232

FORMONEPHYSI
CSHANDBOOK
[
Wit
hwel
ldr
awndi
agr
ams
,solvedexamplesandques
tionsf
orexer
cis
e]
(2015Edi ti
on)

The f i
gure bel ow shows a
tr
ansver
sesect i
onofawat erdam.
Expl
ain why engineer
s pr
eferthe
desi
gntoothers.

Chweya,
N.E.

1|
Page
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Tabl
eofCont
ent
s
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Page2

BRI
EFPERSONALPROFI
LE Page2

GUI
DELI
NESI
NMYLI
FE Page2

Chapt
er1 I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOPHYSI
CS Page3

Chapt
er2 MEASUREMENT1 Page5

Chapt
er3 FORCE Page16

Chapt
er4 PRESSURE Page22

Chapt
er5 PARTI
CULATENATUREOFMATTER Page32

Chapt
er6 THERMALEXPANSI
ON Page36

Chapt
er7 HEATTRANSFER Page44

Chapt
er8 ELECTROSTATI
CSI Page51

Chapt
er9 CELLSANDSI
MPLECI
RCUI
TS Page55

Chapt
er10 RECTI
LINEARPROPAGATI
ONOFLI
GHT Page62
ANDREFLECTI
ONATPLANESURFACES

Acknowl
edgement
Fi
rstandforemostIt
hankt
heAl
might
yGodf
ort
hegi
ftofl
i
fe,ener
gy,knowl
edgeandski
l
lst
o
pursuet
hiswork.

Li
nest
hati
nfl
uenceact
ivi
ti
esi
nmyl
i
fe
1.Godi
sal
wayst
her
etoassi
stpr
ovi
dedyouaskf
orHi
m.
2.Ati
tsbest
,Physi
csel
i
minat
escompl
exi
tybyr
eveal
i
ngunder
lyi
ngsi
mpl
i
cit
y.
3.Ther
eisnomet
hodofchangi
ngyourf
ateexceptt
hroughhar
dwor
k.
4.Cohesi
on wi
thi
mmedi
ate nei
ghbor
s and det
ermi
nat
ion al
ways bet
ter
s youri
mmedi
ate

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

2
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

envi
ronment
.

Chapt
erOne I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOPHYS
ICS

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

3
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Physi
csasaSci
ence Relat
ionshi
p bet
ween Phy
sics, Ot
her Subj
ect
s and
Technology
 Phy
sicsi
sabr
anchofsci
ence
1. Physi
csAndGeogr
aphy
 Sci
encei
sdi
vi
dedi
nto3mai
nbr
anches:
-
 Accurat
e use of weat her instr
uments l i
ke
a) Phy
sics ther
mometer,wi nd v
ane,r
ain gauges et
c.requi
re
physi
csknowledge.
b) Chemi
str
y
 Conceptsl i
ke heatt r
ansf
erby conv ecti
on whi
ch
c) Bi
ology
explai
nt he format
ion ofconvecti
onalrai
nfal
land
Def
ini
ti
onofPhysi
cs pressur
ev ar
iati
oncanbebestexplai
nedinphysi
cs.

 Physicsisdef
inedasthestudyofmat t
erandi
ts 2. Phy
’ si
csandMathemati
cs
rel
ati
ontoener
gy .
 Manyconcept si
nphysi
csli
kelaws,ef
fect
s,pr
inci
ples
 I
tinvolv
esexpl
aini
ngphenomenasuchas: et
c.areexpr
essedmathemat
ical
ly
.

I
. Thef
all
i
ngofbodi
est
owar
dst
hegr
ound,  Mat
hemati
calski
l
lsaret
her
efor
ever
yinst
rument
ali
n
t
hel
eani
ngofphysics
I
I. Ri
singupofl
i
qui
dst
hroughadr
inki
ngst
raw,
3. Physi
csandChemi
str
y
I
II
. Seasonal
occur
renceoft
ides,
 Physics has hel
ped i
n expl
aining t
he nat
ure of
I
V. Aplasti
cpenrubbedagai
nstdr
yfurorhai
rpi
cks part
icleswit
hinat
omsandther
ef oreat
omi
cstruct
ure
smallpi
ecesofpaper
, ofsubstances.

V. Acr
ackl
ingsoundi
shear
dwhenany
loncl
othi
s  Atomicstr
uct
ureofdi ff
erent/vari
oussubstances
r
emovedetc. deter
minet
hei
rreact
ivi
ty(chemi
cal
react
ions)
.

