Magic (supernatural)

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The Magician, an illustration from the Rider–Waite tarot

deck first published in 1910

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Magic

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Background

 History of magic
  Magic and religion
 Psychological theories of magic

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Forms
 Apotropaic magic
 Ceremonial magic
 Chaos magic
 Sorcery (goetia)
 Sympathetic magic
 Black magic
 Gray magic
 White magic
 Shamanism
 Theurgy
 Thaumaturgy
 Divination
 Evocation
 Miracle
 Natural magic
 Necromancy
 Sex magic
 Sigils
 Witchcraft

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Religion

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 Incantation
 Magical formula
 Magical organization
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 Western esotericism

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Paranormal

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 Demonic possession
 Demonology
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 Exorcism
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 Forteana
 Fortune-telling
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 Mediumship
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  Preternatural
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Esotericism
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Key concepts

 Western esotericism
 Eastern esotericism
 Mysticism
 Gnosis
 Correspondences
 Magic
 Astrology
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 Invocation
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 Egregore
 Propitiation
 Sacrifice
 Exorcism

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 Philadelphian Society
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Magic is an ancient practice rooted in rituals, spiritual divinations, and/or

cultural lineage—with an intention to invoke, manipulate, or otherwise
manifest supernatural forces, beings, or entities in the natural world.[1] It is a categorical
yet often ambiguous term which has been used to refer to a wide variety of beliefs and
practices, frequently considered separate from both religion and science.[2]
Connotations have varied from positive to negative at times throughout history,
[3]
Within Western culture, magic has been linked to ideas of the Other,[4] foreignness,
[5]
and primitivism;[6] indicating that it is "a powerful marker of cultural difference"[7] and
likewise, a non-modern phenomenon.[8] During the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, Western intellectuals perceived the practice of magic to be a sign of a
primitive mentality and also commonly attributed it to marginalised groups of people. [7]
Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), a British occultist, defined "magick" as "the Science and
Art of causing Change to occur in conformity with Will",[9] adding a 'k' to distinguish
ceremonial or ritual magic from stage magic.[10] In modern occultism
and neopagan religions, many self-described magicians and witches regularly practice
ritual magic.[11] This view has been incorporated into chaos magic and the new religious
movements of Thelema and Wicca.
Etymology[edit]

One of the earliest surviving accounts of the Persian mágoi was

provided by the Greek historian Herodotus.
The English words magic, mage and magician come from the Latin term magus,
through the Greek μάγος, which is from the Old Persian maguš. (𐎶𐎦𐎢𐏁|𐎶𐎦𐎢𐏁,
magician).[12] The Old Persian magu- is derived from the Proto-Indo-European megʰ-
*magh (be able). The Persian term may have led to the Old Sinitic *Mγag (mage
or shaman).[13] The Old Persian form seems to have permeated ancient Semitic
languages as the Talmudic Hebrew magosh, the Aramaic amgusha (magician), and
the Chaldean maghdim (wisdom and philosophy); from the first century BCE
onwards, Syrian magusai gained notoriety as magicians and soothsayers.[14]
During the late-sixth and early-fifth centuries BCE, the term goetia found its way
into ancient Greek, where it was used with negative connotations to apply to rites that
were regarded as fraudulent, unconventional, and dangerous.[15] in particular they
dedicate themselves to the evocation and invocation of daimons (lesser divinities or
spirits) to control and acquire powers. This concept remained pervasive throughout the
Hellenistic period, when Hellenistic authors categorised a diverse range of practices—
such as enchantment, witchcraft, incantations, divination, necromancy, and astrology—
under the label "magic".[16]
The Latin language adopted this meaning of the term in the first century BCE. Via Latin,
the concept became incorporated into Christian theology during the first century
CE. Early Christians associated magic with demons, and thus regarded it as against
Christian religion. In early modern Europe, Protestants often claimed that Roman
Catholicism was magic rather than religion, and as Christian Europeans
began colonizing other parts of the world in the sixteenth century, they labelled the non-
Christian beliefs they encountered as magical. In that same period,
Italian humanists reinterpreted the term in a positive sense to express the idea
of natural magic. Both negative and positive understandings of the term recurred in
Western culture over the following centuries.[citation needed]
Since the nineteenth century, academics in various disciplines have employed the term
magic but have defined it in different ways and used it in reference to different things.
One approach, associated with the anthropologists Edward Tylor (1832–1917)
and James G. Frazer (1854–1941), uses the term to describe beliefs in hidden
sympathies between objects that allow one to influence the other. Defined in this way,
magic is portrayed as the opposite to science. An alternative approach, associated with
the sociologist Marcel Mauss (1872–1950) and his uncle Émile Durkheim (1858–1917),
employs the term to describe private rites and ceremonies and contrasts it with religion,
which it defines as a communal and organised activity. By the 1990s many scholars
were rejecting the term's utility for scholarship. They argued that the label drew arbitrary
lines between similar beliefs and practices that were alternatively considered religious,
and that it constituted ethnocentric to apply the connotations of magic—rooted in
Western and Christian history—to other cultures.[citation needed]
Branches or types[edit]
White, gray and black[edit]
Main articles: White magic, Gray magic, and Black magic
Historian Owen Davies says the term "white witch" was rarely used before the 20th
century.[17] White magic is understood as the use of magic for selfless or helpful
purposes, while black magic was used for selfish, harmful or evil purposes.[18] Black
magic is the malicious counterpart of the benevolent white magic. There is no
consensus as to what constitutes white, gray or black magic, as Phil Hine says, "like
many other aspects of occultism, what is termed to be 'black magic' depends very much
on who is doing the defining."[19] Gray magic, also called "neutral magic", is magic that is
not performed for specifically benevolent reasons, but is also not focused towards
completely hostile practices.[citation needed]
High and low[edit]
Historians and anthropologists have distinguished between practitioners who engage in
high magic, and those who engage in low magic.[20] High magic, also known
as theurgy and ceremonial or ritual magic,[21] is more complex, involving lengthy and
detailed rituals as well as sophisticated, sometimes expensive, paraphernalia.[20] Low
magic and natural magic[21] are associated with peasants and folklore[22] with simpler
rituals such as brief, spoken spells.[20] Low magic is also closely associated
with sorcery and witchcraft.[23] Anthropologist Susan Greenwood writes that "Since the
Renaissance, high magic has been concerned with drawing down forces and energies
from heaven" and achieving unity with divinity.[24] High magic is usually performed
indoors while witchcraft is often performed outdoors.[25]
History[edit]
Main article: History of magic
Mesopotamia[edit]
See also: Mesopotamian divination, Enmerkar and En-suhgir-ana, Maqlû, and Zisurrû
 Bronze protection plaque from the Neo-Assyrian
era showing the demon Lamashtu
Magic was invoked in many kinds of rituals and medical formulae, and to counteract evil
omens. Defensive or legitimate magic in Mesopotamia (asiputu or masmassutu in the
Akkadian language) were incantations and ritual practices intended to alter specific
realities. The ancient Mesopotamians believed that magic was the only viable defense
against demons, ghosts, and evil sorcerers.[26] To defend themselves against the spirits
of those they had wronged, they would leave offerings known as kispu in the person's
tomb in hope of appeasing them.[27] If that failed, they also sometimes took a figurine of
the deceased and buried it in the ground, demanding for the gods to eradicate the spirit,
or force it to leave the person alone.[28]
The ancient Mesopotamians also used magic intending to protect themselves from evil
sorcerers who might place curses on them.[29] Black magic as a category did not exist in
ancient Mesopotamia, and a person legitimately using magic to defend themselves
against illegitimate magic would use exactly the same techniques.[29] The only major
difference was that curses were enacted in secret;[29] whereas a defense against sorcery
was conducted in the open, in front of an audience if possible.[29] One ritual to punish a
sorcerer was known as Maqlû, or "The Burning".[29] The person viewed as being afflicted
by witchcraft would create an effigy of the sorcerer and put it on trial at night. [29] Then,
once the nature of the sorcerer's crimes had been determined, the person would burn
the effigy and thereby break the sorcerer's power over them.[29]
The ancient Mesopotamians also performed magical rituals to purify themselves of sins
committed unknowingly.[29] One such ritual was known as the Šurpu, or "Burning",[30] in
which the caster of the spell would transfer the guilt for all their misdeeds onto various
objects such as a strip of dates, an onion, and a tuft of wool.[30] The person would then
burn the objects and thereby purify themself of all sins that they might have unknowingly
committed.[30] A whole genre of love spells existed.[31] Such spells were believed to cause
a person to fall in love with another person, restore love which had faded, or cause a
male sexual partner to be able to sustain an erection when he had previously been
unable.[31] Other spells were used to reconcile a man with his patron deity or to reconcile
a wife with a husband who had been neglecting her.[32]
The ancient Mesopotamians made no distinction between rational science and magic.[33]
[34][35]
When a person became ill, doctors would prescribe both magical formulas to be
recited as well as medicinal treatments.[34][35][36] Most magical rituals were intended to be
performed by an āšipu, an expert in the magical arts.[34][35][36][37] The profession was
generally passed down from generation to generation[36] and was held in extremely high
regard and often served as advisors to kings and great leaders.[38] An āšipu probably
served not only as a magician, but also as a physician, a priest, a scribe, and a scholar.
[38]

The Sumerian god Enki, who was later syncretized with the East Semitic god Ea, was
closely associated with magic and incantations;[39] he was the patron god of the bārȗ and
the ašipū and was widely regarded as the ultimate source of all arcane knowledge.[40][41]
[42]
The ancient Mesopotamians also believed in omens, which could come when
solicited or unsolicited.[43] Regardless of how they came, omens were always taken with
the utmost seriousness.[43]
Incantation bowls[edit]
Main article: Incantation bowl
See also: Jewish magical papyri

Mandaic-language incantation bowl

A common set of shared assumptions about the causes of evil and how to avert it are
found in a form of early protective magic called incantation bowl or magic bowls. The
bowls were produced in the Middle East, particularly in Upper Mesopotamia and Syria,
what is now Iraq and Iran, and fairly popular during the sixth to eighth centuries.[44]
[45]
The bowls were buried face down and were meant to capture demons. They were
commonly placed under the threshold, courtyards, in the corner of the homes of the
recently deceased and in cemeteries.[46] A subcategory of incantation bowls are those
used in Jewish magical practice. Aramaic incantation bowls are an important source of
knowledge about Jewish magical practices.[47][48][49][50][51]
Egypt[edit]
 Ancient Egyptian Eye of Horus amulet
In ancient Egypt (Kemet in the Egyptian language), Magic (personified as the god heka)
was an integral part of religion and culture which is known to us through a substantial
corpus of texts which are products of the Egyptian tradition.[52]
While the category magic has been contentious for modern Egyptology, there is clear
support for its applicability from ancient terminology.[53] The Coptic term hik is the
descendant of the pharaonic term heka, which, unlike its Coptic counterpart, had no
connotation of impiety or illegality, and is attested from the Old Kingdom through to the
Roman era.[53] heka was considered morally neutral and was applied to the practices and
beliefs of both foreigners and Egyptians alike.[54] The Instructions for Merikare informs us
that heka was a beneficence gifted by the creator to humanity "... in order to be
weapons to ward off the blow of events".[55]
Magic was practiced by both the literate priestly hierarchy and by illiterate farmers and
herdsmen, and the principle of heka underlay all ritual activity, both in the temples and
in private settings.[56]
The main principle of heka is centered on the power of words to bring things into being.
[57]: 54
Karenga explains the pivotal power of words and their vital ontological role as the
primary tool used by the creator to bring the manifest world into being.[58] Because
humans were understood to share a divine nature with the gods, snnw ntr (images of
the god), the same power to use words creatively that the gods have is shared by
humans.[59]
Book of the Dead[edit]
Main article: Book of the Dead
 Illustration from the Book of the
Dead of Hunefer showing the Opening of the Mouth ceremony being performed before
the tomb
The interior walls of the pyramid of Unas, the final pharaoh of the Egyptian Fifth
Dynasty, are covered in hundreds of magical spells and inscriptions, running from floor
to ceiling in vertical columns.[57]: 54 These inscriptions are known as the Pyramid Texts[57]:
54
and they contain spells needed by the pharaoh in order to survive in the Afterlife.[57]:
54
The Pyramid Texts were strictly for royalty only;[57]: 56 the spells were kept secret from
commoners and were written only inside royal tombs.[57]: 56 During the chaos and unrest of
the First Intermediate Period, however, tomb robbers broke into the pyramids and saw
the magical inscriptions.[57]: 56 Commoners began learning the spells and, by the beginning
of the Middle Kingdom, commoners began inscribing similar writings on the sides of
their own coffins, hoping that doing so would ensure their own survival in the afterlife. [57]:
56
These writings are known as the Coffin Texts.[57]: 56
After a person died, his or her corpse would be mummified and wrapped in linen
bandages to ensure that the deceased's body would survive for as long as
possible[60] because the Egyptians believed that a person's soul could only survive in the
afterlife for as long as his or her physical body survived here on earth.[60] The last
ceremony before a person's body was sealed away inside the tomb was known as
the Opening of the Mouth.[60] In this ritual, the priests would touch various magical
instruments to various parts of the deceased's body, thereby giving the deceased the
ability to see, hear, taste, and smell in the afterlife.[60]
Amulets[edit]
Main article: Amulet
The use of amulets, (meket) was widespread among both living and dead ancient
Egyptians.[61][57]: 66 They were used for protection and as a means of "...reaffirming the
fundamental fairness of the universe".[62] The oldest amulets found are from the
predynastic Badarian Period, and they persisted through to Roman times.[63]
Judea[edit]
Main article: Witchcraft in the Middle East
In the Mosaic Law, practices such as witchcraft (Heb. ‫)ְק ָס ִ֔מ ים‬, being a soothsayer (‫)ְמ עֹוֵ֥נן‬
or a sorcerer (‫ )ּוְמ ַכֵּֽׁשף‬or one who conjures spells (‫ )ְוֹחֵ֖ב ר ָ֑ח ֶבר‬or one who calls up the
dead (‫ )ְוֹדֵ֖ר ׁש ֶא ל־ַה ֵּמ ִֽתים‬are specifically forbidden as abominations to the Lord.[64]
Halakha (Jewish religious law) forbids divination and other forms of soothsaying, and
the Talmud lists many persistent yet condemned divining practices.[65] Practical
Kabbalah in historical Judaism, is a branch of the Jewish mystical tradition that
concerns the use of magic. It was considered permitted white magic by its practitioners,
reserved for the elite, who could separate its spiritual source from qlippothic realms of
evil if performed under circumstances that were holy (Q-D-Š) and pure ( ‫טומאה‬
‫וטהרה‬, tvmh vthrh[66]). The concern of overstepping Judaism's strong prohibitions of
impure magic ensured it remained a minor tradition in Jewish history. Its teachings
include the use of Divine and angelic names for amulets and incantations.[67] These
magical practices of Judaic folk religion which became part of practical Kabbalah date
from Talmudic times.[67] The Talmud mentions the use of charms for healing, and a wide
range of magical cures were sanctioned by rabbis. It was ruled that any practice actually
producing a cure was not to be regarded superstitiously and there has been the
widespread practice of medicinal amulets, and folk remedies (segullot) in Jewish
societies across time and geography.[68]
Although magic was forbidden by Levitical law in the Hebrew Bible, it was widely
practised in the late Second Temple period, and particularly well documented in the
period following the destruction of the temple into the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries CE. [69][70]
[71]

