-server
metrics-server was successfully disabled
Clean up
Now you can clean up the resources you created in your cluster:
kubectl delete service hello-node

kubectl delete deployment hello-node
Stop the Minikube cluster
minikube stop
Optionally, delete the Minikube VM:
# Optional
minikube delete
If you want to use minikube again to learn more about Kubernetes, you don't need to delete it.
What's next
• Tutorial to deploy your first app on Kubernetes with kubectl.
• Learn more about Deployment objects.
• Learn more about Deploying applications.
• Learn more about Service objects.
Learn Kubernetes Basics

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Kubernetes Basics
This tutorial provides a walkthrough of the basics of the Kubernetes cluster orchestration
system. Each module contains some background information on major Kubernetes features and
concepts, and a tutorial for you to follow along.
Using the tutorials, you can learn to:
• Deploy a containerized application on a cluster.

• Scale the deployment.
• Update the containerized application with a new software version.
• Debug the containerized application.
What can Kubernetes do for you?

With modern web services, users expect applications to be available 24/7, and developers expect
to deploy new versions of those applications several times a day. Containerization helps
package software to serve these goals, enabling applications to be released and updated without
downtime. Kubernetes helps you make sure those containerized applications run where and
when you want, and helps them find the resources and tools they need to work. Kubernetes is a
production-ready, open source platform designed with Google's accumulated experience in
container orchestration, combined with best-of-breed ideas from the community.
Kubernetes Basics Modules
1. Create a Kubernetes cluster
2. Deploy an app
3. Explore your app
4. Expose your app publicly
5. Scale up your app
6. Update your app
Create a Cluster
Learn about Kubernetes cluster and create a simple cluster using Minikube.
Using Minikube to Create a Cluster
Learn what a Kubernetes cluster is. Learn what Minikube is. Start a Kubernetes cluster.
Using Minikube to Create a Cluster
Learn what a Kubernetes cluster is. Learn what Minikube is. Start a Kubernetes cluster.
html
Objectives
• Learn what a Kubernetes cluster is.

• Learn what Minikube is.
• Start a Kubernetes cluster on your computer.
Kubernetes Clusters
Kubernetes coordinates a highly available cluster of computers that are connected to

work as a single unit. The abstractions in Kubernetes allow you to deploy containerized
applications to a cluster without tying them specifically to individual machines. To make use of
this new model of deployment, applications need to be packaged in a way that decouples them
from individual hosts: they need to be containerized. Containerized applications are more
flexible and available than in past deployment models, where applications were installed
directly onto specific machines as packages deeply integrated into the host. Kubernetes
automates the distribution and scheduling of application containers across a cluster in
a more efficient way. Kubernetes is an open-source platform and is production-ready.
A Kubernetes cluster consists of two types of resources:
• The Control Plane coordinates the cluster

• Nodes are the workers that run applications
Summary:
• Kubernetes cluster
• Minikube
Kubernetes is a production-grade, open-source platform that orchestrates the placement

(scheduling) and execution of application containers within and across computer clusters.
Cluster Diagram
The Control Plane is responsible for managing the cluster. The Control Plane coordinates
all activities in your cluster, such as scheduling applications, maintaining applications' desired
state, scaling applications, and rolling out new updates.
A node is a VM or a physical computer that serves as a worker machine in a

Kubernetes cluster. Each node has a Kubelet, which is an agent for managing the node and
communicating with the Kubernetes control plane. The node should also have tools for
handling container operations, such as containerd or CRI-O. A Kubernetes cluster that handles
production traffic should have a minimum of three nodes because if one node goes down, both
an etcd member and a control plane instance are lost, and redundancy is compromised. You can
mitigate this risk by adding more control plane nodes.
Control Planes manage the cluster and the nodes that are used to host the running applications.
When you deploy applications on Kubernetes, you tell the control plane to start the application
containers. The control plane schedules the containers to run on the cluster's nodes. Node-
level components, such as the kubelet, communicate with the control plane using the
Kubernetes API, which the control plane exposes. End users can also use the Kubernetes API
directly to interact with the cluster.
A Kubernetes cluster can be deployed on either physical or virtual machines. To get started
with Kubernetes development, you can use Minikube. Minikube is a lightweight Kubernetes
implementation that creates a VM on your local machine and deploys a simple cluster
containing only one node. Minikube is available for Linux, macOS, and Windows systems. The
Minikube CLI provides basic bootstrapping operations for working with your cluster, including
start, stop, status, and delete.
Now that you know more about what Kubernetes is, visit Hello Minikube to try this out on
your computer.
Once you've done that, move on to Using kubectl to create a Deployment.
Deploy an App
Using kubectl to Create a Deployment
Learn about application Deployments. Deploy your first app on Kubernetes with kubectl.
Using kubectl to Create a Deployment

Learn about application Deployments. Deploy your first app on Kubernetes with kubectl.
html
Objectives
• Learn about application Deployments.

• Deploy your first app on Kubernetes with kubectl.
Kubernetes Deployments
Once you have a running Kubernetes cluster, you can deploy your containerized applications
on top of it. To do so, you create a Kubernetes Deployment. The Deployment instructs
Kubernetes how to create and update instances of your application. Once you've created a
Deployment, the Kubernetes control plane schedules the application instances included in that
Deployment to run on individual Nodes in the cluster.
Once the application instances are created, a Kubernetes Deployment controller continuously
monitors those instances. If the Node hosting an instance goes down or is deleted, the
Deployment controller replaces the instance with an instance on another Node in the cluster.
This provides a self-healing mechanism to address machine failure or maintenance.
In a pre-orchestration world, installation scripts would often be used to start applications, but
they did not allow recovery from machine failure. By both creating your application instances
and keeping them running across Nodes, Kubernetes Deployments provide a fundamentally
different approach to application management.
Summary:
• Deployments
• Kubectl
A Deployment is responsible for creating and updating instances of your application
Deploying your first app on Kubernetes
You can create and manage a Deployment by using the Kubernetes command line interface,
kubectl. Kubectl uses the Kubernetes API to interact with the cluster. In this module, you'll
learn the most common kubectl commands needed to create Deployments that run your
applications on a Kubernetes cluster.
When you create a Deployment, you'll need to specify the container image for your application
and the number of replicas that you want to run. You can change that information later by
updating your Deployment; Modules 5 and 6 of the bootcamp discuss how you can scale and
update your Deployments.
Applications need to be packaged into one of the supported container formats in order to be
deployed on Kubernetes
For your first Deployment, you'll use a hello-node application packaged in a Docker container
that uses NGINX to echo back all the requests. (If you didn't already try creating a hello-node
application and deploying it using a container, you can do that first by following the
instructions from the Hello Minikube tutorial).
You will need to have installed kubectl as well. If you need to install it, visit install tools.
Now that you know what Deployments are, let's deploy our first app!
kubectl basics
The common format of a kubectl command is: kubectl action resource

This performs the specified action (like create, describe or delete) on the specified resource (like
node or deployment). You can use --help after the subcommand to get additional info about
possible parameters (for example: kubectl get nodes --help).
Check that kubectl is configured to talk to your cluster, by running the kubectl version
command.
Check that kubectl is installed and you can see both the client and the server versions.
To view the nodes in the cluster, run the kubectl get nodes command.
You see the available nodes. Later, Kubernetes will choose where to deploy our application
based on Node available resources.
Deploy an app
Let’s deploy our first app on Kubernetes with the kubectl create deployment command. We
need to provide the deployment name and app image location (include the full repository url
for images hosted outside Docker Hub).
kubectl create deployment kubernetes-bootcamp --image=gcr.io/google-samples/

kubernetes-bootcamp:v1
Great! You just deployed your first application by creating a deployment. This performed a few
things for you:
• searched for a suitable node where an instance of the application could be run (we have
only 1 available node)
• scheduled the application to run on that Node
• configured the cluster to reschedule the instance on a new Node when needed
To list your deployments use the kubectl get deployments command:
We see that there is 1 deployment running a single instance of your app. The instance is
running inside a container on your node.
View the app
Pods that are running inside Kubernetes are running on a private, isolated network. By default
they are visible from other pods and services within the same Kubernetes cluster, but not
outside that network. When we use kubectl, we're interacting through an API endpoint to
communicate with our application.
We will cover other options on how to expose your application outside the Kubernetes cluster
later, in Module 4.
The kubectl proxy command can create a proxy that will forward communications into the
cluster-wide, private network. The proxy can be terminated by pressing control-C and won't
show any output while its running.
You need to open a second terminal window to run the proxy.

kubectl proxy
We now have a connection between our host (the terminal) and the Kubernetes cluster. The
proxy enables direct access to the API from these terminals.
You can see all those APIs hosted through the proxy endpoint. For example, we can query the
version directly through the API using the curl command:
curl http://localhost:8001/version
Note: If port 8001 is not accessible, ensure that the kubectl proxy that you started above is
running in the second terminal.
The API server will automatically create an endpoint for each pod, based on the pod name, that
is also accessible through the proxy.
First we need to get the Pod name, and we'll store in the environment variable POD_NAME:
export POD_NAME=$(kubectl get pods -o go-template --template '{{range .items}}

{{.metadata.name}}{{"\n"}}{{end}}')
echo Name of the Pod: $POD_NAME
You can access the Pod through the proxied API, by running:
curl http://localhost:8001/api/v1/namespaces/default/pods/$POD_NAME/
In order for the new Deployment to be accessible without using the proxy, a Service is required
which will be explained in Module 4.
Once you're ready, move on to Viewing Pods and Nodes.
Explore Your App
Viewing Pods and Nodes
Learn how to troubleshoot Kubernetes applications using kubectl get, kubectl describe, kubectl
logs and kubectl exec.
Viewing Pods and Nodes

Learn how to troubleshoot Kubernetes applications using kubectl get, kubectl describe, kubectl
logs and kubectl exec.
html
Objectives
• Learn about Kubernetes Pods.

• Learn about Kubernetes Nodes.
• Troubleshoot deployed applications.
Kubernetes Pods
When you created a Deployment in Module 2, Kubernetes created a Pod to host your
application instance. A Pod is a Kubernetes abstraction that represents a group of one or more
application containers (such as Docker), and some shared resources for those containers. Those
resources include:
• Shared storage, as Volumes

• Networking, as a unique cluster IP address
• Information about how to run each container, such as the container image version or
specific ports to use
A Pod models an application-specific "logical host" and can contain different application
containers which are relatively tightly coupled. For example, a Pod might include both the
container with your Node.js app as well as a different container that feeds the data to be
published by the Node.js webserver. The containers in a Pod share an IP Address and port
space, are always co-located and co-scheduled, and run in a shared context on the same Node.
Pods are the atomic unit on the Kubernetes platform. When we create a Deployment on
Kubernetes, that Deployment creates Pods with containers inside them (as opposed to creating
containers directly). Each Pod is tied to the Node where it is scheduled, and remains there until
termination (according to restart policy) or deletion. In case of a Node failure, identical Pods are
scheduled on other available Nodes in the cluster.
Summary:
• Pods
• Nodes
• Kubectl main commands
A Pod is a group of one or more application containers (such as Docker) and includes shared
storage (volumes), IP address and information about how to run them.
Pods overview
Nodes
A Pod always runs on a Node. A Node is a worker machine in Kubernetes and may be either a
virtual or a physical machine, depending on the cluster. Each Node is managed by the control
plane. A Node can have multiple pods, and the Kubernetes control plane automatically handles
scheduling the pods across the Nodes in the cluster. The control plane's automatic scheduling
takes into account the available resources on each Node.
Every Kubernetes Node runs at least:
• Kubelet, a process responsible for communication between the Kubernetes control plane
and the Node; it manages the Pods and the containers running on a machine.
• A container runtime (like Docker) responsible for pulling the container image from a
registry, unpacking the container, and running the application.
Containers should only be scheduled together in a single Pod if they are tightly coupled and need to
share resources such as disk.
Node overview
Troubleshooting with kubectl

In Module 2, you used the kubectl command-line interface. You'll continue to use it in Module 3
to get information about deployed applications and their environments. The most common
operations can be done with the following kubectl subcommands:
• kubectl get - list resources

• kubectl describe - show detailed information about a resource
• kubectl logs - print the logs from a container in a pod
• kubectl exec - execute a command on a container in a pod
You can use these commands to see when applications were deployed, what their current
statuses are, where they are running and what their configurations are.
Now that we know more about our cluster components and the command line, let's explore our
application.
A node is a worker machine in Kubernetes and may be a VM or physical machine, depending on

the cluster. Multiple Pods can run on one Node.
Check application configuration
Let's verify that the application we deployed in the previous scenario is running. We'll use the
kubectl get command and look for existing Pods:
kubectl get pods
If no pods are running, please wait a couple of seconds and list the Pods again. You can
continue once you see one Pod running.
Next, to view what containers are inside that Pod and what images are used to build those
containers we run the kubectl describe pods command:
kubectl describe pods

We see here details about the Pod’s container: IP address, the ports used and a list of events
related to the lifecycle of the Pod.
The output of the describe subcommand is extensive and covers some concepts that we didn’t
explain yet, but don’t worry, they will become familiar by the end of this bootcamp.
Note: the describe subcommand can be used to get detailed information about most of the
Kubernetes primitives, including Nodes, Pods, and Deployments. The describe output is designed to
be human readable, not to be scripted against.
Show the app in the terminal
Recall that Pods are running in an isolated, private network - so we need to proxy access to
them so we can debug and interact with them. To do this, we'll use the kubectl proxy command
to run a proxy in a second terminal. Open a new terminal window, and in that new terminal,
run:
kubectl proxy
Now again, we'll get the Pod name and query that pod directly through the proxy. To get the
Pod name and store it in the POD_NAME environment variable:
export POD_NAME="$(kubectl get pods -o go-template --template '{{range .items}}

{{.metadata.name}}{{"\n"}}{{end}}')"
echo Name of the Pod: $POD_NAME
To see the output of our application, run a curl request:
curl http://localhost:8001/api/v1/namespaces/default/pods/$POD_NAME:8080/proxy/
The URL is the route to the API of the Pod.
View the container logs
Anything that the application would normally send to standard output becomes logs for the
container within the Pod. We can retrieve these logs using the kubectl logs command:
kubectl logs "$POD_NAME"
Note: We don't need to specify the container name, because we only have one container inside the
pod.
Executing command on the container
We can execute commands directly on the container once the Pod is up and running. For this,
we use the exec subcommand and use the name of the Pod as a parameter. Let’s list the
environment variables:
kubectl exec "$POD_NAME" -- env
Again, it's worth mentioning that the name of the container itself can be omitted since we only
have a single container in the Pod.
Next let’s start a bash session in the Pod’s container:

kubectl exec -ti $POD_NAME -- bash
We have now an open console on the container where we run our NodeJS application. The
source code of the app is in the server.js file:
cat server.js
You can check that the application is up by running a curl command:
curl http://localhost:8080
Note: here we used localhost because we executed the command inside the NodeJS Pod. If you
cannot connect to localhost:8080, check to make sure you have run the kubectl exec command and
are launching the command from within the Pod
To close your container connection, type exit.
Once you're ready, move on to Using A Service To Expose Your App.
Expose Your App Publicly
Using a Service to Expose Your App
Learn about a Service in Kubernetes. Understand how labels and selectors relate to a Service.
Expose an application outside a Kubernetes cluster.
Using a Service to Expose Your App

Learn about a Service in Kubernetes. Understand how labels and selectors relate to a Service.
Expose an application outside a Kubernetes cluster.
html
Objectives
• Learn about a Service in Kubernetes

• Understand how labels and selectors relate to a Service
• Expose an application outside a Kubernetes cluster using a Service
Overview of Kubernetes Services
Kubernetes Pods are mortal. Pods have a lifecycle. When a worker node dies, the Pods running
on the Node are also lost. A ReplicaSet might then dynamically drive the cluster back to the
desired state via the creation of new Pods to keep your application running. As another
example, consider an image-processing backend with 3 replicas. Those replicas are
exchangeable; the front-end system should not care about backend replicas or even if a Pod is
lost and recreated. That said, each Pod in a Kubernetes cluster has a unique IP address, even
Pods on the same Node, so there needs to be a way of automatically reconciling changes among
Pods so that your applications continue to function.
A Service in Kubernetes is an abstraction which defines a logical set of Pods and a policy by
which to access them. Services enable a loose coupling between dependent Pods. A Service is
defined using YAML or JSON, like all Kubernetes object manifests. The set of Pods targeted by a
Service is usually determined by a label selector (see below for why you might want a Service
without including a selector in the spec).
Although each Pod has a unique IP address, those IPs are not exposed outside the cluster
without a Service. Services allow your applications to receive traffic. Services can be exposed in
different ways by specifying a type in the spec of the Service:
• ClusterIP (default) - Exposes the Service on an internal IP in the cluster. This type makes
the Service only reachable from within the cluster.
• NodePort - Exposes the Service on the same port of each selected Node in the cluster
using NAT. Makes a Service accessible from outside the cluster using
<NodeIP>:<NodePort>. Superset of ClusterIP.
• LoadBalancer - Creates an external load balancer in the current cloud (if supported) and
assigns a fixed, external IP to the Service. Superset of NodePort.
• ExternalName - Maps the Service to the contents of the externalName field (e.g.
foo.bar.example.com), by returning a CNAME record with its value. No proxying of any
kind is set up. This type requires v1.7 or higher of kube-dns, or CoreDNS version 0.0.8 or
higher.
More information about the different types of Services can be found in the Using Source IP
tutorial. Also see Connecting Applications with Services.
Additionally, note that there are some use cases with Services that involve not defining a
selector in the spec. A Service created without selector will also not create the corresponding
Endpoints object. This allows users to manually map a Service to specific endpoints. Another
possibility why there may be no selector is you are strictly using type: ExternalName.
Summary
• Exposing Pods to external traffic

• Load balancing traffic across multiple Pods
• Using labels
A Kubernetes Service is an abstraction layer which defines a logical set of Pods and enables
external traffic exposure, load balancing and service discovery for those Pods.
Services and Labels
A Service routes traffic across a set of Pods. Services are the abstraction that allows pods to die
and replicate in Kubernetes without impacting your application. Discovery and routing among
dependent Pods (such as the frontend and backend components in an application) are handled
by Kubernetes Services.
Services match a set of Pods using labels and selectors, a grouping primitive that allows logical
operation on objects in Kubernetes. Labels are key/value pairs attached to objects and can be
used in any number of ways:
• Designate objects for development, test, and production

• Embed version tags
• Classify an object using tags
Labels can be attached to objects at creation time or later on. They can be modified at any time.
Let's expose our application now using a Service and apply some labels.
Create a new Service
Let’s verify that our application is running. We’ll use the kubectl get command and look for
existing Pods:
kubectl get pods
If no Pods are running then it means the objects from the previous tutorials were cleaned up. In
this case, go back and recreate the deployment from the Using kubectl to create a Deployment
tutorial. Please wait a couple of seconds and list the Pods again. You can continue once you see
the one Pod running.
Next, let’s list the current Services from our cluster:
We have a Service called kubernetes that is created by default when minikube starts the cluster.
To create a new service and expose it to external traffic we'll use the expose command with
NodePort as parameter.
kubectl expose deployment/kubernetes-bootcamp --type="NodePort" --port 8080
Let's run again the get services subcommand:
We have now a running Service called kubernetes-bootcamp. Here we see that the Service
received a unique cluster-IP, an internal port and an external-IP (the IP of the Node).
To find out what port was opened externally (for the type: NodePort Service) we’ll run the
describe service subcommand:
kubectl describe services/kubernetes-bootcamp
Create an environment variable called NODE_PORT that has the value of the Node port
assigned:
export NODE_PORT="$(kubectl get services/kubernetes-bootcamp -o go-

template='{{(index .spec.ports 0).nodePort}}')"
echo "NODE_PORT=$NODE_PORT"
Now we can test that the app is exposed outside of the cluster using curl, the IP address of the
Node and the externally exposed port:
curl http://"$(minikube ip):$NODE_PORT"
Note:
If you're running minikube with Docker Desktop as the container driver, a minikube tunnel is
needed. This is because containers inside Docker Desktop are isolated from your host computer.
In a separate terminal window, execute:

minikube service kubernetes-bootcamp --url
The output looks like this:
http://127.0.0.1:51082
! Because you are using a Docker driver on darwin, the terminal needs to be open to
run it.
Then use the given URL to access the app:

curl 127.0.0.1:51082
And we get a response from the server. The Service is exposed.
Step 2: Using labels
The Deployment created automatically a label for our Pod. With the describe deployment
subcommand you can see the name (the key) of that label:
kubectl describe deployment
Let’s use this label to query our list of Pods. We’ll use the kubectl get pods command with -l as
a parameter, followed by the label values:
kubectl get pods -l app=kubernetes-bootcamp
You can do the same to list the existing Services:
kubectl get services -l app=kubernetes-bootcamp
Get the name of the Pod and store it in the POD_NAME environment variable:
export POD_NAME="$(kubectl get pods -o go-template --template '{{range .items}}

{{.metadata.name}}{{"\n"}}{{end}}')"
echo "Name of the Pod: $POD_NAME"
To apply a new label we use the label subcommand followed by the object type, object name
and the new label:
kubectl label pods "$POD_NAME" version=v1
This will apply a new label to our Pod (we pinned the application version to the Pod), and we
can check it with the describe pod command:
kubectl describe pods "$POD_NAME"
We see here that the label is attached now to our Pod. And we can query now the list of pods
using the new label:
kubectl get pods -l version=v1
And we see the Pod.
Deleting a service
To delete Services you can use the delete service subcommand. Labels can be used also here:
kubectl delete service -l app=kubernetes-bootcamp
Confirm that the Service is gone:
This confirms that our Service was removed. To confirm that route is not exposed anymore you
can curl the previously exposed IP and port:
This proves that the application is not reachable anymore from outside of the cluster. You can
confirm that the app is still running with a curl from inside the pod:
kubectl exec -ti $POD_NAME -- curl http://localhost:8080
We see here that the application is up. This is because the Deployment is managing the
application. To shut down the application, you would need to delete the Deployment as well.
Once you're ready, move on to Running Multiple Instances of Your App.
Scale Your App
Running Multiple Instances of Your App
Scale an existing app manually using kubectl.
Running Multiple Instances of Your App

Scale an existing app manually using kubectl.
html
Objectives
• Scale an app using kubectl.
Scaling an application
Previously we created a Deployment, and then exposed it publicly via a Service. The
Deployment created only one Pod for running our application. When traffic increases, we will
need to scale the application to keep up with user demand.
If you haven't worked through the earlier sections, start from Using minikube to create a
cluster.
Scaling is accomplished by changing the number of replicas in a Deployment
NOTE If you are trying this after the previous section , you may need to start from creating a
cluster as the services may have been deleted
Summary:
• Scaling a Deployment
You can create from the start a Deployment with multiple instances using the --replicas parameter
for the kubectl create deployment command
Scaling overview
1.
2.
Previous Next
Scaling out a Deployment will ensure new Pods are created and scheduled to Nodes with
available resources. Scaling will increase the number of Pods to the new desired state.
Kubernetes also supports autoscaling of Pods, but it is outside of the scope of this tutorial.
Scaling to zero is also possible, and it will terminate all Pods of the specified Deployment.
Running multiple instances of an application will require a way to distribute the traffic to all of
them. Services have an integrated load-balancer that will distribute network traffic to all Pods
of an exposed Deployment. Services will monitor continuously the running Pods using
endpoints, to ensure the traffic is sent only to available Pods.
Scaling is accomplished by changing the number of replicas in a Deployment.
Once you have multiple instances of an application running, you would be able to do Rolling
updates without downtime. We'll cover that in the next section of the tutorial. Now, let's go to
the terminal and scale our application.
Scaling a Deployment
To list your Deployments, use the get deployments subcommand:
The output should be similar to:

NAME READY UP-TO-DATE AVAILABLE AGE
kubernetes-bootcamp 1/1 1 1 11m
We should have 1 Pod. If not, run the command again. This shows:
• NAME lists the names of the Deployments in the cluster.

• READY shows the ratio of CURRENT/DESIRED replicas
• UP-TO-DATE displays the number of replicas that have been updated to achieve the
desired state.
• AVAILABLE displays how many replicas of the application are available to your users.
• AGE displays the amount of time that the application has been running.
To see the ReplicaSet created by the Deployment, run:
kubectl get rs
Notice that the name of the ReplicaSet is always formatted as [DEPLOYMENT-NAME]-

[RANDOM-STRING]. The random string is randomly generated and uses the pod-template-hash
as a seed.
Two important columns of this output are:
• DESIRED displays the desired number of replicas of the application, which you define
when you create the Deployment. This is the desired state.
• CURRENT displays how many replicas are currently running.
Next, let’s scale the Deployment to 4 replicas. We’ll use the kubectl scale command, followed by
the Deployment type, name and desired number of instances:
kubectl scale deployments/kubernetes-bootcamp --replicas=4
To list your Deployments once again, use get deployments:
The change was applied, and we have 4 instances of the application available. Next, let’s check
if the number of Pods changed:
kubectl get pods -o wide
There are 4 Pods now, with different IP addresses. The change was registered in the Deployment
events log. To check that, use the describe subcommand:
kubectl describe deployments/kubernetes-bootcamp
You can also view in the output of this command that there are 4 replicas now.
Load Balancing
Let's check that the Service is load-balancing the traffic. To find out the exposed IP and Port we
can use the describe service as we learned in the previous part of the tutorial:
Create an environment variable called NODE_PORT that has a value as the Node port:
echo NODE_PORT=$NODE_PORT
Next, we’ll do a curl to the exposed IP address and port. Execute the command multiple times:
We hit a different Pod with every request. This demonstrates that the load-balancing is
working.
Scale Down
To scale down the Deployment to 2 replicas, run again the scale subcommand:
kubectl scale deployments/kubernetes-bootcamp --replicas=2
List the Deployments to check if the change was applied with the get deployments
subcommand:
The number of replicas decreased to 2. List the number of Pods, with get pods:
kubectl get pods -o wide
This confirms that 2 Pods were terminated.
Once you're ready, move on to Performing a Rolling Update.
Update Your App
Performing a Rolling Update
Perform a rolling update using kubectl.
Performing a Rolling Update

Perform a rolling update using kubectl.
html
Objectives
• Perform a rolling update using kubectl.