St
udyofPhysi
cs 4. Physi
csandHi
stor
y

Thest
udyofphysi
csent
ail
s:  Hi
stori
ansuse car
bon dat
ing to est
abl
ish agesof
f
ossil
sandther
efor
epastpatt
ernsofearl
i
erli
fe.
i
. Measurements ofquanti
ties and col
lect
ion of
data.  Thisconceptofcar
bondat i
ngi
sexpl
ainedbet
teri
n
at
omicphysi
cs.
i
i
. Drawing and test
ing of hypotheses through
exper
imentsandobservat
ion. 5. Physi
csandHomeScience

i
i
i. Est
abl
i
shmentofl
awsandpr
inci
ples  Physi
cs knowledge is used i n desi
gni
ng and
manufact
ure of ki
tchen equipment e.
g. el
ect
ri
c
Br
anchesofPhy
sics
cooker
s,micr
owaveovens,
energysavi
ngji
koset
c.
1. Mechani
sm
6. Physi
csandTechnol
ogy
 Itdealswitht
hestudyofmot
ionundert
hei
nfl
uence
 Machinesusedinthef
i dofmedi
el ci
nesuchasx-r
ays,
off
orce.
body scanner
s and l
asers ar
e al
lappli
cat
ions of
2. El
ectr
ici
tyandmagneti
sm physi
cs.

 Manuf
act
ure and use ofsat
ell
i
tes and mi
crowav
e

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

4
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 I
tdealswit
hr el
ati
onshi
pbet weenelect
ri
cfiel
dand di ni
shes used i nf
ormat
ion technol
ogy t
o r
elay
magneti
cfi
eldandt hei
rappli
cati
onsintheworki
ng i
nfor
mati
onisbasedonphy
sicsknowledge
ofmotor
,micr
ophones,elect
ro-
magnetsetc.
 Physi
csknowledgeisal
sousedindefensei
ndust
ryin
3. Ther
modynami
cs the manuf
acture and use of most modern and
complexmachines.
 I tdealswiththetransformati
onofheattoandfr
om
other forms of ener gy and the accompany
ing 7. Physi
csandBi ol
ogy
changesinpressure,volumeetc.
 Knowl edgeoflensesstudiedi
nphysi
cshasledtot
he
4. Geomet ri
coptics manufactur
eofmi croscopesusedi
nthestudyoft
he
cel
landdiseases.
 I tdeals witht he behaviorofli
ghtas itpasses
throughvari
ousmedi a.

 Pr opert
iesofli
ghtli
ker ef
lect
ion,r
efracti
onet
c.are Car
eerOppor tunit
iesinPhy si
cs
studi
edinthisbr
anchofphy si
cs.
 Acar eerr efer
st oaj oborapr ofessionthatonehas
5. Waves beentrainedforandi ntendstodof oralongperi
odof
ti
me e. g.t eaching career,medi cine,engi
neeri
ng,
 I tdeal
swi thpropagat
ionofener gyt hr
oughspace el
ectr
ical t
echnici
anet c.
andef f
ectssuchasr ef l
ecti
on,dif
fract
ionofli
ght
andsoundwav es.  Acour ser efer
st olessonsinpart
icularsubj
ect

6. At
omi
cphysi
cs  Anoccupat
ionr
efer
stoaj
oborapr
ofessi
on.

 Iti
sdealswit
hthestudyoft hebehav
iorofpar
ti
cl
es
consti
tut
ingthenucl
eus( centr
e)oftheatom and
thei
raccompanyi
ngenergychanges.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

5
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Examples of courses offered at univer

sit
y l
evel Fi
rstAi
dMeasures
(degr
ees)t
hatrequi
rephysi
csknowl edge
Acci
dent Possibl
e Cause Fi
rstAi
dMeasur
es
(a)Bachel
orofeducati
on(science) oftheAcci
dent

(
b)Bachel
orofSci
ence(
civ
ilengi
neer
ing) Cut
s  Poor  Seek assist
ance
handling of tostopbl
eedi
ng
(
c)Bachel
orofmedi
cine
glass
apparatus  I
mmedi at
e
(
d)Bachel
orofar
chi
tect
ure
and cut ti
ng dressi
ng of the
(
e)Bachel
oroft
echnol
ogy(
product
ionengi
neer
ing) tools i
.e. w ound
scalpelsand
razors

Examplesofcoursesof
fer
edatcol
l
egel
evelt
hatr
equi
re bur
ns  Naked  Incaseofabur n
physi
csknowledge f
lames causedbyanaci d
orabase,qui ckly
(
a)Di
plomai
nci
vi
lengi
neer
ing  Splashes of run col d wat er
concentr
ate ov erthe af
fected
(
b)Di
plomai
ncomput
ersci
ence
d acidsand par tas y
ou seek
(
c)Di
plomai
nwat
ert
echnol
ogy bases for fur
ther
treatment
(
d)Di
plomai
nlabor
ator
ytechnol
ogy
Poi
soni
n  I
nhali
ng  Seeki
ng
g poi
sonous i
mmedi ate
TheLabor
ator
y f
umes assi
stance

 A labor
ator
yi s a speci
alr oom desi
gned and  Accidental
equi
ppedconduct
ingexper
imentsandpr
acti
cal
. swallowing
of
poisonous
chemi cal
s
Maj
orsyst
emsoft
heLabor
ator
y
Eye  Bit
s of  Incaseofirr
it
ating
i
. Gaspi
pingsy
stem damage sol
ids chemicals wash
yourey es wit
ha
i
i
. El
ect
ri
cal
ener
gysuppl
ysy
stem  Dangerous l
otofcleanwat er.
chemical
s
i
i
i. Wat
ersy
stem