Asia[edit]
Further information: Asian witchcraft
China[edit]
Main article: Chinese shamanism
Chinese shamanism, alternatively called Wuism (Chinese: 巫教; pinyin: wū
jiào; lit. 'wu religion', 'shamanism', 'witchcraft'; alternatively 巫觋宗教 wū xí zōngjiào),
refers to the shamanic religious tradition of China.[72][73] Its features are especially
connected to the ancient Neolithic cultures such as the Hongshan culture.[74] Chinese
shamanic traditions are intrinsic to Chinese folk religion.[75] Various ritual traditions are
rooted in original Chinese shamanism: contemporary Chinese ritual masters are
sometimes identified as wu by outsiders,[76] though most orders do not self-identify as
such.
Also Taoism has some of its origins from Chinese shamanism:[72][77] it developed around
the pursuit of long life (shou 壽/寿), or the status of a xian (仙, "mountain man", "holy
man").[72] Taoism in ancient times until the modern day has used rituals, mantras,
and amulets with godly or supernatural powers. Taoist worldviews were thought of as
magical or alchemical.[78]
Greco-Roman world[edit]
 Hecate, the ancient Greek goddess of magic
Main articles: Magic in the Greco-Roman world and Sorcery (goetia)
During the late sixth and early fifth centuries BCE, the Persian maguš was Graecicized
and introduced into the ancient Greek language as μάγος and μαγεία.[15] In doing so it
transformed meaning, gaining negative connotations, with the magos being regarded as
a charlatan whose ritual practices were fraudulent, strange, unconventional, and
dangerous.[15] As noted by Davies, for the ancient Greeks—and subsequently for the
ancient Romans—"magic was not distinct from religion but rather an unwelcome,
improper expression of it—the religion of the other".[79] The historian Richard Gordon
suggested that for the ancient Greeks, being accused of practicing magic was "a form of
insult".[80]
This change in meaning was influenced by the military conflicts that the Greek city-
states were then engaged in against the Persian Empire.[15] In this context, the term
makes appearances in such surviving text as Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, Hippocrates' De
morbo sacro, and Gorgias' Encomium of Helen.[15] In Sophocles' play, for example, the
character Oedipus derogatorily refers to the seer Tiresius as a magos—in this context
meaning something akin to quack or charlatan—reflecting how this epithet was no
longer reserved only for Persians.[81]
In the first century BCE, the Greek concept of the magos was adopted into Latin and
used by a number of ancient Roman writers as magus and magia.[15] The earliest known
Latin use of the term was in Virgil's Eclogue, written around 40 BCE, which makes
reference to magicis... sacris (magic rites).[82] The Romans already had other terms for
the negative use of supernatural powers, such as veneficus and saga.[82] The Roman
use of the term was similar to that of the Greeks, but placed greater emphasis on the
judicial application of it.[15] Within the Roman Empire, laws would be introduced
criminalising things regarded as magic.[83]
In ancient Roman society, magic was associated with societies to the east of the
empire; the first century CE writer Pliny the Elder for instance claimed that magic had
been created by the Iranian philosopher Zoroaster, and that it had then been brought
west into Greece by the magician Osthanes, who accompanied the military campaigns
of the Persian King Xerxes.[84]
Ancient Greek scholarship of the 20th century, almost certainly influenced by
Christianising preconceptions of the meanings of magic and religion, and the wish to
establish Greek culture as the foundation of Western rationality, developed a theory of
ancient Greek magic as primitive and insignificant, and thereby essentially separate
from Homeric, communal (polis) religion. Since the last decade of the century, however,
recognising the ubiquity and respectability of acts such as katadesmoi (binding spells),
described as magic by modern and ancient observers alike, scholars have been
compelled to abandon this viewpoint.[85]: 90–95 The Greek word mageuo (practice magic)
itself derives from the word Magos, originally simply the Greek name for a Persian
tribe known for practicing religion.[86] Non-civic mystery cults have been similarly re-
evaluated:[85]: 97–98
the choices which lay outside the range of cults did not just add additional options to the
civic menu, but ... sometimes incorporated critiques of the civic cults and Panhellenic
myths or were genuine alternatives to them.
— Simon Price, Religions of the Ancient Greeks (1999)[87]
Katadesmoi (Latin: defixiones), curses inscribed on wax or lead tablets and buried
underground, were frequently executed by all strata of Greek society, sometimes to
protect the entire polis.[85]: 95–96 Communal curses carried out in public declined after the
Greek classical period, but private curses remained common throughout antiquity.
[88]
They were distinguished as magical by their individualistic, instrumental and sinister
qualities.[85]: 96 These qualities, and their perceived deviation from inherently mutable
cultural constructs of normality, most clearly delineate ancient magic from the religious
rituals of which they form a part.[85]: 102–103
A large number of magical papyri, in Greek, Coptic, and Demotic, have been recovered
and translated.[89] They contain early instances of:

 the use of magic words said to have the power to command spirits;[90]
 the use of mysterious symbols or sigils which are thought to be useful when
invoking or evoking spirits.[91]
The practice of magic was banned in the late Roman world, and the Codex
Theodosianus (438 AD) states:[92]
If any wizard therefore or person imbued with magical contamination who is called by
custom of the people a magician...should be apprehended in my retinue, or in that of the
Caesar, he shall not escape punishment and torture by the protection of his rank.

Middle Ages[edit]
Part of a series on

Hermeticism
Hermes Trismegistus
Hermetic writings
Further information: Medieval European magic and Sorcery (goetia)
Magic practices such as divination, interpretation of omens, sorcery, and use of charms
had been specifically forbidden in Mosaic Law [93] and condemned in Biblical histories of
the kings.[94] Many of these practices were spoken against in the New Testament as well.
[95][96]

Some commentators say that in the first century CE, early Christian authors absorbed
the Greco-Roman concept of magic and incorporated it into their developing Christian
theology,[83]and that these Christians retained the already implied Greco-Roman negative
stereotypes of the term and extented them by incorporating conceptual patterns
borrowed from Jewish thought, in particular the opposition of magic and miracle.[83] Some
early Christian authors followed the Greek-Roman thinking by ascribing the origin of
magic to the human realm, mainly to Zoroaster and Osthanes. The Christian view was
that magic was a product of the Babylonians, Persians, or Egyptians.[97] The Christians
shared with earlier classical culture the idea that magic was something distinct from
proper religion, although drew their distinction between the two in different ways. [98]

A 17th-century depiction of the medieval writer Isidore of

Seville, who provided a list of activities he regarded as magical
For early Christian writers like Augustine of Hippo, magic did not merely constitute
fraudulent and unsanctioned ritual practices, but was the very opposite of religion
because it relied upon cooperation from demons, the henchmen of Satan.[83] In this,
Christian ideas of magic were closely linked to the Christian category of paganism,
 and both magic and paganism were regarded as belonging under the broader
[99]

category of superstitio (superstition), another term borrowed from pre-Christian Roman

culture.[98] This Christian emphasis on the inherent immorality and wrongness of magic
as something conflicting with good religion was far starker than the approach in the
other large monotheistic religions of the period, Judaism and Islam.[100] For instance,
while Christians regarded demons as inherently evil, the jinn—comparable entities
in Islamic mythology—were perceived as more ambivalent figures by Muslims.[100]
The model of the magician in Christian thought was provided by Simon Magus, (Simon
the Magician), a figure who opposed Saint Peter in both the Acts of the Apostles and
the apocryphal yet influential Acts of Peter.[101] The historian Michael D. Bailey stated that
in medieval Europe, magic was a "relatively broad and encompassing category".
[102]
Christian theologians believed that there were multiple different forms of magic, the
majority of which were types of divination, for instance, Isidore of Seville produced a
catalogue of things he regarded as magic in which he listed divination by the four
elements i.e. geomancy, hydromancy, aeromancy, and pyromancy, as well as by
observation of natural phenomena e.g. the flight of birds and astrology. He also
mentioned enchantment and ligatures (the medical use of magical objects bound to the
patient) as being magical.[103] Medieval Europe also saw magic come to be associated
with the Old Testament figure of Solomon; various grimoires, or books outlining magical
practices, were written that claimed to have been written by Solomon, most notably
the Key of Solomon.[104]
In early medieval Europe, magia was a term of condemnation.[105] In medieval Europe,
Christians often suspected Muslims and Jews of engaging in magical practices;[106] in
certain cases, these perceived magical rites—including the alleged Jewish sacrifice of
Christian children—resulted in Christians massacring these religious minorities.
[107]
Christian groups often also accused other, rival Christian groups such as
the Hussites—which they regarded as heretical—of engaging in magical activities.[101]
[108]
Medieval Europe also saw the term maleficium applied to forms of magic that were
conducted with the intention of causing harm.[102] The later Middle Ages saw words for
these practitioners of harmful magical acts appear in various European
languages: sorcière in French, Hexe in German, strega in Italian, and bruja in Spanish.
[109]
The English term for malevolent practitioners of magic, witch, derived from the
earlier Old English term wicce.[109]
Ars Magica or magic is a major component and supporting contribution to the belief and
practice of spiritual, and in many cases, physical healing throughout the Middle Ages.
Emanating from many modern interpretations lies a trail of misconceptions about magic,
one of the largest revolving around wickedness or the existence of nefarious beings
who practice it. These misinterpretations stem from numerous acts or rituals that have
been performed throughout antiquity, and due to their exoticism from the commoner's
perspective, the rituals invoked uneasiness and an even stronger sense of dismissal.[110]
[111]
 An excerpt from Sefer Raziel HaMalakh, featuring
various magical sigils (‫ סגולות‬segulot in Hebrew)
In the Medieval Jewish view, the separation of the mystical and magical elements of
Kabbalah, dividing it into speculative theological Kabbalah (Kabbalah Iyyunit) with its
meditative traditions, and theurgic practical Kabbalah (Kabbalah Ma'asit), had occurred
by the beginning of the 14th century.[112]
One societal force in the Middle Ages more powerful than the singular commoner, the
Christian Church, rejected magic as a whole because it was viewed as a means of
tampering with the natural world in a supernatural manner associated with
the biblical verses of Deuteronomy 18:9–12.[further explanation needed] Despite the many negative
connotations which surround the term magic, there exist many elements that are seen
in a divine or holy light.[113]
The divine right of kings in England was thought to be able to give them "sacred magic"
power to heal thousands of their subjects from sicknesses.[114]
Diversified instruments or rituals used in medieval magic include, but are not limited to:
various amulets, talismans, potions, as well as specific chants, dances, and prayers.
Along with these rituals are the adversely imbued notions of demonic participation which
influence of them. The idea that magic was devised, taught, and worked by demons
would have seemed reasonable to anyone who read the Greek magical papyri or
the Sefer-ha-Razim and found that healing magic appeared alongside rituals for killing
people, gaining wealth, or personal advantage, and coercing women into sexual
submission.[115] Archaeology is contributing to a fuller understanding of ritual practices
performed in the home, on the body and in monastic and church settings.[116][117]
The Islamic reaction towards magic did not condemn magic in general and
distinguished between magic which can heal sickness and possession, and sorcery.
The former is therefore a special gift from God, while the latter is achieved through help
of Jinn and devils. Ibn al-Nadim held that exorcists gain their power by their obedience
to God, while sorcerers please the devils by acts of disobedience and sacrifices and
they in return do him a favor.[118] According to Ibn Arabi, Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yusuf al-Shubarbuli
was able to walk on water due to his piety.[119] According to the Quran 2:102, magic was
also taught to humans by devils and the angels Harut and Marut.[120]
The influence of Arab Islamic magic in medieval and Renaissance Europe was very
notable. Some magic books such as Picatrix and Al Kindi's De Radiis were the basis for
much of medieval magic in Europe and for subsequent developments in the
Renaissance. Another Arab Muslim author fundamental to the developments of
medieval and Renaissance European magic was Ahmad al-Buni, with his books such
as the Shams al-Ma'arif which deal above all with the evocation and invocation of spirits
or jinn to control them, obtain powers and make wishes come true. [121] These books are
still important to the Islamic world specifically in Simiyya, a doctrine found commonly
within Sufi-occult traditions. [122]

Frontispiece of an English translation of Natural

Magick published in London in 1658
During the early modern period, the concept of magic underwent a more positive
reassessment through the development of the concept of magia naturalis (natural
magic).[83] This was a term introduced and developed by two Italian humanists, Marsilio
Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola.[83] For them, magia was viewed as an
elemental force pervading many natural processes,[83] and thus was fundamentally
distinct from the mainstream Christian idea of demonic magic.[123] Their ideas influenced
an array of later philosophers and writers, among them Paracelsus, Giordano
Bruno, Johannes Reuchlin, and Johannes Trithemius.[83] According to the
historian Richard Kieckhefer, the concept of magia naturalis took "firm hold in European
culture" during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,[124] attracting the interest of natural
philosophers of various theoretical orientations, including Aristotelians, Neoplatonists,
and Hermeticists.[125]
Adherents of this position argued that magia could appear in both good and bad forms;
in 1625, the French librarian Gabriel Naudé wrote his Apology for all the Wise Men
Falsely Suspected of Magic, in which he distinguished "Mosoaicall Magick"—which he
claimed came from God and included prophecies, miracles, and speaking in tongues—
from "geotick" magic caused by demons.[126] While the proponents of magia
naturalis insisted that this did not rely on the actions of demons, critics disagreed,
arguing that the demons had simply deceived these magicians.[127] By the seventeenth
century the concept of magia naturalis had moved in increasingly 'naturalistic'
directions, with the distinctions between it and science becoming blurred.[128] The validity
of magia naturalis as a concept for understanding the universe then came under
increasing criticism during the Age of Enlightenment in the eighteenth century.[129]
Despite the attempt to reclaim the term magia for use in a positive sense, it did not
supplant traditional attitudes toward magic in the West, which remained largely
negative.[129] At the same time as magia naturalis was attracting interest and was largely
tolerated, Europe saw an active persecution of accused witches believed to be guilty
of maleficia.[125] Reflecting the term's continued negative associations, Protestants often
sought to denigrate Roman Catholic sacramental and devotional practices as being
magical rather than religious.[130] Many Roman Catholics were concerned by this
allegation and for several centuries various Roman Catholic writers devoted attention to
arguing that their practices were religious rather than magical.[131] At the same time,
Protestants often used the accusation of magic against other Protestant groups which
they were in contest with.[132] In this way, the concept of magic was used to prescribe
what was appropriate as religious belief and practice.[131] Similar claims were also being
made in the Islamic world during this period. The Arabian cleric Muhammad ibn Abd al-
Wahhab—founder of Wahhabism—for instance condemned a range of customs and
practices such as divination and the veneration of spirits as sihr, which he in turn
claimed was a form of shirk, the sin of idolatry.[133]
The Renaissance[edit]
Main article: Renaissance magic
Renaissance humanism saw a resurgence in hermeticism and Neo-Platonic varieties
of ceremonial magic. The Renaissance, on the other hand, saw the rise of science, in
such forms as the dethronement of the Ptolemaic theory of the universe, the distinction
of astronomy from astrology, and of chemistry from alchemy.[134][page needed]
There was great uncertainty in distinguishing practices of superstition, occultism, and
perfectly sound scholarly knowledge or pious ritual. The intellectual and spiritual
tensions erupted in the Early Modern witch craze, further reinforced by the turmoil of
the Protestant Reformation, especially in Germany, England, and Scotland.[134][page needed]
In Hasidism, the displacement of practical Kabbalah using directly magical means, by
conceptual and meditative trends gained much further emphasis, while simultaneously
instituting meditative theurgy for material blessings at the heart of its social mysticism.
[135]
Hasidism internalised Kabbalah through the psychology of deveikut (cleaving to
God), and cleaving to the Tzadik (Hasidic Rebbe). In Hasidic doctrine, the tzaddik
channels Divine spiritual and physical bounty to his followers by altering the Will of God
(uncovering a deeper concealed Will) through his own deveikut and self-
nullification. Dov Ber of Mezeritch is concerned to distinguish this theory of the Tzadik's
will altering and deciding the Divine Will, from directly magical process.[136]
 In the nineteenth century, the Haitian government began
to legislate against Vodou, describing it as a form of witchcraft; this conflicted with
Vodou practitioners' own understanding of their religion.[137]