Updating an application
Users expect applications to be available all the time and developers are expected to deploy new
versions of them several times a day. In Kubernetes this is done with rolling updates. Rolling
updates allow Deployments' update to take place with zero downtime by incrementally
updating Pods instances with new ones. The new Pods will be scheduled on Nodes with
available resources.
In the previous module we scaled our application to run multiple instances. This is a
requirement for performing updates without affecting application availability. By default, the
maximum number of Pods that can be unavailable during the update and the maximum number
of new Pods that can be created, is one. Both options can be configured to either numbers or
percentages (of Pods). In Kubernetes, updates are versioned and any Deployment update can be
reverted to a previous (stable) version.
Summary:
• Updating an app
Rolling updates allow Deployments' update to take place with zero downtime by incrementally
updating Pods instances with new ones.
Rolling updates overview

1.
2.
3.
4.
Previous Next
Similar to application Scaling, if a Deployment is exposed publicly, the Service will load-balance
the traffic only to available Pods during the update. An available Pod is an instance that is
available to the users of the application.
Rolling updates allow the following actions:
• Promote an application from one environment to another (via container image updates)
• Rollback to previous versions
• Continuous Integration and Continuous Delivery of applications with zero downtime
If a Deployment is exposed publicly, the Service will load-balance the traffic only to available Pods
during the update.
In the following interactive tutorial, we'll update our application to a new version, and also
perform a rollback.
Update the version of the app
To list your Deployments, run the get deployments subcommand: kubectl get deployments
To list the running Pods, run the get pods subcommand:
kubectl get pods
To view the current image version of the app, run the describe pods subcommand and look for
the Image field:
To update the image of the application to version 2, use the set image subcommand, followed
by the deployment name and the new image version:
kubectl set image deployments/kubernetes-bootcamp kubernetes-bootcamp=jocatalin/

kubernetes-bootcamp:v2
The command notified the Deployment to use a different image for your app and initiated a
rolling update. Check the status of the new Pods, and view the old one terminating with the
get pods subcommand:
kubectl get pods
Step 2: Verify an update
First, check that the app is running. To find the exposed IP address and port, run the describe
service command:
Create an environment variable called NODE_PORT that has the value of the Node port
assigned:

echo "NODE_PORT=$NODE_PORT"
Next, do a curl to the exposed IP and port:
Every time you run the curl command, you will hit a different Pod. Notice that all Pods are now
running the latest version (v2).
You can also confirm the update by running the rollout status subcommand:
kubectl rollout status deployments/kubernetes-bootcamp
To view the current image version of the app, run the describe pods subcommand:

In the Image field of the output, verify that you are running the latest image version (v2).
Roll back an update
Let’s perform another update, and try to deploy an image tagged with v10:
kubectl set image deployments/kubernetes-bootcamp kubernetes-bootcamp=gcr.io/

google-samples/kubernetes-bootcamp:v10
Use get deployments to see the status of the deployment:
Notice that the output doesn't list the desired number of available Pods. Run the get pods
subcommand to list all Pods:
kubectl get pods
Notice that some of the Pods have a status of ImagePullBackOff.
To get more insight into the problem, run the describe pods subcommand:
In the Events section of the output for the affected Pods, notice that the v10 image version did
not exist in the repository.
To roll back the deployment to your last working version, use the rollout undo subcommand:
kubectl rollout undo deployments/kubernetes-bootcamp
The rollout undo command reverts the deployment to the previous known state (v2 of the
image). Updates are versioned and you can revert to any previously known state of a
Deployment.
Use the get pods subcommand to list the Pods again:
kubectl get pods
Four Pods are running. To check the image deployed on these Pods, use the describe pods
subcommand:
The Deployment is once again using a stable version of the app (v2). The rollback was
successful.
Remember to clean up your local cluster
kubectl delete deployments/kubernetes-bootcamp services/kubernetes-bootcamp
Configuration
Example: Configuring a Java Microservice
Configuring Redis using a ConfigMap
Example: Configuring a Java Microservice
Externalizing config using MicroProfile, ConfigMaps and Secrets
Externalizing config using MicroProfile,

ConfigMaps and Secrets
In this tutorial you will learn how and why to externalize your microservice’s configuration.
Specifically, you will learn how to use Kubernetes ConfigMaps and Secrets to set environment
variables and then consume them using MicroProfile Config.
Before you begin

Creating Kubernetes ConfigMaps & Secrets
There are several ways to set environment variables for a Docker container in Kubernetes,
including: Dockerfile, kubernetes.yml, Kubernetes ConfigMaps, and Kubernetes Secrets. In the
tutorial, you will learn how to use the latter two for setting your environment variables whose
values will be injected into your microservices. One of the benefits for using ConfigMaps and
Secrets is that they can be re-used across multiple containers, including being assigned to
different environment variables for the different containers.
ConfigMaps are API Objects that store non-confidential key-value pairs. In the Interactive
Tutorial you will learn how to use a ConfigMap to store the application's name. For more
information regarding ConfigMaps, you can find the documentation here.
Although Secrets are also used to store key-value pairs, they differ from ConfigMaps in that
they're intended for confidential/sensitive information and are stored using Base64 encoding.
This makes secrets the appropriate choice for storing such things as credentials, keys, and
tokens, the former of which you'll do in the Interactive Tutorial. For more information on
Secrets, you can find the documentation here.
Externalizing Config from Code
Externalized application configuration is useful because configuration usually changes

depending on your environment. In order to accomplish this, we'll use Java's Contexts and
Dependency Injection (CDI) and MicroProfile Config. MicroProfile Config is a feature of
MicroProfile, a set of open Java technologies for developing and deploying cloud-native
microservices.
CDI provides a standard dependency injection capability enabling an application to be

assembled from collaborating, loosely-coupled beans. MicroProfile Config provides apps and
microservices a standard way to obtain config properties from various sources, including the
application, runtime, and environment. Based on the source's defined priority, the properties are
automatically combined into a single set of properties that the application can access via an
API. Together, CDI & MicroProfile will be used in the Interactive Tutorial to retrieve the
externally provided properties from the Kubernetes ConfigMaps and Secrets and get injected
into your application code.
Many open source frameworks and runtimes implement and support MicroProfile Config.
Throughout the interactive tutorial, you'll be using Open Liberty, a flexible open-source Java
runtime for building and running cloud-native apps and microservices. However, any
MicroProfile compatible runtime could be used instead.
Objectives
• Create a Kubernetes ConfigMap and Secret
• Inject microservice configuration using MicroProfile Config
Example: Externalizing config using MicroProfile,

ConfigMaps and Secrets
Start Interactive Tutorial
Configuring Redis using a ConfigMap

This page provides a real world example of how to configure Redis using a ConfigMap and
builds upon the Configure a Pod to Use a ConfigMap task.
Objectives
• Create a ConfigMap with Redis configuration values
• Create a Redis Pod that mounts and uses the created ConfigMap
• Verify that the configuration was correctly applied.
Before you begin

You need to have a Kubernetes cluster, and the kubectl command-line tool must be configured
to communicate with your cluster. It is recommended to run this tutorial on a cluster with at
least two nodes that are not acting as control plane hosts. If you do not already have a cluster,
you can create one by using minikube or you can use one of these Kubernetes playgrounds:
• Killercoda
• Play with Kubernetes
To check the version, enter kubectl version.
• The example shown on this page works with kubectl 1.14 and above.
• Understand Configure a Pod to Use a ConfigMap.
Real World Example: Configuring Redis using a
ConfigMap
Follow the steps below to configure a Redis cache using data stored in a ConfigMap.
First create a ConfigMap with an empty configuration block:
cat <<EOF >./example-redis-config.yaml

apiVersion: v1
kind: ConfigMap
metadata:
name: example-redis-config
data:
redis-config: ""
EOF
Apply the ConfigMap created above, along with a Redis pod manifest:
kubectl apply -f example-redis-config.yaml

kubectl apply -f https://raw.githubusercontent.com/kubernetes/website/main/content/en/
examples/pods/config/redis-pod.yaml
Examine the contents of the Redis pod manifest and note the following:
• A volume named config is created by spec.volumes[1]

• The key and path under spec.volumes[1].items[0] exposes the redis-config key from the
example-redis-config ConfigMap as a file named redis.conf on the config volume.
• The config volume is then mounted at /redis-master by
spec.containers[0].volumeMounts[1].
This has the net effect of exposing the data in data.redis-config from the example-redis-config
ConfigMap above as /redis-master/redis.conf inside the Pod.
pods/config/redis-pod.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: redis
spec:
containers:
- name: redis
image: redis:5.0.4
command:
- redis-server
- "/redis-master/redis.conf"
env:
- name: MASTER
value: "true"
ports:
- containerPort: 6379
resources:
limits:
cpu: "0.1"
volumeMounts:
- mountPath: /redis-master-data
name: data
- mountPath: /redis-master
name: config
volumes:
- name: data
emptyDir: {}
- name: config
configMap:
items:
- key: redis-config
path: redis.conf
Examine the created objects:
kubectl get pod/redis configmap/example-redis-config
You should see the following output:

pod/redis 1/1 Running 0 8s
NAME DATA AGE

configmap/example-redis-config 1 14s
Recall that we left redis-config key in the example-redis-config ConfigMap blank:
kubectl describe configmap/example-redis-config
You should see an empty redis-config key:
Name: example-redis-config
Namespace: default
Labels: <none>
Annotations: <none>
Data
====
redis-config:
Use kubectl exec to enter the pod and run the redis-cli tool to check the current configuration:
kubectl exec -it redis -- redis-cli
Check maxmemory:
127.0.0.1:6379> CONFIG GET maxmemory
It should show the default value of 0:
1) "maxmemory"
2) "0"
Similarly, check maxmemory-policy:
127.0.0.1:6379> CONFIG GET maxmemory-policy
Which should also yield its default value of noeviction:
1) "maxmemory-policy"
2) "noeviction"
Now let's add some configuration values to the example-redis-config ConfigMap:
pods/config/example-redis-config.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: ConfigMap
metadata:
data:
redis-config: |
maxmemory 2mb
maxmemory-policy allkeys-lru
Apply the updated ConfigMap:
kubectl apply -f example-redis-config.yaml
Confirm that the ConfigMap was updated:
kubectl describe configmap/example-redis-config
You should see the configuration values we just added:
Name: example-redis-config
Namespace: default
Labels: <none>
Annotations: <none>
Data
====
redis-config:
----
maxmemory 2mb
maxmemory-policy allkeys-lru
Check the Redis Pod again using redis-cli via kubectl exec to see if the configuration was
applied:
Check maxmemory:
It remains at the default value of 0:

1) "maxmemory"
2) "0"
Similarly, maxmemory-policy remains at the noeviction default setting:
Returns:
2) "noeviction"
The configuration values have not changed because the Pod needs to be restarted to grab
updated values from associated ConfigMaps. Let's delete and recreate the Pod:
kubectl delete pod redis

kubectl apply -f https://raw.githubusercontent.com/kubernetes/website/main/content/en/
examples/pods/config/redis-pod.yaml
Now re-check the configuration values one last time:
Check maxmemory:
It should now return the updated value of 2097152:
1) "maxmemory"
2) "2097152"
Similarly, maxmemory-policy has also been updated:
It now reflects the desired value of allkeys-lru:
2) "allkeys-lru"
Clean up your work by deleting the created resources:
kubectl delete pod/redis configmap/example-redis-config
What's next
• Learn more about ConfigMaps.
Security
Security is an important concern for most organizations and people who run Kubernetes
clusters. You can find a basic security checklist elsewhere in the Kubernetes documentation.
To learn how to deploy and manage security aspects of Kubernetes, you can follow the tutorials
in this section.
Apply Pod Security Standards at the Cluster Level
Apply Pod Security Standards at the Namespace Level
Restrict a Container's Access to Resources with AppArmor
Restrict a Container's Syscalls with seccomp
Apply Pod Security Standards at the

Cluster Level
Note
This tutorial applies only for new clusters.
Pod Security is an admission controller that carries out checks against the Kubernetes Pod
Security Standards when new pods are created. It is a feature GA'ed in v1.25. This tutorial
shows you how to enforce the baseline Pod Security Standard at the cluster level which applies
a standard configuration to all namespaces in a cluster.
To apply Pod Security Standards to specific namespaces, refer to Apply Pod Security Standards
at the namespace level.
If you are running a version of Kubernetes other than v1.28, check the documentation for that
version.
Before you begin

Install the following on your workstation:
• kind
• kubectl
This tutorial demonstrates what you can configure for a Kubernetes cluster that you fully
control. If you are learning how to configure Pod Security Admission for a managed cluster
where you are not able to configure the control plane, read Apply Pod Security Standards at the
namespace level.
Choose the right Pod Security Standard to apply

Pod Security Admission lets you apply built-in Pod Security Standards with the following
modes: enforce, audit, and warn.
To gather information that helps you to choose the Pod Security Standards that are most
appropriate for your configuration, do the following:
1. Create a cluster with no Pod Security Standards applied:
kind create cluster --name psa-wo-cluster-pss
Creating cluster "psa-wo-cluster-pss" ...

Ensuring node image (kindest/node:v1.28.4)
Preparing nodes
Writing configuration
Starting control-plane
Installing CNI
Installing StorageClass
Set kubectl context to "kind-psa-wo-cluster-pss"
You can now use your cluster with:
kubectl cluster-info --context kind-psa-wo-cluster-pss
Thanks for using kind!
2. Set the kubectl context to the new cluster:
kubectl cluster-info --context kind-psa-wo-cluster-pss
The output is similar to this:
Kubernetes control plane is running at https://127.0.0.1:61350
CoreDNS is running at https://127.0.0.1:61350/api/v1/namespaces/kube-system/services/

kube-dns:dns/proxy
To further debug and diagnose cluster problems, use 'kubectl cluster-info dump'.
3. Get a list of namespaces in the cluster:
kubectl get ns
NAME STATUS AGE

default Active 9m30s
kube-node-lease Active 9m32s
kube-public Active 9m32s
kube-system Active 9m32s
local-path-storage Active 9m26s
4. Use --dry-run=server to understand what happens when different Pod Security Standards
are applied:
1. Privileged
kubectl label --dry-run=server --overwrite ns --all \
pod-security.kubernetes.io/enforce=privileged
namespace/default labeled
namespace/kube-node-lease labeled
namespace/kube-public labeled
namespace/kube-system labeled
namespace/local-path-storage labeled
2. Baseline

pod-security.kubernetes.io/enforce=baseline
Warning: existing pods in namespace "kube-system" violate the new PodSecurity
enforce level "baseline:latest"
Warning: etcd-psa-wo-cluster-pss-control-plane (and 3 other pods): host
namespaces, hostPath volumes
Warning: kindnet-vzj42: non-default capabilities, host namespaces, hostPath
volumes
Warning: kube-proxy-m6hwf: host namespaces, hostPath volumes, privileged
3. Restricted

pod-security.kubernetes.io/enforce=restricted
Warning: existing pods in namespace "kube-system" violate the new PodSecurity
enforce level "restricted:latest"
Warning: coredns-7bb9c7b568-hsptc (and 1 other pod): unrestricted capabilities,
runAsNonRoot != true, seccompProfile
Warning: etcd-psa-wo-cluster-pss-control-plane (and 3 other pods): host
namespaces, hostPath volumes, allowPrivilegeEscalation != false, unrestricted
capabilities, restricted volume types, runAsNonRoot != true
Warning: kindnet-vzj42: non-default capabilities, host namespaces, hostPath
volumes, allowPrivilegeEscalation != false, unrestricted capabilities, restricted
volume types, runAsNonRoot != true, seccompProfile
Warning: kube-proxy-m6hwf: host namespaces, hostPath volumes, privileged,
allowPrivilegeEscalation != false, unrestricted capabilities, restricted volume types,
runAsNonRoot != true, seccompProfile
Warning: existing pods in namespace "local-path-storage" violate the new
PodSecurity enforce level "restricted:latest"
Warning: local-path-provisioner-d6d9f7ffc-lw9lh: allowPrivilegeEscalation != false,
unrestricted capabilities, runAsNonRoot != true, seccompProfile
From the previous output, you'll notice that applying the privileged Pod Security Standard
shows no warnings for any namespaces. However, baseline and restricted standards both have
warnings, specifically in the kube-system namespace.
Set modes, versions and standards

In this section, you apply the following Pod Security Standards to the latest version:
• baseline standard in enforce mode.

• restricted standard in warn and audit mode.
The baseline Pod Security Standard provides a convenient middle ground that allows keeping
the exemption list short and prevents known privilege escalations.
Additionally, to prevent pods from failing in kube-system, you'll exempt the namespace from
having Pod Security Standards applied.
When you implement Pod Security Admission in your own environment, consider the
following:
1. Based on the risk posture applied to a cluster, a stricter Pod Security Standard like
restricted might be a better choice.
2. Exempting the kube-system namespace allows pods to run as privileged in this

namespace. For real world use, the Kubernetes project strongly recommends that you
apply strict RBAC policies that limit access to kube-system, following the principle of
least privilege. To implement the preceding standards, do the following:
3. Create a configuration file that can be consumed by the Pod Security Admission
Controller to implement these Pod Security Standards:
mkdir -p /tmp/pss
cat <<EOF > /tmp/pss/cluster-level-pss.yaml
apiVersion: apiserver.config.k8s.io/v1
kind: AdmissionConfiguration
plugins:
- name: PodSecurity
configuration:
apiVersion: pod-security.admission.config.k8s.io/v1
kind: PodSecurityConfiguration
defaults:
enforce: "baseline"
enforce-version: "latest"
audit: "restricted"
audit-version: "latest"
warn: "restricted"
warn-version: "latest"
exemptions:
usernames: []
runtimeClasses: []
namespaces: [kube-system]
EOF
Note: pod-security.admission.config.k8s.io/v1 configuration requires v1.25+. For v1.23

and v1.24, use v1beta1. For v1.22, use v1alpha1.
4. Configure the API server to consume this file during cluster creation:
cat <<EOF > /tmp/pss/cluster-config.yaml

kind: Cluster
apiVersion: kind.x-k8s.io/v1alpha4
nodes:
- role: control-plane
kubeadmConfigPatches:
-|
kind: ClusterConfiguration
apiServer:
extraArgs:
admission-control-config-file: /etc/config/cluster-level-pss.yaml
extraVolumes:
- name: accf
hostPath: /etc/config
mountPath: /etc/config
readOnly: false
pathType: "DirectoryOrCreate"
extraMounts:
- hostPath: /tmp/pss
containerPath: /etc/config
# optional: if set, the mount is read-only.
# default false
readOnly: false
# optional: if set, the mount needs SELinux relabeling.
# default false
selinuxRelabel: false
# optional: set propagation mode (None, HostToContainer or Bidirectional)
# see https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/storage/volumes/#mount-propagation
# default None
propagation: None
EOF
Note: If you use Docker Desktop with kind on macOS, you can add /tmp as a Shared
Directory under the menu item Preferences > Resources > File Sharing.
5. Create a cluster that uses Pod Security Admission to apply these Pod Security Standards:
kind create cluster --name psa-with-cluster-pss --config /tmp/pss/cluster-config.yaml

Creating cluster "psa-with-cluster-pss" ...
Preparing nodes
Installing CNI
Set kubectl context to "kind-psa-with-cluster-pss"
kubectl cluster-info --context kind-psa-with-cluster-pss
Have a question, bug, or feature request? Let us know! https://kind.sigs.k8s.io/

#community
6. Point kubectl to the cluster:
kubectl cluster-info --context kind-psa-with-cluster-pss

kube-dns:dns/proxy
7. Create a Pod in the default namespace:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/security/example-baseline-pod.yaml
The pod is started normally, but the output includes a warning:
Warning: would violate PodSecurity "restricted:latest": allowPrivilegeEscalation != false

(container "nginx" must set securityContext.allowPrivilegeEscalation=false), unrestricted
capabilities (container "nginx" must set securityContext.capabilities.drop=["ALL"]),
runAsNonRoot != true (pod or container "nginx" must set
securityContext.runAsNonRoot=true), seccompProfile (pod or container "nginx" must set
securityContext.seccompProfile.type to "RuntimeDefault" or "Localhost")
pod/nginx created
Clean up
Now delete the clusters which you created above by running the following command:
kind delete cluster --name psa-with-cluster-pss
kind delete cluster --name psa-wo-cluster-pss
What's next
• Run a shell script to perform all the preceding steps at once:
1. Create a Pod Security Standards based cluster level Configuration
2. Create a file to let API server consume this configuration
3. Create a cluster that creates an API server with this configuration
4. Set kubectl context to this new cluster
5. Create a minimal pod yaml file
6. Apply this file to create a Pod in the new cluster
• Pod Security Admission
• Pod Security Standards
• Apply Pod Security Standards at the namespace level
Apply Pod Security Standards at the

Namespace Level
Note
This tutorial applies only for new clusters.
Pod Security Admission is an admission controller that applies Pod Security Standards when
pods are created. It is a feature GA'ed in v1.25. In this tutorial, you will enforce the baseline Pod
Security Standard, one namespace at a time.
You can also apply Pod Security Standards to multiple namespaces at once at the cluster level.
For instructions, refer to Apply Pod Security Standards at the cluster level.
Before you begin

Install the following on your workstation:
• kind
• kubectl
Create cluster
1. Create a kind cluster as follows:
kind create cluster --name psa-ns-level
Creating cluster "psa-ns-level" ...

Preparing nodes
Installing CNI
Set kubectl context to "kind-psa-ns-level"
kubectl cluster-info --context kind-psa-ns-level

Not sure what to do next? Check out https://kind.sigs.k8s.io/docs/user/quick-start/
2. Set the kubectl context to the new cluster:
kubectl cluster-info --context kind-psa-ns-level

kube-dns:dns/proxy
Create a namespace
Create a new namespace called example:
kubectl create ns example
namespace/example created
Enable Pod Security Standards checking for that

namespace
1. Enable Pod Security Standards on this namespace using labels supported by built-in Pod
Security Admission. In this step you will configure a check to warn on Pods that don't
meet the latest version of the baseline pod security standard.
kubectl label --overwrite ns example \

pod-security.kubernetes.io/warn=baseline \
pod-security.kubernetes.io/warn-version=latest
2. You can configure multiple pod security standard checks on any namespace, using labels.
The following command will enforce the baseline Pod Security Standard, but warn and
audit for restricted Pod Security Standards as per the latest version (default value)
kubectl label --overwrite ns example \

pod-security.kubernetes.io/enforce=baseline \
pod-security.kubernetes.io/enforce-version=latest \
pod-security.kubernetes.io/warn=restricted \
pod-security.kubernetes.io/warn-version=latest \
pod-security.kubernetes.io/audit=restricted \
pod-security.kubernetes.io/audit-version=latest
Verify the Pod Security Standard enforcement

1. Create a baseline Pod in the example namespace:
kubectl apply -n example -f https://k8s.io/examples/security/example-baseline-pod.yaml
The Pod does start OK; the output includes a warning. For example:
Warning: would violate PodSecurity "restricted:latest": allowPrivilegeEscalation != false

(container "nginx" must set securityContext.allowPrivilegeEscalation=false), unrestricted
capabilities (container "nginx" must set securityContext.capabilities.drop=["ALL"]),
runAsNonRoot != true (pod or container "nginx" must set
securityContext.runAsNonRoot=true), seccompProfile (pod or container "nginx" must set
securityContext.seccompProfile.type to "RuntimeDefault" or "Localhost")
pod/nginx created
2. Create a baseline Pod in the default namespace:
kubectl apply -n default -f https://k8s.io/examples/security/example-baseline-pod.yaml
Output is similar to this:
pod/nginx created
The Pod Security Standards enforcement and warning settings were applied only to the
example namespace. You could create the same Pod in the default namespace with no warnings.
Clean up
Now delete the cluster which you created above by running the following command:
kind delete cluster --name psa-ns-level
What's next
• Run a shell script to perform all the preceding steps all at once.
1. Create kind cluster

2. Create new namespace
3. Apply baseline Pod Security Standard in enforce mode while applying restricted
Pod Security Standard also in warn and audit mode.
4. Create a new pod with the following pod security standards applied
• Pod Security Admission
• Pod Security Standards
• Apply Pod Security Standards at the cluster level
Restrict a Container's Access to Resources

with AppArmor
FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.4 [beta]
AppArmor is a Linux kernel security module that supplements the standard Linux user and
group based permissions to confine programs to a limited set of resources. AppArmor can be
configured for any application to reduce its potential attack surface and provide greater in-
depth defense. It is configured through profiles tuned to allow the access needed by a specific
program or container, such as Linux capabilities, network access, file permissions, etc. Each
profile can be run in either enforcing mode, which blocks access to disallowed resources, or
complain mode, which only reports violations.
AppArmor can help you to run a more secure deployment by restricting what containers are
allowed to do, and/or provide better auditing through system logs. However, it is important to
keep in mind that AppArmor is not a silver bullet and can only do so much to protect against
exploits in your application code. It is important to provide good, restrictive profiles, and
harden your applications and cluster from other angles as well.
Objectives
• See an example of how to load a profile on a node
• Learn how to enforce the profile on a Pod
• Learn how to check that the profile is loaded
• See what happens when a profile is violated
• See what happens when a profile cannot be loaded
Before you begin

Make sure:
1. Kubernetes version is at least v1.4 -- Kubernetes support for AppArmor was added in
v1.4. Kubernetes components older than v1.4 are not aware of the new AppArmor
annotations, and will silently ignore any AppArmor settings that are provided. To
ensure that your Pods are receiving the expected protections, it is important to verify the
Kubelet version of your nodes:
kubectl get nodes -o=jsonpath=$'{range .items[*]}{@.metadata.name}:

{@.status.nodeInfo.kubeletVersion}\n{end}'
gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-gyn2: v1.4.0
gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-x1kf: v1.4.0
gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-xwux: v1.4.0
2. AppArmor kernel module is enabled -- For the Linux kernel to enforce an AppArmor
profile, the AppArmor kernel module must be installed and enabled. Several distributions
enable the module by default, such as Ubuntu and SUSE, and many others provide
optional support. To check whether the module is enabled, check the /sys/module/
apparmor/parameters/enabled file:
cat /sys/module/apparmor/parameters/enabled
Y
If the Kubelet contains AppArmor support (>= v1.4), it will refuse to run a Pod with
AppArmor options if the kernel module is not enabled.
Note: Ubuntu carries many AppArmor patches that have not been merged into the upstream
Linux kernel, including patches that add additional hooks and features. Kubernetes has only
been tested with the upstream version, and does not promise support for other features.
1. Container runtime supports AppArmor -- Currently all common Kubernetes-supported

container runtimes should support AppArmor, like Docker, CRI-O or containerd. Please
refer to the corresponding runtime documentation and verify that the cluster fulfills the
requirements to use AppArmor.
2. Profile is loaded -- AppArmor is applied to a Pod by specifying an AppArmor profile that

each container should be run with. If any of the specified profiles is not already loaded in
the kernel, the Kubelet (>= v1.4) will reject the Pod. You can view which profiles are
loaded on a node by checking the /sys/kernel/security/apparmor/profiles file. For
example:
ssh gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-gyn2 "sudo cat /sys/kernel/security/apparmor/profiles

| sort"
apparmor-test-deny-write (enforce)
apparmor-test-audit-write (enforce)
docker-default (enforce)
k8s-nginx (enforce)
For more details on loading profiles on nodes, see Setting up nodes with profiles.
As long as the Kubelet version includes AppArmor support (>= v1.4), the Kubelet will reject a
Pod with AppArmor options if any of the prerequisites are not met. You can also verify
AppArmor support on nodes by checking the node ready condition message (though this is
likely to be removed in a later release):
kubectl get nodes -o=jsonpath='{range .items[*]}{@.metadata.name}: {.status.conditions[?