Basi
cLabor
ator
yRul
es Elect
ri
ca  Touching  Putof fthe main
lshock exposed swit
chf i
rstbef
ore
 Forsafet
ypurposes,t
hef
oll
owi
nglabor
ator
yrul
es (
naked) tr
eati
ngtheshock
must be fol
l
owed and obser
ved whil
ei nthe wi
res
l
aborat
ory:
 Using faul
ty
1. Locat
ions of elect
ri
cal swit
ches, f
ir
efi
ghti
ng el
ectri
cal
equi
pment,f
ir
stai
dkit
,gassuppl
yandwatersuppl
y appli
ances
syst
emsmustbenoted.
Revi
sionExer
cise

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

6
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

2. Windows and doors shoul

d be keptopen whi
l
e 1) Name 3 br anches of sci
ence subj
ect i
n
worki
ngi
nt hel
aboratory
. secondar
yschool
s

3. Anyinst
ruct
ionsgi
venmustbefoll
owedcar
eful
l
y. 2) Expl
aint
hest
epsi
nvol
vedi
nsci
ent
if
icappr
oach.
NEVERattemptany
thi
ngwhi
l
eindoubt.
3) Name and br
ief
ly expl
aint
he br
anches of
4. Ther
eshouldnoeat
ing,dr
inki
ngorchewi
ngi
nthe physi
cs
l
aborat
ory
.
4) Gi
ve i
nst
ances wher
e physi
cs i
nter
dependent
5. Ensurethatallel
ect
ricalswi
tches,gasandwat
er wi
thagr
icul
tur
e.
tapsaretur
nedoffwhennotinuse.
5) Gr
oupt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
orm 1physi
cst
opi
csi
nto
6. Whenhandl
i
ngel
ect
ri
calappar
atus,handsmustbe t
hevar
iousbr
anchesofphysi
cs.
dr
y. Topi
c Branch of
physics
7. Never pl
ug i
nfor
eign mat
eri
alsi
nto el
ect
ri
cal
socket
s. 1 Measur
ementI

8. Shir
tsandbl
ousesmustbet
uckedi
nandl
onghai
r 2 For
ce
ti
edup.
3 Pr
essur
e
9. Keepfloor
sandwor ki
ngsur
facesdr
y.Anyspi
l
lage
shoul
dbewi pedof
fimmedi
atel
y. 4 Par
ti
cul
atenat
ureofmat
ter

5 Recti
li
near propagat
ion of
10.Allappar
atus mustbe cleaned and r
etur
ned t
o
l
ightandr ef
lect
ionatplane
corr
ectl
ocati
onofst
orageafteruse.
surf
aces
11.Laborator
yequipmentshoul
dnotbet
akenoutof 6 Ther
malexpansi
on
l
aboratoryunl
essaut
hori
zed.
7 Heatt
ransf
er
12.Anywast
eafteranexper
imentmustbedi
sposedof
i
mmediat
ely
. 8 El
ect
rost
ati
cs

13.Hands must be washed bef

ore l
eav
ing t
he 9 Si
mple cel
l
s and el
ect
ri
c
l
aborat
ory ci
rcui
ts

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

7
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Chapt
erTwo MEAS
UREMENTI
I
ntr
oduct
ion 3. Compl
etet
het
abl
ebel
ow

 Measur
ementref
erstothepr
ocessoff
indi
ngt
hesi
ze Basi
cquant
it
y SI Symbolofuni
t Deri
ved
ofaphysi
cal
quanti
ty. quanti
ty
uni
t
 Scient
ist
sal loverthewor l
dhav eonei nt
ernat
ional
Lengt
h
system ofunitsi.
e.systemeint
ernat
ional
edeuni tes
(SIuni
ts)forphysi
calquanti
ti
es. Mass

El
ect
ri
ccur
rent

Reasonsf
orEst
abl
i
shi
ngSIUni
ts Thermodynami
c
temper
ature
1. Tohavei
nter
nat
ionaluni
for
mit
yamongsci
ent
ist
s.
Lumi
nousi
ntensi
ty
2. Toavoi
dconf
usi
onamongsci
ent
ist
s.
Amount of
subst
ance

Ty
pesofPhy
sical
Quant
it
ies 4. Whyi
sitnecessar
ytoest
abl
ishSIuni
ts?

i
. Basi
c PhysicalQuant
it
ies (
Fundament
alPhysi
cal
Quant
it
ies)
LENGTH
 Thesearequantit
iesthatcannotbeobt
ainedf
rom
 I
ti sthe measur
e ofdist
ance bet
ween t
wo poi
nts.
otherphy
sical
quanti
ti
es.
Examplesofl
engt
hare:
 There are seven basicquant
iti
esaccordi
ng t
othe
 br
eadt
h
i
nter
nat i
onalsy st
em ofunits(SIuni
ts)
.Theyareas
showni nthetablebelow:  di
amet
er
Basi
c physi
cal SIuni
t Symbol of  hei
ght
quant
it
y theSIuni
t
 Dept
het
c.
Lengt
h Met
er m
Mul
ti
plesandSub-
mul
ti
plesoft
hemet
re
Mass Ki
l
ogr
am kg
1ki
lome
ter(
1km)=1000m
Ti
me Second s
1he
ctome
ter(
1Hm)=100m
El
ect
ri
ccur
rent
s Amper
e A
1de
came
ter(
1Dm)=10m
Ther
mody nami
c Kel
vi
n K
temper
ature 1m =10de
cime
tre(
dm)