In the sixteenth century, European societies began to conquer and colonise other
continents around the world, and as they did so they applied European concepts of
magic and witchcraft to practices found among the peoples whom they encountered.
[138]
Usually, these European colonialists regarded the natives as primitives and savages
whose belief systems were diabolical and needed to be eradicated and replaced by
Christianity.[139] Because Europeans typically viewed these non-European peoples as
being morally and intellectually inferior to themselves, it was expected that such
societies would be more prone to practicing magic.[140] Women who practiced traditional
rites were labelled as witches by the Europeans.[140]
In various cases, these imported European concepts and terms underwent new
transformations as they merged with indigenous concepts.[141] In West Africa, for
instance, Portuguese travellers introduced their term and concept of the feitiçaria (often
translated as sorcery) and the feitiço (spell) to the native population, where it was
transformed into the concept of the fetish. When later Europeans encountered these
West African societies, they wrongly believed that the fetiche was an indigenous African
term rather than the result of earlier inter-continental encounters.[141] Sometimes,
colonised populations themselves adopted these European concepts for their own
purposes. In the early nineteenth century, the newly independent Haitian government
of Jean-Jacques Dessalines began to suppress the practice of Vodou, and in 1835
Haitian law-codes categorised all Vodou practices as sortilège (sorcery/witchcraft),
suggesting that it was all conducted with harmful intent, whereas among Vodou
practitioners the performance of harmful rites was already given a separate and distinct
category, known as maji.[137]
Baroque period[edit]
Further information: Isaac Newton's occult studies
During the Baroque era, several intriguing figures engaged with occult and magical
themes that went beyond conventional thinking. Michael Sendivogius (1566–1636), a
Polish alchemist, emphasized empirical experimentation in alchemy and made notable
contributions to early chemistry. Tommaso Campanella (1568–1639), an Italian
philosopher, blended Christianity with mysticism in works like The City of the Sun,
envisioning an ideal society governed by divine principles. Jakob Böhme (1575–1624),
a German mystic, explored the relationship between the divine and human experience,
influencing later mystical movements.
Jan Baptist van Helmont, a Flemish chemist, coined the term "gas" and conducted
experiments on plant growth, expanding the understanding of chemistry. Sir Kenelm
Digby, known for his diverse interests, created the "Sympathetic Powder", believed to
have mystical healing properties. Isaac Newton, famous for his scientific achievements,
also delved into alchemy and collected esoteric manuscripts, revealing his fascination
with hidden knowledge. These individuals collectively embody the curiosity and
exploration characteristic of the Baroque period.
Magicians[edit]

The Magician card from a 15th-century tarot deck

Many of the practices which have been labelled magic can be performed by anyone.
[251]
For instance, some charms can be recited by individuals with no specialist
knowledge nor any claim to having a specific power.[252] Others require specialised
training in order to perform them.[251] Some of the individuals who performed magical
acts on a more than occasional basis came to be identified as magicians, or with related
concepts like sorcerers/sorceresses, witches, or cunning folk.[252] Identities as a
magician can stem from an individual's own claims about themselves, or it can be a
label placed upon them by others.[252] In the latter case, an individual could embrace
such a label, or they could reject it, sometimes vehemently.[252]
Economic incentives can encourage individuals to identify as magicians.[143] In the cases
of various forms of traditional healer, as well as the later stage magicians or illusionists,
the label of magician could become a job description.[252] Others claim such an identity
out of a genuinely held belief that they have specific unusual powers or talents.
[253]
Different societies have different social regulations regarding who can take on such
a role; for instance, it may be a question of familial heredity, or there may be gender
restrictions on who is allowed to engage in such practices.[254] A variety of personal traits
may be credited with giving magical power, and frequently they are associated with an
unusual birth into the world.[255] For instance, in Hungary it was believed that
a táltos would be born with teeth or an additional finger.[256] In various parts of Europe, it
was believed that being born with a caul would associate the child with supernatural
abilities.[256] In some cases, a ritual initiation is required before taking on a role as a
specialist in such practices, and in others it is expected that an individual will receive a
mentorship from another specialist.[257]
Davies noted that it was possible to "crudely divide magic specialists into religious and
lay categories".[258] He noted for instance that Roman Catholic priests, with their rites
of exorcism, and access to holy water and blessed herbs, could be conceived as being
magical practitioners.[259] Traditionally, the most common method of identifying,
differentiating, and establishing magical practitioners from common people is
by initiation. By means of rites the magician's relationship to the supernatural and his
entry into a closed professional class is established (often through rituals that simulate
death and rebirth into a new life).[260] However, Berger and Ezzy explain that since the
rise of Neopaganism, "As there is no central bureaucracy or dogma to determine
authenticity, an individual's self-determination as a Witch, Wiccan, Pagan or Neopagan
is usually taken at face value".[261] Ezzy argues that practitioners' worldviews have been
neglected in many sociological and anthropological studies and that this is because of
"a culturally narrow understanding of science that devalues magical beliefs".[262]
Mauss argues that the powers of both specialist and common magicians are determined
by culturally accepted standards of the sources and the breadth of magic: a magician
cannot simply invent or claim new magic. In practice, the magician is only as powerful
as his peers believe him to be.[263]
Throughout recorded history, magicians have often faced skepticism regarding their
purported powers and abilities.[264] For instance, in sixteenth-century England, the
writer Reginald Scot wrote The Discoverie of Witchcraft, in which he argued that many
of those accused of witchcraft or otherwise claiming magical capabilities were fooling
people using illusionism.[265]
See also[edit]
 Books about magic
 Body of light – Hermetic starfire body
 Clarke's three laws – Three axioms proposed by British science fiction writer
Arthur C. Clarke
 Isaac Newton's occult studies – Works by Newton now seen as non-scientific
 Juju – West African spiritual belief system
 Magic in fiction – Magic depicted in fictional stories
 Magical organization – Organization for the practice of occult magic
 Psionics – Science fiction theme of 1950s and 1960s
 Runic magic – Ancient or modern magic performed with runes or runestones
 Scrying – Practice of seeking visions in a reflective surface
 Shamanism – Religious practice
 Thaumaturgy – The working of miracles by an individual

Talisman
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Talisman (disambiguation).

The Talisman of Charlemagne, also a reliquary, said to have been

found on his body when his tomb was opened

A talisman is any object ascribed with religious or magical powers intended to protect,
heal, or harm individuals for whom they are made. Talismans are often portable objects
carried on someone in a variety of ways, but can also be installed permanently in
architecture. Talismans are closely linked with amulets, fulfilling many of the same roles,
but a key difference is in their form and materiality, with talismans often taking the form
of objects (e.g., clothing, weaponry, or parchment) which are inscribed with magic texts.
[1]

Talismans have been used in many civilizations throughout history, with connections to
astrological, scientific, and religious practices; but the theory around preparation and
use has changed in some cultures with more recent, new age, talismanic theory.
Talismans are used for a wide array of functions, such as: the personal protection of the
wearer, loved ones or belongings, aiding in fertility, and helping crop production.
Etymology[edit]

Christian talisman (Breverl), 18th century

The word talisman comes from French talisman, via Arabic ṭilasm (‫ِط َلْس م‬,
plural ‫ طالسم‬ṭalāsim), which comes from the ancient Greek telesma (τέλεσμα), meaning
"completion, religious rite, payment",[2][3] ultimately from the verb teleō (τελέω), "I
complete, perform a rite".[4]
Preparation of talismans[edit]
New Age[edit]
According to new age talismanic practices, features with magical associations—such as
colors, scents, symbology, and patterns, figures—can be integrated into the creation of
a talisman in addition to the chosen planetary or elemental symbolism. However, these
must be used in harmony with the elemental or planetary force chosen so as to amplify
the intended power of the talisman. It is also possible to add a personal touch to the
talisman by incorporating a verse, inscription, or pattern that is of particular meaning to
the maker. These inscriptions can be sigils (magical emblems), bible verses, or sonnets,
but they too must be in harmony with the talisman's original purpose.[5]
Islam[edit]

Islamic talisman engraved with a quote from the Quran, 7th or 8th
century AD

In Islam, using amulets as protection is considered Shirk.[6] However, use of verses of

the Qur'an in slips of parchment rolled inside talismanic objects has been common
throughout the Muslim World. For example, Muslim Ibn al-hajjaj instructed military
commanders to inscribe Quran 54:46 on a cloth with rosewater, musk, and amber when
Libra is rising and in the hour of the sun, and to carry it to the battlefield to prosper over
oppressors and nonbelievers.[7]
The 10th century ‘Abbasid mathematician, Thabit ibn Qurra, was considered to be an
expert on talismans. In one of his texts on talismans, he wrote, ‘The noblest part of
astronomy is the science of talismans.' [8] According to the 12th century translator John
of Seville and Limia's version of ibn Qurra's Arabic text, De imaginibus, he saw
talismans and astronomy to be more crucial for gaining wisdom than the studies of
geometry and philosophy. In Adelard of Bath's translation of the same text, it is stressed
that extensive knowledge of both astronomy and astrology is needed for creating a
talisman.[8] This information is necessary because talismans should be made at the
moment of an auspicious celestial event. One's birth horoscope could also be a factor in
the efficacy of talismans. The maker cannot have any distractions or doubts, otherwise
their talisman will be powerless.[8]
Adelard's translation specifies that to make a talisman which could earn love from a
king, family member, or peer, one should use lead, iron, bronze, gold, or silver. To make
a harmful talisman for creating conflicts between others, receiving money, defending or
destroying a place, or winning a legal battle, one should use pitch and tar, bitumen, and
aloes.[8] An example of how to make a love talisman according to Ibn Qurra's book is as
follows: Firstly, one must make sure it is the correct astrological time to perform this
ritual because it is the eleventh place, or house, that is connected to friendship.[8] Next,
one must make a talisman of a man's figure during the specific astrological time, and
with specific intention, and it must be engraved with the other person's name. Thirdly,
one must make a second talisman, and it should be engraved with the name of the
receiver of this love. After this, both the names and cognomina of each person should
be engraved on both talismans.[8] They must be positioned so that the names on each
talisman touches the heart of the other talisman. Next in the process is to take a piece
of unused parchment or cloth that has been purified with musk, ambergris, and
camphor, and draw the ‘rings' of the lords of the ascendant and eleventh place. [8] The
talismans must be purified with saffron, aloe-wood, and frankincense, and then folded in
the previously prepared cloth or parchment. This purification process should be
repeated for three consecutive nights. During this process, a specific prayer related to
the maker's intention must be recited, and the individual must be bathed and have clean
clothes.[8]
Uses of talismans[edit]

Polygonal talisman inscribed with micro-calligraphy, 17th

century India

Islam[edit]
In the Islamic world, talismans were regularly employed for personal, social, political,
and ideological reasons at both popular and elite levels. They function as a conduit for
divine protection, which can involve both the attraction of positive energies to the wearer
and the deflection of disease, danger and the evil eye. They may also be referred to as
a hafiz, (protector) as well as a himala (pendant) often affixed to or suspended from the
body, for example as a necklace, ring, talismanic shirt, or a small object within a
portable pouch.[1][9]
European medieval medicine[edit]
Lea Olsan writes of the use of amulets and talismans as prescribed by medical
practitioners in the medieval period. She notes that the use of such charms and prayers
was "rarely a treatment of choice" [10] because such treatments could not be properly
justified in the realm of Galen's medical teachings. Their use, however, was typically
considered acceptable; references to amulets were common in medieval medical
literature.
For example, one well-known medieval physician, Gilbertus, writes of the necessity of
using a talisman to ensure conception of a child. He describes the process of producing
this kind of talisman as "...writing words, some uninterruptible, some biblical, on a
parchment to be hung around the neck of the man or woman during intercourse."[10]
Islamic talismanic bowls[edit]
See also: Incantation bowl

In the Quran, magic is introduced by the two angels of Babel, Harūt and Marūt. Magic,
or sihr, was seen as a supernatural force existing in the natural world that could cure
disease with charms and spells.[11] Many bowls were inscribed with text explaining what
this bowl should be used to cure (i.e. colic, childbirth, a nosebleed etc.) as well as
instructions of how to use it. The bronzed engraved "Magic Bowl" from Syria c. 1200 [12] is
an example of a dish used to ease childbirth as well as ease the sting of a scorpion and
bite of a mad dog, according to the Quranic inscriptions on the inside of the bowl.
Inscribed on this bowl are also suggestions that the person inflicted with the disease or
bite, does not need to be the one to consume the liquid from the bowl. It could be taken
by somebody around or associated to the inflicted person, but it does not mention how
the magic is transferred to the person in need of help. This specific bowl was also used
for barakah when the bowl was filled with water and sat overnight to absorb healing
powers.[citation needed]
Pseudo-Aristotelian Hermetica[edit]
The Pseudo-Aristotelian Hermetica, a series of closely related Arabic
texts attributed to Hermes Trismegistus and perhaps dating to the ninth century CE,
[13]
explores the concept of ruhaniyyat, i.e., angels from spiritual force/realm in the natural
world, and how an individual can gain access to those forces. Text between Alexander
the Great and Aristotle explore a variety of instructions of how to harness these spiritual
forces through talisman, concoctions, amulets, and more that are each used for a
designated purpose. Some instructions include placing a carved stone on top of a ring
that is then placed on a dead black ram when Mars is in a specific degree of Scorpio
and the moon is in Cancer. These texts dates are unknown however, they were the
basis of many mystical practices in the Islamic medieval world. The Pseudo-Aristotelian
text Sirr al-Asrar offers more instructions specifically with "kings talisman" which keeps
harm away. It tells that when there are certain astrological marks, a ruby red stone
should be carved on a Thursday with a man with wings and a crown riding a lion with a
flag, while six other hairless men bow under his hands. This should then be burned in
an extensive ritual where after a ruhaniyyat will visit in your dreams telling you your
ritual was successful, from there, you will repel snakes and scorpions.[14]
Examples[edit]
Zulfiqar[edit]
Main article: Zulfiqar

Zulfiqar, the magical sword of Ali, was frequently depicted on Ottoman flags, especially
as used by the Janissary cavalry, in the 16th and 17th centuries.
This version of the complete prayer of Zulfiqar is also frequently invoked in talismans of
the Qizilbash warriors:
A record of Live like Ali, die like Hussein as part of a longer talismanic inscription was
published by Tewfik Canaan in The Decipherment of Persian and sometimes Arabic
Talismans (1938).[15]

The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan leading the Mughal Army. In the upper left, war
elephants bear emblems of the legendary Zulfiqar.