(@.reason=="KubeletReady")].message}{"\n"}{end}'
gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-gyn2: kubelet is posting ready status. AppArmor enabled

gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-x1kf: kubelet is posting ready status. AppArmor enabled
gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-xwux: kubelet is posting ready status. AppArmor enabled
Securing a Pod
Note: AppArmor is currently in beta, so options are specified as annotations. Once support
graduates to general availability, the annotations will be replaced with first-class fields.
AppArmor profiles are specified per-container. To specify the AppArmor profile to run a Pod
container with, add an annotation to the Pod's metadata:
container.apparmor.security.beta.kubernetes.io/<container_name>: <profile_ref>
Where <container_name> is the name of the container to apply the profile to, and <profile_ref>
specifies the profile to apply. The profile_ref can be one of:
• runtime/default to apply the runtime's default profile

• localhost/<profile_name> to apply the profile loaded on the host with the name
<profile_name>
• unconfined to indicate that no profiles will be loaded
See the API Reference for the full details on the annotation and profile name formats.
Kubernetes AppArmor enforcement works by first checking that all the prerequisites have been
met, and then forwarding the profile selection to the container runtime for enforcement. If the
prerequisites have not been met, the Pod will be rejected, and will not run.
To verify that the profile was applied, you can look for the AppArmor security option listed in
the container created event:
kubectl get events | grep Created
22s 22s 1 hello-apparmor Pod spec.containers{hello} Normal Created

{kubelet e2e-test-stclair-node-pool-31nt} Created container with docker id 269a53b202d3;
Security:[seccomp=unconfined apparmor=k8s-apparmor-example-deny-write]
You can also verify directly that the container's root process is running with the correct profile
by checking its proc attr:
kubectl exec <pod_name> -- cat /proc/1/attr/current
k8s-apparmor-example-deny-write (enforce)
Example
This example assumes you have already set up a cluster with AppArmor support.
First, we need to load the profile we want to use onto our nodes. This profile denies all file
writes:
#include <tunables/global>
profile k8s-apparmor-example-deny-write flags=(attach_disconnected) {

#include <abstractions/base>
file,
# Deny all file writes.

deny /** w,
}
Since we don't know where the Pod will be scheduled, we'll need to load the profile on all our
nodes. For this example we'll use SSH to install the profiles, but other approaches are discussed
in Setting up nodes with profiles.
NODES=(
# The SSH-accessible domain names of your nodes
gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-gyn2.us-central1-a.my-k8s
gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-x1kf.us-central1-a.my-k8s
gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-xwux.us-central1-a.my-k8s)
for NODE in ${NODES[*]}; do ssh $NODE 'sudo apparmor_parser -q <<EOF
#include <tunables/global>
profile k8s-apparmor-example-deny-write flags=(attach_disconnected) {

#include <abstractions/base>
file,
# Deny all file writes.

deny /** w,
}
EOF'
done
Next, we'll run a simple "Hello AppArmor" pod with the deny-write profile:
pods/security/hello-apparmor.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: hello-apparmor
annotations:
# Tell Kubernetes to apply the AppArmor profile "k8s-apparmor-example-deny-write".
# Note that this is ignored if the Kubernetes node is not running version 1.4 or greater.
container.apparmor.security.beta.kubernetes.io/hello: localhost/k8s-apparmor-example-deny-
write
spec:
containers:
- name: hello
image: busybox:1.28
command: [ "sh", "-c", "echo 'Hello AppArmor!' && sleep 1h" ]
kubectl create -f ./hello-apparmor.yaml
If we look at the pod events, we can see that the Pod container was created with the AppArmor
profile "k8s-apparmor-example-deny-write":
kubectl get events | grep hello-apparmor
14s 14s 1 hello-apparmor Pod Normal Scheduled {default-

scheduler } Successfully assigned hello-apparmor to gke-test-default-
pool-239f5d02-gyn2
14s 14s 1 hello-apparmor Pod spec.containers{hello} Normal Pulling
{kubelet gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-gyn2} pulling image "busybox"
13s 13s 1 hello-apparmor Pod spec.containers{hello} Normal Pulled
{kubelet gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-gyn2} Successfully pulled image "busybox"
13s 13s 1 hello-apparmor Pod spec.containers{hello} Normal Created
{kubelet gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-gyn2} Created container with docker id 06b6cd1c0989;
Security:[seccomp=unconfined apparmor=k8s-apparmor-example-deny-write]
13s 13s 1 hello-apparmor Pod spec.containers{hello} Normal Started
{kubelet gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-gyn2} Started container with docker id 06b6cd1c0989
We can verify that the container is actually running with that profile by checking its proc attr:
kubectl exec hello-apparmor -- cat /proc/1/attr/current
k8s-apparmor-example-deny-write (enforce)
Finally, we can see what happens if we try to violate the profile by writing to a file:
kubectl exec hello-apparmor -- touch /tmp/test
touch: /tmp/test: Permission denied

error: error executing remote command: command terminated with non-zero exit code: Error
executing in Docker Container: 1
To wrap up, let's look at what happens if we try to specify a profile that hasn't been loaded:
kubectl create -f /dev/stdin <<EOF
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: hello-apparmor-2
annotations:
container.apparmor.security.beta.kubernetes.io/hello: localhost/k8s-apparmor-example-allow-
write
spec:
containers:
- name: hello
image: busybox:1.28
command: [ "sh", "-c", "echo 'Hello AppArmor!' && sleep 1h" ]
EOF
pod/hello-apparmor-2 created
kubectl describe pod hello-apparmor-2
Name: hello-apparmor-2
Namespace: default
Node: gke-test-default-pool-239f5d02-x1kf/
Start Time: Tue, 30 Aug 2016 17:58:56 -0700
Labels: <none>
Annotations: container.apparmor.security.beta.kubernetes.io/hello=localhost/k8s-apparmor-
example-allow-write
Status: Pending
Reason: AppArmor
Message: Pod Cannot enforce AppArmor: profile "k8s-apparmor-example-allow-write" is
not loaded
IP:
Controllers: <none>
Containers:
hello:
Container ID:
Image: busybox
Image ID:
Port:
Command:
sh
-c
echo 'Hello AppArmor!' && sleep 1h
State: Waiting
Reason: Blocked
Ready: False
Restart Count: 0
Environment: <none>
Mounts:
/var/run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount from default-token-dnz7v (ro)
Conditions:
Type Status
Initialized True
Ready False
PodScheduled True
Volumes:
default-token-dnz7v:
Type: Secret (a volume populated by a Secret)
SecretName: default-token-dnz7v
Optional: false
QoS Class: BestEffort
Node-Selectors: <none>
Tolerations: <none>
Events:
FirstSeen LastSeen Count From SubobjectPath Type Reason
Message
--------- -------- ----- ---- ------------- -------- ------ -------
23s 23s 1 {default-scheduler } Normal Scheduled
Successfully assigned hello-apparmor-2 to e2e-test-stclair-node-pool-t1f5
23s 23s 1 {kubelet e2e-test-stclair-node-pool-t1f5} Warning
AppArmor Cannot enforce AppArmor: profile "k8s-apparmor-example-allow-write" is not
loaded
Note the pod status is Pending, with a helpful error message: Pod Cannot enforce AppArmor:
profile "k8s-apparmor-example-allow-write" is not loaded. An event was also recorded with the
same message.
Administration
Setting up nodes with profiles
Kubernetes does not currently provide any native mechanisms for loading AppArmor profiles
onto nodes. There are lots of ways to set up the profiles though, such as:
• Through a DaemonSet that runs a Pod on each node to ensure the correct profiles are
loaded. An example implementation can be found here.
• At node initialization time, using your node initialization scripts (e.g. Salt, Ansible, etc.)
or image.
• By copying the profiles to each node and loading them through SSH, as demonstrated in
the Example.
The scheduler is not aware of which profiles are loaded onto which node, so the full set of
profiles must be loaded onto every node. An alternative approach is to add a node label for each
profile (or class of profiles) on the node, and use a node selector to ensure the Pod is run on a
node with the required profile.
Disabling AppArmor
If you do not want AppArmor to be available on your cluster, it can be disabled by a command-
line flag:
--feature-gates=AppArmor=false
When disabled, any Pod that includes an AppArmor profile will fail validation with a
"Forbidden" error.
Note: Even if the Kubernetes feature is disabled, runtimes may still enforce the default profile.
The option to disable the AppArmor feature will be removed when AppArmor graduates to
general availability (GA).
Authoring Profiles
Getting AppArmor profiles specified correctly can be a tricky business. Fortunately there are
some tools to help with that:
• aa-genprof and aa-logprof generate profile rules by monitoring an application's activity

and logs, and admitting the actions it takes. Further instructions are provided by the
AppArmor documentation.
• bane is an AppArmor profile generator for Docker that uses a simplified profile language.
To debug problems with AppArmor, you can check the system logs to see what, specifically,
was denied. AppArmor logs verbose messages to dmesg, and errors can usually be found in the
system logs or through journalctl. More information is provided in AppArmor failures.
API Reference
Pod Annotation
Specifying the profile a container will run with:
• key: container.apparmor.security.beta.kubernetes.io/<container_name> Where

<container_name> matches the name of a container in the Pod. A separate profile can be
specified for each container in the Pod.
• value: a profile reference, described below
Profile Reference
• runtime/default: Refers to the default runtime profile.

◦ Equivalent to not specifying a profile, except it still requires AppArmor to be
enabled.
◦ In practice, many container runtimes use the same OCI default profile, defined
here: https://github.com/containers/common/blob/main/pkg/apparmor/
apparmor_linux_template.go
• localhost/<profile_name>: Refers to a profile loaded on the node (localhost) by name.
◦ The possible profile names are detailed in the core policy reference.
• unconfined: This effectively disables AppArmor on the container.
Any other profile reference format is invalid.

What's next
Additional resources:
• Quick guide to the AppArmor profile language

• AppArmor core policy reference
Restrict a Container's Syscalls with

seccomp
FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.19 [stable]
Seccomp stands for secure computing mode and has been a feature of the Linux kernel since
version 2.6.12. It can be used to sandbox the privileges of a process, restricting the calls it is able
to make from userspace into the kernel. Kubernetes lets you automatically apply seccomp
profiles loaded onto a node to your Pods and containers.
Identifying the privileges required for your workloads can be difficult. In this tutorial, you will
go through how to load seccomp profiles into a local Kubernetes cluster, how to apply them to a
Pod, and how you can begin to craft profiles that give only the necessary privileges to your
container processes.
Objectives
• Learn how to load seccomp profiles on a node
• Learn how to apply a seccomp profile to a container
• Observe auditing of syscalls made by a container process
• Observe behavior when a missing profile is specified
• Observe a violation of a seccomp profile
• Learn how to create fine-grained seccomp profiles
• Learn how to apply a container runtime default seccomp profile
Before you begin

In order to complete all steps in this tutorial, you must install kind and kubectl.
The commands used in the tutorial assume that you are using Docker as your container
runtime. (The cluster that kind creates may use a different container runtime internally). You
could also use Podman but in that case, you would have to follow specific instructions in order
to complete the tasks successfully.
This tutorial shows some examples that are still beta (since v1.25) and others that use only
generally available seccomp functionality. You should make sure that your cluster is configured
correctly for the version you are using.
The tutorial also uses the curl tool for downloading examples to your computer. You can adapt
the steps to use a different tool if you prefer.
Note: It is not possible to apply a seccomp profile to a container running with privileged: true
set in the container's securityContext. Privileged containers always run as Unconfined.
Download example seccomp profiles

The contents of these profiles will be explored later on, but for now go ahead and download
them into a directory named profiles/ so that they can be loaded into the cluster.
• audit.json
• violation.json
• fine-grained.json
pods/security/seccomp/profiles/audit.json
{
"defaultAction": "SCMP_ACT_LOG"
}
pods/security/seccomp/profiles/violation.json
{
"defaultAction": "SCMP_ACT_ERRNO"
}
pods/security/seccomp/profiles/fine-grained.json
{
"defaultAction": "SCMP_ACT_ERRNO",
"architectures": [
"SCMP_ARCH_X86_64",
"SCMP_ARCH_X86",
"SCMP_ARCH_X32"
],
"syscalls": [
{
"names": [
"accept4",
"epoll_wait",
"pselect6",
"futex",
"madvise",
"epoll_ctl",
"getsockname",
"setsockopt",
"vfork",
"mmap",
"read",
"write",
"close",
"arch_prctl",
"sched_getaffinity",
"munmap",
"brk",
"rt_sigaction",
"rt_sigprocmask",
"sigaltstack",
"gettid",
"clone",
"bind",
"socket",
"openat",
"readlinkat",
"exit_group",
"epoll_create1",
"listen",
"rt_sigreturn",
"sched_yield",
"clock_gettime",
"connect",
"dup2",
"epoll_pwait",
"execve",
"exit",
"fcntl",
"getpid",
"getuid",
"ioctl",
"mprotect",
"nanosleep",
"open",
"poll",
"recvfrom",
"sendto",
"set_tid_address",
"setitimer",
"writev"
],
"action": "SCMP_ACT_ALLOW"
}
]
}
Run these commands:
mkdir ./profiles
curl -L -o profiles/audit.json https://k8s.io/examples/pods/security/seccomp/profiles/audit.json
curl -L -o profiles/violation.json https://k8s.io/examples/pods/security/seccomp/profiles/
violation.json
curl -L -o profiles/fine-grained.json https://k8s.io/examples/pods/security/seccomp/profiles/
fine-grained.json
ls profiles
You should see three profiles listed at the end of the final step:
audit.json fine-grained.json violation.json

Create a local Kubernetes cluster with kind
For simplicity, kind can be used to create a single node cluster with the seccomp profiles loaded.
Kind runs Kubernetes in Docker, so each node of the cluster is a container. This allows for files
to be mounted in the filesystem of each container similar to loading files onto a node.
pods/security/seccomp/kind.yaml
kind: Cluster
nodes:
extraMounts:
- hostPath: "./profiles"
containerPath: "/var/lib/kubelet/seccomp/profiles"
Download that example kind configuration, and save it to a file named kind.yaml:
curl -L -O https://k8s.io/examples/pods/security/seccomp/kind.yaml
You can set a specific Kubernetes version by setting the node's container image. See Nodes
within the kind documentation about configuration for more details on this. This tutorial
assumes you are using Kubernetes v1.28.
As a beta feature, you can configure Kubernetes to use the profile that the container runtime
prefers by default, rather than falling back to Unconfined. If you want to try that, see enable the
use of RuntimeDefault as the default seccomp profile for all workloads before you continue.
Once you have a kind configuration in place, create the kind cluster with that configuration:
kind create cluster --config=kind.yaml
After the new Kubernetes cluster is ready, identify the Docker container running as the single
node cluster:
docker ps
You should see output indicating that a container is running with name kind-control-plane. The
output is similar to:
CONTAINER ID IMAGE COMMAND CREATED

STATUS PORTS NAMES
6a96207fed4b kindest/node:v1.18.2 "/usr/local/bin/entr..." 27 seconds ago Up 24
seconds 127.0.0.1:42223->6443/tcp kind-control-plane
If observing the filesystem of that container, you should see that the profiles/ directory has been
successfully loaded into the default seccomp path of the kubelet. Use docker exec to run a
command in the Pod:
# Change 6a96207fed4b to the container ID you saw from "docker ps"

docker exec -it 6a96207fed4b ls /var/lib/kubelet/seccomp/profiles
audit.json fine-grained.json violation.json

You have verified that these seccomp profiles are available to the kubelet running within kind.
Create a Pod that uses the container runtime default

seccomp profile
Most container runtimes provide a sane set of default syscalls that are allowed or not. You can
adopt these defaults for your workload by setting the seccomp type in the security context of a
pod or container to RuntimeDefault.
Note: If you have the seccompDefault configuration enabled, then Pods use the RuntimeDefault
seccomp profile whenever no other seccomp profile is specified. Otherwise, the default is
Unconfined.
Here's a manifest for a Pod that requests the RuntimeDefault seccomp profile for all its
containers:
pods/security/seccomp/ga/default-pod.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: default-pod
labels:
app: default-pod
spec:
securityContext:
seccompProfile:
type: RuntimeDefault
containers:
- name: test-container
image: hashicorp/http-echo:1.0
args:
- "-text=just made some more syscalls!"
securityContext:
allowPrivilegeEscalation: false
Create that Pod:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/pods/security/seccomp/ga/default-pod.yaml
kubectl get pod default-pod
The Pod should be showing as having started successfully:

default-pod 1/1 Running 0 20s
Delete the Pod before moving to the next section:
kubectl delete pod default-pod --wait --now

Create a Pod with a seccomp profile for syscall auditing
To start off, apply the audit.json profile, which will log all syscalls of the process, to a new Pod.
Here's a manifest for that Pod:
pods/security/seccomp/ga/audit-pod.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: audit-pod
labels:
app: audit-pod
spec:
securityContext:
seccompProfile:
type: Localhost
localhostProfile: profiles/audit.json
containers:
args:
- "-text=just made some syscalls!"
securityContext:
Note: Older versions of Kubernetes allowed you to configure seccomp behavior using
annotations. Kubernetes 1.28 only supports using fields within .spec.securityContext to
configure seccomp, and this tutorial explains that approach.
Create the Pod in the cluster:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/pods/security/seccomp/ga/audit-pod.yaml
This profile does not restrict any syscalls, so the Pod should start successfully.
kubectl get pod audit-pod

audit-pod 1/1 Running 0 30s
In order to be able to interact with this endpoint exposed by this container, create a NodePort
Service that allows access to the endpoint from inside the kind control plane container.
kubectl expose pod audit-pod --type NodePort --port 5678
Check what port the Service has been assigned on the node.
kubectl get service audit-pod

audit-pod NodePort 10.111.36.142 <none> 5678:32373/TCP 72s
Now you can use curl to access that endpoint from inside the kind control plane container, at
the port exposed by this Service. Use docker exec to run the curl command within the container
belonging to that control plane container:
# Change 6a96207fed4b to the control plane container ID and 32373 to the port number you saw
from "docker ps"
docker exec -it 6a96207fed4b curl localhost:32373
just made some syscalls!
You can see that the process is running, but what syscalls did it actually make? Because this
Pod is running in a local cluster, you should be able to see those in /var/log/syslog on your local
system. Open up a new terminal window and tail the output for calls from http-echo:
# The log path on your computer might be different from "/var/log/syslog"

tail -f /var/log/syslog | grep 'http-echo'
You should already see some logs of syscalls made by http-echo, and if you run curl again inside
the control plane container you will see more output written to the log.
For example:
Jul 6 15:37:40 my-machine kernel: [369128.669452] audit: type=1326

audit(1594067860.484:14536): auid=4294967295 uid=0 gid=0 ses=4294967295 pid=29064
comm="http-echo" exe="/http-echo" sig=0 arch=c000003e syscall=51 compat=0 ip=0x46fe1f
code=0x7ffc0000
comm="http-echo" exe="/http-echo" sig=0 arch=c000003e syscall=54 compat=0 ip=0x46fdba
code=0x7ffc0000
comm="http-echo" exe="/http-echo" sig=0 arch=c000003e syscall=202 compat=0 ip=0x455e53
code=0x7ffc0000
comm="http-echo" exe="/http-echo" sig=0 arch=c000003e syscall=288 compat=0 ip=0x46fdba
code=0x7ffc0000
comm="http-echo" exe="/http-echo" sig=0 arch=c000003e syscall=0 compat=0 ip=0x46fd44
code=0x7ffc0000
comm="http-echo" exe="/http-echo" sig=0 arch=c000003e syscall=270 compat=0 ip=0x4559b1
code=0x7ffc0000
comm="http-echo" exe="/http-echo" sig=0 arch=c000003e syscall=270 compat=0 ip=0x4559b1
code=0x7ffc0000
comm="http-echo" exe="/http-echo" sig=0 arch=c000003e syscall=202 compat=0 ip=0x455e53
code=0x7ffc0000
You can begin to understand the syscalls required by the http-echo process by looking at the
syscall= entry on each line. While these are unlikely to encompass all syscalls it uses, it can
serve as a basis for a seccomp profile for this container.
Delete the Service and the Pod before moving to the next section:
kubectl delete service audit-pod --wait

kubectl delete pod audit-pod --wait --now
Create a Pod with a seccomp profile that causes violation

For demonstration, apply a profile to the Pod that does not allow for any syscalls.
The manifest for this demonstration is:
pods/security/seccomp/ga/violation-pod.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: violation-pod
labels:
app: violation-pod
spec:
securityContext:
seccompProfile:
type: Localhost
localhostProfile: profiles/violation.json
containers:
args:
securityContext:
Attempt to create the Pod in the cluster:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/pods/security/seccomp/ga/violation-pod.yaml
The Pod creates, but there is an issue. If you check the status of the Pod, you should see that it
failed to start.
kubectl get pod violation-pod

violation-pod 0/1 CrashLoopBackOff 1 6s
As seen in the previous example, the http-echo process requires quite a few syscalls. Here
seccomp has been instructed to error on any syscall by setting "defaultAction":
"SCMP_ACT_ERRNO". This is extremely secure, but removes the ability to do anything
meaningful. What you really want is to give workloads only the privileges they need.
Delete the Pod before moving to the next section:
kubectl delete pod violation-pod --wait --now
Create a Pod with a seccomp profile that only allows

necessary syscalls
If you take a look at the fine-grained.json profile, you will notice some of the syscalls seen in
syslog of the first example where the profile set "defaultAction": "SCMP_ACT_LOG". Now the
profile is setting "defaultAction": "SCMP_ACT_ERRNO", but explicitly allowing a set of syscalls
in the "action": "SCMP_ACT_ALLOW" block. Ideally, the container will run successfully and
you will see no messages sent to syslog.
The manifest for this example is:
pods/security/seccomp/ga/fine-pod.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: fine-pod
labels:
app: fine-pod
spec:
securityContext:
seccompProfile:
type: Localhost
localhostProfile: profiles/fine-grained.json
containers:
args:
securityContext:
Create the Pod in your cluster:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/pods/security/seccomp/ga/fine-pod.yaml
kubectl get pod fine-pod
The Pod should be showing as having started successfully:

fine-pod 1/1 Running 0 30s
Open up a new terminal window and use tail to monitor for log entries that mention calls from
http-echo:
# The log path on your computer might be different from "/var/log/syslog"
tail -f /var/log/syslog | grep 'http-echo'
Next, expose the Pod with a NodePort Service:
kubectl expose pod fine-pod --type NodePort --port 5678
Check what port the Service has been assigned on the node:
kubectl get service fine-pod

fine-pod NodePort 10.111.36.142 <none> 5678:32373/TCP 72s
Use curl to access that endpoint from inside the kind control plane container:
# Change 6a96207fed4b to the control plane container ID and 32373 to the port number you saw
from "docker ps"
docker exec -it 6a96207fed4b curl localhost:32373
just made some syscalls!
You should see no output in the syslog. This is because the profile allowed all necessary syscalls
and specified that an error should occur if one outside of the list is invoked. This is an ideal
situation from a security perspective, but required some effort in analyzing the program. It
would be nice if there was a simple way to get closer to this security without requiring as much
effort.
Delete the Service and the Pod before moving to the next section:
kubectl delete service fine-pod --wait

kubectl delete pod fine-pod --wait --now
Enable the use of RuntimeDefault as the default seccomp

profile for all workloads
FEATURE STATE: Kubernetes v1.27 [stable]
To use seccomp profile defaulting, you must run the kubelet with the --seccomp-default
command line flag enabled for each node where you want to use it.
If enabled, the kubelet will use the RuntimeDefault seccomp profile by default, which is defined
by the container runtime, instead of using the Unconfined (seccomp disabled) mode. The default
profiles aim to provide a strong set of security defaults while preserving the functionality of the
workload. It is possible that the default profiles differ between container runtimes and their
release versions, for example when comparing those from CRI-O and containerd.
Note: Enabling the feature will neither change the Kubernetes securityContext.seccompProfile
API field nor add the deprecated annotations of the workload. This provides users the
possibility to rollback anytime without actually changing the workload configuration. Tools like
crictl inspect can be used to verify which seccomp profile is being used by a container.
Some workloads may require a lower amount of syscall restrictions than others. This means
that they can fail during runtime even with the RuntimeDefault profile. To mitigate such a
failure, you can:
• Run the workload explicitly as Unconfined.