Lumi
nousi
ntensi
ty Candel
a Cd 1m =100c
ent
ime
ter(
cm)

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

8
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Amountofsubst
ance mol
e mol 1m =1000mi
ll
ime
ter(
mm)

1m =1000000mi
crome
ter(
µm)

i
i
. Der
ivedPhysi
calQuant
it
ies

 These ar
e quanti
ti
es obt ned by mul
ai ti
pli
cati
on or
di
visi
onofotherphysi
calquant
it
iese.g.area,v
olume,
wor
k,densi
ty,
moment
um et
c.

Exer
cise2.
2

Conver
tthef
oll
owi
ngi
ntoSIuni
ts

a) 1000km (
answer
:1000000m)

b) 0.
00025mm (
answer
:0.
00000025m)

c) 0.
01Hm (
answer
:1m)

d) 25mm (
answer
:0.
025m)

e) 25µm (
answer
:0.
000025m)

Exer
cise2.
1
Measur
ementofLengt
h
1. I
denti
fythemi st
ake(s)i
nthef
oll
owi
ngSIuni
tsandhence
wri
tethem cor
rect
ly. Ther
ear
etwomet
hodst
hatcanbeusedi
nmeasur
ementof
l
engt
h:
(
a) Amper
es(
a)
1. Measur
ementbyest
imat
ion.
(
b)Candel
a(cand)
2. Accurat
e measur
ementusi
ng a sui
tabl
e measur
ing
(
c) Met
res(
M)
i
nstrument
.
(
d)Kal
vi
n
Exampl
esofi
nst
rument
susedi
nmeasur
ingl
engt
h
(
e) Seconds
I
. Met
err
uleandhal
f-
met
err
ule.
(
f) Ki
l
ogr
ams
I
I. Tape measur
e used t
o measur
erel
ati
vel
ylong
(
g)Pascal
s l
engt
hse.
g.l
engt
hofasoccerf
iel
d.
(
h) newt
ons I
II
. Ver
niercal
i
per
s–usedt
omeasur
eshor
tlengt
hse.
g.
2. There ar
et wo types ofphysicalquanti
ti
es:basi
c and thi
cknessofat
ext
bookordi
amet
erofasmeasur
ing
deri
vedquanti
ti
es,st
atethedi
ff
erencebetweenthet
wo. cyl
inder
.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

9
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

I
V. Mi
cromet
erscr
ew gauge – used t
o measur
ever
y
shor
tlengt
hse.
g.di
amet
erofawi
re.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

10
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Fact
orsConsidered When Choosi
ng an I
nst
rumentf
or
Measur
ingLengths

1. Si
zeoft
heobj
ectt
obemeasur
ed.

2. Lev
elofaccur
acyr
equi
red.

TheMet
err
ule

 Met
er r
ules and a hal
f– meter r
ules ar
e gr
aduat
ed
(
cal
i
brat
ed)incent
imet
erandmil
l
imeter

 Thesmallestdivi
siononameterrul
escaleis1mm R1 =77.9cm,R2=82.
8cm,R3=25.
5cm,R4=30.
0cm,R5=3.
4
(0.
1cm or0.001m) .Thi
si heaccur
st acyoft
hemeter cm,
R 6=7.
0cm
rul
e.

Not
e: Exer
cise

I
. Accuracyofameasuringi
nstr
umenti st
hesmallest Expresst
heabover
eadi
ngsi
n:
val
ue thatcan be accur
atel
y obt
ained usi
ng the
i
nstrument. I
. Mm

II
. M
I
I. The measur ement t aken using a measur i
ng
i
nstrumentmustbe expr essed t
ot he numberof
deci
malplacesoft heaccur acyofthatinst
rument.
Forexample,anymeasur ementtakenusingameter Precauti
onWhenUsi ngaMet erRul
e
rul
e shoul
d be expressed in whole numberifin
 Careshoul dbet akentoavoi
ddamagetot heendsof
mill
i
meter,t
o1deci malplaceifi
ncentimeter
sandto
meterrul
es.Thisisbecausemostoft
hem donothave
3decimalplacesi
finmet ers.
ashortal
lowanceattheendstocat
erf
ort
ear .

Pr
ocedur
eFol
l
owedWhenUsi
ngaMet
erRul
e

1. Pl
acethemeterr
ulei
ncontactwi
tht
heobj
ectwhose
TapeMeasur
e
l
engt
histobemeasured.
TypesofTapeMeasur
e
2. Pl
acet
heendoft
heobj
ectagai
nstt
hezer
ocm mar
k
oft
hescal
e. i
. Tai l
or’
stapemeasur
e

3. Posi
ti
ony
ourey
eper
pendi
cul
arl
yabov
ethescal
e. i
i
. Car
pent
er’
stapemeasur
e

i
i
i. Sur
vey
or’
stapemeasur
eet
c.