A flag from Cirebon with the Zulfiqar and Ali represented as a lion (dated to the late 18th or the
19th century).

An early 19th century flag of Ottoman Zulfiqar.

Seal of Solomon[edit]

Seal of Solomon
Main article: Seal of Solomon
The Seal of Solomon, also known as the interlaced triangle, is another ancient talisman
and amulet that has been commonly used in several religions. Reputed to be the
emblem by which King Solomon ruled the Genii, it could not have originated with him.
Its use has been traced in different cultures long before the Jewish Dispensation. As a
talisman it was believed to be all-powerful, the ideal symbol of the absolute, and was
worn for protection against all fatalities, threats, and trouble, and to protect its wearer
from all evil. In its constitution, the triangle with its apex upwards represents good, and
with the inverted triangle, evil.
The triangle with its apex up was typical of the Trinity, figures that occur in several
religions. In India, China and Japan, its three angles represent Brahma, Vishnu,
and Shiva, the Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer or Re-generator. In ancient Egypt, it
represented the deities Osiris, Isis and Horus. In Christianity, it represented the Holy
Trinity. As a whole it stands for the elements of fire and spirit, composed of the three
virtues (love, truth, and wisdom). The triangle with its apex downward symbolized the
element of water, and typified the material world, or the three enemies of the soul: the
world, the flesh, and the Devil, and the cardinal sins, envy, hatred and malice.
Therefore, the two triangles interlaced represent the victory of spirit over matter. The
early cultures that contributed to Western civilization believed that the Seal of Solomon
was an all-powerful talisman and amulet, especially when used with either a Cross of
Tau, the Hebrew Yodh, or the Egyptian Crux Ansata in the center.[16]: 19–20
Talismanic shirts[edit]

Talismanic shirt, 15th–early 16th century Northern India

Main article: Talismanic shirt

Talismanic shirts are found throughout the Islamic world. The earliest surviving
examples date from the 15th century, but the tradition is thought to pre-date that. [17] The
shirts may be inscribed with verses from Quran or names of Allah and of prophets. They
may also carry images of holy sites or astrological symbols. The inscribed names are
believed to offer protection and guidance to the carrier.[18] Talismanic shirts were worn to
protect against many evils; many were made to be worn under armour as an additional
form of protection.[17]
Swastika[edit]
Main article: Swastika

The swastika, one of the oldest and most widespread talismans known, can be traced to
the Stone Age, and has been found incised on stone implements of this era. It can be
found in all parts of the Old and New Worlds, and on the most prehistoric ruins and
remnants. In spite of the assertion by some writers that it was used by the Egyptians,
there is little evidence to suggest they used it and it has not been found among their
remains.
Both forms, with arms turned to the left and to the right, seem equally common. On the
stone walls of the Buddhist caves of India, which feature many of the symbols, arms are
often turned both ways in the same inscription.[16]: 15
Talismans in architecture[edit]

The Serpent's Gate

Uraniborg[edit]
Main article: Uraniborg

The Renaissance scientific building Uraniborg has been interpreted as an astrological

talisman to support the work and health of scholars working inside it, designed
using Marsilio Ficino's theorized mechanism for astrological influence. Length ratios that
the designer, the astrologer and alchemist Tycho Brahe, worked into the building and its
gardens match those that Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa associated with Jupiter and the
sun. This choice would have counteracted the believed tendency of scholars to be
phlegmatic, melancholy and overly influenced by the planet Saturn.[19]
The Serpent's Gate in the Citadel of Aleppo[edit]
The Serpent’s Gate is a gate in the Aleppo Citadel that contains a talismanic relief
depicting two serpents. The serpents are biting their own body and encircling stars. The
serpents are believed to have protective powers against the enemies of the citadel.[20]
Bab Al-Tilsam[edit]
The Bab Al-Tilsam, or the Talisman Gate, was a gate in Baghdad known for its
talismanic inscriptions. The gate depicts two knotted serpents who are being held by a
seated figure who is believed to be the Caliph. Just like the Serpent’s Gate, the
serpents are supposed to give protection against their enemies.[20]
Incantation
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Spell (paranormal))
For other uses, see Incantation (disambiguation). "Spellcasting" redirects here. For the
video game series, see Spellcasting (series). "Spellcraft" redirects here. For the video
game, see Spellcraft: Aspects of Valor.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve
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 19th century book of incantations, written by a Welsh
physician
An incantation, a spell, a charm, an enchantment, or a bewitchery, is a magical
formula intended to trigger a magical effect on a person or objects. The formula can be
spoken, sung, or chanted. An incantation can also be performed during
ceremonial rituals or prayers. In the world of magic, wizards, witches,
and fairies allegedly perform incantations.[1]
In medieval literature, folklore, fairy tales, and modern fantasy fiction, enchantments are
charms or spells. This has led to the terms "enchanter" and "enchantress" for those who
use enchantments.[2] The English language borrowed the term "incantation" from Old
French in the late 14th century; the corresponding Old English term
was gealdor or galdor, "song, spell", cognate to ON galdr. The weakened sense
"delight" (compare the same development of "charm") is modern, first attested in 1593
(OED).
Words of incantation are often spoken with inflection and emphasis on the words being
said. The tone and rhyme of how the words are spoken and the placement of words
used in the formula may differ depending on the desired outcome of the magical effect. [3]
Surviving written records of historical magic spells were largely obliterated in many
cultures by the success of the major monotheistic religions (Islam, Judaism,
and Christianity), which label some magical activity as immoral or associated with evil.[4]
[unreliable source?]

Etymology[edit]
 The Enchanted Garden of Messer Ansaldo by Marie
Spartali Stillman
The Latin incantare, which means "to consecrate with spells, to charm, to bewitch, to
ensorcel", forms the basis of the word "enchant", with deep linguistic roots going back to
the Proto-Indo-European kan- prefix. So it can be said that an enchanter or enchantress
casts magic spells, or utters incantations.
The words that are similar to incantations such as enchantment, charms and spells are
the effects of reciting an incantation. To be enchanted is to be under the influence of an
enchantment, usually thought to be caused by charms or spells.
Magic words[edit]

Classic magic words

Main article: Magic word
Magic words or words of power are words which have a specific, and sometimes
unintended, effect. They are often nonsense phrases used in fantasy fiction or by stage
prestidigitators. Frequently such words are presented as being part of a divine, adamic,
or other secret or empowered language. Certain comic book heroes use magic words to
activate their powers.
Examples of traditional magic words include Abracadabra, Alakazam, Hocus
Pocus, Open Sesame and Sim Sala Bim.
In Babylonian, incantations can be used in rituals to burn images of one's own enemies.
An example would be found in the series of Mesopotamian incantations
of Šurpu and Maqlû. In the Orient, the charming of snakes have been used in
incantations of the past and still used today. A person using an incantation would entice
the snake out of its hiding place in order to get rid of them.[1]
Udug-hul[edit]
Main article: Udug
In Mesopotamian mythology, Udug Hul incantations are used to exorcise demons (evil
Udug) who bring misfortune or illnesses, such as mental illness or anxiety. These
demons can create horrible events such as divorce, loss of property, or other
catastrophes.[5]
In folklore and fiction[edit]

The enchantress Alcina makes herself appear beautiful,

in Orlando Furioso
In traditional fairy tales magical formulas are sometimes attached to an object.[citation
needed]
When the incantation is uttered, it helps transform the object. In such stories,
incantations are attached to a magic wand used by wizards, witches and fairy
godmothers. One example is the spell that Cinderella's Fairy Godmother used to turn a
pumpkin into a coach, "Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo", a nonsense rhyme which echoes more
serious historical incantations.[6]
Modern uses and interpretations[edit]
The performance of magic almost always involves the use of language. Whether
spoken out loud or unspoken, words are frequently used to access or guide magical
power. In The Magical Power of Words (1968), S. J. Tambiah argues that the
connection between language and magic is due to a belief in the inherent ability of
words to influence the universe. Bronisław Malinowski, in Coral Gardens and their
Magic (1935), suggests that this belief is an extension of man's basic use of language to
describe his surroundings, in which "the knowledge of the right words, appropriate
phrases and the more highly developed forms of speech, gives man a power over and
above his own limited field of personal action."[7]: 235 Magical speech is therefore a ritual
act and is of equal or even greater importance to the performance of magic than non-
verbal acts.[8]: 175–176
Not all speech is considered magical. Only certain words and phrases or words spoken
in a specific context are considered to have magical power.[8]: 176 Magical language,
according to C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards's (1923) categories of speech, is distinct
from scientific language because it is emotive and it converts words into symbols for
emotions; whereas in scientific language words are tied to specific meanings and refer
to an objective external reality.[8]: 188 Magical language is therefore particularly adept at
constructing metaphors that establish symbols and link magical rituals to the world.[8]: 189
Malinowski argues that "the language of magic is sacred, set and used for an entirely
different purpose to that of ordinary life."[7]: 213 The two forms of language are differentiated
through word choice, grammar, style, or by the use of specific phrases or
forms: prayers, spells, songs, blessings, or chants, for example. Sacred modes of
language often employ archaic words and forms in an attempt to invoke the purity or
"truth" of a religious or a cultural "golden age". The use of Hebrew in Judaism is an
example.[8]: 182
Another potential source of the power of words is their secrecy and exclusivity. Much
sacred language is differentiated enough from common language that it is
incomprehensible to the majority of the population and it can only be used and
interpreted by specialized practitioners (magicians, priests, shamans, or Imams).[7]: 228 [8]:
178
In this respect, Tambiah argues that magical languages violate the primary function of
language: communication.[8]: 179 Yet adherents of magic are still able to use and to value
the magical function of words by believing in the inherent power of the words
themselves and in the meaning that they must provide for those who do understand
them. This leads Tambiah to conclude that "the remarkable disjunction between sacred
and profane language which exists as a general fact is not necessarily linked to the
need to embody sacred words in an exclusive language."[8]: 182
Examples of charms[edit]
 A complete history of magik, sorcery, and wi Wellcome
L0026620

 The Anglo-Saxon metrical charms

 The Carmina Gadelica, a collection of Gaelic oral poetry, much of it charms
 The Atharvaveda, a collection of charms, and the Rigveda, a collection
of hymns or incantations
 Hittite ritual texts
 The Greek Magical Papyri
 Maqlû, Akkadian incantation text
 The Merseburg charms, two medieval magic spells, charms written in Old
High German
 Cyprianus, a generic term for a book of Scandinavian folk spells
 Pow-Wows; or, Long Lost Friend
 Babylonian incantations[9]
 Mesopotamian incantations were composed to counter anything from
witchcraft (Maqlû) to field pests (Zu-buru-dabbeda).
See also[edit]
 Carmen, a term for an Ancient Roman incantation
 Curse (disambiguation)
 Finnic incantations
 Hex (disambiguation)
 Incantations in the Harry Potter series
 Incantation bowl, an ancient Middle Eastern protective magical tool
 Jinx (disambiguation)
 Kotodama, the Japanese belief in the power of words and names
 Lorica, Irish protective prayer
 Mantra, a sacred sound, word, or phrase, often repeated multiple times, in
meditation
 Spell (ritual)
 Yajna, Hindu sacrificial offering
 Zagovory, East Slavic spells
Sigil
A sigil is a type of symbol used in magic. The term usually refers to a pictorial signature of a deity or
spirit (such as an angel or demon). In modern usage, especially in the context of chaos magic, a sigil
refers to a symbolic representation of the practitioner's desired outcome.

History[edit]
The use of symbols for magical or cultic purposes has been widespread since at least
the Neolithic era.[citation needed] The term sigil derives from the Latin sigillum (pl. sigilla or sigils), meaning
"seal."[2]
In medieval magic, the term sigil was commonly used to refer to occult signs which represented
various angels and demons which the practitioner might summon.[2] The magical training books
called grimoires often listed pages of such sigils. A particularly well-known list is in The Lesser Key
of Solomon, in which the sigils of the 72 princes of the hierarchy of hell are given for the magician's
use. Such sigils are considered by some to be the equivalent of the true name of the spirit and thus
granted the magician a measure of control over the beings.[3]
A common method of creating the sigils of certain spirits was to use kameas, a special use case
of magic squares — the names of the spirits were converted to numbers, which were then located
on the magic square. The locations were then connected by lines, forming an abstract figure. [4]
The word sigil [...] has a long history in Western magic. The members of the Golden Dawn were
perfectly familiar with it ("combining the letters, the colours, the attributions and their Synthesis, thou
mayest build up a telesmatic Image of a Force. The Sigil shall then serve thee for the tracing of a
Current which shall call into action a certain Elemental Force") and it was used in the making
of talismans. The sigil was like a signature or sign of an occult entity.[5]

Austin Osman Spare[edit]

Artist and occultist Austin Osman Spare (1886–1956) developed his own unique method of creating
and using sigils, which has had a huge effect on modern occultism. Spare did not agree with
medieval practice of using these, arguing that such supernatural beings were simply complexes in
the unconscious, and could be actively created through the process of sigilization.[6][5]
Spare's technique became a cornerstone of chaos magic (see next section).[7] It also influenced
artist Brion Gysin, who experimented with combining Spare's sigil method with the traditional form of
magic squares:
Calligraphic magick squares were one of the techniques most commonly applied by Gysin. He would
reduce a name or an idea to a "glyph" and then write across the paper from right to left, turn the
paper and do the same again, and so on, turning the paper around and around to create a
multidimensional grid... The same techniques and consciously driven functional intention also
permeated his paintings. In a very real sense, everything he created was an act of sorcery. [8]

Chaos magic[edit]
In chaos magic, following Spare, sigils are commonly created in a well ordered fashion by writing an
intention, then condensing the letters of the statement down to form a sort of monogram. The chaos
magician then uses the gnostic state to "launch" or "charge" the sigil – essentially bypassing the
conscious mind to implant the desire in the unconscious.[9][7] To quote Ray Sherwin:
The magician acknowledges a desire, he lists the appropriate symbols and arranges them into an
easily visualised glyph. Using any of the gnostic techniques he reifies the sigil and then, by force of
will, hurls it into his subconscious from where the sigil can begin to work unencumbered by desire. [9]
After charging the sigil, it is considered necessary to repress all memory of it. In the words of Spare,
there should be "a deliberate striving to forget it".[6]
In modern chaos magic, when a complex of thoughts, desires, and intentions gains such a level of
sophistication that it appears to operate autonomously from the magician's consciousness, as if it
were an independent being, then such a complex is referred to as a servitor.[10] When such a being
becomes large enough that it exists independently of any one individual, as a form of "group mind",
then it is referred to as an egregore.[11][12]

Apotropaic magic

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Medieval apotropaic marking on the inside of a church in

Suffolk, England.