• Disable the SeccompDefault feature for the nodes. Also making sure that workloads get
scheduled on nodes where the feature is disabled.
• Create a custom seccomp profile for the workload.
If you were introducing this feature into production-like cluster, the Kubernetes project
recommends that you enable this feature gate on a subset of your nodes and then test workload
execution before rolling the change out cluster-wide.
You can find more detailed information about a possible upgrade and downgrade strategy in the
related Kubernetes Enhancement Proposal (KEP): Enable seccomp by default.
Kubernetes 1.28 lets you configure the seccomp profile that applies when the spec for a Pod
doesn't define a specific seccomp profile. However, you still need to enable this defaulting for
each node where you would like to use it.
If you are running a Kubernetes 1.28 cluster and want to enable the feature, either run the
kubelet with the --seccomp-default command line flag, or enable it through the kubelet
configuration file. To enable the feature gate in kind, ensure that kind provides the minimum
required Kubernetes version and enables the SeccompDefault feature in the kind configuration:
kind: Cluster
nodes:
image: kindest/
node:v1.28.0@sha256:9f3ff58f19dcf1a0611d11e8ac989fdb30a28f40f236f59f0bea31fb956ccf5c
-|
kind: JoinConfiguration
nodeRegistration:
kubeletExtraArgs:
seccomp-default: "true"
- role: worker
image: kindest/
node:v1.28.0@sha256:9f3ff58f19dcf1a0611d11e8ac989fdb30a28f40f236f59f0bea31fb956ccf5c
-|
kind: JoinConfiguration
nodeRegistration:
kubeletExtraArgs:
seccomp-default: "true"
If the cluster is ready, then running a pod:
kubectl run --rm -it --restart=Never --image=alpine alpine -- sh
Should now have the default seccomp profile attached. This can be verified by using docker
exec to run crictl inspect for the container on the kind worker:
docker exec -it kind-worker bash -c \
'crictl inspect $(crictl ps --name=alpine -q) | jq .info.runtimeSpec.linux.seccomp'
{
"defaultAction": "SCMP_ACT_ERRNO",
"architectures": ["SCMP_ARCH_X86_64", "SCMP_ARCH_X86", "SCMP_ARCH_X32"],
"syscalls": [
{
"names": ["..."]
}
]
}
What's next
You can learn more about Linux seccomp:
• A seccomp Overview
• Seccomp Security Profiles for Docker
Stateless Applications
Exposing an External IP Address to Access an Application in a Cluster
Example: Deploying PHP Guestbook application with Redis
Exposing an External IP Address to Access

an Application in a Cluster
This page shows how to create a Kubernetes Service object that exposes an external IP address.
Before you begin

• Install kubectl.
• Use a cloud provider like Google Kubernetes Engine or Amazon Web Services to create a
Kubernetes cluster. This tutorial creates an external load balancer, which requires a cloud
provider.
• Configure kubectl to communicate with your Kubernetes API server. For instructions, see
the documentation for your cloud provider.
Objectives
• Run five instances of a Hello World application.
• Create a Service object that exposes an external IP address.
• Use the Service object to access the running application.
Creating a service for an application running in five pods
1. Run a Hello World application in your cluster:
service/load-balancer-example.yaml
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
labels:
app.kubernetes.io/name: load-balancer-example
name: hello-world
spec:
replicas: 5
selector:
matchLabels:
template:
metadata:
labels:
spec:
containers:
- image: gcr.io/google-samples/node-hello:1.0
name: hello-world
ports:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/service/load-balancer-example.yaml
The preceding command creates a Deployment and an associated ReplicaSet. The

ReplicaSet has five Pods each of which runs the Hello World application.
2. Display information about the Deployment:
kubectl get deployments hello-world

kubectl describe deployments hello-world
3. Display information about your ReplicaSet objects:
kubectl get replicasets

kubectl describe replicasets
4. Create a Service object that exposes the deployment:
kubectl expose deployment hello-world --type=LoadBalancer --name=my-service
5. Display information about the Service:
kubectl get services my-service

my-service LoadBalancer 10.3.245.137 104.198.205.71 8080/TCP 54s
Note: The type=LoadBalancer service is backed by external cloud providers, which is not
covered in this example, please refer to this page for the details.
Note: If the external IP address is shown as <pending>, wait for a minute and enter the
same command again.
6. Display detailed information about the Service:
kubectl describe services my-service
Name: my-service
Namespace: default
Labels: app.kubernetes.io/name=load-balancer-example
Annotations: <none>
Selector: app.kubernetes.io/name=load-balancer-example
Type: LoadBalancer
IP: 10.3.245.137
LoadBalancer Ingress: 104.198.205.71
Port: <unset> 8080/TCP
NodePort: <unset> 32377/TCP
Endpoints: 10.0.0.6:8080,10.0.1.6:8080,10.0.1.7:8080 + 2 more...
Session Affinity: None
Events: <none>
Make a note of the external IP address (LoadBalancer Ingress) exposed by your service. In
this example, the external IP address is 104.198.205.71. Also note the value of Port and
NodePort. In this example, the Port is 8080 and the NodePort is 32377.
7. In the preceding output, you can see that the service has several endpoints:
10.0.0.6:8080,10.0.1.6:8080,10.0.1.7:8080 + 2 more. These are internal addresses of the pods
that are running the Hello World application. To verify these are pod addresses, enter this
command:
kubectl get pods --output=wide
NAME ... IP NODE

hello-world-2895499144-1jaz9 ... 10.0.1.6 gke-cluster-1-default-pool-e0b8d269-1afc
hello-world-2895499144-2e5uh ... 10.0.1.8 gke-cluster-1-default-pool-e0b8d269-1afc
hello-world-2895499144-9m4h1 ... 10.0.0.6 gke-cluster-1-default-pool-e0b8d269-5v7a
hello-world-2895499144-o4z13 ... 10.0.1.7 gke-cluster-1-default-pool-e0b8d269-1afc
hello-world-2895499144-segjf ... 10.0.2.5 gke-cluster-1-default-pool-e0b8d269-cpuc
8. Use the external IP address (LoadBalancer Ingress) to access the Hello World application:
curl http://<external-ip>:<port>
where <external-ip> is the external IP address (LoadBalancer Ingress) of your Service,

and <port> is the value of Port in your Service description. If you are using minikube,
typing minikube service my-service will automatically open the Hello World application
in a browser.
The response to a successful request is a hello message:
Hello Kubernetes!
Cleaning up
To delete the Service, enter this command:
kubectl delete services my-service
To delete the Deployment, the ReplicaSet, and the Pods that are running the Hello World
application, enter this command:
kubectl delete deployment hello-world
What's next
Learn more about connecting applications with services.
Example: Deploying PHP Guestbook

application with Redis
This tutorial shows you how to build and deploy a simple (not production ready), multi-tier web
application using Kubernetes and Docker. This example consists of the following components:
• A single-instance Redis to store guestbook entries

• Multiple web frontend instances
Objectives
• Start up a Redis leader.
• Start up two Redis followers.
• Start up the guestbook frontend.
• Expose and view the Frontend Service.
• Clean up.
Before you begin

• Killercoda
Your Kubernetes server must be at or later than version v1.14. To check the version, enter
kubectl version.
Start up the Redis Database

The guestbook application uses Redis to store its data.
Creating the Redis Deployment
The manifest file, included below, specifies a Deployment controller that runs a single replica
Redis Pod.
application/guestbook/redis-leader-deployment.yaml
# SOURCE: https://cloud.google.com/kubernetes-engine/docs/tutorials/guestbook
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
name: redis-leader
labels:
app: redis
role: leader
tier: backend
spec:
replicas: 1
selector:
matchLabels:
app: redis
template:
metadata:
labels:
app: redis
role: leader
tier: backend
spec:
containers:
- name: leader
image: "docker.io/redis:6.0.5"
resources:
requests:
cpu: 100m
memory: 100Mi
ports:
1. Launch a terminal window in the directory you downloaded the manifest files.
2. Apply the Redis Deployment from the redis-leader-deployment.yaml file:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/application/guestbook/redis-leader-

deployment.yaml
3. Query the list of Pods to verify that the Redis Pod is running:
kubectl get pods
The response should be similar to this:

redis-leader-fb76b4755-xjr2n 1/1 Running 0 13s
4. Run the following command to view the logs from the Redis leader Pod:
kubectl logs -f deployment/redis-leader
Creating the Redis leader Service
The guestbook application needs to communicate to the Redis to write its data. You need to
apply a Service to proxy the traffic to the Redis Pod. A Service defines a policy to access the
Pods.
application/guestbook/redis-leader-service.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: redis-leader
labels:
app: redis
role: leader
tier: backend
spec:
ports:
- port: 6379
targetPort: 6379
selector:
app: redis
role: leader
tier: backend
1. Apply the Redis Service from the following redis-leader-service.yaml file:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/application/guestbook/redis-leader-service.yaml
2. Query the list of Services to verify that the Redis Service is running:
kubectl get service

kubernetes ClusterIP 10.0.0.1 <none> 443/TCP 1m
redis-leader ClusterIP 10.103.78.24 <none> 6379/TCP 16s
Note: This manifest file creates a Service named redis-leader with a set of labels that match the
labels previously defined, so the Service routes network traffic to the Redis Pod.
Set up Redis followers
Although the Redis leader is a single Pod, you can make it highly available and meet traffic
demands by adding a few Redis followers, or replicas.
application/guestbook/redis-follower-deployment.yaml
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
name: redis-follower
labels:
app: redis
role: follower
tier: backend
spec:
replicas: 2
selector:
matchLabels:
app: redis
template:
metadata:
labels:
app: redis
role: follower
tier: backend
spec:
containers:
- name: follower
image: gcr.io/google_samples/gb-redis-follower:v2
resources:
requests:
cpu: 100m
memory: 100Mi
ports:
1. Apply the Redis Deployment from the following redis-follower-deployment.yaml file:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/application/guestbook/redis-follower-

deployment.yaml
2. Verify that the two Redis follower replicas are running by querying the list of Pods:
kubectl get pods

redis-follower-dddfbdcc9-82sfr 1/1 Running 0 37s
redis-follower-dddfbdcc9-qrt5k 1/1 Running 0 38s
redis-leader-fb76b4755-xjr2n 1/1 Running 0 11m
Creating the Redis follower service
The guestbook application needs to communicate with the Redis followers to read data. To
make the Redis followers discoverable, you must set up another Service.
application/guestbook/redis-follower-service.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: redis-follower
labels:
app: redis
role: follower
tier: backend
spec:
ports:
# the port that this service should serve on
- port: 6379
selector:
app: redis
role: follower
tier: backend
1. Apply the Redis Service from the following redis-follower-service.yaml file:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/application/guestbook/redis-follower-

service.yaml
2. Query the list of Services to verify that the Redis Service is running:
kubectl get service

kubernetes ClusterIP 10.96.0.1 <none> 443/TCP 3d19h
redis-follower ClusterIP 10.110.162.42 <none> 6379/TCP 9s
redis-leader ClusterIP 10.103.78.24 <none> 6379/TCP 6m10s
Note: This manifest file creates a Service named redis-follower with a set of labels that match
the labels previously defined, so the Service routes network traffic to the Redis Pod.
Set up and Expose the Guestbook Frontend

Now that you have the Redis storage of your guestbook up and running, start the guestbook
web servers. Like the Redis followers, the frontend is deployed using a Kubernetes Deployment.
The guestbook app uses a PHP frontend. It is configured to communicate with either the Redis
follower or leader Services, depending on whether the request is a read or a write. The frontend
exposes a JSON interface, and serves a jQuery-Ajax-based UX.
Creating the Guestbook Frontend Deployment
application/guestbook/frontend-deployment.yaml
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
name: frontend
spec:
replicas: 3
selector:
matchLabels:
app: guestbook
tier: frontend
template:
metadata:
labels:
app: guestbook
tier: frontend
spec:
containers:
- name: php-redis
image: gcr.io/google_samples/gb-frontend:v5
env:
- name: GET_HOSTS_FROM
value: "dns"
resources:
requests:
cpu: 100m
memory: 100Mi
ports:
- containerPort: 80
1. Apply the frontend Deployment from the frontend-deployment.yaml file:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/application/guestbook/frontend-

deployment.yaml
2. Query the list of Pods to verify that the three frontend replicas are running:
kubectl get pods -l app=guestbook -l tier=frontend

frontend-85595f5bf9-5tqhb 1/1 Running 0 47s
frontend-85595f5bf9-qbzwm 1/1 Running 0 47s
frontend-85595f5bf9-zchwc 1/1 Running 0 47s
Creating the Frontend Service
The Redis Services you applied is only accessible within the Kubernetes cluster because the
default type for a Service is ClusterIP. ClusterIP provides a single IP address for the set of Pods
the Service is pointing to. This IP address is accessible only within the cluster.
If you want guests to be able to access your guestbook, you must configure the frontend Service
to be externally visible, so a client can request the Service from outside the Kubernetes cluster.
However a Kubernetes user can use kubectl port-forward to access the service even though it
uses a ClusterIP.
Note: Some cloud providers, like Google Compute Engine or Google Kubernetes Engine,
support external load balancers. If your cloud provider supports load balancers and you want to
use it, uncomment type: LoadBalancer.
application/guestbook/frontend-service.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: frontend
labels:
app: guestbook
tier: frontend
spec:
# if your cluster supports it, uncomment the following to automatically create
# an external load-balanced IP for the frontend service.
# type: LoadBalancer
#type: LoadBalancer
ports:
# the port that this service should serve on
- port: 80
selector:
app: guestbook
tier: frontend
1. Apply the frontend Service from the frontend-service.yaml file:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/application/guestbook/frontend-service.yaml
2. Query the list of Services to verify that the frontend Service is running:

frontend ClusterIP 10.97.28.230 <none> 80/TCP 19s
kubernetes ClusterIP 10.96.0.1 <none> 443/TCP 3d19h
redis-follower ClusterIP 10.110.162.42 <none> 6379/TCP 5m48s
redis-leader ClusterIP 10.103.78.24 <none> 6379/TCP 11m
Viewing the Frontend Service via kubectl port-forward
1. Run the following command to forward port 8080 on your local machine to port 80 on the
service.
kubectl port-forward svc/frontend 8080:80
Forwarding from 127.0.0.1:8080 -> 80

Forwarding from [::1]:8080 -> 80
2. load the page http://localhost:8080 in your browser to view your guestbook.
Viewing the Frontend Service via LoadBalancer
If you deployed the frontend-service.yaml manifest with type: LoadBalancer you need to find
the IP address to view your Guestbook.
1. Run the following command to get the IP address for the frontend Service.
kubectl get service frontend

frontend LoadBalancer 10.51.242.136 109.197.92.229 80:32372/TCP 1m
2. Copy the external IP address, and load the page in your browser to view your guestbook.
Note: Try adding some guestbook entries by typing in a message, and clicking Submit. The
message you typed appears in the frontend. This message indicates that data is successfully
added to Redis through the Services you created earlier.
Scale the Web Frontend

You can scale up or down as needed because your servers are defined as a Service that uses a
Deployment controller.
1. Run the following command to scale up the number of frontend Pods:
kubectl scale deployment frontend --replicas=5
2. Query the list of Pods to verify the number of frontend Pods running:
kubectl get pods
The response should look similar to this:

frontend-85595f5bf9-5df5m 1/1 Running 0 83s
frontend-85595f5bf9-7zmg5 1/1 Running 0 83s
frontend-85595f5bf9-cpskg 1/1 Running 0 15m
frontend-85595f5bf9-l2l54 1/1 Running 0 14m
frontend-85595f5bf9-l9c8z 1/1 Running 0 14m
redis-follower-dddfbdcc9-82sfr 1/1 Running 0 97m
redis-follower-dddfbdcc9-qrt5k 1/1 Running 0 97m
3. Run the following command to scale down the number of frontend Pods:
kubectl scale deployment frontend --replicas=2
4. Query the list of Pods to verify the number of frontend Pods running:
kubectl get pods

frontend-85595f5bf9-cpskg 1/1 Running 0 16m
frontend-85595f5bf9-l9c8z 1/1 Running 0 15m
redis-follower-dddfbdcc9-82sfr 1/1 Running 0 98m
redis-follower-dddfbdcc9-qrt5k 1/1 Running 0 98m
Cleaning up
Deleting the Deployments and Services also deletes any running Pods. Use labels to delete
multiple resources with one command.
1. Run the following commands to delete all Pods, Deployments, and Services.
kubectl delete deployment -l app=redis

kubectl delete service -l app=redis
kubectl delete deployment frontend
kubectl delete service frontend
deployment.apps "redis-follower" deleted

deployment.apps "redis-leader" deleted
deployment.apps "frontend" deleted
service "frontend" deleted
2. Query the list of Pods to verify that no Pods are running:
kubectl get pods
No resources found in default namespace.
What's next
• Complete the Kubernetes Basics Interactive Tutorials
• Use Kubernetes to create a blog using Persistent Volumes for MySQL and Wordpress
• Read more about connecting applications with services
• Read more about using labels effectively
Stateful Applications
StatefulSet Basics
Example: Deploying WordPress and MySQL with Persistent Volumes
Example: Deploying Cassandra with a StatefulSet
Running ZooKeeper, A Distributed System Coordinator
StatefulSet Basics
This tutorial provides an introduction to managing applications with StatefulSets. It
demonstrates how to create, delete, scale, and update the Pods of StatefulSets.
Before you begin

Before you begin this tutorial, you should familiarize yourself with the following Kubernetes
concepts:
• Pods
• Cluster DNS
• Headless Services
• PersistentVolumes
• PersistentVolume Provisioning
• The kubectl command line tool
• Killercoda
You should configure kubectl to use a context that uses the default namespace. If you are using
an existing cluster, make sure that it's OK to use that cluster's default namespace to practice.
Ideally, practice in a cluster that doesn't run any real workloads.
It's also useful to read the concept page about StatefulSets.
Note: This tutorial assumes that your cluster is configured to dynamically provision
PersistentVolumes. You'll also need to have a default StorageClass. If your cluster is not
configured to provision storage dynamically, you will have to manually provision two 1 GiB
volumes prior to starting this tutorial and set up your cluster so that those PersistentVolumes
map to the PersistentVolumeClaim templates that the StatefulSet defines.
Objectives
StatefulSets are intended to be used with stateful applications and distributed systems.
However, the administration of stateful applications and distributed systems on Kubernetes is a
broad, complex topic. In order to demonstrate the basic features of a StatefulSet, and not to
conflate the former topic with the latter, you will deploy a simple web application using a
StatefulSet.
After this tutorial, you will be familiar with the following.
• How to create a StatefulSet

• How a StatefulSet manages its Pods
• How to delete a StatefulSet
• How to scale a StatefulSet
• How to update a StatefulSet's Pods
Creating a StatefulSet
Begin by creating a StatefulSet using the example below. It is similar to the example presented
in the StatefulSets concept. It creates a headless Service, nginx, to publish the IP addresses of
Pods in the StatefulSet, web.
application/web/web.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: nginx
labels:
app: nginx
spec:
ports:
- port: 80
name: web
clusterIP: None
selector:
app: nginx
---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: StatefulSet
metadata:
name: web
spec:
serviceName: "nginx"
replicas: 2
selector:
matchLabels:
app: nginx
template:
metadata:
labels:
app: nginx
spec:
containers:
- name: nginx
image: registry.k8s.io/nginx-slim:0.8
ports:
- containerPort: 80
name: web
volumeMounts:
- name: www
mountPath: /usr/share/nginx/html
volumeClaimTemplates:
- metadata:
name: www
spec:
accessModes: [ "ReadWriteOnce" ]
resources:
requests:
storage: 1Gi
Download the example above, and save it to a file named web.yaml
You will need to use two terminal windows. In the first terminal, use kubectl get to watch the
creation of the StatefulSet's Pods.
kubectl get pods -w -l app=nginx
In the second terminal, use kubectl apply to create the headless Service and StatefulSet defined
in web.yaml.
kubectl apply -f web.yaml
service/nginx created
statefulset.apps/web created
The command above creates two Pods, each running an NGINX webserver. Get the nginx
Service...
kubectl get service nginx

nginx ClusterIP None <none> 80/TCP 12s
...then get the web StatefulSet, to verify that both were created successfully:
kubectl get statefulset web
NAME DESIRED CURRENT AGE

web 2 1 20s
Ordered Pod Creation
For a StatefulSet with n replicas, when Pods are being deployed, they are created sequentially,
ordered from {0..n-1}. Examine the output of the kubectl get command in the first terminal.
Eventually, the output will look like the example below.

web-0 0/1 Pending 0 0s
web-0 0/1 ContainerCreating 0 0s
web-0 1/1 Running 0 19s
Notice that the web-1 Pod is not launched until the web-0 Pod is Running (see Pod Phase) and
Ready (see type in Pod Conditions).
Note: To configure the integer ordinal assigned to each Pod in a StatefulSet, see Start ordinal.
Pods in a StatefulSet
Pods in a StatefulSet have a unique ordinal index and a stable network identity.
Examining the Pod's ordinal index
Get the StatefulSet's Pods:
kubectl get pods -l app=nginx

web-0 1/1 Running 0 1m
As mentioned in the StatefulSets concept, the Pods in a StatefulSet have a sticky, unique
identity. This identity is based on a unique ordinal index that is assigned to each Pod by the
StatefulSet controller.
The Pods' names take the form <statefulset name>-<ordinal index>. Since the web StatefulSet
has two replicas, it creates two Pods, web-0 and web-1.
Using stable network identities
Each Pod has a stable hostname based on its ordinal index. Use kubectl exec to execute the
hostname command in each Pod:
for i in 0 1; do kubectl exec "web-$i" -- sh -c 'hostname'; done
web-0
web-1
Use kubectl run to execute a container that provides the nslookup command from the dnsutils
package. Using nslookup on the Pods' hostnames, you can examine their in-cluster DNS
addresses:
kubectl run -i --tty --image busybox:1.28 dns-test --restart=Never --rm
which starts a new shell. In that new shell, run:
# Run this in the dns-test container shell

nslookup web-0.nginx
Server: 10.0.0.10
Address 1: 10.0.0.10 kube-dns.kube-system.svc.cluster.local
Name: web-0.nginx
Address 1: 10.244.1.6
Server: 10.0.0.10
Name: web-1.nginx
Address 1: 10.244.2.6
(and now exit the container shell: exit)
The CNAME of the headless service points to SRV records (one for each Pod that is Running
and Ready). The SRV records point to A record entries that contain the Pods' IP addresses.
In one terminal, watch the StatefulSet's Pods:
kubectl get pod -w -l app=nginx
In a second terminal, use kubectl delete to delete all the Pods in the StatefulSet:
kubectl delete pod -l app=nginx
pod "web-0" deleted

pod "web-1" deleted
Wait for the StatefulSet to restart them, and for both Pods to transition to Running and Ready:

Use kubectl exec and kubectl run to view the Pods' hostnames and in-cluster DNS entries. First,
view the Pods' hostnames:
for i in 0 1; do kubectl exec web-$i -- sh -c 'hostname'; done
web-0
web-1
then, run:
kubectl run -i --tty --image busybox:1.28 dns-test --restart=Never --rm
which starts a new shell.

In that new shell, run:
# Run this in the dns-test container shell

Server: 10.0.0.10
Name: web-0.nginx
Address 1: 10.244.1.7
Server: 10.0.0.10
Name: web-1.nginx
Address 1: 10.244.2.8
(and now exit the container shell: exit)
The Pods' ordinals, hostnames, SRV records, and A record names have not changed, but the IP
addresses associated with the Pods may have changed. In the cluster used for this tutorial, they
have. This is why it is important not to configure other applications to connect to Pods in a
StatefulSet by IP address.
Discovery for specific Pods in a StatefulSet
If you need to find and connect to the active members of a StatefulSet, you should query the
CNAME of the headless Service (nginx.default.svc.cluster.local). The SRV records associated
with the CNAME will contain only the Pods in the StatefulSet that are Running and Ready.
If your application already implements connection logic that tests for liveness and readiness,
you can use the SRV records of the Pods ( web-0.nginx.default.svc.cluster.local,
web-1.nginx.default.svc.cluster.local), as they are stable, and your application will be able to
discover the Pods' addresses when they transition to Running and Ready.
Writing to stable storage
Get the PersistentVolumeClaims for web-0 and web-1:

kubectl get pvc -l app=nginx
NAME STATUS VOLUME CAPACITY ACCESSMODES AGE

www-web-0 Bound pvc-15c268c7-b507-11e6-932f-42010a800002 1Gi RWO 48s
www-web-1 Bound pvc-15c79307-b507-11e6-932f-42010a800002 1Gi RWO 48s
The StatefulSet controller created two PersistentVolumeClaims that are bound to two
PersistentVolumes.
As the cluster used in this tutorial is configured to dynamically provision PersistentVolumes,

the PersistentVolumes were created and bound automatically.
The NGINX webserver, by default, serves an index file from /usr/share/nginx/html/index.html.