Not
e:Thechoi
ceoft
apemeasur henat
edependsont ure

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

11
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

andl
engt
hofdi
stancet
obemeasur
ed.

Pr
ecaut
ionWhenUsi
ngTapeMeasur
e

 Ensur
eiti
staut(
ver
yst
rai
ght
)dur
inguse.

Measur
ingCur
vedLengt
hs

 Tomeasurecurvedl engt
hssuchasr ail
sandr oadson
maps,athreadi
spl acedalongtherequi
redlength.The
Sour
cesofEr
rorWhenUsi
ngaMet
erRul
e
l
engthist hen found by placing the t
hread on a
 Whenusi
ngamet
err
ule,
aner
rormayar
isewhen: mil
li
meterscal
e.

I
. t
her
ulei
snoti
ncont
actwi
tht
heobj
ect
,  Forcurvedsurf
aceslikeacyl
inder
,athr
eadiscl
osel
y
wrappedaroundthesurf
aceanumberoft
imes.
I
I. theendoftheobjecti
snotal
i
gnedt
othezer
omar
k
ofthemeterrul
escale,

I
II
. theposi
ti
onoft
heeyei
snotper
pendi
cul
art
othe Exper
iment2.1
scal
e.
Aim/Object
ive

To measurethe ci
rcumf
erence ofa measur
ing cy
li
nder
 NB:Theer
rort
hatoccur
swhentheposi
ti
onoftheeye usi
ngathread
i
snotperpendi
cul
art othescal
eiscaled par
l all
ax
Appar
atus
er
ror
.
i
. 10ml
measur
ingcy
li
nder

i
i
. Thr
ead

i
i
i. Met
err
ule

Pr
ocedur
e

1. Cl
oselywr
apathi
nthr
eadt
ent
imesar
oundt
hecy
li
nder
asshownbel
ow.

Exampl
e

Whatar
ether
eadi
ngsi
ndi
cat
edbyar
rowsR1,R2,R3,R4,R5

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

12
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

andR6bel
ow.

2. Mar
kwi
thi
nkt
hebegi
nni
ngandendoft
het
urns.

3. Remov
ethet
hread.

4. Measur
ethel
engt
hbet
weent
hei
nkmar
ksandcal
lit
R1.

5. Repeatt
wot
imes,r
ecor
dingr ngsasR2 andR3 so Resul
eadi tsandCal
cul
ati
ons
ast
oensur
eaccur
acyofy
ourmeasur
ement
s.
 Hei
ghtoft
het
reei
sest
imat
edusi
ngt
heexpr
essi
on:
R1 +R2+R3
6. Fi
ndt
heav
eragel
engt
has . he
ightoft
hetre
e ,htree leng
thofshadowoft
reeLtree
,
3 =
heigt
hofrod,hrod l
engthofs
hadowofr Lrod
od,
Resul
tsandCal
cul
ati
ons

R1 +R2+R3
 Av
eragel
engt
hof10t
urns,
R=
3 Exampl
e

R I
nanexper i
menttoesti
matetheheightofatreei
nNyabur
uru
 Ci
rcumf
erenceoft
hecy
li
nder=
10 Gir
ls’Secondar
ySchoolcompound,Gr
acerecor
dedt
hef
oll
owing
data.
 Di
amet
eroft
hecy
li
nder(
D)i
sobt
ainedas:
I
. Lengt
hofshadowoft
het
ree=1000cm
ci
rcumf
ere
nce
D= I
I. Lengt
hofshadowoft
her
od=200cm
π

I
II
. Hei
ghtoft
her
od=100cm

Exer
cise I
V. Det
ermi
net
hehei
ghtoft
het
ree

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

13
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Theor
eti
cal Sol
uti
on

1. Alength550cm ofat
hinthreadwrapsaroundacylinder hei
gthofthetr
ee,x le
ngthofs
hadowoft
ree
=
exact
ly25 ti
mes.Cal
culat
et he ci
rcumf
erence and the he
igthoftherod l eng
thofsha
dowofrod
22
r
adi
usoft
hecyl
i
nder
.(Takeπ= )
.
7 x 1000
=
100 200
2. Phil
i
pf oundt hattheperimeterofhisfar
mingplotwas
approxi
mately500stri
des.Hisstr
idewas1.
1m long.What x=5.
0m
wast heper
imeteroftheplot
?

AREA
Exper
iment
al
 Ar
ear
efer
stot
hemeasur
eofsur
face.
1. Esti
matethewidthofyourdeskbycount
ing howmanyof
yourpal
ml engt
hsarether
e
 TheSIuni
tofar
eai
sthesquar
emet
er( .
m2)
2. Descri
beamethodyoucanuset oesti
matet
het
hickness
widt
hofonesheetofpaperofyourbook.