Two ancient anthropomorphic figures from Peru

Basic concepts

 Afterlife
 Animism
 Augury
 Communitas
 Comparative religion
 Divination
  Divine language
 Evolutionary origin of religion
 Fetishism
 Great Spirit
 Henotheism
 Initiation
 Liminality
 Magic (supernatural)
 Mana
 Monotheism
 Nympholepsy
 Oracle
 Polytheism
 Rite of passage
 Ritual
 Sacred language
 Sacred–profane dichotomy
 Sacred site
 Shamanism
 Soul dualism
 Superstition
 Theories about religion
 Totem
 Transtheism
 Veneration of the dead

Apotropaic magic (from Greek αποτρέπειν "to ward off") or protective magic is a type
of magic intended to turn away harm or evil influences, as in deflecting misfortune or
averting the evil eye. Apotropaic observances may also be practiced out
of superstition or out of tradition, as in good luck charms (perhaps some token on
a charm bracelet), amulets, or gestures such as crossed fingers or knocking on wood.
Many different objects and charms were used for protection throughout history.
Symbols and objects[edit]
Ancient Egypt[edit]
Apotropaic magical rituals were practiced throughout the ancient Near East and ancient
Egypt. Fearsome deities were invoked via ritual in order to protect individuals by
warding away evil spirits. In ancient Egypt, these household rituals (performed in the
home, not in state-run temples) were embodied by the deity who personified magic
itself, Heka.[1] The two gods most frequently invoked in these rituals were
the hippopotamus-formed fertility goddess, Taweret, and the lion-deity, Bes (who
developed from the early apotropaic dwarf god, Aha, literally "fighter").[2]
Objects were often used in these rituals in order to facilitate communication with the
gods. One of the most commonly found magical objects, the ivory
apotropaic wand (birth tusk), gained widespread popularity in the Middle Kingdom (ca.
1550 – 1069 BCE).[3] These wands were used to protect expectant mothers and children
from malevolent forces, and were adorned with processions of apotropaic solar deities.
Likewise, protective amulets bearing the likenesses of gods and goddesses such
as Taweret were commonly worn. Water came to be used frequently in ritual as well,
wherein libation vessels in the shape of Taweret were used to pour healing water over
an individual. In much later periods (when Egypt came under
the Greek Ptolemies), stele featuring the god Horus were used in similar rituals; water
would be poured over the stele and—after ritually acquiring healing powers—was
collected in a basin for an afflicted person to drink.[citation needed]
Ancient Greece[edit]
The ancient Greeks had various protective symbols and objects, with various names,
such as apotropaia, probaskania, periammata, periapta and profylaktika.[4][5] The Greeks
made offerings to the "averting gods" (ἀποτρόπαιοι θεοί, apotropaioi
theoi), chthonic deities and heroes who grant safety and deflect evil[6] and for the
protection of the infants they wore on them amulets with apotropaic powers and
committed the child to the care of kourotrophic (child-nurturing) deities.[7] Greeks
placed talismans in their houses and wore amulets to protected them from the evil eye.
[8]
Peisistratus hung the figure of a kind of grasshopper before the Acropolis of Athens for
protection.[9]
Another way for protection from enchantment used by the ancient Greeks was by
spitting into the folds of the clothes.[9]
Ancient Greeks also had an old custom of dressing boys as girls in order to avert the
evil eye.[10]
Crosses[edit]
In Ireland, it is customary on St Brigid's Day to weave a Brigid's cross from rushes,
which is hung over doors and windows to protect the household from fire, lightning,
illness and evil spirits.[11] In southern Ireland, it was formerly the custom at Samhain to
weave a cross of sticks and straw called a 'parshell' or 'parshall', which was fixed over
the doorway to ward off bad luck, illness and witchcraft.[12]
Eyes[edit]
Eyes were often painted to ward off the evil eye. An exaggerated apotropaic eye or a
pair of eyes were painted on Greek drinking vessels called kylikes (eye-cups) from the
6th century BCE up until the end of the end of the classical period. The exaggerated
eyes may have been intended to prevent evil spirits from entering the mouth while
drinking.[13][14] Fishing boats in some parts of the Mediterranean region still have stylised
eyes painted on the bows. The defunct Turkish budget airline, Fly Air, adopted the
symbol nazar boncuğu (nazar bonjuk) on the vertical stabilizer (fin) of its aeroplanes.[citation
 The apotropaic Yiddish expression, ‫קיין עין הרע‬, kain ein horeh, 'no evil eye' (in
needed]

modern Hebrew, ‫בלי עין הרע‬, bli ein ha'ra), is somewhat equivalent to the expression,
"knock on wood."[15]
Faces[edit]
Among the ancient Greeks, the most widely used image intended to avert evil was that
of the Gorgon, the head of which now may be called the Gorgoneion, which features
wild eyes, fangs, and protruding tongue. The full figure of the Gorgon holds the apex of
the oldest remaining Greek temple where she is flanked by two lionesses. The Gorgon
head was mounted on the aegis and shield of Athena.[16]

The Gorgon, flanked

by lionesses and showing her belt clasp of serpents; the pediment of the 580
BCE temple of Artemis in Corfu. Archaeological Museum of Corfu.
People believed that the doorways and windows of buildings were particularly
vulnerable to the entry or passage of evil. In ancient Greece, grotesque, satyr-like
bearded faces, sometimes with the pointed cap of the workman, were carved over the
doors of ovens and kilns, to protect the work from fire and mishap.[17] Later,
on churches and castles, gargoyles or other grotesque faces and figures such
as sheela na gigs and hunky punks were carved to frighten away witches and other
malign influences.[18] Figures may also have been carved at fireplaces or chimneys; in
some cases, simple geometric or letter carvings were used for these. When a wooden
post was used to support a chimney opening, this was often an easier material for
amateur carving. To discourage witchcraft, rowan wood may have been chosen for the
post or mantel.[19]
Similarly the grotesque faces carved into pumpkin lanterns (and their earlier
counterparts, made from turnips, swedes or beets) at Halloween are meant to avert evil:
this season was Samhain, the Celtic new year. As a "time between times", it was
believed to be a period when souls of the dead and other dangerous spirits walked the
earth. Many European peoples had such associations with the period following the
harvest in the fall (for instance the Celtic calendar).[citation needed]
Phalluses[edit]
In Ancient Greece, phalloi were believed to have apotropaic qualities. Often
stone reliefs would be placed above doorways, and three-dimensional versions were
erected across the Greek world. Most notable of these were the urban monuments
found on the island of Delos. The phallus was also an apotropaic symbol for the ancient
Romans. These are known as fascinum.[citation needed]
A similar use of phallic representations to ward off the evil eye remains popular in
modern Bhutan. It is associated with the 500-year-old Buddhist tradition of Drukpa
Kunley.[20]
Reflective items[edit]
Mirrors and other shiny reflective objects were believed to deflect the evil eye.
Traditional English "Plough Jags" (performers of a regional variant of the mummers
play) sometimes decorated their costumes (particularly their hats) with shiny items, to
the extent of borrowing silver plate for the purpose. "Witch balls" are shiny blown
glass ornaments, such as Christmas baubles, that were hung in windows. Similarly, the
Chinese Bagua mirror is usually installed to ward off negative energy and protect the
entryways of residences.[citation needed]
An example of the use of shiny apotropaic objects in Judaism can be found in the so-
called "Halsgezeige" or textile neckbands used in the birthing customs of the Franco-
German border region. Shiny coins or colourful stones would be sewn onto the
neckband or on a central amulet in order to distract the evil eye. These neckbands were
worn by women in childbirth and by young boys during their Brit Milah ceremony. This
custom continued until the early 20th century.[21]

Jewish apotropaic neckband sewn with coins to deflect the

evil eye. 1944, Basel, in the Jewish Museum of Switzerland's collection.
Horseshoes[edit]
In Western culture, a horseshoe was often nailed up over, or close by, doorways
(see Oakham's horseshoes). Model horseshoes (of card or plastic) are given as good-
luck tokens, particularly at weddings, and small paper horseshoes feature in confetti.[citation
needed]

Objects buried in walls[edit]

In early modern Europe, certain objects were buried in the walls of houses to protect the
household from witchcraft. These included specially-prepared witch bottles, horse
skulls and the bodies of dried cats,[22] as well as shoes (see concealed shoes).[23]
Markings on buildings[edit]
Apotropaic marks, also called 'witch marks' or 'anti-witch marks' in Europe, are symbols
or patterns scratched on the walls, beams and thresholds of buildings to protect them
from witchcraft or evil spirits. They have many forms; in Britain they are often flower-like
patterns of overlapping circles.[24] Taper burn marks on thresholds of early modern
buildings are also thought to be apotropaic marks.
Dreamcatchers[edit]
In some Native American cultures, a dreamcatcher made of yarn like a web is placed
above a bed or sleeping area to protect sleeping children from nightmares.[citation needed]
Others[edit]
Items and symbols such as crosses, crucifixes, silver bullets, wild roses and garlic were
believed to ward off or destroy vampires.
Peisistratus hung the figure of a kind of grasshopper before the Acropolis of Athens as
apotropaic magic.[9]
In Roman art, envy was thought to bring bad luck to the person envied. To avoid
envy, Romans sought to incite laughter in their guests by using humorous images.
Images such as large phalluses (see fascinus), deformities such as hunchbacks,
or Pygmies and other non-Roman subjects were common. Romans saw deformity as
comical and believed that such images could be used to deflect the evil eye.[25]

An ancient Egyptian apotropaic wand shows a

procession of protective deities. It was used in birth rituals, perhaps to draw a magic
circle around the mother and child.
In Europe, apotropaic figureheads carved onto the prow of sailing ships are considered
to have been a replacement for the sacrifice of a thrall during the Age of Invasions by
Saxon and Viking sailors, to avoid bad luck on the voyage. Dredging the Thames
under London Bridge led to the discovery of a large number of bent and broken knives,
daggers, swords and coins, from the modern period and dating back to Celtic times.
This custom seems to have been to avoid bad luck, particularly when setting off on a
voyage. Similarly, the burial of an old boot or shoe by the lintel of the back door of a
house seems to have had a similar intention.[citation needed]
In Ireland and Great Britain, magpies are traditionally thought to bring bad luck. Many
people repeated various rhymes or salutations to placate them.[a]
Apotropaic marks such as the initials of the Virgin Mary were scratched near the
openings of buildings in England to ward off witches.[24]
Rituals and actions[edit]
Charms[edit]
Main article: Incantation
Hand gestures[edit]
Further information: Knocking on wood, Sign of the cross, and Sign of the horns

Chalcidian black-figured eye-cup, circa 530

BCE. Staatliche Antikensammlungen
Spitting on clothes[edit]
Ancient Greeks and Romans used to spit into the folds of clothes as a way of protection
from enchantment.[9]
Dressing boys as girls[edit]
Ancient Greeks also had an old custom of dressing boys as girls in order to avert the
evil eye. Achilles is said to have been dressed in his youth as a girl at the court of
Lycomedes, king of Scyros in order to avert the evil eye.[26]

A 12th-century sheela na gig on the church

at Kilpeck, Herefordshire
Fire rituals[edit]
Fire was used in rituals of protection in many parts of Europe up to the early modern
era. The need-fire or force-fire was a special fire kindled to ward off plague
and murrain (infectious diseases affecting livestock) in parts of western, northern and
eastern Europe. It could only be kindled by friction between wood, by a group of certain
people, after all other fires in the area were doused. The livestock would be driven
around the need-fire or over its embers, and all other fires would be re-lit from it. [27] Two
early medieval Irish texts say that druids used to drive cattle between two bonfires "with
great incantations", to protect them from disease. Almost 1,000 years later, in the 19th
century, the custom of driving cattle between two fires was still practiced across most of
Ireland and parts of Scotland.[28]
Also in Ireland and Scotland, bonfires were lit for the festivals Beltane and Samhain,
and 18th–19th century accounts suggest the fires, smoke and ashes were deemed to
have protective powers. In some areas, torches of burning fir or turf from the bonfire
were carried sunwise around homes and fields to protect them.[29] In central and northern
Europe, bonfires lit on Walpurgis Night and at Midsummer were also believed to ward
off evil.
Magic circle[edit]
Main article: Magic circle
A magic circle is a circle of space marked out by practitioners of some branches of ritual
magic, which they generally believe will contain energy and form a sacred space, or will
provide them a form of magical protection, or both. It may be marked physically, drawn
in a material like salt, flour, or chalk, or merely visualised.
Apotropaic names [edit]
Ashkenazi Jews' apotropaic names were often given not at birth but during serious
illness. In the case of a family who had already lost a child, the parents may name the
next child Alter and Alte (both meaning "old" in Yiddish)[30] in an effort to confuse the
Angel of Death.[31] Another example is Nekras (Некрас, "not handsome" in Russian)
which was given with the hope the child would be handsome.[32]
Among Serbian names are many apotropaic names (zaštitna imena, "protective
names"), such as Vuk ("wolf") (and its many derivatives) and Staniša[33] ("stone").
Historical Chinese given names sometimes had apotropaic meanings, such as in the
case of Huo Qubing (霍 去病, "Qubing" meaning "away with illness"), or Xin Qiji (辛 棄
疾, "Qiji" meaning "abandoning disease"). Some traditional Taiwanese
names referenced domestic animals such as "buffalo" (水牛) and "dog" (狗, 犬), or
humble elements of the landscape such as "soil" and "water" (土, 水). They conveyed
contentment with a peaceful and low-profile life.[citation needed]

Amulets for specific purposes on sale at

a Shinto shrine in Japan
See also[edit]
 Anasyrma
 Azusa yumi
 Exorcism
 Eyespot (mimicry)
 Hama yumi
 Hamsa
 Hoko (doll)
 Jack-o'-lantern
  Mezuzah
 Noa-name – Word used instead of a taboo or dangerous word
 Ofuda
 Painted pebbles
 Pazuzu
 Peijainen
 Singa (mythology)
 Skandola
 Sympathetic magic

Divination

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Divination (disambiguation). "Divining" redirects here. For
pseudoscientific attempts to find water or other things, see Dowsing.
Divination (from Latin divinare 'to foresee, foretell, predict, prophesy, etc.')[2] is the
attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic ritual or practice.
[3]
Using various methods throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of
how a querent should proceed by reading signs, events, or omens, or through alleged
contact or interaction with supernatural agencies[4] such as spirits, gods, god-like-beings
or the "will of the universe".[5]

Display on divination, featuring a cross-cultural

range of items, in the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford, England
Divination can be seen as an attempt to organize what appears to be random so that it
provides insight into a problem or issue at hand.[6] Some modern instruments or
practices of divination for magical practices include Tarot-card reading, rune
casting, tea-leaf reading, automatic writing, and water scrying.[7] If a distinction is made
between divination and fortune-telling, divination has a more formal or ritualistic element
and often contains a more social character,[citation needed] usually in a religious context, as seen
in traditional African medicine. Fortune-telling, on the other hand, is a more everyday
practice for personal purposes. Particular divination methods vary by culture and
religion.
In its functional relation to magic in general, divination can have a preliminary and
investigative role:
[...] the diagnosis or prognosis achieved through divination is both temporarily and
logically related to the manipulative, protective or alleviative function of magic rituals. In
divination one finds the cause of an ailment or a potential danger, in magic one
subsequently acts upon this knowledge.[8]
Divination has long attracted criticism. In the modern era, it has been dismissed by
the scientific community and by skeptics as being superstitious; experiments do not
support the idea that divination techniques can actually predict the future more reliably
or precisely than would be possible without it.[9][10] In antiquity, divination came under
attack from philosophers such as the Academic skeptic Cicero in De Divinatione (1st
century BCE) and the Pyrrhonist Sextus Empiricus in Against the Astrologers (2nd
century CE). The satirist Lucian (c. 125 – after 180) devoted an essay to Alexander the
false prophet.[11]
History[edit]