The volumeMounts field in the StatefulSet's spec ensures that the /usr/share/nginx/html
directory is backed by a PersistentVolume.
Write the Pods' hostnames to their index.html files and verify that the NGINX webservers serve
the hostnames:
for i in 0 1; do kubectl exec "web-$i" -- sh -c 'echo "$(hostname)" > /usr/share/nginx/html/

index.html'; done
for i in 0 1; do kubectl exec -i -t "web-$i" -- curl http://localhost/; done
web-0
web-1
Note:
If you instead see 403 Forbidden responses for the above curl command, you will need to fix
the permissions of the directory mounted by the volumeMounts (due to a bug when using
hostPath volumes), by running:
for i in 0 1; do kubectl exec web-$i -- chmod 755 /usr/share/nginx/html; done
before retrying the curl command above.
In a second terminal, delete all of the StatefulSet's Pods:
kubectl delete pod -l app=nginx
pod "web-0" deleted

pod "web-1" deleted
Examine the output of the kubectl get command in the first terminal, and wait for all of the
Pods to transition to Running and Ready.

Verify the web servers continue to serve their hostnames:
web-0
web-1
Even though web-0 and web-1 were rescheduled, they continue to serve their hostnames
because the PersistentVolumes associated with their PersistentVolumeClaims are remounted to
their volumeMounts. No matter what node web-0and web-1 are scheduled on, their
PersistentVolumes will be mounted to the appropriate mount points.
Scaling a StatefulSet
Scaling a StatefulSet refers to increasing or decreasing the number of replicas. This is
accomplished by updating the replicas field. You can use either kubectl scale or kubectl patch to
scale a StatefulSet.
Scaling up
In one terminal window, watch the Pods in the StatefulSet:
In another terminal window, use kubectl scale to scale the number of replicas to 5:
kubectl scale sts web --replicas=5
statefulset.apps/web scaled
Examine the output of the kubectl get command in the first terminal, and wait for the three
additional Pods to transition to Running and Ready.

web-0 1/1 Running 0 2h
The StatefulSet controller scaled the number of replicas. As with StatefulSet creation, the
StatefulSet controller created each Pod sequentially with respect to its ordinal index, and it
waited for each Pod's predecessor to be Running and Ready before launching the subsequent
Pod.
Scaling Down
In another terminal, use kubectl patch to scale the StatefulSet back down to three replicas:
kubectl patch sts web -p '{"spec":{"replicas":3}}'
statefulset.apps/web patched
Wait for web-4 and web-3 to transition to Terminating.

web-4 1/1 Terminating 0 24s
Ordered Pod termination
The controller deleted one Pod at a time, in reverse order with respect to its ordinal index, and
it waited for each to be completely shutdown before deleting the next.
Get the StatefulSet's PersistentVolumeClaims:
kubectl get pvc -l app=nginx

www-web-0 Bound pvc-15c268c7-b507-11e6-932f-42010a800002 1Gi RWO 13h
www-web-1 Bound pvc-15c79307-b507-11e6-932f-42010a800002 1Gi RWO 13h
www-web-2 Bound pvc-e1125b27-b508-11e6-932f-42010a800002 1Gi RWO 13h
www-web-3 Bound pvc-e1176df6-b508-11e6-932f-42010a800002 1Gi RWO 13h
www-web-4 Bound pvc-e11bb5f8-b508-11e6-932f-42010a800002 1Gi RWO 13h
There are still five PersistentVolumeClaims and five PersistentVolumes. When exploring a Pod's
stable storage, we saw that the PersistentVolumes mounted to the Pods of a StatefulSet are not
deleted when the StatefulSet's Pods are deleted. This is still true when Pod deletion is caused by
scaling the StatefulSet down.
Updating StatefulSets
In Kubernetes 1.7 and later, the StatefulSet controller supports automated updates. The strategy
used is determined by the spec.updateStrategy field of the StatefulSet API Object. This feature
can be used to upgrade the container images, resource requests and/or limits, labels, and
annotations of the Pods in a StatefulSet. There are two valid update strategies, RollingUpdate
and OnDelete.
RollingUpdate update strategy is the default for StatefulSets.
RollingUpdate
The RollingUpdate update strategy will update all Pods in a StatefulSet, in reverse ordinal order,
while respecting the StatefulSet guarantees.
Patch the web StatefulSet to apply the RollingUpdate update strategy:
kubectl patch statefulset web -p '{"spec":{"updateStrategy":{"type":"RollingUpdate"}}}'
In one terminal window, patch the web StatefulSet to change the container image again:
kubectl patch statefulset web --type='json' -p='[{"op": "replace", "path": "/spec/template/spec/

containers/0/image", "value":"gcr.io/google_containers/nginx-slim:0.8"}]'
In another terminal, watch the Pods in the StatefulSet:
kubectl get pod -l app=nginx -w

web-2 1/1 Terminating 0 8m
The Pods in the StatefulSet are updated in reverse ordinal order. The StatefulSet controller
terminates each Pod, and waits for it to transition to Running and Ready prior to updating the
next Pod. Note that, even though the StatefulSet controller will not proceed to update the next
Pod until its ordinal successor is Running and Ready, it will restore any Pod that fails during the
update to its current version.
Pods that have already received the update will be restored to the updated version, and Pods
that have not yet received the update will be restored to the previous version. In this way, the
controller attempts to continue to keep the application healthy and the update consistent in the
presence of intermittent failures.
Get the Pods to view their container images:
for p in 0 1 2; do kubectl get pod "web-$p" --template '{{range $i, $c := .spec.containers}}

{{$c.image}}{{end}}'; echo; done
registry.k8s.io/nginx-slim:0.8
All the Pods in the StatefulSet are now running the previous container image.
Note: You can also use kubectl rollout status sts/<name> to view the status of a rolling update
to a StatefulSet
Staging an update
You can stage an update to a StatefulSet by using the partition parameter of the RollingUpdate
update strategy. A staged update will keep all of the Pods in the StatefulSet at the current
version while allowing mutations to the StatefulSet's .spec.template.
Patch the web StatefulSet to add a partition to the updateStrategy field:
kubectl patch statefulset web -p '{"spec":{"updateStrategy":

{"type":"RollingUpdate","rollingUpdate":{"partition":3}}}}'
Patch the StatefulSet again to change the container's image:
kubectl patch statefulset web --type='json' -p='[{"op": "replace", "path": "/spec/template/spec/

containers/0/image", "value":"registry.k8s.io/nginx-slim:0.7"}]'
Delete a Pod in the StatefulSet:
kubectl delete pod web-2
pod "web-2" deleted
Wait for the Pod to be Running and Ready.

Get the Pod's container image:
kubectl get pod web-2 --template '{{range $i, $c := .spec.containers}}{{$c.image}}{{end}}'
Notice that, even though the update strategy is RollingUpdate the StatefulSet restored the Pod
with its original container. This is because the ordinal of the Pod is less than the partition
specified by the updateStrategy.
Rolling out a canary
You can roll out a canary to test a modification by decrementing the partition you specified
above.
Patch the StatefulSet to decrement the partition:

Wait for web-2 to be Running and Ready.

Get the Pod's container:
When you changed the partition, the StatefulSet controller automatically updated the web-2
Pod because the Pod's ordinal was greater than or equal to the partition.
Delete the web-1 Pod:
pod "web-1" deleted
Wait for the web-1 Pod to be Running and Ready.

Get the web-1 Pod's container image:
web-1 was restored to its original configuration because the Pod's ordinal was less than the
partition. When a partition is specified, all Pods with an ordinal that is greater than or equal to
the partition will be updated when the StatefulSet's .spec.template is updated. If a Pod that has
an ordinal less than the partition is deleted or otherwise terminated, it will be restored to its
original configuration.
Phased roll outs
You can perform a phased roll out (e.g. a linear, geometric, or exponential roll out) using a
partitioned rolling update in a similar manner to how you rolled out a canary. To perform a
phased roll out, set the partition to the ordinal at which you want the controller to pause the
update.
The partition is currently set to 2. Set the partition to 0:

Wait for all of the Pods in the StatefulSet to become Running and Ready.

Get the container image details for the Pods in the StatefulSet:
for p in 0 1 2; do kubectl get pod "web-$p" --template '{{range $i, $c := .spec.containers}}

{{$c.image}}{{end}}'; echo; done
By moving the partition to 0, you allowed the StatefulSet to continue the update process.
OnDelete
The OnDelete update strategy implements the legacy (1.6 and prior) behavior, When you select
this update strategy, the StatefulSet controller will not automatically update Pods when a
modification is made to the StatefulSet's .spec.template field. This strategy can be selected by
setting the .spec.template.updateStrategy.type to OnDelete.
Deleting StatefulSets
StatefulSet supports both Non-Cascading and Cascading deletion. In a Non-Cascading Delete,
the StatefulSet's Pods are not deleted when the StatefulSet is deleted. In a Cascading Delete,
both the StatefulSet and its Pods are deleted.
Non-cascading delete
In one terminal window, watch the Pods in the StatefulSet.
Use kubectl delete to delete the StatefulSet. Make sure to supply the --cascade=orphan
parameter to the command. This parameter tells Kubernetes to only delete the StatefulSet, and
to not delete any of its Pods.
kubectl delete statefulset web --cascade=orphan
statefulset.apps "web" deleted
Get the Pods, to examine their status:

Even though web has been deleted, all of the Pods are still Running and Ready. Delete web-0:
pod "web-0" deleted
Get the StatefulSet's Pods:

As the web StatefulSet has been deleted, web-0 has not been relaunched.
In one terminal, watch the StatefulSet's Pods.
In a second terminal, recreate the StatefulSet. Note that, unless you deleted the nginx Service
(which you should not have), you will see an error indicating that the Service already exists.

service/nginx unchanged
Ignore the error. It only indicates that an attempt was made to create the nginx headless Service
even though that Service already exists.
Examine the output of the kubectl get command running in the first terminal.

When the web StatefulSet was recreated, it first relaunched web-0. Since web-1 was already
Running and Ready, when web-0 transitioned to Running and Ready, it adopted this Pod. Since
you recreated the StatefulSet with replicas equal to 2, once web-0 had been recreated, and once
web-1 had been determined to already be Running and Ready, web-2 was terminated.
Let's take another look at the contents of the index.html file served by the Pods' webservers:
web-0
web-1
Even though you deleted both the StatefulSet and the web-0 Pod, it still serves the hostname
originally entered into its index.html file. This is because the StatefulSet never deletes the
PersistentVolumes associated with a Pod. When you recreated the StatefulSet and it relaunched
web-0, its original PersistentVolume was remounted.
Cascading delete
In one terminal window, watch the Pods in the StatefulSet.
In another terminal, delete the StatefulSet again. This time, omit the --cascade=orphan
parameter.
kubectl delete statefulset web
statefulset.apps "web" deleted

Examine the output of the kubectl get command running in the first terminal, and wait for all of
the Pods to transition to Terminating.

As you saw in the Scaling Down section, the Pods are terminated one at a time, with respect to
the reverse order of their ordinal indices. Before terminating a Pod, the StatefulSet controller
waits for the Pod's successor to be completely terminated.
Note: Although a cascading delete removes a StatefulSet together with its Pods, the cascade
does not delete the headless Service associated with the StatefulSet. You must delete the nginx
Service manually.
kubectl delete service nginx
service "nginx" deleted
Recreate the StatefulSet and headless Service one more time:
When all of the StatefulSet's Pods transition to Running and Ready, retrieve the contents of
their index.html files:
web-0
web-1
Even though you completely deleted the StatefulSet, and all of its Pods, the Pods are recreated
with their PersistentVolumes mounted, and web-0 and web-1 continue to serve their
hostnames.
Finally, delete the nginx Service...
kubectl delete service nginx
service "nginx" deleted

...and the web StatefulSet:
kubectl delete statefulset web
statefulset "web" deleted
Pod management policy

For some distributed systems, the StatefulSet ordering guarantees are unnecessary and/or
undesirable. These systems require only uniqueness and identity. To address this, in Kubernetes
1.7, we introduced .spec.podManagementPolicy to the StatefulSet API Object.
OrderedReady Pod management
OrderedReady pod management is the default for StatefulSets. It tells the StatefulSet controller
to respect the ordering guarantees demonstrated above.
Parallel Pod management
Parallel pod management tells the StatefulSet controller to launch or terminate all Pods in
parallel, and not to wait for Pods to become Running and Ready or completely terminated prior
to launching or terminating another Pod. This option only affects the behavior for scaling
operations. Updates are not affected.
application/web/web-parallel.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: nginx
labels:
app: nginx
spec:
ports:
- port: 80
name: web
clusterIP: None
selector:
app: nginx
---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: StatefulSet
metadata:
name: web
spec:
serviceName: "nginx"
podManagementPolicy: "Parallel"
replicas: 2
selector:
matchLabels:
app: nginx
template:
metadata:
labels:
app: nginx
spec:
containers:
- name: nginx
image: registry.k8s.io/nginx-slim:0.8
ports:
- containerPort: 80
name: web
volumeMounts:
- name: www
mountPath: /usr/share/nginx/html
- metadata:
name: www
spec:
resources:
requests:
storage: 1Gi
Download the example above, and save it to a file named web-parallel.yaml
This manifest is identical to the one you downloaded above except that the
.spec.podManagementPolicy of the web StatefulSet is set to Parallel.
In one terminal, watch the Pods in the StatefulSet.
In another terminal, create the StatefulSet and Service in the manifest:
kubectl apply -f web-parallel.yaml
Examine the output of the kubectl get command that you executed in the first terminal.

The StatefulSet controller launched both web-0 and web-1 at the same time.
Keep the second terminal open, and, in another terminal window scale the StatefulSet:
kubectl scale statefulset/web --replicas=4
statefulset.apps/web scaled
Examine the output of the terminal where the kubectl get command is running.

The StatefulSet launched two new Pods, and it did not wait for the first to become Running and
Ready prior to launching the second.
Cleaning up
You should have two terminals open, ready for you to run kubectl commands as part of
cleanup.
kubectl delete sts web

# sts is an abbreviation for statefulset
You can watch kubectl get to see those Pods being deleted.

During deletion, a StatefulSet removes all Pods concurrently; it does not wait for a Pod's ordinal
successor to terminate prior to deleting that Pod.
Close the terminal where the kubectl get command is running and delete the nginx Service:
kubectl delete svc nginx
Delete the persistent storage media for the PersistentVolumes used in this tutorial.
kubectl get pvc
NAME STATUS VOLUME CAPACITY ACCESS MODES

STORAGECLASS AGE
www-web-0 Bound pvc-2bf00408-d366-4a12-bad0-1869c65d0bee 1Gi RWO
standard 25m
www-web-1 Bound pvc-ba3bfe9c-413e-4b95-a2c0-3ea8a54dbab4 1Gi RWO
standard 24m
www-web-2 Bound pvc-cba6cfa6-3a47-486b-a138-db5930207eaf 1Gi RWO
standard 15m
www-web-3 Bound pvc-0c04d7f0-787a-4977-8da3-d9d3a6d8d752 1Gi RWO
standard 15m
www-web-4 Bound pvc-b2c73489-e70b-4a4e-9ec1-9eab439aa43e 1Gi RWO
standard 14m
kubectl get pv
NAME CAPACITY ACCESS MODES RECLAIM POLICY STATUS

CLAIM STORAGECLASS REASON AGE
pvc-0c04d7f0-787a-4977-8da3-d9d3a6d8d752 1Gi RWO Delete Bound
default/www-web-3 standard 15m
pvc-2bf00408-d366-4a12-bad0-1869c65d0bee 1Gi RWO Delete Bound
pvc-b2c73489-e70b-4a4e-9ec1-9eab439aa43e 1Gi RWO Delete Bound
pvc-ba3bfe9c-413e-4b95-a2c0-3ea8a54dbab4 1Gi RWO Delete Bound
pvc-cba6cfa6-3a47-486b-a138-db5930207eaf 1Gi RWO Delete Bound
kubectl delete pvc www-web-0 www-web-1 www-web-2 www-web-3 www-web-4
persistentvolumeclaim "www-web-0" deleted

kubectl get pvc
No resources found in default namespace.
Note: You also need to delete the persistent storage media for the PersistentVolumes used in
this tutorial. Follow the necessary steps, based on your environment, storage configuration, and
provisioning method, to ensure that all storage is reclaimed.
Example: Deploying WordPress and
MySQL with Persistent Volumes
This tutorial shows you how to deploy a WordPress site and a MySQL database using Minikube.
Both applications use PersistentVolumes and PersistentVolumeClaims to store data.
A PersistentVolume (PV) is a piece of storage in the cluster that has been manually provisioned
by an administrator, or dynamically provisioned by Kubernetes using a StorageClass. A
PersistentVolumeClaim (PVC) is a request for storage by a user that can be fulfilled by a PV.
PersistentVolumes and PersistentVolumeClaims are independent from Pod lifecycles and
preserve data through restarting, rescheduling, and even deleting Pods.
Warning: This deployment is not suitable for production use cases, as it uses single instance
WordPress and MySQL Pods. Consider using WordPress Helm Chart to deploy WordPress in
production.
Note: The files provided in this tutorial are using GA Deployment APIs and are specific to
kubernetes version 1.9 and later. If you wish to use this tutorial with an earlier version of
Kubernetes, please update the API version appropriately, or reference earlier versions of this
tutorial.
Objectives
• Create PersistentVolumeClaims and PersistentVolumes
• Create a kustomization.yaml with
◦ a Secret generator
◦ MySQL resource configs
◦ WordPress resource configs
• Apply the kustomization directory by kubectl apply -k ./
• Clean up
Before you begin

• Killercoda
To check the version, enter kubectl version.
The example shown on this page works with kubectl 1.27 and above.
Download the following configuration files:
1. mysql-deployment.yaml
2. wordpress-deployment.yaml
Create PersistentVolumeClaims and PersistentVolumes
MySQL and Wordpress each require a PersistentVolume to store data. Their
PersistentVolumeClaims will be created at the deployment step.
Many cluster environments have a default StorageClass installed. When a StorageClass is not
specified in the PersistentVolumeClaim, the cluster's default StorageClass is used instead.
When a PersistentVolumeClaim is created, a PersistentVolume is dynamically provisioned based

on the StorageClass configuration.
Warning: In local clusters, the default StorageClass uses the hostPath provisioner. hostPath
volumes are only suitable for development and testing. With hostPath volumes, your data lives
in /tmp on the node the Pod is scheduled onto and does not move between nodes. If a Pod dies
and gets scheduled to another node in the cluster, or the node is rebooted, the data is lost.
Note: If you are bringing up a cluster that needs to use the hostPath provisioner, the --enable-
hostpath-provisioner flag must be set in the controller-manager component.
Note: If you have a Kubernetes cluster running on Google Kubernetes Engine, please follow
this guide.
Create a kustomization.yaml
Add a Secret generator
A Secret is an object that stores a piece of sensitive data like a password or key. Since 1.14,
kubectl supports the management of Kubernetes objects using a kustomization file. You can
create a Secret by generators in kustomization.yaml.
Add a Secret generator in kustomization.yaml from the following command. You will need to
replace YOUR_PASSWORD with the password you want to use.
cat <<EOF >./kustomization.yaml

secretGenerator:
- name: mysql-pass
literals:
- password=YOUR_PASSWORD
EOF
Add resource configs for MySQL and WordPress

The following manifest describes a single-instance MySQL Deployment. The MySQL container
mounts the PersistentVolume at /var/lib/mysql. The MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD environment
variable sets the database password from the Secret.
application/wordpress/mysql-deployment.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: wordpress-mysql
labels:
app: wordpress
spec:
ports:
- port: 3306
selector:
app: wordpress
tier: mysql
clusterIP: None
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: PersistentVolumeClaim
metadata:
name: mysql-pv-claim
labels:
app: wordpress
spec:
accessModes:
- ReadWriteOnce
resources:
requests:
storage: 20Gi
---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
name: wordpress-mysql
labels:
app: wordpress
spec:
selector:
matchLabels:
app: wordpress
tier: mysql
strategy:
type: Recreate
template:
metadata:
labels:
app: wordpress
tier: mysql
spec:
containers:
- image: mysql:8.0
name: mysql
env:
- name: MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD
valueFrom:
secretKeyRef:
name: mysql-pass
key: password
- name: MYSQL_DATABASE
value: wordpress
- name: MYSQL_USER
value: wordpress
- name: MYSQL_PASSWORD
valueFrom:
secretKeyRef:
name: mysql-pass
key: password
ports:
name: mysql
volumeMounts:
- name: mysql-persistent-storage
mountPath: /var/lib/mysql
volumes:
- name: mysql-persistent-storage
persistentVolumeClaim:
claimName: mysql-pv-claim
The following manifest describes a single-instance WordPress Deployment. The WordPress

container mounts the PersistentVolume at /var/www/html for website data files. The
WORDPRESS_DB_HOST environment variable sets the name of the MySQL Service defined
above, and WordPress will access the database by Service. The WORDPRESS_DB_PASSWORD
environment variable sets the database password from the Secret kustomize generated.
application/wordpress/wordpress-deployment.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: wordpress
labels:
app: wordpress
spec:
ports:
- port: 80
selector:
app: wordpress
tier: frontend
type: LoadBalancer
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: PersistentVolumeClaim
metadata:
name: wp-pv-claim
labels:
app: wordpress
spec:
accessModes:
- ReadWriteOnce
resources:
requests:
storage: 20Gi
---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
name: wordpress
labels:
app: wordpress
spec:
selector:
matchLabels:
app: wordpress
tier: frontend
strategy:
type: Recreate
template:
metadata:
labels:
app: wordpress
tier: frontend
spec:
containers:
- image: wordpress:6.2.1-apache
name: wordpress
env:
- name: WORDPRESS_DB_HOST
value: wordpress-mysql
- name: WORDPRESS_DB_PASSWORD
valueFrom:
secretKeyRef:
name: mysql-pass
key: password
- name: WORDPRESS_DB_USER
value: wordpress
ports:
- containerPort: 80
name: wordpress
volumeMounts:
- name: wordpress-persistent-storage
mountPath: /var/www/html
volumes:
- name: wordpress-persistent-storage
persistentVolumeClaim:
claimName: wp-pv-claim
1. Download the MySQL deployment configuration file.
curl -LO https://k8s.io/examples/application/wordpress/mysql-deployment.yaml
2. Download the WordPress configuration file.
curl -LO https://k8s.io/examples/application/wordpress/wordpress-deployment.yaml
3. Add them to kustomization.yaml file.
cat <<EOF >>./kustomization.yaml

resources:
- mysql-deployment.yaml
- wordpress-deployment.yaml
EOF
Apply and Verify

The kustomization.yaml contains all the resources for deploying a WordPress site and a MySQL
database. You can apply the directory by
kubectl apply -k ./
Now you can verify that all objects exist.
1. Verify that the Secret exists by running the following command:
kubectl get secrets
The response should be like this:
NAME TYPE DATA AGE

mysql-pass-c57bb4t7mf Opaque 1 9s
2. Verify that a PersistentVolume got dynamically provisioned.
kubectl get pvc
Note: It can take up to a few minutes for the PVs to be provisioned and bound.
NAME STATUS VOLUME CAPACITY ACCESS MODES

STORAGECLASS AGE
mysql-pv-claim Bound pvc-8cbd7b2e-4044-11e9-b2bb-42010a800002 20Gi
RWO standard 77s
wp-pv-claim Bound pvc-8cd0df54-4044-11e9-b2bb-42010a800002 20Gi
RWO standard 77s
3. Verify that the Pod is running by running the following command:
kubectl get pods
Note: It can take up to a few minutes for the Pod's Status to be RUNNING.

wordpress-mysql-1894417608-x5dzt 1/1 Running 0 40s
4. Verify that the Service is running by running the following command:
kubectl get services wordpress

wordpress LoadBalancer 10.0.0.89 <pending> 80:32406/TCP 4m
Note: Minikube can only expose Services through NodePort. The EXTERNAL-IP is
always pending.
5. Run the following command to get the IP Address for the WordPress Service:
minikube service wordpress --url
http://1.2.3.4:32406
6. Copy the IP address, and load the page in your browser to view your site.
You should see the WordPress set up page similar to the following screenshot.
Warning: Do not leave your WordPress installation on this page. If another user finds it,
they can set up a website on your instance and use it to serve malicious content.
Either install WordPress by creating a username and password or delete your instance.
Cleaning up
1. Run the following command to delete your Secret, Deployments, Services and
PersistentVolumeClaims:
kubectl delete -k ./
What's next
• Learn more about Introspection and Debugging
• Learn more about Jobs
• Learn more about Port Forwarding
• Learn how to Get a Shell to a Container
Example: Deploying Cassandra with a

StatefulSet
This tutorial shows you how to run Apache Cassandra on Kubernetes. Cassandra, a database,
needs persistent storage to provide data durability (application state). In this example, a custom
Cassandra seed provider lets the database discover new Cassandra instances as they join the
Cassandra cluster.
StatefulSets make it easier to deploy stateful applications into your Kubernetes cluster. For more
information on the features used in this tutorial, see StatefulSet.
Note:
Cassandra and Kubernetes both use the term node to mean a member of a cluster. In this
tutorial, the Pods that belong to the StatefulSet are Cassandra nodes and are members of the
Cassandra cluster (called a ring). When those Pods run in your Kubernetes cluster, the
Kubernetes control plane schedules those Pods onto Kubernetes Nodes.
When a Cassandra node starts, it uses a seed list to bootstrap discovery of other nodes in the
ring. This tutorial deploys a custom Cassandra seed provider that lets the database discover new
Cassandra Pods as they appear inside your Kubernetes cluster.
Objectives
• Create and validate a Cassandra headless Service.
• Use a StatefulSet to create a Cassandra ring.
• Validate the StatefulSet.
• Modify the StatefulSet.
• Delete the StatefulSet and its Pods.
Before you begin
• Killercoda
To complete this tutorial, you should already have a basic familiarity with Pods, Services, and
StatefulSets.
Additional Minikube setup instructions
Caution:
Minikube defaults to 2048MB of memory and 2 CPU. Running Minikube with the default
resource configuration results in insufficient resource errors during this tutorial. To avoid these
errors, start Minikube with the following settings:
minikube start --memory 5120 --cpus=4
Creating a headless Service for Cassandra