3. Descri
be a method t
hatcan be used t
o est
imat
ethe Mul
ti
plesandsub-
mul
ti
plesofthesquar
emet
re
thi
cknessofarazorbl
ade. 2 2
I
. 1m =1000000mm

I
I. 1m2=10000cm2
Est
imat
ionofLengt
h
I
I. 1km2 =1000000m2
I
Exper
iment2.
2
a)
Ai
m/obj
ect
ive:Toest
imat
ethehei
ghtofat
ree
Exer
cise
Appar
atus
1. Expr
esst
hef
oll
owi
ngi
nsquar
ecent
imet
er
 Ar
odofl
engt
h2met
ers
00027km2
a) 0.
 Amet
err
ule.
5m2
b) 4.
Pr
ocedur
e
2. Expr
esst
hef
oll
owi
ngi
nSIuni
ts
1. Hol
dther
odupr
ightandmeasur
eit
slengt
h. b)
9000cm2
2. Measur
ethel
engt
hofi
tsshadow.
009cm2
c) 0.
3. Measuret
helengt
hoft
heshadow ofat
reei
nthe
d) 25km2
school
compound.

Measur
ementofAr
ea Exampl
e

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

14
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Ar
eaofRegul
arl
y–ShapedObj
ect
s Esti
matetheareaoftheirr
egul
arsurfaceshowninthe
fi
gurebel
ow bycount
ingthesmallsquares.Thear
eaof
 Ar
ea ofi
rr
egul
ar-
shaped obj
ect
sis obt
ained usi
ng onecomplet
esquar
eis1cm2.
appr
opr
iat
efor
mul
ae.

A. Rect
angl
e

Sol
uti
on
Ar
ea=l
eng
th×wi
dth
o Area

=
B. Ci
rcl
e
(numberofcompletesquares+12×numberofincompletesquares)
a
reaofones
qua
re

o Ar
e ( 1
a= 4+ ×22 ×1c
2
m2 )
o Ar
ea=15c
m2

Ar
ea=πr
2
,whe
rer=r
adi
us

Exer
cise

C. Tr
iangl
e 1) Tracetheoutl
ineofyourpal
m onagr
aphpaperandest
imat
e
theareaoftheshapeobtai
ned.

2) Det
ermi
net
hear
eaoft
het
opofyourdesk.

3) The diameterofthe bore ofa capi

l
lar
yt ube i
s 2.
0mm.
2
Calcul
atethe cr
oss-
secti
on area oft
he borein cm (t
ake
π=3.142)

1 4) Asheetofpapermeasur
es25cm by15cm.Cal
cul
atei
tsar
ea
Ar
ea= (ba
se×pe
rpe
ndi
cul
arhe
ight nmm2
i
2

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

15
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Vol
ume

D. Tr
apezi
um  Vol
umer ef
erst
otheamountofspaceoccupi
ed by
matt
er.

 I
tisader
ivedquant
it
yofl
engt
h.

 TheSIuni
tofv
ol st
umei hecubi
cmet m3)
er(

Ar
e
1
a= (
sumofpa
ral
lel
side
s)×hei
ght Mul
ti
plesandSub-Mul
ti
plesoft
heCubi
cMet
re
2
(
a)
1m3 =1000000c
m3

(
b)
Ar
eaofI
rr
egul
arl
y-
ShapedSur
faces 1m3=1000000000mm3

(
c) 3
1km =1000000000m 3
 Areaofir
r egul
arl
yshapedsurfacecanbeest i
mated
bysub-di
vidingthesurfacei
ntosmallequalsquar
es (
d)1m3=1000l
it
ers
andtheareaobtainedas:
(
e) 1l
it
er=1000ml
Ar
ea
(
f) 1l=1dm3
=
Exer
cise
(
numberofcompl
etes
qua
re
1
s+ ×numbe
2
rofi
ncompl
etes
qua
r)
es
Conver
teachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngvol
umest
oSIuni
t
a
reaofones
quare
I
. 1500000000cm3

I
I. 20.
0li
ter
s

I
II
. 1.
0ml

I
V. 9000000000mm3

V. 1000000l

Vol
umeofRegul
ar–ShapedSol
i
ds

 Volumeofregul
arl
y–shapedsol
i
dsi
sobt
ainedby
apply
inganappr
opr
iat
efor
mul
a.

1. Cuboi
d Exampl
es

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

16
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Vol
ume=cr
oss-
sect
ionar
eaxhei
ght 1) Ar i
m offool
scapscont
ains500paper
sandhasamassof
2kg.Thesi
zeis300mm by200mm by50mm.f
ind:
Vol
ume=l
eng
th×br
eadt
h×he
ight
I
. Thet
hicknessofonesheetofpaper
.

200mm
=0.
4mm
500pape
rs

=0.
0004m

I
I. Themassofonesheetofpaper
.