Russian peasant girls using chickens for divination; 19th-

century lubok.
Antiquity[edit]
The Oracle of Amun at the Siwa Oasis was made famous when Alexander the
Great visited it after conquering Egypt from Persia in 332 BC.[12]
Deuteronomy 18:10–12 or Leviticus 19:26 can be interpreted as categorically forbidding
divination. However, some would claim that divination is indeed practiced in the Bible,
such as in Exodus 28, when the Urim and Thummim are mentioned. Some would also
say that Gideon also practiced divination, though when he uses a piece of fleece or
wool in Judges 6:36–40, he is not attempting to predict the outcome of an important
battle; rather, he is communicating with God.
Communicating with God through prayer may in some cases be considered divination;
both are open, typically two-way conversations with God. In addition, the method of
"casting lots" used in Joshua 14:1–5 and Joshua 18:1–10 to divide the conquered lands
of Canaan between the twelve tribes is not seen by some as divination, but as done at
the behest of God (Numbers 26:55).
Hatch disputes these comparisons because these practices invoked the "one true God"
and discouraged individuals from manipulating this god for their own benefit. He
believes that these two aspects are absent from divination. [13]
Oracles and Greek divination[edit]
See also: Oracle and Greek divination
Both oracles and seers in ancient Greece practiced divination. Oracles were the
conduits for the gods on earth; their prophecies were understood to be the will of the
gods verbatim. Because of the high demand for oracle consultations and the oracles’
limited work schedule, they were not the main source of divination for the ancient
Greeks. That role fell to the seers (Greek: μάντεις).[14]
Seers were not in direct contact with the gods; instead, they were interpreters of signs
provided by the gods. Seers used many methods to explicate the will of the gods
including extispicy, ornithomancy, etc. They were more numerous than the oracles and
did not keep a limited schedule; thus, they were highly valued by all Greeks, not just
those with the capacity to travel to Delphi or other such distant sites.[15]
The disadvantage of seers was that only direct yes-or-no questions could be answered.
Oracles could answer more generalized questions, and seers often had to perform
several sacrifices in order to get the most consistent answer. For example, if a general
wanted to know if the omens were proper for him to advance on the enemy, he would
ask his seer both that question and if it were better for him to remain on the defensive. If
the seer gave consistent answers, the advice was considered valid.[citation needed]
During battle, generals would frequently ask seers at both the campground (a process
called the hiera) and at the battlefield (called the sphagia). The hiera entailed the seer
slaughtering a sheep and examining its liver for answers regarding a more generic
question; the sphagia involved killing a young female goat by slitting its throat and
noting the animal's last movements and blood flow. The battlefield sacrifice only
occurred when two armies prepared for battle against each other. Neither force would
advance until the seer revealed appropriate omens.[citation needed]
Because the seers had such power over influential individuals in ancient Greece, many
were skeptical of the accuracy and honesty of the seers. The degree to which seers
were honest depends entirely on the individual seers. Despite the doubt surrounding
individual seers, the craft as a whole was well regarded and trusted by the Greeks,
[16]
and the Stoics accounted for the validity of divination in their physics.
Middle Ages and Early Modern period[edit]
Further information: Medieval magic, Renaissance magic, and Folk Catholicism
The divination method of casting lots (Cleromancy) was used by the remaining eleven
disciples of Jesus in Acts 1:23–26 to select a replacement for Judas Iscariot. Therefore,
divination was arguably an accepted practice in the early church. However, divination
became viewed as a pagan practice by Christian emperors during ancient Rome.[17]
In 692 the Quinisext Council, also known as the "Council in Trullo" in the Eastern
Orthodox Church, passed canons to eliminate pagan and divination practices.
[18]
Fortune-telling and other forms of divination were widespread through the Middle
Ages.[19] In the constitution of 1572 and public regulations of 1661 of the Electorate of
Saxony, capital punishment was used on those predicting the future.[20] Laws forbidding
divination practice continue to this day.[21] The Waldensians sect were accused of
practicing divination.[22]
Småland is famous for Årsgång, a practice which occurred until the early 19th century in
some parts of Småland. Generally occurring on Christmas and New Year's Eve, it is a
practice in which one would fast and keep themselves away from light in a room until
midnight to then complete a set of complex events to interpret symbols encountered
throughout the journey to foresee the coming year.[23]
In Islam, astrology (‘ilm ahkam al-nujum), the most widespread divinatory science, is the
study of how celestial entities could be applied to the daily lives of people on earth. [24][25] It
is important to emphasize the practical nature of divinatory sciences because people
from all socioeconomic levels and pedigrees sought the advice of astrologers to make
important decisions in their lives.[26] Astronomy was made a distinct science by
intellectuals who did not agree with the former, although distinction may not have been
made in daily practice, where astrology was technically outlawed and only tolerated if it
was employed in public. Astrologers, trained as scientists and astronomers, were able
to interpret the celestial forces that ruled the "sub-lunar" to predict a variety of
information from lunar phases and drought to times of prayer and the foundation of
cities. The courtly sanction and elite patronage of Muslim rulers benefited astrologers’
intellectual statures.[27]

Joseph Enthroned. Folio from the "Book of Omens"

(Falnama), Safavid Dynasty. 1550. Freer Gallery of Art. This painting would have been
positioned alongside a prognostic description of the meaning of this image on the page
opposite (conventionally to the left). The reader would flip randomly to a place in the
book and digest the text having first viewed the image.
The “science of the sand” (‘ilm al-raml), otherwise translated as geomancy, is “based on
the interpretation of figures traced on sand or other surface known as geomantic
figures.”[28] It is a good example of Islamic divination at a popular level. The core principle
that meaning derives from a unique occupied position is identical to the core principle of
astrology.
Like astronomy, geomancy used deduction and computation to uncover
significant prophecies as opposed to omens (‘ilm al-fa’l), which were process of
“reading” visible random events to decipher the invisible realities from which they
originated. It was upheld by prophetic tradition and relied almost exclusively on text,
specifically the Qur’an (which carried a table for guidance) and poetry, as a
development of bibliomancy.[28] The practice culminated in the appearance of the
illustrated “Books of Omens” (Falnama) in the early 16th century, an embodiment of the
apocalyptic fears as the end of the millennium in the Islamic calendar approached.[29]
Dream interpretation, or oneiromancy (‘ilm ta’bir al-ru’ya), is more specific to Islam than
other divinatory science, largely because of the Qur’an’s emphasis on the predictive
dreams of Abraham, Yusuf, and Muhammad. The important delineation within the
practice lies between “incoherent dreams” and “sound dreams,” which were “a part of
prophecy” or heavenly message.[30] Dream interpretation was always tied to Islamic
religious texts, providing a moral compass to those seeking advice. The practitioner
needed to be skilled enough to apply the individual dream to general precedent while
appraising the singular circumstances.[31]
The power of text held significant weight in the "science of letters" (‘ilm al-huruf), the
foundational principle being "God created the world through His speech."[32] The science
began with the concept of language, specifically Arabic, as the expression of "the
essence of what it signifies."[32] Once the believer understood this, while remaining
obedient to God’s will, they could uncover the essence and divine truth of the objects
inscribed with Arabic like amulets and talismans through the study of the letters of the
Qur’an with alphanumeric computations.[32]
In Islamic practice in Senegal and Gambia, just like many other West African countries,
diviners and religious leaders and healers were interchangeable because Islam was
closely related with esoteric practices (like divination), which were responsible for the
regional spread of Islam. As scholars learned esoteric sciences, they joined local non-
Islamic aristocratic courts, who quickly aligned divination and amulets with the "proof of
the power of Islamic religion."[33] So strong was the idea of esoteric knowledge in West
African Islam, diviners and magicians uneducated in Islamic texts and Arabic bore the
same titles as those who did.[34]
From the beginning of Islam, there "was (and is) still a vigorous debate about whether or
not such [divinatory] practices were actually permissible under Islam,” with some
scholars like Abu-Hamid al Ghazili (d. 1111) objecting to the science of divination
because he believed it bore too much similarity to pagan practices of invoking spiritual
entities that were not God.[35][24] Other scholars justified esoteric sciences by comparing a
practitioner to "a physician trying to heal the sick with the help of the same natural
principles."[36]
Mesoamerica[edit]
See also: Mesoamerican religion
Divination was a central component of ancient Mesoamerican religious life. Many Aztec
gods, including central creator gods, were described as diviners and were closely
associated with sorcery. Tezcatlipoca is the patron of sorcerers and practitioners
of magic. His name means "smoking mirror," a reference to a device used for
divinatory scrying.[37] In the Mayan Popol Vuh, the creator gods Xmucane and
Xpiacoc perform divinatory hand casting during the creation of people.[37] The
Aztec Codex Borbonicus shows the original human couple, Oxomoco and Cipactonal,
engaged in divining with kernels of maize. This primordial pair is associated with the
ritual calendar, and the Aztecs considered them to be the first diviners.[38]
Every civilization that developed in pre-Columbian Mexico, from the Olmecs to
the Aztecs, practiced divination in daily life, both public and private. Scrying through the
use of reflective water surfaces, mirrors, or the casting of lots were among the most
widespread forms of divinatory practice. Visions derived from hallucinogens were
another important form of divination, and are still widely used among contemporary
diviners of Mexico. Among the more common hallucinogenic plants used in divination
are morning glory, jimson weed, and peyote.[37]
Contemporary divination in Asia[edit]
India and Nepal[edit]
Theyyam or "theiyam" in Malayalam is the process by which a devotee invites
a Hindu god or goddess to use his or her body as a medium or channel and answer
other devotees' questions.[39] The same is called "arulvaakku" or "arulvaak" in Tamil,
another south Indian language - Adhiparasakthi Siddhar Peetam is famous for
arulvakku in Tamil Nadu.[40] The people in and around Mangalore in Karnataka call the
same, Buta Kola, "paathri" or "darshin"; in other parts of Karnataka, it is known by
various names such as, "prashnaavali", "vaagdaana", "asei", "aashirvachana", and so
on.[41][42][43][44][45] In Nepal it is known as, "Devta ka dhaamee" or "jhaakri".[46]
In English, the closest translation for these is, "oracle." The Dalai Lama, who lives in
exile in northern India, still consults an oracle known as the Nechung Oracle, which is
considered the official state oracle of the government of Tibet. The Dalai Lama has
according to centuries-old custom, consulted the Nechung Oracle during the new year
festivities of Losar.[47]
Japan[edit]
Although Japan retains a history of traditional and local methods of divination, such
as onmyōdō, contemporary divination in Japan, called uranai, derives from outside
sources.[48] Contemporary methods of divination in Japan include both Western and
Chinese astrology, geomancy or feng shui, tarot cards, I Ching (Book of
Changes) divination, and physiognomy (methods of reading the body to identify traits).[48]
In Japan, divination methods include Futomani from the Shinto tradition.[citation needed]
Personality types[edit]
Personality typing as a form of divination has been prevalent in Japan since the 1980s.
Various methods exist for divining personality type. Each attempt to reveal glimpses of
an individual's destiny, productive and inhibiting traits, future parenting techniques, and
compatibility in marriage. Personality type is increasingly important for young Japanese,
who consider personality the driving factor of compatibility, given the ongoing marriage
drought and birth rate decline in Japan.[49]
An import to Japan, Chinese zodiac signs based on the birth year in 12 year cycles (rat,
ox, tiger, hare, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, cock, dog, and boar) are
frequently combined with other forms of divination, such as so-called 'celestial types'
based on the planets (Saturn, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Mercury, or Uranus). Personality
can also be divined using cardinal directions, the four elements (water, earth, fire, air),
and yin-yang. Names can also lend important personality information under name
classification which asserts that names bearing certain Japanese vowel sounds (a, i, u,
e, o) share common characteristics. Numerology, which utilizes methods of divining
'birth numbers' from significant numbers such as birth date, may also reveal character
traits of individuals.[49]
Individuals can also assess their own and others' personalities according to physical
characteristics. Blood type remains a popular form of divination from physiology.
Stemming from Western influences, body reading or ninsou, determines personality
traits based on body measurements. The face is the most commonly analyzed feature,
with eye size, pupil shape, mouth shape, and eyebrow shape representing the most
important traits. An upturned mouth may be cheerful, and a triangle eyebrow may
indicate that someone is strong-willed.[49]
Methods of assessment in daily life may include self-taken measurements or quizzes.
As such, magazines targeted at women in their early-to-mid twenties feature the highest
concentration of personality assessment guides. There are approximately 144 different
women's magazines, known as nihon zashi koukoku kyoukai, published in Japan aimed
at this audience.[49]
Japanese tarot[edit]
The adaptation of the Western divination method of tarot cards into Japanese culture
presents a particularly unique example of contemporary divination as this adaptation
mingles with Japan's robust visual culture. Japanese tarot cards are created by
professional artists, advertisers, and fans of tarot. One tarot card collector claimed to
have accumulated more than 1,500 Japan-made decks of tarot cards.
Japanese tarot cards fall into diverse categories such as:

 Inspiration Tarot (reikan tarotto);