In Kubernetes, a Service describes a set of Pods that perform the same task.
The following Service is used for DNS lookups between Cassandra Pods and clients within your
cluster:
application/cassandra/cassandra-service.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
labels:
app: cassandra
name: cassandra
spec:
clusterIP: None
ports:
- port: 9042
selector:
app: cassandra
Create a Service to track all Cassandra StatefulSet members from the cassandra-service.yaml
file:
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/application/cassandra/cassandra-service.yaml

Validating (optional)
Get the Cassandra Service.
kubectl get svc cassandra
The response is

cassandra ClusterIP None <none> 9042/TCP 45s
If you don't see a Service named cassandra, that means creation failed. Read Debug Services for
help troubleshooting common issues.
Using a StatefulSet to create a Cassandra ring

The StatefulSet manifest, included below, creates a Cassandra ring that consists of three Pods.
Note: This example uses the default provisioner for Minikube. Please update the following
StatefulSet for the cloud you are working with.
application/cassandra/cassandra-statefulset.yaml
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: StatefulSet
metadata:
name: cassandra
labels:
app: cassandra
spec:
serviceName: cassandra
replicas: 3
selector:
matchLabels:
app: cassandra
template:
metadata:
labels:
app: cassandra
spec:
terminationGracePeriodSeconds: 1800
containers:
- name: cassandra
image: gcr.io/google-samples/cassandra:v13
imagePullPolicy: Always
ports:
name: intra-node
name: tls-intra-node
name: jmx
name: cql
resources:
limits:
cpu: "500m"
memory: 1Gi
requests:
cpu: "500m"
memory: 1Gi
securityContext:
capabilities:
add:
- IPC_LOCK
lifecycle:
preStop:
exec:
command:
- /bin/sh
- -c
- nodetool drain
env:
- name: MAX_HEAP_SIZE
value: 512M
- name: HEAP_NEWSIZE
value: 100M
- name: CASSANDRA_SEEDS
value: "cassandra-0.cassandra.default.svc.cluster.local"
- name: CASSANDRA_CLUSTER_NAME
value: "K8Demo"
- name: CASSANDRA_DC
value: "DC1-K8Demo"
- name: CASSANDRA_RACK
value: "Rack1-K8Demo"
- name: POD_IP
valueFrom:
fieldRef:
fieldPath: status.podIP
readinessProbe:
exec:
command:
- /bin/bash
- -c
- /ready-probe.sh
initialDelaySeconds: 15
timeoutSeconds: 5
# These volume mounts are persistent. They are like inline claims,
# but not exactly because the names need to match exactly one of
# the stateful pod volumes.
volumeMounts:
- name: cassandra-data
mountPath: /cassandra_data
# These are converted to volume claims by the controller
# and mounted at the paths mentioned above.
# do not use these in production until ssd GCEPersistentDisk or other ssd pd
- metadata:
name: cassandra-data
spec:
storageClassName: fast
resources:
requests:
storage: 1Gi
---
kind: StorageClass
apiVersion: storage.k8s.io/v1
metadata:
name: fast
provisioner: k8s.io/minikube-hostpath
parameters:
type: pd-ssd
Create the Cassandra StatefulSet from the cassandra-statefulset.yaml file:
# Use this if you are able to apply cassandra-statefulset.yaml unmodified

kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/application/cassandra/cassandra-statefulset.yaml
If you need to modify cassandra-statefulset.yaml to suit your cluster, download https://k8s.io/

examples/application/cassandra/cassandra-statefulset.yaml and then apply that manifest, from
the folder you saved the modified version into:
# Use this if you needed to modify cassandra-statefulset.yaml locally

kubectl apply -f cassandra-statefulset.yaml
Validating the Cassandra StatefulSet

1. Get the Cassandra StatefulSet:
kubectl get statefulset cassandra
The response should be similar to:

cassandra 3 0 13s
The StatefulSet resource deploys Pods sequentially.
2. Get the Pods to see the ordered creation status:
kubectl get pods -l="app=cassandra"

cassandra-0 1/1 Running 0 1m
cassandra-1 0/1 ContainerCreating 0 8s
It can take several minutes for all three Pods to deploy. Once they are deployed, the same
command returns output similar to:
3. Run the Cassandra nodetool inside the first Pod, to display the status of the ring.
kubectl exec -it cassandra-0 -- nodetool status
The response should look something like:
Datacenter: DC1-K8Demo
======================
Status=Up/Down
|/ State=Normal/Leaving/Joining/Moving
-- Address Load Tokens Owns (effective) Host ID Rack
UN 172.17.0.5 83.57 KiB 32 74.0% e2dd09e6-d9d3-477e-96c5-45094c08db0f
Rack1-K8Demo
UN 172.17.0.4 101.04 KiB 32 58.8% f89d6835-3a42-4419-92b3-0e62cae1479c
Rack1-K8Demo
UN 172.17.0.6 84.74 KiB 32 67.1% a6a1e8c2-3dc5-4417-b1a0-26507af2aaad
Rack1-K8Demo
Modifying the Cassandra StatefulSet

Use kubectl edit to modify the size of a Cassandra StatefulSet.
1. Run the following command:
kubectl edit statefulset cassandra
This command opens an editor in your terminal. The line you need to change is the
replicas field. The following sample is an excerpt of the StatefulSet file:
# Please edit the object below. Lines beginning with a '#' will be ignored,
# and an empty file will abort the edit. If an error occurs while saving this file will be
# reopened with the relevant failures.
#
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: StatefulSet
metadata:
creationTimestamp: 2016-08-13T18:40:58Z
generation: 1
labels:
app: cassandra
name: cassandra
namespace: default
resourceVersion: "323"
uid: 7a219483-6185-11e6-a910-42010a8a0fc0
spec:
replicas: 3
2. Change the number of replicas to 4, and then save the manifest.

The StatefulSet now scales to run with 4 Pods.
3. Get the Cassandra StatefulSet to verify your change:
kubectl get statefulset cassandra

cassandra 4 4 36m
Cleaning up
Deleting or scaling a StatefulSet down does not delete the volumes associated with the
StatefulSet. This setting is for your safety because your data is more valuable than automatically
purging all related StatefulSet resources.
Warning: Depending on the storage class and reclaim policy, deleting the
PersistentVolumeClaims may cause the associated volumes to also be deleted. Never assume
you'll be able to access data if its volume claims are deleted.
1. Run the following commands (chained together into a single command) to delete
everything in the Cassandra StatefulSet:
grace=$(kubectl get pod cassandra-0 -o=jsonpath='{.spec.terminationGracePeriodSeconds

}') \
&& kubectl delete statefulset -l app=cassandra \
&& echo "Sleeping ${grace} seconds" 1>&2 \
&& sleep $grace \
&& kubectl delete persistentvolumeclaim -l app=cassandra
2. Run the following command to delete the Service you set up for Cassandra:
kubectl delete service -l app=cassandra
Cassandra container environment variables

The Pods in this tutorial use the gcr.io/google-samples/cassandra:v13 image from Google's
container registry. The Docker image above is based on debian-base and includes OpenJDK 8.
This image includes a standard Cassandra installation from the Apache Debian repo. By using
environment variables you can change values that are inserted into cassandra.yaml.
Environment variable Default value

CASSANDRA_CLUSTER_NAME 'Test Cluster'
CASSANDRA_NUM_TOKENS 32
CASSANDRA_RPC_ADDRESS 0.0.0.0
What's next
• Learn how to Scale a StatefulSet.
• Learn more about the KubernetesSeedProvider
• See more custom Seed Provider Configurations
Running ZooKeeper, A Distributed System

Coordinator
This tutorial demonstrates running Apache Zookeeper on Kubernetes using StatefulSets,
PodDisruptionBudgets, and PodAntiAffinity.
Before you begin

Before starting this tutorial, you should be familiar with the following Kubernetes concepts:
• Pods
• Cluster DNS
• Headless Services
• PersistentVolumes
• PersistentVolume Provisioning
• StatefulSets
• PodDisruptionBudgets
• PodAntiAffinity
• kubectl CLI
You must have a cluster with at least four nodes, and each node requires at least 2 CPUs and 4
GiB of memory. In this tutorial you will cordon and drain the cluster's nodes. This means that
the cluster will terminate and evict all Pods on its nodes, and the nodes will
temporarily become unschedulable. You should use a dedicated cluster for this tutorial, or
you should ensure that the disruption you cause will not interfere with other tenants.
This tutorial assumes that you have configured your cluster to dynamically provision
PersistentVolumes. If your cluster is not configured to do so, you will have to manually
provision three 20 GiB volumes before starting this tutorial.
Objectives
After this tutorial, you will know the following.
• How to deploy a ZooKeeper ensemble using StatefulSet.

• How to consistently configure the ensemble.
• How to spread the deployment of ZooKeeper servers in the ensemble.
• How to use PodDisruptionBudgets to ensure service availability during planned
maintenance.
ZooKeeper
Apache ZooKeeper is a distributed, open-source coordination service for distributed

applications. ZooKeeper allows you to read, write, and observe updates to data. Data are
organized in a file system like hierarchy and replicated to all ZooKeeper servers in the
ensemble (a set of ZooKeeper servers). All operations on data are atomic and sequentially
consistent. ZooKeeper ensures this by using the Zab consensus protocol to replicate a state
machine across all servers in the ensemble.
The ensemble uses the Zab protocol to elect a leader, and the ensemble cannot write data until
that election is complete. Once complete, the ensemble uses Zab to ensure that it replicates all
writes to a quorum before it acknowledges and makes them visible to clients. Without respect
to weighted quorums, a quorum is a majority component of the ensemble containing the
current leader. For instance, if the ensemble has three servers, a component that contains the
leader and one other server constitutes a quorum. If the ensemble can not achieve a quorum,
the ensemble cannot write data.
ZooKeeper servers keep their entire state machine in memory, and write every mutation to a
durable WAL (Write Ahead Log) on storage media. When a server crashes, it can recover its
previous state by replaying the WAL. To prevent the WAL from growing without bound,
ZooKeeper servers will periodically snapshot them in memory state to storage media. These
snapshots can be loaded directly into memory, and all WAL entries that preceded the snapshot
may be discarded.
Creating a ZooKeeper ensemble

The manifest below contains a Headless Service, a Service, a PodDisruptionBudget, and a
StatefulSet.
application/zookeeper/zookeeper.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: zk-hs
labels:
app: zk
spec:
ports:
- port: 2888
name: server
- port: 3888
name: leader-election
clusterIP: None
selector:
app: zk
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: zk-cs
labels:
app: zk
spec:
ports:
- port: 2181
name: client
selector:
app: zk
---
apiVersion: policy/v1
kind: PodDisruptionBudget
metadata:
name: zk-pdb
spec:
selector:
matchLabels:
app: zk
maxUnavailable: 1
---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: StatefulSet
metadata:
name: zk
spec:
selector:
matchLabels:
app: zk
serviceName: zk-hs
replicas: 3
updateStrategy:
type: RollingUpdate
podManagementPolicy: OrderedReady
template:
metadata:
labels:
app: zk
spec:
affinity:
podAntiAffinity:
requiredDuringSchedulingIgnoredDuringExecution:
- labelSelector:
matchExpressions:
- key: "app"
operator: In
values:
- zk
topologyKey: "kubernetes.io/hostname"
containers:
- name: kubernetes-zookeeper
imagePullPolicy: Always
image: "registry.k8s.io/kubernetes-zookeeper:1.0-3.4.10"
resources:
requests:
memory: "1Gi"
cpu: "0.5"
ports:
name: client
name: server
name: leader-election
command:
- sh
- -c
- "start-zookeeper \
--servers=3 \
--data_dir=/var/lib/zookeeper/data \
--data_log_dir=/var/lib/zookeeper/data/log \
--conf_dir=/opt/zookeeper/conf \
--client_port=2181 \
--election_port=3888 \
--server_port=2888 \
--tick_time=2000 \
--init_limit=10 \
--sync_limit=5 \
--heap=512M \
--max_client_cnxns=60 \
--snap_retain_count=3 \
--purge_interval=12 \
--max_session_timeout=40000 \
--min_session_timeout=4000 \
--log_level=INFO"
readinessProbe:
exec:
command:
- sh
- -c
- "zookeeper-ready 2181"
timeoutSeconds: 5
livenessProbe:
exec:
command:
- sh
- -c
timeoutSeconds: 5
volumeMounts:
- name: datadir
mountPath: /var/lib/zookeeper
securityContext:
runAsUser: 1000
fsGroup: 1000
- metadata:
name: datadir
spec:
resources:
requests:
storage: 10Gi
Open a terminal, and use the kubectl apply command to create the manifest.
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/application/zookeeper/zookeeper.yaml
This creates the zk-hs Headless Service, the zk-cs Service, the zk-pdb PodDisruptionBudget, and
the zk StatefulSet.
service/zk-hs created
service/zk-cs created
poddisruptionbudget.policy/zk-pdb created
statefulset.apps/zk created
Use kubectl get to watch the StatefulSet controller create the StatefulSet's Pods.
kubectl get pods -w -l app=zk
Once the zk-2 Pod is Running and Ready, use CTRL-C to terminate kubectl.

zk-0 0/1 Pending 0 0s
zk-0 0/1 ContainerCreating 0 0s
zk-0 0/1 Running 0 19s
The StatefulSet controller creates three Pods, and each Pod has a container with a ZooKeeper
server.
Facilitating leader election
Because there is no terminating algorithm for electing a leader in an anonymous network, Zab
requires explicit membership configuration to perform leader election. Each server in the
ensemble needs to have a unique identifier, all servers need to know the global set of identifiers,
and each identifier needs to be associated with a network address.
Use kubectl exec to get the hostnames of the Pods in the zk StatefulSet.
for i in 0 1 2; do kubectl exec zk-$i -- hostname; done
The StatefulSet controller provides each Pod with a unique hostname based on its ordinal index.
The hostnames take the form of <statefulset name>-<ordinal index>. Because the replicas field
of the zk StatefulSet is set to 3, the Set's controller creates three Pods with their hostnames set
to zk-0, zk-1, and zk-2.
zk-0
zk-1
zk-2
The servers in a ZooKeeper ensemble use natural numbers as unique identifiers, and store each
server's identifier in a file called myid in the server's data directory.
To examine the contents of the myid file for each server use the following command.
for i in 0 1 2; do echo "myid zk-$i";kubectl exec zk-$i -- cat /var/lib/zookeeper/data/myid; done
Because the identifiers are natural numbers and the ordinal indices are non-negative integers,
you can generate an identifier by adding 1 to the ordinal.
myid zk-0
1
myid zk-1
2
myid zk-2
3
To get the Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN) of each Pod in the zk StatefulSet use the
following command.
for i in 0 1 2; do kubectl exec zk-$i -- hostname -f; done
The zk-hs Service creates a domain for all of the Pods, zk-hs.default.svc.cluster.local.
zk-0.zk-hs.default.svc.cluster.local
The A records in Kubernetes DNS resolve the FQDNs to the Pods' IP addresses. If Kubernetes
reschedules the Pods, it will update the A records with the Pods' new IP addresses, but the A
records names will not change.
ZooKeeper stores its application configuration in a file named zoo.cfg. Use kubectl exec to view
the contents of the zoo.cfg file in the zk-0 Pod.
kubectl exec zk-0 -- cat /opt/zookeeper/conf/zoo.cfg
In the server.1, server.2, and server.3 properties at the bottom of the file, the 1, 2, and 3
correspond to the identifiers in the ZooKeeper servers' myid files. They are set to the FQDNs for
the Pods in the zk StatefulSet.
clientPort=2181
dataDir=/var/lib/zookeeper/data
dataLogDir=/var/lib/zookeeper/log
tickTime=2000
initLimit=10
syncLimit=2000
maxClientCnxns=60
minSessionTimeout= 4000
maxSessionTimeout= 40000
autopurge.snapRetainCount=3
autopurge.purgeInterval=0
server.1=zk-0.zk-hs.default.svc.cluster.local:2888:3888
Achieving consensus
Consensus protocols require that the identifiers of each participant be unique. No two
participants in the Zab protocol should claim the same unique identifier. This is necessary to
allow the processes in the system to agree on which processes have committed which data. If
two Pods are launched with the same ordinal, two ZooKeeper servers would both identify
themselves as the same server.

The A records for each Pod are entered when the Pod becomes Ready. Therefore, the FQDNs of
the ZooKeeper servers will resolve to a single endpoint, and that endpoint will be the unique
ZooKeeper server claiming the identity configured in its myid file.
This ensures that the servers properties in the ZooKeepers' zoo.cfg files represents a correctly
configured ensemble.
When the servers use the Zab protocol to attempt to commit a value, they will either achieve
consensus and commit the value (if leader election has succeeded and at least two of the Pods
are Running and Ready), or they will fail to do so (if either of the conditions are not met). No
state will arise where one server acknowledges a write on behalf of another.
Sanity testing the ensemble
The most basic sanity test is to write data to one ZooKeeper server and to read the data from
another.
The command below executes the zkCli.sh script to write world to the path /hello on the zk-0
Pod in the ensemble.
kubectl exec zk-0 -- zkCli.sh create /hello world
WATCHER::
WatchedEvent state:SyncConnected type:None path:null

Created /hello
To get the data from the zk-1 Pod use the following command.
kubectl exec zk-1 -- zkCli.sh get /hello
The data that you created on zk-0 is available on all the servers in the ensemble.
WATCHER::

world
cZxid = 0x100000002
ctime = Thu Dec 08 15:13:30 UTC 2016
mZxid = 0x100000002
mtime = Thu Dec 08 15:13:30 UTC 2016
pZxid = 0x100000002
cversion = 0
dataVersion = 0
aclVersion = 0
ephemeralOwner = 0x0
dataLength = 5
numChildren = 0
Providing durable storage
As mentioned in the ZooKeeper Basics section, ZooKeeper commits all entries to a durable
WAL, and periodically writes snapshots in memory state, to storage media. Using WALs to
provide durability is a common technique for applications that use consensus protocols to
achieve a replicated state machine.
Use the kubectl delete command to delete the zk StatefulSet.
kubectl delete statefulset zk
statefulset.apps "zk" deleted
Watch the termination of the Pods in the StatefulSet.

When zk-0 if fully terminated, use CTRL-C to terminate kubectl.
zk-2 1/1 Terminating 0 9m

Reapply the manifest in zookeeper.yaml.
kubectl apply -f https://k8s.io/examples/application/zookeeper/zookeeper.yaml
This creates the zk StatefulSet object, but the other API objects in the manifest are not modified
because they already exist.
Watch the StatefulSet controller recreate the StatefulSet's Pods.
Once the zk-2 Pod is Running and Ready, use CTRL-C to terminate kubectl.

Use the command below to get the value you entered during the sanity test, from the zk-2 Pod.
kubectl exec zk-2 zkCli.sh get /hello
Even though you terminated and recreated all of the Pods in the zk StatefulSet, the ensemble
still serves the original value.
WATCHER::
world
cZxid = 0x100000002
ctime = Thu Dec 08 15:13:30 UTC 2016
mZxid = 0x100000002
mtime = Thu Dec 08 15:13:30 UTC 2016
pZxid = 0x100000002
cversion = 0
dataVersion = 0
aclVersion = 0
dataLength = 5
numChildren = 0
The volumeClaimTemplates field of the zk StatefulSet's spec specifies a PersistentVolume

provisioned for each Pod.
- metadata:
name: datadir
annotations:
volume.alpha.kubernetes.io/storage-class: anything
spec:
resources:
requests:
storage: 20Gi
The StatefulSet controller generates a PersistentVolumeClaim for each Pod in the StatefulSet.
Use the following command to get the StatefulSet's PersistentVolumeClaims.
kubectl get pvc -l app=zk
When the StatefulSet recreated its Pods, it remounts the Pods' PersistentVolumes.

datadir-zk-0 Bound pvc-bed742cd-bcb1-11e6-994f-42010a800002 20Gi RWO 1h
datadir-zk-1 Bound pvc-bedd27d2-bcb1-11e6-994f-42010a800002 20Gi RWO 1h
datadir-zk-2 Bound pvc-bee0817e-bcb1-11e6-994f-42010a800002 20Gi RWO 1h
The volumeMounts section of the StatefulSet's container template mounts the

PersistentVolumes in the ZooKeeper servers' data directories.
volumeMounts:
- name: datadir
mountPath: /var/lib/zookeeper
When a Pod in the zk StatefulSet is (re)scheduled, it will always have the same
PersistentVolume mounted to the ZooKeeper server's data directory. Even when the Pods are
rescheduled, all the writes made to the ZooKeeper servers' WALs, and all their snapshots,
remain durable.
Ensuring consistent configuration
As noted in the Facilitating Leader Election and Achieving Consensus sections, the servers in a
ZooKeeper ensemble require consistent configuration to elect a leader and form a quorum. They
also require consistent configuration of the Zab protocol in order for the protocol to work
correctly over a network. In our example we achieve consistent configuration by embedding the
configuration directly into the manifest.
Get the zk StatefulSet.
kubectl get sts zk -o yaml
...
command:
- sh
- -c
- "start-zookeeper \
--servers=3 \
--data_dir=/var/lib/zookeeper/data \
--data_log_dir=/var/lib/zookeeper/data/log \
--conf_dir=/opt/zookeeper/conf \
--client_port=2181 \
--election_port=3888 \
--server_port=2888 \
--tick_time=2000 \
--init_limit=10 \
--sync_limit=5 \
--heap=512M \
--max_client_cnxns=60 \
--snap_retain_count=3 \
--purge_interval=12 \
--max_session_timeout=40000 \
--min_session_timeout=4000 \
--log_level=INFO"
...
The command used to start the ZooKeeper servers passed the configuration as command line
parameter. You can also use environment variables to pass configuration to the ensemble.
Configuring logging
One of the files generated by the zkGenConfig.sh script controls ZooKeeper's logging.
ZooKeeper uses Log4j, and, by default, it uses a time and size based rolling file appender for its
logging configuration.
Use the command below to get the logging configuration from one of Pods in the zk StatefulSet.
kubectl exec zk-0 cat /usr/etc/zookeeper/log4j.properties
The logging configuration below will cause the ZooKeeper process to write all of its logs to the
standard output file stream.
zookeeper.root.logger=CONSOLE
zookeeper.console.threshold=INFO
log4j.rootLogger=${zookeeper.root.logger}
log4j.appender.CONSOLE=org.apache.log4j.ConsoleAppender
log4j.appender.CONSOLE.Threshold=${zookeeper.console.threshold}
log4j.appender.CONSOLE.layout=org.apache.log4j.PatternLayout
log4j.appender.CONSOLE.layout.ConversionPattern=%d{ISO8601} [myid:%X{myid}] - %-5p [%t:
%C{1}@%L] - %m%n
This is the simplest possible way to safely log inside the container. Because the applications
write logs to standard out, Kubernetes will handle log rotation for you. Kubernetes also
implements a sane retention policy that ensures application logs written to standard out and
standard error do not exhaust local storage media.
Use kubectl logs to retrieve the last 20 log lines from one of the Pods.
kubectl logs zk-0 --tail 20
You can view application logs written to standard out or standard error using kubectl logs and
from the Kubernetes Dashboard.
2016-12-06 19:34:16,236 [myid:1] - INFO [NIOServerCxn.Factory:

0.0.0.0/0.0.0.0:2181:NIOServerCnxn@827] - Processing ruok command from /127.0.0.1:52740
2016-12-06 19:34:16,237 [myid:1] - INFO [Thread-1136:NIOServerCnxn@1008] - Closed socket
connection for client /127.0.0.1:52740 (no session established for client)
0.0.0.0/0.0.0.0:2181:NIOServerCnxnFactory@192] - Accepted socket connection from /
127.0.0.1:52749
127.0.0.1:52750
127.0.0.1:52760
127.0.0.1:52761
127.0.0.1:52767
127.0.0.1:52768
Kubernetes integrates with many logging solutions. You can choose a logging solution that best
fits your cluster and applications. For cluster-level logging and aggregation, consider deploying
a sidecar container to rotate and ship your logs.
Configuring a non-privileged user
The best practices to allow an application to run as a privileged user inside of a container are a
matter of debate. If your organization requires that applications run as a non-privileged user
you can use a SecurityContext to control the user that the entry point runs as.
The zk StatefulSet's Pod template contains a SecurityContext.
securityContext:
runAsUser: 1000
fsGroup: 1000
In the Pods' containers, UID 1000 corresponds to the zookeeper user and GID 1000 corresponds
to the zookeeper group.
Get the ZooKeeper process information from the zk-0 Pod.
kubectl exec zk-0 -- ps -elf
As the runAsUser field of the securityContext object is set to 1000, instead of running as root,
the ZooKeeper process runs as the zookeeper user.
F S UID PID PPID C PRI NI ADDR SZ WCHAN STIME TTY TIME CMD
4 S zookeep+ 1 0 0 80 0 - 1127 - 20:46 ? 00:00:00 sh -c zkGenConfig.sh &&
zkServer.sh start-foreground
0 S zookeep+ 27 1 0 80 0 - 1155556 - 20:46 ? 00:00:19 /usr/lib/jvm/java-8-openjdk-
amd64/bin/java -Dzookeeper.log.dir=/var/log/zookeeper -
Dzookeeper.root.logger=INFO,CONSOLE -cp /usr/bin/../build/classes:/usr/bin/../build/lib/*.jar:/
usr/bin/../share/zookeeper/zookeeper-3.4.9.jar:/usr/bin/../share/zookeeper/slf4j-
log4j12-1.6.1.jar:/usr/bin/../share/zookeeper/slf4j-api-1.6.1.jar:/usr/bin/../share/zookeeper/
netty-3.10.5.Final.jar:/usr/bin/../share/zookeeper/log4j-1.2.16.jar:/usr/bin/../share/zookeeper/
jline-0.9.94.jar:/usr/bin/../src/java/lib/*.jar:/usr/bin/../etc/zookeeper: -Xmx2G -Xms2G -
Dcom.sun.management.jmxremote -Dcom.sun.management.jmxremote.local.only=false
org.apache.zookeeper.server.quorum.QuorumPeerMain /usr/bin/../etc/zookeeper/zoo.cfg
By default, when the Pod's PersistentVolumes is mounted to the ZooKeeper server's data
directory, it is only accessible by the root user. This configuration prevents the ZooKeeper
process from writing to its WAL and storing its snapshots.
Use the command below to get the file permissions of the ZooKeeper data directory on the zk-0
Pod.
kubectl exec -ti zk-0 -- ls -ld /var/lib/zookeeper/data
Because the fsGroup field of the securityContext object is set to 1000, the ownership of the
Pods' PersistentVolumes is set to the zookeeper group, and the ZooKeeper process is able to
read and write its data.
drwxr-sr-x 3 zookeeper zookeeper 4096 Dec 5 20:45 /var/lib/zookeeper/data
Managing the ZooKeeper process

The ZooKeeper documentation mentions that "You will want to have a supervisory process that
manages each of your ZooKeeper server processes (JVM)." Utilizing a watchdog (supervisory
process) to restart failed processes in a distributed system is a common pattern. When
deploying an application in Kubernetes, rather than using an external utility as a supervisory
process, you should use Kubernetes as the watchdog for your application.
Updating the ensemble
The zk StatefulSet is configured to use the RollingUpdate update strategy.
You can use kubectl patch to update the number of cpus allocated to the servers.
kubectl patch sts zk --type='json' -p='[{"op": "replace", "path": "/spec/template/spec/containers/0/

resources/requests/cpu", "value":"0.3"}]'
statefulset.apps/zk patched
Use kubectl rollout status to watch the status of the update.
kubectl rollout status sts/zk
waiting for statefulset rolling update to complete 0 pods at revision zk-5db4499664...