2. Tr
iangul
arpr
ism o 500paper
s=2kg

2kg
 mas
sof1pa
per=
500

o =0.
004kg

I
II
. Thevol
umeoft
her
im.

o vol
ume=L×W ×h

o 300mmx200mmx50mm
Vol
ume=cr
oss-
sect
ionar
eaxl
engt
h
=3000000mm3
1
Vol
ume= ba
se×he
ight×l
eng
th 003m3
=0.
2

I
V. Thevol
umeofonesheetofpaper

3. cyl
i
nder Vol
umeof500pa
per 003m3
s=0.

003m3
0.
o vol
umeof1pa
per=
500

000006m3
=0.

2) Ablockofglassis50cm l
ong,4.
0cm t
hickand2.
5cm hi
gh.
Cal
culat
eit
svolume

vol
umeoft
heg
las
sbl
ock=l
eng
th×br
eadt
h×he
ight

Vol
ume=cr
osssect
ionar
eaxhei
ght =5.
0cm ×4.
0cm ×2.
5cm

Vol
ume=πr
2
h =50c
m2

000050m3
=0.

4. Spher
ee.
g.f
ootbal
l 3) Fi
ndt hevolumeoft
hecyl
i
ndr
icalt
inofr
adi
us7.
0cm and
hei
ght3.0cm.

vol
umeoft
in= πr
2

22
= ×7c
m ×7c
m ×3c
m
7

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

17
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

0c
=462. m3

0004620m3
=0.

4) Fi
ndthevolumeofat r
iangul
arpr
ism i
fbase=6.
0cm,hei
ght
=5.
0cm andlengt
h=12.
0cm

vol
ume=a
reaofc
ros
s-s
ect
ion×l
eng
th

4 3
=(12×6.0cm ×5.0cm)×12.0cm
ume= πr
vol
3 0c
=180. m3

0001800m3
=0.

5. Cone 5) Fi
ndt
hevol
umeofaspher
ewhoser
adi
usi
s3.
0cm

4 3
vol
umeofs
phe
re= πr
3

4 22
= × ×3.
0cm ×3.
0cm ×3.
0cm
3 7

14c
=113. m3

1 2 00011314m3
=0.
ume= πr
vol h
3
6) Aspher
eofdi
amet
er6.
0mm i
smol
dedi
ntoauni
for
m wi
reof
22
di
amet
er0.
2mm.Cal
cul
atet
hel
engt
hoft
hewi
re.(
ta π= )
ke
7

vol
umeofs
phe
re=vol
umeofwi
re

4 3
πR =πr
2
l
3

4 22 22
× ×3.
0mm ×3.
0mm ×3.
0mm = ×0.
1mm ×0.
1mm ×l
3 7 7

36mm3=0.
01mm2l

36mm3
l= =3600mm =3.
600ml
0.01mm2

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

18
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Measur
ementofVol
umeofLi
qui
ds Sol
uti
on

i
. Usi
ngaCont
ainerwi
thUni
for
m Cr
oss-Sect
i ea. Vol
onAr umeof1dr 12c
op=0. m3

 Theli
quidispour
edintothecontai
nerandt ght vol
hehei umeof100dr 12c
ops=1000×0. m3
oft
heliqui
dinthecontai
nerismeasured.Thevol
ume =12c m3
oft
heliqui
discal
cul
atedusingtheexpressi
on:
i
nit
ial
le l=24c
ve m3

f
ina
lle
vel=( c
24+12)m3
Vol
umeofl
iqui
d=c
ros
sse
cti
ona
reaofc
ont
aine
r ×he
ightofl
iqui
d
=36c
m3

Not
e:

 When using a measuring v

esselt he readi
ng ofthe
vol
umei stakenwit
htheey epositi
onedinl ev
elwit
hthe
bot
tom of t he meniscus (for li
qui
ds whi ch cur
ve
upwards)asi n(
a)ort opoft hemeni scus(forl
iqui
ds
whichcurvedownwards)asin( b)bel
ow.

Measur
ingVol
umeofI
rr
egul
ar-ShapedSol
i
ds

i
i
. Usi
ngasui
tabl
evol
umemeasur
ingappar
atus  Themet hodusedi
nthiscaseiscal
leddi
splacement
method sincet
hesol
id di
spl
acessomeliquid when
 Thefoll
owingapparat
usareusedtomeasur
evol
ume i
mmer sed.
accur
atel
yofli
quidsinl
abor
atory
:
Condi
ti
onsunderwhi
chdi
spl
acementmet
hodwor
ks:
a) Pi
pet
te
Fordi
spl
acementmethodtoworkbest
,thesol
i
dwhose
b) Bur
ett
e vol
umeist
obedeter
minedshoul
d:
c) Vol
umet
ri
cfl
ask (
a)notbesol
ubl
eint
hel
i
qui
dbei
ngused,
d) Sy
ringe (
b)notr
eactwi
tht
hel
i
qui
d,
 Pipet
teandvolumetr
icflaskmeasurefixedvol
umesof (
c)si
nkintheli
qui
dand,
l
i
quids.
(
d)notabsor
btheli
qui
d.
 Thef ol
l
owingapparatusar eusedt o appr
oxi
matel
y
measurevolumeofli
quidsinlabor
ator
y :

a) Measur
ingcy
li
nder
s Exper
iment
s

b) Gr
aduat
edbeaker
s Ai
m:Tomeasur
evol
umeofi
rr
egul
arl
y–shapedsol
i
d

c) Coni
cal
flasks Requi
rement
s:st
one,t
hread,measur
ing cy
li
nder
,wat
er,
Eurekacan(al
socall
eddi
spl
acementorov
erf
low can)
,
fl
oaterandasi
nker
.