 I-Ching Tarot (ekisen tarotto);
 Spiritual Tarot (supirichuaru tarotto);
 Western Tarot (seiyō tarotto); and
 Eastern Tarot (tōyō tarotto).
The images on tarot cards may come from images from Japanese popular culture, such
as characters from manga and anime including Hello Kitty, or may feature cultural
symbols. Tarot cards may adapt the images of Japanese historical figures, such as high
priestess Himiko (170–248CE) or imperial court wizard Abe no Seimei (921–1005CE) .
Still others may feature images of cultural displacement, such as English
knights, pentagrams, the Jewish Torah, or invented glyphs. The introduction of such
cards began by the 1930s and reached prominence 1970s. Japanese tarot cards were
originally created by men, often based on the Rider-Waite-Smith tarot published by the
Rider Company in London in 1909.[50] Since, the practice of Japanese tarot has become
overwhelmingly feminine and intertwined with kawaii culture. Referring to the cuteness
of tarot cards, Japanese model Kuromiya Niina was quoted as saying "because the
images are cute, even holding them is enjoyable."[51] While these differences exist,
Japanese tarot cards function similarly to their Western counterparts. Cards are shuffled
and cut into piles then used to forecast the future, for spiritual reflection, or as a tool for
self-understanding.[50]
Taiwan[edit]
A common act of divination in Taiwan is called the Poe. “The Poe” translated to English
means “moon boards”. It consists of two wood or bamboo blocks cut into the shape of a
crescent moon. The one edge is rounded while the other is flat; the two are mirror
images. Both crescents are held out in one's palms and while kneeling, they are raised
to the forehead level. Once in this position, the blocks are dropped and the future can
be understood depending on their landing. If both fall flat side up or both fall rounded
side up, that can be taken as a failure of the deity to agree. If the blocks land one
rounded and one flat, the deity indicates "Yes", or positive. “Laughing poe” is when
rounded sides land down and they rock before coming to a standstill. “Negative poe” is
when the flat sides fall downward and abruptly stop; this indicates "No". When there is a
positive fall, it is called “Sacred poe”, although the negative falls are not usually taken
seriously. As the blocks are being dropped the question is said in a murmur, and if the
answer is yes, the blocks are dropped again. To make sure the answer is definitely a
yes, the blocks must fall in a “yes” position three times in a row.[citation needed]
A more serious type of divination is the Kiō-á. There is a small wooden chair, and
around the sides of the chair are small pieces of wood that can move up and down in
their sockets, this causes a clicking sounds when the chair is moved in any way. Two
men hold this chair by its legs before an altar, while the incense is being burned, and
the deity is invited to descend onto the chair. It is seen that it is in the chair by an onset
of motion. Eventually, the chair crashes onto a table prepared with wood chips and
burlap. The characters on the table are then traced and these are said to be written by
the deity who possessed the chair, these characters are then interpreted for the
devotees.[52]
Contemporary divination in Africa[edit]
Further information: African divination
Divination is widespread throughout Africa. Among many examples it is one of the
central tenets of Serer religion in Senegal. Only those who have been initiated
as Saltigues (the Serer high priests and priestesses) can divine the future.[53][54] These are
the "hereditary rain priests"[55] whose role is both religious and medicinal.[54][55]
See also[edit]
 Astrology
 Chinese fortune telling
 Fortune telling
 Geomancy
 Jiaobei
 Kau chim
 List of occult terms
 Methods of divination
 Oneiromancy
 Prophecy
  Qimen Dunjia
 Sandobele
 Shaobing Song
 Tengenjutsu (fortune telling)
 Tui bei tu

Eleven Naqshbandi principles

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

11 principles of Naqshbandiyya
The Eleven Naqshbandi principles or the "rules or secrets of the Naqshbandi",
known in Persian as the kalimat-i qudsiya ("sacred words" or "virtuous words"),[1] are a
system of principles and guidelines used as spiritual exercises,[2] or to encourage certain
preferred states of being, in the Naqshbandi Sufi order of Islamic mysticism.
Background[edit]
There were originally eight principles formulated by the Central Asian Sufi teacher Abdul
Khaliq Gajadwani (died 1179), the last three of the eleven being added later by Baha-
ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari (1318–1389), founder of the Naqshbandi Order.[3] Both
were Khwajagan (Masters) of the Sufi tariqah (path, way or method).
These principles are designed to be borne in mind and used as spiritual practices or
exercises in the Naqshbandi system of spiritual development. They are carried out
under individual tuition, expertly prescribed, monitored for changes, and carefully
adjusted by a teacher, rather than being automatically performed.[2]
The principles have been brought to the attention of contemporary Western audiences
through the works of the writers Idries Shah,[2][4] John G. Bennett,[5] Omar Ali-
Shah[6] and J. Spencer Trimingham.[7] The exercises were an important aspect of Omar
Ali-Shah's work with groups in the modern Naqshbandi tradition in the West. For
instance, one of Ali-Shah's books of edited transcripts, The Rules or Secrets of the
Naqshbandi Order, was devoted to this subject.[6]
The Eleven principles[edit]
The Eleven principles are as follows,[2][4][6][7] shown in the order used by Idries Shah in A
Perfumed Scorpion,[2] which differs slightly (in items 5 to 8)[8] from the order presented by
Omar Ali-Shah:
1. Hush dar dam (or hosh dar dam) — awareness of breathing
Being aware or conscious of one's breathing. Breathing deeply in a natural
rhythm without being preoccupied by breathing. Inhaling and exhaling whilst in
remembrance of God.
2. Nazar ba kadam (or nazar bar qadam) — watching over the steps
Watching over one's steps, ie being aware of one's intention. Paying attention
and not being distracted from one's goal, maintaining awareness and being open
to opportunities, so that one does the right thing at the right time.
3. Safar dar watan — travelling in the Homeland
Making an interior journey, ie inside oneself, observing oneself in a detached and
not overly-critical manner, learning from one's errors and travelling from
blameworthy to praiseworthy qualities.
4. Khilwat dar anjuman (or khalwat dar anjuman) — retirement in
company
Developing the ability to detach from and distance oneself from external noise,
disturbance and confusion when in company, and remain tranquil, perhaps with
the aid of a zikr, an exercise in remembrance of God. Also being able to re-attach
one's attention to the outward when necessary. Though outwardly the Sufi is in
the world, inwardly he or she is with God.
5. Yad kardan (or yad kard) — remembering, recollecting exercises
Remembering experiences one has had and that one is a part of the Tradition
from which one may draw positive energy and derive strength. Using inner or
vocalized zikr, remembrance or "making mention" of the Divine names, to remain
attentive and alert, and so that the heart becomes aware of the presence of Truth
(Al Haqq).
6. Baaz gasht (or baz gasht) — restraint
Being self-disciplined, for example cultivating the quality of patience, keeping
one's thoughts from straying when repeating the Shahada (the declaration of the
Oneness of God and the acceptance of Muhammad as his prophet), being
repentant and returning to righteousness.
7. Neegar dashtan (or nigah dasht) — watchfulness, use of
special faculties
Concentrating on the presence of God. Being alert, watchful for and open to
subtle perceptions, positive energy, positive opportunity and positive impacts.
Being watchful over passing thoughts.
 8. Yad dashtan (or yad dasht) — keeping of the memory,
sensing of the being and the body
Sensing one's being and one's body, recalling positive memories and positive
experiences.
9. Ukufi zamani (or wuquf-e zamani) — time-
halt (or pause)
Suspending intellect, judgement, preconceptions and conditioned thought.
Reprising one's thoughts and actions. Accounting for how one's time is spent,
being thankful for acts of righteousness and asking forgiveness for wrongdoing.
10. Ukufi adadi (or wuquf-e adadi) — number-
halt (or pause)
Carrying out exercises involving numbers, such as the awareness of the number
of repetitions when carrying out one's silent heart zikr exercise, and also certain
forms of counting using the Abjad[9] system.
11. Ukufi qalbi (or wuquf-e qalbi) — heart-
halt (or pause) or visualisation
Visualising one's heart (Qalb), perhaps with the name of God inscribed on it, and
identifying with Truth or with God.

Runic magic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Runecraft" redirects here. For the video game studio, see Runecraft (company).
"Runescript" redirects here. For the video game scripting language, see RuneScript.
There is some evidence that, in addition to being a writing system, runes historically
served purposes of magic. This is the case from the earliest epigraphic evidence of
the Roman to the Germanic Iron Age, with non-linguistic inscriptions and the alu word.
An erilaz appears to have been a person versed in runes, including their magic
applications.
In medieval sources, notably the Poetic Edda, the Sigrdrífumál mentions "victory runes"
to be carved on a sword, "some on the grasp and some on the inlay, and
name Tyr twice."
In the early modern period and modern history, related folklore and superstition is
recorded in the form of the Icelandic magical staves. In the early 20th
century, Germanic mysticism coined new forms of "runic magic", some of which were
continued or developed further by contemporary adherents of Germanic Neopaganism.
Modern systems of runic divination are based on Hermeticism, classical Occultism,
and the I Ching.
Historical evidence[edit]
 Bracteate G 205 (ca. 5th to 7th century), bearing the
inscription alu.
Tacitus[edit]
Historically it is known that the Germanic peoples used various forms of divination and
means of reading omens. Tacitus (Germania 10) gives a detailed account (98AD):
They attach the highest importance to the taking of auspices and casting lots.
Their usual procedure with the lot is simple. They cut off a branch from a nut-
bearing tree and slice it into strips these they mark with different signs and throw
them at random onto a white cloth. Then the state's priest, if it is an official
consultation, or the father of the family, in a private one, offers prayer to the gods
and looking up towards heaven picks up three strips, one at a time, and,
according to which sign they have previously been marked with, makes his
interpretation. If the lots forbid an undertaking, there is no deliberation that day
about the matter in question. If they allow it, further confirmation is required by
taking auspices.[1]
It is often debated whether "signs" refers specifically to runes or to other marks; both
interpretations are plausible and Tacitus does not give enough detail for a definite
decision to be made.[2]
Epigraphy[edit]
See also: Category:Historical runic magic

The inscription on the Kylver stone ends with a

stacked bind rune combining six Tiwaz runes used to invoke the god Tyr and four Ansuz
runes to invoke the Æsir. [3]

The Ansuz and Tiwaz runes in particular seem to have had magical significance in the
early (Elder Futhark) period.[citation needed] The Sigrdrífumál instruction of "name Tyr twice" is
reminiscent of the double or triple "stacked Tyr" bindrunes found e.g. on Seeland-II-C or
the Lindholm amulet in the aaaaaaaazzznnn-b- muttt, sequence, which besides stacked
Tyr involves multiple repetition of Ansuz, but also triple occurrence of Algiz and Naudiz.
Many inscriptions also have apparently meaningless utterances interpreted as magical
chants, such as tuwatuwa (Vadstena bracteate), aaduaaaliia (DR BR42)
or g͡ æg͡ og͡ æ (Undley bracteate), g͡ ag͡ ag͡ a (Kragehul I).
Alu is a charm word appearing on numerous artifacts found in Central and Northern
Europe dating from the Germanic Iron Age. The word is the most common of the early
runic charm words and can appear either alone or as part of an apparent formula. The
origin and meaning of the word are matters of dispute, though a general agreement
exists among scholars that the word either represents amulet magic or is a metaphor
(or metonym) for it.[4]
A few Viking Age rings with runic inscriptions of apparently magical nature were found,
among them the Kingmoor Ring. The phrase "runes of power" is found on
two runestones in Sweden, DR 357 from Stentoften and DR 360 from Björketorp.
Runestones with curses include DR 81 in Skjern, DR 83 in Sønder Vinge, DR 209 in
Glavendrup, DR 230 from Tryggevælde, DR 338 in Glemminge, and Vg 67 in Saleby.[5]
Medieval sources[edit]
The most prolific source for runic magic in the Poetic Edda is the Sigrdrífumál, where
the valkyrie Sigrdrífa (Brynhild) presents Sigurd with a memory-draught of ale that had
been charmed with "gladness runes" (stanza 5),
Biór fori ec þer / brynþings apaldr! "Beer I bring thee, tree of battle,
magni blandinn / oc megintíri; Mingled of strength and mighty fame;
fullr er hann lioþa / oc licnstafa, Charms it holds and healing signs,
godra galdra / oc gamanruna. Spells full good, and gladness-runes."[6]

She goes on to give advice on the magical runes in seven further stanzas. In all
instances, the runes are used for actual magic (apotropaic or ability-enhancing spells)
rather than for divination:

 "victory runes" to be carved on the sword hilt (stanza 6, presumably referring

to the t rune named for Tyr[7]),
 ølrunar "Ale-runes" (stanza 7, a protective spell against being bewitched by
means of ale served by the host's wife; naudiz is to be marked on one's
fingernails, and laukaz on the cup),
 biargrunar "birth-runes" (stanza 8, a spell to facilitate childbirth),
 brimrunar "wave-runes" (stanza 9, a spell for the protection of ships, with
runes to be carved on the stem and on the rudder),
 limrunar "branch-runes" (stanza 10, a healing spell, the runes to be carved on
trees "with boughs to the eastward bent"),[8]
 malrunar "speech-runes" (stanza 11, the stanza is corrupt, but apparently
referred to a spell to improve one's rhetorical ability at the thing),
 hugrunar "thought-runes" (stanza 12, the stanza is incomplete, but clearly
discussed a spell to improve one's wit).[9]
The Poetic Edda also seems to corroborate the magical significance of the runes
the Hávamál where Odin mentions runes in contexts of divination,[dubious – discuss] of healing
and of necromancy (trans. Bellows):
"Certain is that which is sought from runes / That the gods so great have made / And
the Master-Poet painted" (79)
"Of runes heard I words, nor were counsels wanting / At the hall of Hor" (111)
"Grass cures the scab / and runes the sword-cut" (137)
"Runes shalt thou find / and fateful signs" (143)
" if high on a tree / I see a hanged man swing / So do I write and color the runes /
That forth he fares / And to me talks." (158)
Other oft cited sources for the practice of runic[dubious – discuss] divination are chapter 38
of Snorri Sturluson's Ynglinga Saga, where Granmar, the king of Södermanland,
travels to the Temple at Uppsala for the seasonal blót. "There, the chips fell in a
way that said that he would not live long" (Féll honum þá svo spánn sem hann
mundi eigi lengi lifa).[10]
Another source is in the Vita Ansgari, the biography of Ansgar the Archbishop of
Hamburg-Bremen, which was written by a monk named Rimbert. Rimbert details
the custom of casting lots by the pagan Norse (chapters 26–30).[11] The chips and
the lots, however, can be explained respectively as a blótspánn (sacrificial chip)
and a hlauttein (lot-twig), which according to Foote and Wilson [12] would be
"marked, possibly with sacrificial blood, shaken and thrown down like dice, and
their positive or negative significance then decided."
Egils Saga features several incidents of runic magic. The most celebrated is the
scene where Egil discovers (and destroys) a poisoned drink prepared for him, by
cutting his hand and cutting runes on the drinking horn, and painting the runes
with blood. While the motif of blood painted runes also appears in other
examples of early Norse literature it is uncertain whether the practice of painting
runes with blood is merely a literary invention or whether it had precedence in
magical practice.[13]
Modern systems[edit]

Runic divination using ceramic tiles

In the 17th century, Hermeticist and Rosicrucian Johannes Bureus, having been
inspired by visions, developed a Runic system based on the Kaballah and the
Futhark which he called the Adulruna.[14]
The Armanen runes "revealed" to Guido von List in 1902 were employed for
magical purposes in Germanic mysticism by authors such as Friedrich Bernhard
Marby and Siegfried Adolf Kummer, and after World War II in a reformed
"pansophical" system by Karl Spiesberger. More recently, Stephen
Flowers, Adolf Schleipfer, Larry E. Camp and others also build on List's system.
[citation needed]

Several modern systems of runic magic and runic divination were published from
the 1980s onward. The first book on runic divination, written by Ralph Blum in
1982, led to the development of sets of runes designed for use in several such
systems of fortune telling, in which the runes are typically incised in clay, stone
tiles, crystals, resin, glass, or polished stones, then either selected one-by-one
from a closed bag or thrown down at random for reading.
Later authors such as Diana L. Paxson and Freya Aswynn follow Blum (1989) in
drawing a direct correlation between runic divination and tarot divination. They
may discuss runes in the context of "spreads" and advocate the usage of "rune
cards".
Modern authors like Ralph Blum sometimes include a "blank rune" in their sets.
Some were to replace a lost rune, but according to Ralph Blum this was the
god Odin's rune, the rune of the beginning and the end, representing "the divine
in all human transactions".[15]
Ralph Blum[edit]
In 1982, a modern usage of the runes for answering life's questions was
apparently originated by Ralph Blum in his divination book The Book of Runes: A
Handbook for the Use of an Ancient Oracle, which was marketed with a small
bag of round tiles with runes stamped on them. This book has remained in print
since its first publication. The sources for Blum's divinatory interpretations, as he
explained in The Book of Runes itself, drew heavily on then-current books
describing the ancient I Ching divination system of China.
Each of Blum's seven books on runic divination deals with a specialized area of
life or a varied technique for reading runes:

 The Book of Runes: A Handbook for the Use of an Ancient Oracle:

The Viking Runes (1982); revised 10th Anniversary Edition (1992);
revised 25th Anniversary Edition (2007).
 The Rune Cards: Sacred Play for Self Discovery (1989); reissued
as The Rune Cards: Ancient Wisdom For the New Millennium (1997).
Rather than rune stones, this book uses images of the runes printed
on card stock, much like a set of trading cards or tarot cards.
 The Healing Runes with co-author Susan Loughan (1995) teaches
methods for using runic divination in the context of health and personal
integration.
 Rune Play: A Method of Self Counseling and a Year-Round Rune
Casting Record Book (1996)
 The Serenity Runes: Five Keys to the Serenity Prayer with co-author
Susan Loughan (1998); reissued as The Serenity Runes: Five Keys to
Spiritual Recovery (2005) utilizes runic divination as a method for
assisting self-help and recovery from addictions; the title is a reference
to the well-known Serenity prayer widely used in the 12-step
program of Alcoholics Anonymous.
 Ralph H. Blum's Little Book of Runic Wisdom (2002).
  The Relationship Runes: A Compass for the Heart with co-author
Bronwyn Jones (2003) shows how to use runic divination in matters of
love and friendship.
Blum has also written books on the Tao Te Ching, Zen Buddhism, and UFOs.
Stephen Flowers[edit]
In the wake of a 1984 dissertation on "Runes and Magic", Stephen
Flowers published a series of books under the pen-name "Edred Thorsson"
which detailed his own original method of runic divination and magic, "odianism",
[16]
which he said was loosely based on historical sources and modern
European hermeticism. These books were:

 Futhark: A Handbook of Rune Magic[17] (1984)

 Runelore: A Handbook of Esoteric Runology (1987)
 At The Well of Wyrd (1988) which was later reprinted under the
title Runecaster’s Handbook: The Well of Wyrd.
 Northern Magic: Rune Mysteries and Shamanism (2002).
Runic divination is a component of Flowers' "esoteric runology" course offered to
members of his Rune-Gild, as detailed in The Nine Doors of Midgard: A
Curriculum of Rune-Work. Besides runic divination, Flowers also advocated the
"runic gymnastics" (Runengymnastik) developed in the 1920s by Friedrich
Marby, under the name of "Rune-Yoga" (also "Runic Yoga", "Stadhagaldr"). [18]
Stephan Grundy[edit]
In 1990, Stephan Grundy, a.k.a. Kveldulf Gundarsson, described runic magic as
the active principle as opposed to passive interpretations based on runic
divination. He held that runic magic is more active than the
allegedly shamanic practice of seid practiced by the Seiðkona. Runic magic, he
states, uses the runes to affect the world outside based on the archetypes they
represent.[19]
Most of Gundarsson's runic magic entails being in possession of a physical entity
that is engraved with any or all of the individual runes or "staves", so as to
practically work with their energies. The individual runes are reddened with either
blood, dyes, or paints. The act of possessing the stave in its final form serves the
purpose of affecting the world of form with "the rune might" of that particular
stave. After use, the staves are discarded or destroyed.[20]
Gundarsson holds that each rune has a certain sound to it, to be chanted or
sung; the sound has in common the phonetic value by which it is represented.
[21]
This act of singing or chanting is supposed to have more or less the same
effect of using the staves in their physical form.[22]
Icelandic magical staves
Icelandic magical staves (Icelandic: galdrastafir) are sigils that were credited with supposed
magical effect preserved in various Icelandic grimoires, such as the Galdrabók, dating from the 17th
century and later.[1][better source needed]

Table of magical staves[edit]

Icelandic name Manuscript description Image

“To get a girl”, this magical stave is used by a man in love

Að unni
to gain the affections of the object of his desires.[2]

Helm of Awe (or Helm of Terror); to induce fear, protect the

Ægishjálmur
warrior, and prevail in battle.[2]

Angurgapi Carved on the ends of barrels to prevent leaking.[citation needed]

Brýnslustafir For use on whetstones.[3]

Draumstafir To dream of unfulfilled desires.[3]

Dreprún To kill an enemy's cattle.[4]

Feingur A fertility rune.[3]

Gapaldur

Two staves, kept in the shoes, gapaldur under the heel of

the right foot and ginfaxi under the toes of the left foot, to
magically ensure victory in bouts of
Icelandic wrestling (glíma).[2]

Ginfaxi

Hólastafur To open hills.[2]

Kaupaloki To prosper in trade and business.[2]

Lásabrjótur To open a lock without a key.

Whoever carries this symbol with them encounters no evil,

Lukkustafir
neither on the sea nor on the land.[5]

Máladeilan To win in court.[6]

A stave used when making necropants (nábrók), a pair of

Nábrókarstafur trousers made from the skin of a dead man that are
capable of producing an endless supply of money.[7]

To make your enemies afraid.[8] (A similar looking stave is

Skelkunarstafur
titled Óttastafur in the Huld Manuscript.)

Rosahringur
A lesser circle of protection.[2]
minni
 Butterknot, to find out if butter was made using milk stolen
Smjörhnútur
by a Tilberi.[9]

Stafur gegn galdri Staves against witchcraft.[10]

Stafur til að vekja

To raise the dead and drive away evil spirits.[2]
upp draug

Þjófastafur For use against thieves.[11]

Tóustefna To ward off foxes.[12]

Varnarstafur Valdemar's Protection Stave; increases favor and
Valdemars happiness.

Vatnahlífir Protection against drowning.

Vegvísir To guide people through rough weather.[3]

Veiðistafur For luck in fishing.

List of runestones

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

There are about 3,000 runestones in Scandinavia (out of a total of about 6,000 runic
inscriptions).[1]
The runestones are unevenly distributed in Scandinavia: The majority are found
in Sweden, estimated at between 1,700[2] and 2,500 (depending on definition). Denmark
has 250 runestones, and Norway has 50.[2]
There are also runestones in other areas reached by the Viking expansion, especially in
the British Isles.[3] Most of these were on the Isle of Man where 31 from the Viking era
have been found. Four have also been discovered in England, fewer than eight in
Scotland and one or two in Ireland.[4] There are scattered examples elsewhere
(the Berezan' Runestone in Eastern Europe,[5] and runic graffiti on the Piraeus Lion from
Greece but today in Venice, Italy).[6]
The vast majority of runestones date to the Viking Age and the period immediately
following the Christianisation of Scandinavia (9th to 12th centuries). A small number
predates the 9th century; one of the last runestones was raised in memory of the
archbishop Absalon (d. 1201).[7] A small number of runestones may date to the late
medieval to early modern period, such as the Fámjin stone (Faroe Islands), dated to the
Reformation period. Modern runestones (as imitations or forgeries of Viking Age
runestones) began to be produced in the 19th century Viking Revival.
The Scandinavian Runic-text Data Base (Samnordisk runtextdatabas) is a project
involving the creation and maintenance of a database of runestones in
the Rundata database.[8]
Elder Futhark runestones[edit]
The vast majority of runestones date to the Viking Age. There is only a handful Elder
Futhark (pre-Viking-Age) runestones (about eight, counting the transitional specimens
created just around the beginning of the Viking Age).

 Årstad Stone (390–590 AD)

 Einang stone (4th century)
 Tune Runestone (250–400 AD)
 Kylver Stone (5th century)
 Möjbro Runestone (5th or early 6th century)
 Järsberg Runestone (transitional, 6th century)
 Björketorp Runestone (transitional, 7th century)
 Stentoften (transitional, 7th century)
 Eggjum stone (8th century)
 Rök runestone (transitional, ca. 800 AD)
 Hogganvik runestone (350–500 AD)
Younger Futhark runestones[edit]
The England runestones[edit]
The England runestones are a group of about 30 runestones located mostly in Sweden,
with some in Norway, Denmark and northern Germany, which refer to Viking
Age voyages to England.[9]
Scandinavia proper[edit]
Sweden[edit]
The number of runestones in Sweden is estimated at between 1,700[2] and 2,500
(depending on definition).[2]
The Swedish district of Uppland has the highest concentration with as many as 1,196
inscriptions in stone, whereas Södermanland is second with 391).[10]

 Varangian Runestones – inscriptions that mention voyages to the East

(Austr) or the Eastern route (Austrvegr).
 Ingvar Runestones – 26 Varangian runestones that were raised in
commemoration of those who died in the Swedish Viking expedition to the
Caspian Sea of Ingvar the Far-Travelled.
 Serkland Runestones – six or seven runestones which are Varangian
Runestones that mention voyages to Serkland, the Old Norse name for the
Muslim world in the south.
 Greece Runestones – 29 Varangian runestones that talk of voyages to
Greece, i.e. the Byzantine Empire.
 Viking Runestones – Stones that mention Scandinavians who participated in
Viking expeditions in western Europe, and stones that mention men who
were Viking warriors and/or died while travelling in the West.
 Jarlabanke Runestones – a collection of 20 runestones written in Old
Norse related to Jarlabanke Ingefastsson and his clan.
 Frösöstenen
 The Ramsund carving
 Sparlösa Runestone
 Rökstenen – the longest runic inscription in the world, located in the province
of Östergötland in Sweden
District of Hälsingland[edit]

 Hälsingland Rune Inscription 21

District of Medelpad[edit]

 Medelpad Rune Inscription 1

 Medelpad Rune Inscription 18
District of Småland[edit]

 Småland Runic Inscription 99

District of Skåne[edit]

 Sjörup Runestone
 Hyby Runestones (DR 264 and DR 265)
District of Uppland[edit]

 Färentuna Runestones (U 20, U 21 and U 22)

 Broby bro Runestones (U 135, U 136 and U 137)
 Hagby Runestones (U 152, U 153, U 154 and U 155)
 Lingsberg Runestones (U 240, U 241 and U 242)
 Hargs bro runic inscriptions (U 309, U 310 and U 311)
  Snottsta and Vreta stones (U 329, U 330, U 331 and U 332)
 Granby Runestone (U 337)
 Näsby Runestone (U 455)
 Vaksala Runestone (U 961)
 Krogsta Runestone (U 1125)
District Östergötland[edit]

 Högby Runestone
 Kälvesten Runestone
 Ledberg stone
District Gästrikland[edit]

Gästrikland Runic Inscription 7 (Gs 7)

Denmark[edit]
Denmark has a total of 250 known runestones.[2]

Eltang stone
Jelling stones
Rimsø Runestone
Snoldelev Stone
Sørup runestone
Norway[edit]
Norway has a total of 50 known runestones.[2]

 Dynna stone (11th century AD)

 Fåberg stone
 Granavollen Runestone (11th century AD)
 Grindheim stone (11th century AD)
 Hønen Runestone (11th century AD)
 Klepp I Runestone
 Kulisteinen (11th century AD)
 Norwegian Runic Inscription 239
 Oddernes stone (11th century AD)
 Svingerud Runestone (between 1st and 3rd centuries AD)
 Vang stone (11th century AD)
North Atlantic[edit]
British Isles[edit]

 Manx runestones: 31 surviving stones.[4]

 Princes Street Gardens Runestone, Edinburgh, Scotland
Faroe Islands[edit]
  Sandavágur stone (13th century)
 Kirkjubøur stone (11th century)
 Fámjin stone (16th century)
Greenland[edit]

 Kingittorsuaq Runestone
Other[edit]
Germany[edit]

 Hedeby stones, Hedeby (10th century AD)

 Sigtrygg Runestones (934 AD)
 Stone of Eric (10th century AD)
Italy[edit]

 Piraeus Lion, coming from Greece and today in Venice

 Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo, Apulia (South Italy)
Ukraine[edit]

 Berezan' Runestone, Berezan' Island

Image stones[edit]
 The Ardre image stones
 The Stora Hammars stones and the Tängelgarda stone, Lärbro parish
Modern runestones[edit]
A number of notable runestones of modern origin exist. Some of them are intended as
hoaxes, their creators attempting to imitate a Viking Age artefact. Especially since the
late 20th century, runestones in the style of the Viking Age were also made without
pretense of authenticity, either as independent works of art or as replicas as museum
exhibits or tourist attractions.[11]
This concerns especially runestones found in North America. There is also a limited set
of early modern runestones created after the end of the Viking Age but before the
"Viking Revival".

 Kensington runestone
 Narragansett Runestone
 Oklahoma runestones
 Vérendrye stone
 Spirit Pond Runestone
Page seven of the Book of Magical Charms, depicting a strange rune

The Book of Magical Charms original volume, that has dos-à-dos binding, has no title, nor any
named author. "Book of Magical Charms" is the title assigned to it by the library staff who acquired it
in 1988 along with a bundle of medical texts. Its pages were written using iron gall ink and likely
a quill pen utilising Latin and archaic English. The book contains numerous passages regarding
charms for things such as healing a toothache or recovering a lost voice as well as how to talk to
spirits.
Although the book's principal author is not named, he was identified in 2017 from his handwriting as
a London lawyer, Robert Ashley. Ashley likely composed the book over the course of his lifetime. No
copies of the book were ever made.[1][2]
The Newberry Library has made the book's pages available for the public to read and
transcribe/translate. The library dates the book c.1600–1699, and the subjects covered as: medicine,
magic, mysticism, and spagiric magic.[3]
1957 US Edition

Idries Shah
The author examines a vast accumulation of materials on human beliefs, magical practices and
ceremonies, from North Africa to Japan. Among much else, these include a conspectus
of Jewish, Tibetan, Arabian, Iranian and Indian magic, an account of Sufism and its origins, legends
of the sorcerers, examples of alchemy, talismans and magical rites found in the cultures studied, and
topics such as love magic, the witchdoctors of the Nile Valley, the ‘singing sands’ of Egypt,
subcutaneous electricity, and the prehistoric sources of Babylonian occult practices. There are also
personal accounts of, for instance, Shah’s ‘training’ under a Ju-Ju witch doctor, a demonstration
of Hindu levitation, and translations of what were considered secret alchemical and magical
formulae.
Shah finds that magical origins in High Asia have influenced communities halfway across the world,
and that the westward drift from that original source might explain the great similarity in magical
beliefs, practices and terminology in places as diverse as China, the Near
East, Scandinavia and Africa. The type of witch-doctoring (shamanism) practised in the east, for
example, is duplicated among the Finns, the Sami, and even the American Indians.
The author tracks distortions from original sources, winnows fact from supposition, allows for
alternative explanations of phenomena, such as physiological and psychological responses which
are separate from the apparent “magic”, and shows how much dross has accumulated around many
of the practices he inspects. But he suggests there also remains a residue of what, in magical
terminology, could be called “pure gold”, and that some of this “gold” is likely to reflect hitherto little-
understood forces “which may very possibly be harnessed to individual and collective advantage”.