Waiting for 1 pods to be ready...
statefulset rolling update complete 3 pods at revision zk-5db4499664...
This terminates the Pods, one at a time, in reverse ordinal order, and recreates them with the
new configuration. This ensures that quorum is maintained during a rolling update.
Use the kubectl rollout history command to view a history or previous configurations.
kubectl rollout history sts/zk
statefulsets "zk"
REVISION
1
2
Use the kubectl rollout undo command to roll back the modification.
kubectl rollout undo sts/zk
statefulset.apps/zk rolled back
Handling process failure
Restart Policies control how Kubernetes handles process failures for the entry point of the
container in a Pod. For Pods in a StatefulSet, the only appropriate RestartPolicy is Always, and
this is the default value. For stateful applications you should never override the default policy.
Use the following command to examine the process tree for the ZooKeeper server running in
the zk-0 Pod.
kubectl exec zk-0 -- ps -ef
The command used as the container's entry point has PID 1, and the ZooKeeper process, a child
of the entry point, has PID 27.
UID PID PPID C STIME TTY TIME CMD

zookeep+ 1 0 0 15:03 ? 00:00:00 sh -c zkGenConfig.sh && zkServer.sh start-foreground
zookeep+ 27 1 0 15:03 ? 00:00:03 /usr/lib/jvm/java-8-openjdk-amd64/bin/java -
Dzookeeper.log.dir=/var/log/zookeeper -Dzookeeper.root.logger=INFO,CONSOLE -cp /usr/
bin/../build/classes:/usr/bin/../build/lib/*.jar:/usr/bin/../share/zookeeper/zookeeper-3.4.9.jar:/usr/
bin/../share/zookeeper/slf4j-log4j12-1.6.1.jar:/usr/bin/../share/zookeeper/slf4j-api-1.6.1.jar:/usr/
bin/../share/zookeeper/netty-3.10.5.Final.jar:/usr/bin/../share/zookeeper/log4j-1.2.16.jar:/usr/
bin/../share/zookeeper/jline-0.9.94.jar:/usr/bin/../src/java/lib/*.jar:/usr/bin/../etc/zookeeper: -
Xmx2G -Xms2G -Dcom.sun.management.jmxremote -
Dcom.sun.management.jmxremote.local.only=false
org.apache.zookeeper.server.quorum.QuorumPeerMain /usr/bin/../etc/zookeeper/zoo.cfg
In another terminal watch the Pods in the zk StatefulSet with the following command.
kubectl get pod -w -l app=zk
In another terminal, terminate the ZooKeeper process in Pod zk-0 with the following command.
kubectl exec zk-0 -- pkill java
The termination of the ZooKeeper process caused its parent process to terminate. Because the
RestartPolicy of the container is Always, it restarted the parent process.
zk-0 1/1 Running 0 21m
zk-0 0/1 Error 0 29m
If your application uses a script (such as zkServer.sh) to launch the process that implements the
application's business logic, the script must terminate with the child process. This ensures that
Kubernetes will restart the application's container when the process implementing the
application's business logic fails.
Testing for liveness
Configuring your application to restart failed processes is not enough to keep a distributed
system healthy. There are scenarios where a system's processes can be both alive and
unresponsive, or otherwise unhealthy. You should use liveness probes to notify Kubernetes that
your application's processes are unhealthy and it should restart them.
The Pod template for the zk StatefulSet specifies a liveness probe.
livenessProbe:
exec:
command:
- sh
- -c
timeoutSeconds: 5
The probe calls a bash script that uses the ZooKeeper ruok four letter word to test the server's
health.
OK=$(echo ruok | nc 127.0.0.1 $1)

if [ "$OK" == "imok" ]; then
exit 0
else
exit 1
fi
In one terminal window, use the following command to watch the Pods in the zk StatefulSet.
In another window, using the following command to delete the zookeeper-ready script from the
file system of Pod zk-0.
kubectl exec zk-0 -- rm /opt/zookeeper/bin/zookeeper-ready
When the liveness probe for the ZooKeeper process fails, Kubernetes will automatically restart
the process for you, ensuring that unhealthy processes in the ensemble are restarted.

zk-0 1/1 Running 0 1h
Testing for readiness
Readiness is not the same as liveness. If a process is alive, it is scheduled and healthy. If a
process is ready, it is able to process input. Liveness is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition
for readiness. There are cases, particularly during initialization and termination, when a process
can be alive but not ready.
If you specify a readiness probe, Kubernetes will ensure that your application's processes will
not receive network traffic until their readiness checks pass.
For a ZooKeeper server, liveness implies readiness. Therefore, the readiness probe from the
zookeeper.yaml manifest is identical to the liveness probe.
readinessProbe:
exec:
command:
- sh
- -c
timeoutSeconds: 5
Even though the liveness and readiness probes are identical, it is important to specify both. This
ensures that only healthy servers in the ZooKeeper ensemble receive network traffic.
Tolerating Node failure

ZooKeeper needs a quorum of servers to successfully commit mutations to data. For a three
server ensemble, two servers must be healthy for writes to succeed. In quorum based systems,
members are deployed across failure domains to ensure availability. To avoid an outage, due to
the loss of an individual machine, best practices preclude co-locating multiple instances of the
application on the same machine.
By default, Kubernetes may co-locate Pods in a StatefulSet on the same node. For the three
server ensemble you created, if two servers are on the same node, and that node fails, the
clients of your ZooKeeper service will experience an outage until at least one of the Pods can be
rescheduled.
You should always provision additional capacity to allow the processes of critical systems to be
rescheduled in the event of node failures. If you do so, then the outage will only last until the
Kubernetes scheduler reschedules one of the ZooKeeper servers. However, if you want your
service to tolerate node failures with no downtime, you should set podAntiAffinity.
Use the command below to get the nodes for Pods in the zk StatefulSet.
for i in 0 1 2; do kubectl get pod zk-$i --template {{.spec.nodeName}}; echo ""; done
All of the Pods in the zk StatefulSet are deployed on different nodes.
kubernetes-node-cxpk
kubernetes-node-a5aq
kubernetes-node-2g2d
This is because the Pods in the zk StatefulSet have a PodAntiAffinity specified.
affinity:
podAntiAffinity:
requiredDuringSchedulingIgnoredDuringExecution:
- labelSelector:
matchExpressions:
- key: "app"
operator: In
values:
- zk
topologyKey: "kubernetes.io/hostname"
The requiredDuringSchedulingIgnoredDuringExecution field tells the Kubernetes Scheduler

that it should never co-locate two Pods which have app label as zk in the domain defined by the
topologyKey. The topologyKey kubernetes.io/hostname indicates that the domain is an
individual node. Using different rules, labels, and selectors, you can extend this technique to
spread your ensemble across physical, network, and power failure domains.
Surviving maintenance
In this section you will cordon and drain nodes. If you are using this tutorial on a shared
cluster, be sure that this will not adversely affect other tenants.
The previous section showed you how to spread your Pods across nodes to survive unplanned
node failures, but you also need to plan for temporary node failures that occur due to planned
maintenance.
Use this command to get the nodes in your cluster.
kubectl get nodes
This tutorial assumes a cluster with at least four nodes. If the cluster has more than four, use
kubectl cordon to cordon all but four nodes. Constraining to four nodes will ensure Kubernetes
encounters affinity and PodDisruptionBudget constraints when scheduling zookeeper Pods in
the following maintenance simulation.
kubectl cordon <node-name>
Use this command to get the zk-pdb PodDisruptionBudget.
kubectl get pdb zk-pdb

The max-unavailable field indicates to Kubernetes that at most one Pod from zk StatefulSet can
be unavailable at any time.
NAME MIN-AVAILABLE MAX-UNAVAILABLE ALLOWED-DISRUPTIONS AGE

zk-pdb N/A 1 1
In one terminal, use this command to watch the Pods in the zk StatefulSet.
In another terminal, use this command to get the nodes that the Pods are currently scheduled
on.
for i in 0 1 2; do kubectl get pod zk-$i --template {{.spec.nodeName}}; echo ""; done
kubernetes-node-pb41
kubernetes-node-ixsl
kubernetes-node-i4c4
Use kubectl drain to cordon and drain the node on which the zk-0 Pod is scheduled.
kubectl drain $(kubectl get pod zk-0 --template {{.spec.nodeName}}) --ignore-daemonsets --force
--delete-emptydir-data
node "kubernetes-node-pb41" cordoned
WARNING: Deleting pods not managed by ReplicationController, ReplicaSet, Job, or

DaemonSet: fluentd-cloud-logging-kubernetes-node-pb41, kube-proxy-kubernetes-node-pb41;
Ignoring DaemonSet-managed pods: node-problem-detector-v0.1-o5elz
pod "zk-0" deleted
node "kubernetes-node-pb41" drained
As there are four nodes in your cluster, kubectl drain, succeeds and the zk-0 is rescheduled to
another node.

zk-0 1/1 Terminating 2 2h
Keep watching the StatefulSet's Pods in the first terminal and drain the node on which zk-1 is
scheduled.
"kubernetes-node-ixsl" cordoned
DaemonSet: fluentd-cloud-logging-kubernetes-node-ixsl, kube-proxy-kubernetes-node-ixsl;
Ignoring DaemonSet-managed pods: node-problem-detector-v0.1-voc74
pod "zk-1" deleted
node "kubernetes-node-ixsl" drained
The zk-1 Pod cannot be scheduled because the zk StatefulSet contains a PodAntiAffinity rule
preventing co-location of the Pods, and as only two nodes are schedulable, the Pod will remain
in a Pending state.

Continue to watch the Pods of the StatefulSet, and drain the node on which zk-2 is scheduled.
node "kubernetes-node-i4c4" cordoned

DaemonSet: fluentd-cloud-logging-kubernetes-node-i4c4, kube-proxy-kubernetes-node-i4c4;
Ignoring DaemonSet-managed pods: node-problem-detector-v0.1-dyrog
WARNING: Ignoring DaemonSet-managed pods: node-problem-detector-v0.1-dyrog; Deleting
pods not managed by ReplicationController, ReplicaSet, Job, or DaemonSet: fluentd-cloud-
logging-kubernetes-node-i4c4, kube-proxy-kubernetes-node-i4c4
There are pending pods when an error occurred: Cannot evict pod as it would violate the pod's
disruption budget.
pod/zk-2
Use CTRL-C to terminate kubectl.
You cannot drain the third node because evicting zk-2 would violate zk-budget. However, the
node will remain cordoned.
Use zkCli.sh to retrieve the value you entered during the sanity test from zk-0.
kubectl exec zk-0 zkCli.sh get /hello
The service is still available because its PodDisruptionBudget is respected.

world
cZxid = 0x200000002
ctime = Wed Dec 07 00:08:59 UTC 2016
mZxid = 0x200000002
mtime = Wed Dec 07 00:08:59 UTC 2016
pZxid = 0x200000002
cversion = 0
dataVersion = 0
aclVersion = 0
dataLength = 5
numChildren = 0
Use kubectl uncordon to uncordon the first node.
kubectl uncordon kubernetes-node-pb41
node "kubernetes-node-pb41" uncordoned
zk-1 is rescheduled on this node. Wait until zk-1 is Running and Ready.

zk-1 0/1 Pending 0 12m
zk-1 0/1 ContainerCreating 0 12m
Attempt to drain the node on which zk-2 is scheduled.
node "kubernetes-node-i4c4" already cordoned

DaemonSet: fluentd-cloud-logging-kubernetes-node-i4c4, kube-proxy-kubernetes-node-i4c4;
Ignoring DaemonSet-managed pods: node-problem-detector-v0.1-dyrog
pod "heapster-v1.2.0-2604621511-wht1r" deleted
pod "zk-2" deleted
node "kubernetes-node-i4c4" drained
This time kubectl drain succeeds.
Uncordon the second node to allow zk-2 to be rescheduled.
kubectl uncordon kubernetes-node-ixsl
node "kubernetes-node-ixsl" uncordoned
You can use kubectl drain in conjunction with PodDisruptionBudgets to ensure that your
services remain available during maintenance. If drain is used to cordon nodes and evict pods
prior to taking the node offline for maintenance, services that express a disruption budget will
have that budget respected. You should always allocate additional capacity for critical services
so that their Pods can be immediately rescheduled.
Cleaning up
• Use kubectl uncordon to uncordon all the nodes in your cluster.
• You must delete the persistent storage media for the PersistentVolumes used in this
tutorial. Follow the necessary steps, based on your environment, storage configuration,
and provisioning method, to ensure that all storage is reclaimed.
Services
Connecting Applications with Services
Using Source IP
Explore Termination Behavior for Pods And Their Endpoints
Connecting Applications with Services

The Kubernetes model for connecting containers
Now that you have a continuously running, replicated application you can expose it on a
network.
Kubernetes assumes that pods can communicate with other pods, regardless of which host they
land on. Kubernetes gives every pod its own cluster-private IP address, so you do not need to
explicitly create links between pods or map container ports to host ports. This means that
containers within a Pod can all reach each other's ports on localhost, and all pods in a cluster
can see each other without NAT. The rest of this document elaborates on how you can run
reliable services on such a networking model.
This tutorial uses a simple nginx web server to demonstrate the concept.
Exposing pods to the cluster

We did this in a previous example, but let's do it once again and focus on the networking
perspective. Create an nginx Pod, and note that it has a container port specification:
service/networking/run-my-nginx.yaml
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
name: my-nginx
spec:
selector:
matchLabels:
run: my-nginx
replicas: 2
template:
metadata:
labels:
run: my-nginx
spec:
containers:
- name: my-nginx
image: nginx
ports:
- containerPort: 80
This makes it accessible from any node in your cluster. Check the nodes the Pod is running on:
kubectl apply -f ./run-my-nginx.yaml

kubectl get pods -l run=my-nginx -o wide
NAME READY STATUS RESTARTS AGE IP NODE

my-nginx-3800858182-jr4a2 1/1 Running 0 13s 10.244.3.4 kubernetes-
minion-905m
my-nginx-3800858182-kna2y 1/1 Running 0 13s 10.244.2.5 kubernetes-minion-
ljyd
Check your pods' IPs:
kubectl get pods -l run=my-nginx -o custom-columns=POD_IP:.status.podIPs

POD_IP
[map[ip:10.244.3.4]]
[map[ip:10.244.2.5]]
You should be able to ssh into any node in your cluster and use a tool such as curl to make
queries against both IPs. Note that the containers are not using port 80 on the node, nor are
there any special NAT rules to route traffic to the pod. This means you can run multiple nginx
pods on the same node all using the same containerPort, and access them from any other pod
or node in your cluster using the assigned IP address for the pod. If you want to arrange for a
specific port on the host Node to be forwarded to backing Pods, you can - but the networking
model should mean that you do not need to do so.
You can read more about the Kubernetes Networking Model if you're curious.
Creating a Service
So we have pods running nginx in a flat, cluster wide, address space. In theory, you could talk
to these pods directly, but what happens when a node dies? The pods die with it, and the
ReplicaSet inside the Deployment will create new ones, with different IPs. This is the problem a
Service solves.
A Kubernetes Service is an abstraction which defines a logical set of Pods running somewhere
in your cluster, that all provide the same functionality. When created, each Service is assigned a
unique IP address (also called clusterIP). This address is tied to the lifespan of the Service, and
will not change while the Service is alive. Pods can be configured to talk to the Service, and
know that communication to the Service will be automatically load-balanced out to some pod
that is a member of the Service.
You can create a Service for your 2 nginx replicas with kubectl expose:
kubectl expose deployment/my-nginx

service/my-nginx exposed
This is equivalent to kubectl apply -f the following yaml:
service/networking/nginx-svc.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: my-nginx
labels:
run: my-nginx
spec:
ports:
- port: 80
protocol: TCP
selector:
run: my-nginx
This specification will create a Service which targets TCP port 80 on any Pod with the run: my-
nginx label, and expose it on an abstracted Service port (targetPort: is the port the container
accepts traffic on, port: is the abstracted Service port, which can be any port other pods use to
access the Service). View Service API object to see the list of supported fields in service
definition. Check your Service:
kubectl get svc my-nginx

my-nginx ClusterIP 10.0.162.149 <none> 80/TCP 21s
As mentioned previously, a Service is backed by a group of Pods. These Pods are exposed
through EndpointSlices. The Service's selector will be evaluated continuously and the results
will be POSTed to an EndpointSlice that is connected to the Service using a labels. When a Pod
dies, it is automatically removed from the EndpointSlices that contain it as an endpoint. New
Pods that match the Service's selector will automatically get added to an EndpointSlice for that
Service. Check the endpoints, and note that the IPs are the same as the Pods created in the first
step:
kubectl describe svc my-nginx
Name: my-nginx
Namespace: default
Labels: run=my-nginx
Annotations: <none>
Selector: run=my-nginx
Type: ClusterIP
IP Family Policy: SingleStack
IP Families: IPv4
IP: 10.0.162.149
IPs: 10.0.162.149
Port: <unset> 80/TCP
TargetPort: 80/TCP
Endpoints: 10.244.2.5:80,10.244.3.4:80
Session Affinity: None
Events: <none>
kubectl get endpointslices -l kubernetes.io/service-name=my-nginx
NAME ADDRESSTYPE PORTS ENDPOINTS AGE

my-nginx-7vzhx IPv4 80 10.244.2.5,10.244.3.4 21s
You should now be able to curl the nginx Service on <CLUSTER-IP>:<PORT> from any node in
your cluster. Note that the Service IP is completely virtual, it never hits the wire. If you're
curious about how this works you can read more about the service proxy.
Accessing the Service

Kubernetes supports 2 primary modes of finding a Service - environment variables and DNS.
The former works out of the box while the latter requires the CoreDNS cluster addon.
Note: If the service environment variables are not desired (because possible clashing with
expected program ones, too many variables to process, only using DNS, etc) you can disable
this mode by setting the enableServiceLinks flag to false on the pod spec.
Environment Variables
When a Pod runs on a Node, the kubelet adds a set of environment variables for each active
Service. This introduces an ordering problem. To see why, inspect the environment of your
running nginx Pods (your Pod name will be different):
kubectl exec my-nginx-3800858182-jr4a2 -- printenv | grep SERVICE
KUBERNETES_SERVICE_HOST=10.0.0.1
KUBERNETES_SERVICE_PORT=443
KUBERNETES_SERVICE_PORT_HTTPS=443
Note there's no mention of your Service. This is because you created the replicas before the
Service. Another disadvantage of doing this is that the scheduler might put both Pods on the
same machine, which will take your entire Service down if it dies. We can do this the right way
by killing the 2 Pods and waiting for the Deployment to recreate them. This time the Service
exists before the replicas. This will give you scheduler-level Service spreading of your Pods
(provided all your nodes have equal capacity), as well as the right environment variables:
kubectl scale deployment my-nginx --replicas=0; kubectl scale deployment my-nginx --

replicas=2;
kubectl get pods -l run=my-nginx -o wide

my-nginx-3800858182-e9ihh 1/1 Running 0 5s 10.244.2.7 kubernetes-minion-
ljyd
my-nginx-3800858182-j4rm4 1/1 Running 0 5s 10.244.3.8 kubernetes-
minion-905m
You may notice that the pods have different names, since they are killed and recreated.
kubectl exec my-nginx-3800858182-e9ihh -- printenv | grep SERVICE
KUBERNETES_SERVICE_PORT=443
MY_NGINX_SERVICE_HOST=10.0.162.149
KUBERNETES_SERVICE_HOST=10.0.0.1
MY_NGINX_SERVICE_PORT=80
KUBERNETES_SERVICE_PORT_HTTPS=443
DNS
Kubernetes offers a DNS cluster addon Service that automatically assigns dns names to other
Services. You can check if it's running on your cluster:
kubectl get services kube-dns --namespace=kube-system

kube-dns ClusterIP 10.0.0.10 <none> 53/UDP,53/TCP 8m
The rest of this section will assume you have a Service with a long lived IP (my-nginx), and a
DNS server that has assigned a name to that IP. Here we use the CoreDNS cluster addon
(application name kube-dns), so you can talk to the Service from any pod in your cluster using
standard methods (e.g. gethostbyname()). If CoreDNS isn't running, you can enable it referring
to the CoreDNS README or Installing CoreDNS. Let's run another curl application to test this:
kubectl run curl --image=radial/busyboxplus:curl -i --tty --rm
Waiting for pod default/curl-131556218-9fnch to be running, status is Pending, pod ready: false
Hit enter for command prompt
Then, hit enter and run nslookup my-nginx:
[ root@curl-131556218-9fnch:/ ]$ nslookup my-nginx

Server: 10.0.0.10
Address 1: 10.0.0.10
Name: my-nginx
Address 1: 10.0.162.149
Securing the Service

Till now we have only accessed the nginx server from within the cluster. Before exposing the
Service to the internet, you want to make sure the communication channel is secure. For this,
you will need:
• Self signed certificates for https (unless you already have an identity certificate)
• An nginx server configured to use the certificates
• A secret that makes the certificates accessible to pods
You can acquire all these from the nginx https example. This requires having go and make tools
installed. If you don't want to install those, then follow the manual steps later. In short:
make keys KEY=/tmp/nginx.key CERT=/tmp/nginx.crt

kubectl create secret tls nginxsecret --key /tmp/nginx.key --cert /tmp/nginx.crt
secret/nginxsecret created
kubectl get secrets
NAME TYPE DATA AGE

nginxsecret kubernetes.io/tls 2 1m
And also the configmap:
kubectl create configmap nginxconfigmap --from-file=default.conf
You can find an example for default.conf in the Kubernetes examples project repo.
configmap/nginxconfigmap created
kubectl get configmaps
NAME DATA AGE

nginxconfigmap 1 114s
You can view the details of the nginxconfigmap ConfigMap using the following command:
kubectl describe configmap nginxconfigmap
Name: nginxconfigmap
Namespace: default
Labels: <none>
Annotations: <none>
Data
====
default.conf:
----
server {
listen 80 default_server;
listen [::]:80 default_server ipv6only=on;
listen 443 ssl;
root /usr/share/nginx/html;
index index.html;
server_name localhost;
ssl_certificate /etc/nginx/ssl/tls.crt;
ssl_certificate_key /etc/nginx/ssl/tls.key;
location / {
try_files $uri $uri/ =404;
}
}
BinaryData
====
Events: <none>
Following are the manual steps to follow in case you run into problems running make (on
windows for example):
# Create a public private key pair

openssl req -x509 -nodes -days 365 -newkey rsa:2048 -keyout /d/tmp/nginx.key -out /d/tmp/
nginx.crt -subj "/CN=my-nginx/O=my-nginx"
# Convert the keys to base64 encoding
cat /d/tmp/nginx.crt | base64
cat /d/tmp/nginx.key | base64
Use the output from the previous commands to create a yaml file as follows. The base64
encoded value should all be on a single line.
apiVersion: "v1"
kind: "Secret"
metadata:
name: "nginxsecret"
namespace: "default"
type: kubernetes.io/tls
data:
tls.crt: "LS0tLS1CRUdJTiBDRVJUSUZJQ0FURS0tLS0tCk1JSURIekNDQWdlZ0F3SUJBZ0lKQUp5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"
tls.key: "LS0tLS1CRUdJTiBQUklWQVRFIEtFWS0tLS0tCk1JSUV2UUlCQURBTkJna3Foa2lHOXc
wQkFRRUZBQVNDQktjd2dnU2pBZ0VBQW9JQkFRQ2RhaURFZlZsZHdkbFIKd1V5eFpJWmVE
ZWNuTkFhbWh4d1NpeWF5N1AvOE9ta3NVQ3FCWmNpQ0RzZUh2dGtzbzlCSzhBZi9WemFh
Wm9zcApnZjYzUlZuZmNmVUlRQUN3WHhHVFhHMXJKVEVGSzhRSHA3VkpMcnpLUC9QO
UxZcFlYTE0yYzZ3MmtjZUNmZitrCkU1bEVlNUJVbUNUV09UM3c4S1lPNzFLSWVuNEZJWTZ
MMDUrc2JGQmd1Z0ExUE5JdWFubm9UTWtlZTRuMG4rTDQKb3NCM01ZUDhtQmtRQlAzeE9
JNHl3YjREZXUraURyU2pKSHJzQmlIT05Xc0RadXJFaXVJMmdoY1kxeWIyWHI2UAozVFVOcG
NSbC9pVG9zQngxcHJHclk4V09HZVdPeGxZZmcvbWIvNnBuOUYvNWxlQlkrZStjSTlTMkQ0YX
BKWUdpCkwxeHZzVWtGQWdNQkFBRUNnZ0VBZFhCK0xkbk8ySElOTGo5bWRsb25IUGlHW
WVzZ294RGQwci9hQ1Zkank4dlEKTjIwL3FQWkUxek1yall6Ry9kVGhTMmMwc0QxaTBXSjdw
R1lGb0xtdXlWTjltY0FXUTM5SjM0VHZaU2FFSWZWNgo5TE1jUHhNTmFsNjRLMFRVbUFQZy
tGam9QSFlhUUxLOERLOUtnNXNrSE5pOWNzMlY5ckd6VWlVZWtBL0RBUlBTClI3L2ZjUFBac
DRuRWVBZmI3WTk1R1llb1p5V21SU3VKdlNyblBESGtUdW1vVlVWdkxMRHRzaG9reUxiTWV
tN3oKMmJzVmpwSW1GTHJqbGtmQXlpNHg0WjJrV3YyMFRrdWtsZU1jaVlMbjk4QWxiRi9DS
mRLM3QraTRoMTVlR2ZQegpoTnh3bk9QdlVTaDR2Q0o3c2Q5TmtEUGJvS2JneVVHOXBYamZ
hRGR2UVFLQmdRRFFLM01nUkhkQ1pKNVFqZWFKClFGdXF4cHdnNzhZTjQyL1NwenlUYmtG
cVFoQWtyczJxWGx1MDZBRzhrZzIzQkswaHkzaE9zSGgxcXRVK3NHZVAKOWRERHBsUWV0
ODZsY2FlR3hoc0V0L1R6cEdtNGFKSm5oNzVVaTVGZk9QTDhPTm1FZ3MxMVRhUldhNzZxelR
yMgphRlpjQ2pWV1g0YnRSTHVwSkgrMjZnY0FhUUtCZ1FEQmxVSUUzTnNVOFBBZEYvL25sQ
VB5VWs1T3lDdWc3dmVyClUycXlrdXFzYnBkSi9hODViT1JhM05IVmpVM25uRGpHVHBWaE9J
eXg5TEFrc2RwZEFjVmxvcG9HODhXYk9lMTAKMUdqbnkySmdDK3JVWUZiRGtpUGx1K09IYn
RnOXFYcGJMSHBzUVpsMGhucDBYSFNYVm9CMUliQndnMGEyOFVadApCbFBtWmc2d1BRS0
JnRHVIUVV2SDZHYTNDVUsxNFdmOFhIcFFnMU16M2VvWTBPQm5iSDRvZUZKZmcraEppS
XlnCm9RN3hqWldVR3BIc3AyblRtcHErQWlSNzdyRVhsdlhtOElVU2FsbkNiRGlKY01Pc29RdFBZ
NS9NczJMRm5LQTQKaENmL0pWb2FtZm1nZEN0ZGtFMXNINE9MR2lJVHdEbTRpb0dWZGIw
MllnbzFyb2htNUpLMUI3MkpBb0dBUW01UQpHNDhXOTVhL0w1eSt5dCsyZ3YvUHM2VnBvMj
ZlTzRNQ3lJazJVem9ZWE9IYnNkODJkaC8xT2sybGdHZlI2K3VuCnc1YytZUXRSTHlhQmd3MUt
pbGhFZDBKTWU3cGpUSVpnQWJ0LzVPbnlDak9OVXN2aDJjS2lrQ1Z2dTZsZlBjNkQKckliT2ZI
aHhxV0RZK2Q1TGN1YSt2NzJ0RkxhenJsSlBsRzlOZHhrQ2dZRUF5elIzT3UyMDNRVVV6bUlCR
kwzZAp4Wm5XZ0JLSEo3TnNxcGFWb2RjL0d5aGVycjFDZzE2MmJaSjJDV2RsZkI0VEdtUjZZdm
xTZEFOOFRwUWhFbUtKCnFBLzVzdHdxNWd0WGVLOVJmMWxXK29xNThRNTBxMmk1NVd
UTThoSDZhTjlaMTltZ0FGdE5VdGNqQUx2dFYxdEYKWSs4WFJkSHJaRnBIWll2NWkwVW1Vb
Gc9Ci0tLS0tRU5EIFBSSVZBVEUgS0VZLS0tLS0K"
Now create the secrets using the file:
kubectl apply -f nginxsecrets.yaml

kubectl get secrets
NAME TYPE DATA AGE

nginxsecret kubernetes.io/tls 2 1m
Now modify your nginx replicas to start an https server using the certificate in the secret, and
the Service, to expose both ports (80 and 443):
service/networking/nginx-secure-app.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: my-nginx
labels:
run: my-nginx
spec:
type: NodePort
ports:
- port: 8080
targetPort: 80
protocol: TCP
name: http
- port: 443
protocol: TCP
name: https
selector:
run: my-nginx
---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
name: my-nginx
spec:
selector:
matchLabels:
run: my-nginx
replicas: 1
template:
metadata:
labels:
run: my-nginx
spec:
volumes:
- name: secret-volume
secret:
secretName: nginxsecret
- name: configmap-volume
configMap:
name: nginxconfigmap
containers:
- name: nginxhttps
image: bprashanth/nginxhttps:1.0
ports:
- containerPort: 80
volumeMounts:
- mountPath: /etc/nginx/ssl
name: secret-volume
- mountPath: /etc/nginx/conf.d
name: configmap-volume
Noteworthy points about the nginx-secure-app manifest:
• It contains both Deployment and Service specification in the same file.

• The nginx server serves HTTP traffic on port 80 and HTTPS traffic on 443, and nginx
Service exposes both ports.
• Each container has access to the keys through a volume mounted at /etc/nginx/ssl. This is
set up before the nginx server is started.
kubectl delete deployments,svc my-nginx; kubectl create -f ./nginx-secure-app.yaml
At this point you can reach the nginx server from any node.
kubectl get pods -l run=my-nginx -o custom-columns=POD_IP:.status.podIPs

POD_IP
[map[ip:10.244.3.5]]
node $ curl -k https://10.244.3.5
...
<h1>Welcome to nginx!</h1>
Note how we supplied the -k parameter to curl in the last step, this is because we don't know
anything about the pods running nginx at certificate generation time, so we have to tell curl to
ignore the CName mismatch. By creating a Service we linked the CName used in the certificate
with the actual DNS name used by pods during Service lookup. Let's test this from a pod (the
same secret is being reused for simplicity, the pod only needs nginx.crt to access the Service):
service/networking/curlpod.yaml
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
name: curl-deployment
spec:
selector:
matchLabels:
app: curlpod
replicas: 1
template:
metadata:
labels:
app: curlpod
spec:
volumes:
- name: secret-volume
secret:
secretName: nginxsecret
containers:
- name: curlpod
command:
- sh
- -c
- while true; do sleep 1; done
image: radial/busyboxplus:curl
volumeMounts:
- mountPath: /etc/nginx/ssl
name: secret-volume
kubectl apply -f ./curlpod.yaml

kubectl get pods -l app=curlpod

curl-deployment-1515033274-1410r 1/1 Running 0 1m
kubectl exec curl-deployment-1515033274-1410r -- curl https://my-nginx --cacert /etc/nginx/ssl/

tls.crt
...
<title>Welcome to nginx!</title>
...
Exposing the Service
For some parts of your applications you may want to expose a Service onto an external IP
address. Kubernetes supports two ways of doing this: NodePorts and LoadBalancers. The
Service created in the last section already used NodePort, so your nginx HTTPS replica is ready
to serve traffic on the internet if your node has a public IP.
kubectl get svc my-nginx -o yaml | grep nodePort -C 5

uid: 07191fb3-f61a-11e5-8ae5-42010af00002
spec:
clusterIP: 10.0.162.149
ports:
- name: http
nodePort: 31704
port: 8080
protocol: TCP
targetPort: 80
- name: https
nodePort: 32453
port: 443
protocol: TCP
targetPort: 443
selector:
run: my-nginx
kubectl get nodes -o yaml | grep ExternalIP -C 1

- address: 104.197.41.11
type: ExternalIP
allocatable:
--
- address: 23.251.152.56
type: ExternalIP
allocatable:
...
$ curl https://<EXTERNAL-IP>:<NODE-PORT> -k
...
<h1>Welcome to nginx!</h1>
Let's now recreate the Service to use a cloud load balancer. Change the Type of my-nginx
Service from NodePort to LoadBalancer:
kubectl edit svc my-nginx

kubectl get svc my-nginx

my-nginx LoadBalancer 10.0.162.149 xx.xxx.xxx.xxx 8080:30163/TCP 21s
curl https://<EXTERNAL-IP> -k
...
<title>Welcome to nginx!</title>
The IP address in the EXTERNAL-IP column is the one that is available on the public internet.
The CLUSTER-IP is only available inside your cluster/private cloud network.
Note that on AWS, type LoadBalancer creates an ELB, which uses a (long) hostname, not an IP.
It's too long to fit in the standard kubectl get svc output, in fact, so you'll need to do kubectl
describe service my-nginx to see it. You'll see something like this:
kubectl describe service my-nginx

...
LoadBalancer Ingress: a320587ffd19711e5a37606cf4a74574-1142138393.us-
east-1.elb.amazonaws.com
...
What's next
• Learn more about Using a Service to Access an Application in a Cluster
• Learn more about Connecting a Front End to a Back End Using a Service
• Learn more about Creating an External Load Balancer
Using Source IP
Applications running in a Kubernetes cluster find and communicate with each other, and the
outside world, through the Service abstraction. This document explains what happens to the
source IP of packets sent to different types of Services, and how you can toggle this behavior
according to your needs.
Before you begin

Terminology
This document makes use of the following terms:
NAT
network address translation
Source NAT
replacing the source IP on a packet; in this page, that usually means replacing with the IP
address of a node.
Destination NAT
replacing the destination IP on a packet; in this page, that usually means replacing with
the IP address of a Pod
VIP
a virtual IP address, such as the one assigned to every Service in Kubernetes
kube-proxy
a network daemon that orchestrates Service VIP management on every node
Prerequisites
• Killercoda
The examples use a small nginx webserver that echoes back the source IP of requests it receives
through an HTTP header. You can create it as follows:
kubectl create deployment source-ip-app --image=registry.k8s.io/echoserver:1.4
The output is:
deployment.apps/source-ip-app created
Objectives
• Expose a simple application through various types of Services
• Understand how each Service type handles source IP NAT
• Understand the tradeoffs involved in preserving source IP
Source IP for Services with Type=ClusterIP

Packets sent to ClusterIP from within the cluster are never source NAT'd if you're running
kube-proxy in iptables mode, (the default). You can query the kube-proxy mode by fetching
http://localhost:10249/proxyMode on the node where kube-proxy is running.
kubectl get nodes
NAME STATUS ROLES AGE VERSION

kubernetes-node-6jst Ready <none> 2h v1.13.0
kubernetes-node-cx31 Ready <none> 2h v1.13.0
kubernetes-node-jj1t Ready <none> 2h v1.13.0
Get the proxy mode on one of the nodes (kube-proxy listens on port 10249):
# Run this in a shell on the node you want to query.

curl http://localhost:10249/proxyMode
The output is:
iptables
You can test source IP preservation by creating a Service over the source IP app:
kubectl expose deployment source-ip-app --name=clusterip --port=80 --target-port=8080
The output is:
service/clusterip exposed
kubectl get svc clusterip


clusterip ClusterIP 10.0.170.92 <none> 80/TCP 51s
And hitting the ClusterIP from a pod in the same cluster:
kubectl run busybox -it --image=busybox:1.28 --restart=Never --rm
Waiting for pod default/busybox to be running, status is Pending, pod ready: false
If you don't see a command prompt, try pressing enter.
You can then run a command inside that Pod:
# Run this inside the terminal from "kubectl run"

ip addr
1: lo: <LOOPBACK,UP,LOWER_UP> mtu 65536 qdisc noqueue

link/loopback 00:00:00:00:00:00 brd 00:00:00:00:00:00
inet 127.0.0.1/8 scope host lo
valid_lft forever preferred_lft forever
inet6 ::1/128 scope host
3: eth0: <BROADCAST,MULTICAST,UP,LOWER_UP> mtu 1460 qdisc noqueue
link/ether 0a:58:0a:f4:03:08 brd ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff
inet 10.244.3.8/24 scope global eth0
inet6 fe80::188a:84ff:feb0:26a5/64 scope link
...then use wget to query the local webserver
# Replace "10.0.170.92" with the IPv4 address of the Service named "clusterip"
wget -qO - 10.0.170.92
CLIENT VALUES:
client_address=10.244.3.8
command=GET
...
The client_address is always the client pod's IP address, whether the client pod and server pod
are in the same node or in different nodes.
Source IP for Services with Type=NodePort

Packets sent to Services with Type=NodePort are source NAT'd by default. You can test this by
creating a NodePort Service:
kubectl expose deployment source-ip-app --name=nodeport --port=80 --target-port=8080 --

type=NodePort
The output is:

service/nodeport exposed
NODEPORT=$(kubectl get -o jsonpath="{.spec.ports[0].nodePort}" services nodeport)

NODES=$(kubectl get nodes -o jsonpath='{ $.items[*].status.addresses[?
(@.type=="InternalIP")].address }')
If you're running on a cloud provider, you may need to open up a firewall-rule for the
nodes:nodeport reported above. Now you can try reaching the Service from outside the cluster
through the node port allocated above.
for node in $NODES; do curl -s $node:$NODEPORT | grep -i client_address; done
Note that these are not the correct client IPs, they're cluster internal IPs. This is what happens:
• Client sends packet to node2:nodePort

• node2 replaces the source IP address (SNAT) in the packet with its own IP address
• node2 replaces the destination IP on the packet with the pod IP
• packet is routed to node 1, and then to the endpoint
• the pod's reply is routed back to node2
• the pod's reply is sent back to the client
Visually:
source IP nodeport figure 01
Figure. Source IP Type=NodePort using SNAT
To avoid this, Kubernetes has a feature to preserve the client source IP. If you set
service.spec.externalTrafficPolicy to the value Local, kube-proxy only proxies proxy requests to
local endpoints, and does not forward traffic to other nodes. This approach preserves the
original source IP address. If there are no local endpoints, packets sent to the node are dropped,
so you can rely on the correct source-ip in any packet processing rules you might apply a
packet that make it through to the endpoint.
Set the service.spec.externalTrafficPolicy field as follows:
kubectl patch svc nodeport -p '{"spec":{"externalTrafficPolicy":"Local"}}'
The output is:
service/nodeport patched
Now, re-run the test:
for node in $NODES; do curl --connect-timeout 1 -s $node:$NODEPORT | grep -i

client_address; done

Note that you only got one reply, with the right client IP, from the one node on which the
endpoint pod is running.
This is what happens:
• client sends packet to node2:nodePort, which doesn't have any endpoints

• packet is dropped
• client sends packet to node1:nodePort, which does have endpoints
• node1 routes packet to endpoint with the correct source IP
Visually:
source IP nodeport figure 02
Figure. Source IP Type=NodePort preserves client source IP address
Source IP for Services with Type=LoadBalancer

Packets sent to Services with Type=LoadBalancer are source NAT'd by default, because all
schedulable Kubernetes nodes in the Ready state are eligible for load-balanced traffic. So if
packets arrive at a node without an endpoint, the system proxies it to a node with an endpoint,
replacing the source IP on the packet with the IP of the node (as described in the previous
section).
You can test this by exposing the source-ip-app through a load balancer:
kubectl expose deployment source-ip-app --name=loadbalancer --port=80 --target-port=8080 --

type=LoadBalancer
The output is:
service/loadbalancer exposed
Print out the IP addresses of the Service:
kubectl get svc loadbalancer

loadbalancer LoadBalancer 10.0.65.118 203.0.113.140 80/TCP 5m
Next, send a request to this Service's external-ip:
curl 203.0.113.140
CLIENT VALUES:
...
However, if you're running on Google Kubernetes Engine/GCE, setting the same
service.spec.externalTrafficPolicy field to Local forces nodes without Service endpoints to
remove themselves from the list of nodes eligible for loadbalanced traffic by deliberately failing
health checks.
Visually:
Source IP with externalTrafficPolicy
You can test this by setting the annotation:
kubectl patch svc loadbalancer -p '{"spec":{"externalTrafficPolicy":"Local"}}'
You should immediately see the service.spec.healthCheckNodePort field allocated by

Kubernetes:
kubectl get svc loadbalancer -o yaml | grep -i healthCheckNodePort
healthCheckNodePort: 32122
The service.spec.healthCheckNodePort field points to a port on every node serving the health
check at /healthz. You can test this:
kubectl get pod -o wide -l app=source-ip-app

source-ip-app-826191075-qehz4 1/1 Running 0 20h 10.180.1.136 kubernetes-
node-6jst
Use curl to fetch the /healthz endpoint on various nodes:
# Run this locally on a node you choose

curl localhost:32122/healthz
1 Service Endpoints found
On a different node you might get a different result:
# Run this locally on a node you choose

curl localhost:32122/healthz
No Service Endpoints Found
A controller running on the control plane is responsible for allocating the cloud load balancer.
The same controller also allocates HTTP health checks pointing to this port/path on each node.
Wait about 10 seconds for the 2 nodes without endpoints to fail health checks, then use curl to
query the IPv4 address of the load balancer:
curl 203.0.113.140

CLIENT VALUES:
...
Cross-platform support
Only some cloud providers offer support for source IP preservation through Services with
Type=LoadBalancer. The cloud provider you're running on might fulfill the request for a
loadbalancer in a few different ways:
1. With a proxy that terminates the client connection and opens a new connection to your
nodes/endpoints. In such cases the source IP will always be that of the cloud LB, not that
of the client.
2. With a packet forwarder, such that requests from the client sent to the loadbalancer VIP
end up at the node with the source IP of the client, not an intermediate proxy.
Load balancers in the first category must use an agreed upon protocol between the loadbalancer
and backend to communicate the true client IP such as the HTTP Forwarded or X-
FORWARDED-FOR headers, or the proxy protocol. Load balancers in the second category can
leverage the feature described above by creating an HTTP health check pointing at the port
stored in the service.spec.healthCheckNodePort field on the Service.
Cleaning up
Delete the Services:
kubectl delete svc -l app=source-ip-app
Delete the Deployment, ReplicaSet and Pod:
kubectl delete deployment source-ip-app
What's next
• Learn more about connecting applications via services
• Read how to Create an External Load Balancer
Explore Termination Behavior for Pods

And Their Endpoints
Once you connected your Application with Service following steps like those outlined in
Connecting Applications with Services, you have a continuously running, replicated
application, that is exposed on a network. This tutorial helps you look at the termination flow
for Pods and to explore ways to implement graceful connection draining.
Termination process for Pods and their endpoints
There are often cases when you need to terminate a Pod - be it for upgrade or scale down. In
order to improve application availability, it may be important to implement a proper active
connections draining.
This tutorial explains the flow of Pod termination in connection with the corresponding
endpoint state and removal by using a simple nginx web server to demonstrate the concept.
Example flow with endpoint termination

The following is the example of the flow described in the Termination of Pods document.
Let's say you have a Deployment containing of a single nginx replica (just for demonstration
purposes) and a Service:
service/pod-with-graceful-termination.yaml
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
name: nginx-deployment
labels:
app: nginx
spec:
replicas: 1
selector:
matchLabels:
app: nginx
template:
metadata:
labels:
app: nginx
spec:
terminationGracePeriodSeconds: 120 # extra long grace period
containers:
- name: nginx
image: nginx:latest
ports:
- containerPort: 80
lifecycle:
preStop:
exec:
# Real life termination may take any time up to terminationGracePeriodSeconds.
# In this example - just hang around for at least the duration of
terminationGracePeriodSeconds,
# at 120 seconds container will be forcibly terminated.
# Note, all this time nginx will keep processing requests.
command: [
"/bin/sh", "-c", "sleep 180"
]
service/explore-graceful-termination-nginx.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
name: nginx-service
spec:
selector:
app: nginx
ports:
- protocol: TCP
port: 80
targetPort: 80
Now create the Deployment Pod and Service using the above files:
kubectl apply -f pod-with-graceful-termination.yaml

kubectl apply -f explore-graceful-termination-nginx.yaml
Once the Pod and Service are running, you can get the name of any associated EndpointSlices:
kubectl get endpointslice
NAME ADDRESSTYPE PORTS ENDPOINTS AGE

nginx-service-6tjbr IPv4 80 10.12.1.199,10.12.1.201 22m
You can see its status, and validate that there is one endpoint registered:
kubectl get endpointslices -o json -l kubernetes.io/service-name=nginx-service
{
"addressType": "IPv4",
"apiVersion": "discovery.k8s.io/v1",
"endpoints": [
{
"addresses": [
"10.12.1.201"
],
"conditions": {
"ready": true,
"serving": true,
"terminating": false
Now let's terminate the Pod and validate that the Pod is being terminated respecting the
graceful termination period configuration:
kubectl delete pod nginx-deployment-7768647bf9-b4b9s
All pods:
kubectl get pods


nginx-deployment-7768647bf9-b4b9s 1/1 Terminating 0 4m1s
nginx-deployment-7768647bf9-rkxlw 1/1 Running 0 8s
You can see that the new pod got scheduled.
While the new endpoint is being created for the new Pod, the old endpoint is still around in the
terminating state:
kubectl get endpointslice -o json nginx-service-6tjbr
{
"addressType": "IPv4",
"apiVersion": "discovery.k8s.io/v1",
"endpoints": [
{
"addresses": [
"10.12.1.201"
],
"conditions": {
"ready": false,
"serving": true,
"terminating": true
},
"nodeName": "gke-main-default-pool-dca1511c-d17b",
"targetRef": {
"kind": "Pod",
"name": "nginx-deployment-7768647bf9-b4b9s",
"namespace": "default",
"uid": "66fa831c-7eb2-407f-bd2c-f96dfe841478"
},
"zone": "us-central1-c"
},
{
"addresses": [
"10.12.1.202"
],
"conditions": {
"ready": true,
"serving": true,
"terminating": false
},
"nodeName": "gke-main-default-pool-dca1511c-d17b",
"targetRef": {
"kind": "Pod",
"name": "nginx-deployment-7768647bf9-rkxlw",
"namespace": "default",
"uid": "722b1cbe-dcd7-4ed4-8928-4a4d0e2bbe35"
},
"zone": "us-central1-c"
This allows applications to communicate their state during termination and clients (such as load
balancers) to implement a connections draining functionality. These clients may detect
terminating endpoints and implement a special logic for them.
In Kubernetes, endpoints that are terminating always have their ready status set as as false. This
needs to happen for backward compatibility, so existing load balancers will not use it for
regular traffic. If traffic draining on terminating pod is needed, the actual readiness can be
checked as a condition serving.
When Pod is deleted, the old endpoint will also be deleted.
What's next
• Learn how to Connect Applications with Services
• Learn more about Using a Service to Access an Application in a Cluster
• Learn more about Connecting a Front End to a Back End Using a Service
• Learn more about Creating an External Load Balancer

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This section of the Kubernetes documentation contains tutorials.

A tutorial shows how to

Before you begin

Create a minikube cluster

Open the Dashboard

Open a new terminal, and run:

# Start a new terminal, and leave this running.

Open a new terminal, and run:

# Start a new terminal, and leave this running.

# Run a test container image that includes a webserver

2. View the Deployment:

kubectl get deployments

The output is similar to:

NAME READY UP-TO-DATE AVAILABLE AGE

3. View the Pod:

kubectl get pods

The output is similar to:

NAME READY STATUS RESTARTS AGE

4. View cluster events:

kubectl get events

5. View the kubectl configuration:

kubectl config view

The output is similar to:

I0911 09:19:26.677397 1 log.go:195] Started HTTP server on port 8080

kubectl expose deployment hello-node --type=LoadBalancer --port=8080

2. View the Service you created:

kubectl get services

The output is similar to:

NAME TYPE CLUSTER-IP EXTERNAL-IP PORT(S) AGE

On cloud providers that support load balancers, an external IP address would be

3. Run the following command:

minikube service hello-node

1. List the currently supported addons:

The output is similar to:

2. Enable an addon, for example, metrics-server:

minikube addons enable metrics-server

The output is similar to:

The 'metrics-server' addon is enabled

kubectl get pod,svc -n kube-system

The output is similar to:

NAME READY STATUS RESTARTS AGE

NAME TYPE CLUSTER-IP EXTERNAL-IP PORT(S) AGE

minikube addons disable metrics-server

The output is similar to:

metrics-server was successfully disabled

kubectl delete service hello-node

Stop the Minikube cluster

Optionally, delete the Minikube VM:

Learn Kubernetes Basics

Using the tutorials, you can learn to:

• Deploy a containerized application on a cluster.

What can Kubernetes do for you?

Kubernetes Basics Modules

1. Create a Kubernetes cluster

3. Explore your app

4. Expose your app publicly

5. Scale up your app

6. Update your app

Using Minikube to Create a Cluster