TheBur
ett
e

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

19
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Met
hod1:Usi
ngmeasur
ingcyl
i
nder

Pr
ocedur
e

Thescal
eoftheburet
teismar
kedsucht ocm3
hatzer
marki
satthetopandthemaxi
mum valuemarkatt
he
bott
om.
1. Par
tlyf
il
lthemeasur
ingcy
li
nderwi
thwat
erandnott
he
v umeV1oft
ol hewater

2. Ti
ethestonewi t
hat hr
eadandloweri
tgent
lyi
nthe
cy
li
nderunt
ili
tisf
ull
ysubmer
ged

3. Not
ethenewv
olumeofwat
erV2

Resul
tsandcal
cul
ati
ons

Thev
olumeoft
hest
onecanbecal
cul
atedas:

ume= V2-V1
vol

Exampl
e

Wat
erl
eveli
nabur
ett
eis24cm3.I
f100dr
opsofwat
erf
allf
rom
t
heburet
teandt heaveragevol
umeofonedr
opi 12cm3.
s0.
Whati
sthef
inal
wat erl
eveli
nthebur
ett
e?

Met
hod2:Usi
ngEur
ekacan Exampl
e

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

20
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Pr
ocedur
e

1. Fi
l
lEur
ekacanwi
thwat
erunt
ili
tov
erf
lows 1) Det
ermi
net
hevol
umeofwat
eri
nthecyl
i
ndershownbel
ow.

2. Wai
tfort
hewat
ert
ost
opcomi
ngoutoft
hespout

3. Pl
aceameasur
ingcy
li
nderundert
hespout

4. Ti
et hestonewithat hr
eadandl
oweri
tgent
lyi
nto
waterunt
ili
tisf
ull
ysubmerged

5. Col
lectthewatercomi
ngoutoft
hespoutusi
nga
measuri
ngcyl
i
nder.

Sol
uti
on:
3
Vol
ume=33c
m

3
(
Remembert
hataccur
acyoft
hescal
eshownabovei
s1c
m)

2) Ifastoneofvolume6cm3i
sinser
tedt
osinkinwat
eri
nthe
abovecyl
inderwhatwi
l
lbet
henewwaterl
evel
?
Resul
tsandcal
cul
ati
ons
Sol
uti
on
Thevolumeofwatercol
l
ect
edi
nthemeasur
ingcy
li
nderi
s Ne
wle
vel=i
nit
ial
leve
l+vol
umeofs
tone
thev
olumeofthestone.
3
Ne
wle
vel=33c
m3+6c
m

3
=39c
m

Mass
Method 3:Measuri
ng vol
ume ofan i
rr
egul
ar-
shaped
f
loaterusi
ngEur
ekacan  Massi
sthequant
it
yofmat
teri
nanobj
ect
.

Pr
ocedur
e  TheSIuni
tofmassi
stheki
l
ogr
am (
kg)
.

1. Fi
l
ltheEur
ekacanwi
thwat
erunt
ili
tov
erf
lows

2. Wai
tfort
hewat
ert
ost
opcomi
ngoutoft
hespout Mul
ti
plesandSubmul
ti
plesoft
heki
l
ogr
am

3. Lowert
hesi
nkert
iedwi
that
hreadgent
lyi
nt he  1kg=1000g
ot
can
 1tonne=1000kg
4. Measur
ethev
olumeV1t
hatf
lowsi
ntot
hemeasur
ing
 1g=1000mg
cy
li
nder
 1kg=1000000mg
5. Removethesinkerandtiei
ttot
hecorkasy oufi
l
l
Eur
ekacanagainandall
owitt
oover
fl
ow.Thenpl
ace  1tonne=1000000g

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

21
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

t
hemeasur
ingcy
li
nderundert
hespout
. 1.

6. Lowert
hesinkerandcorkti
edtoget
hergent
lyand
measur
e V2that ov
erf
lows int
o the measuri
ng
cyl
i
nder
.

Exer
cise

2. Conver
t39.
6mgi
ntokg(
answer
:0. )
0000396kg

3. Change50t
onnesi
ntog(
answer
:50000000g)

4. 340kgi
ntot
onnes(
answer
:0.
340t
onne
s)
Resul
tsandcal
cul
ati
ons
5. 20gi
ntokg(
answer
:0.
020kg)
The v
olume of t
he st
one can be cal
cul
ated as:
ume= V2-V1
Vol 6. 100gi
ntokg(
answer:0.
100kg)

Measur
ementofMass

 Ther
ear
ethr
eei
nst
rument
sthatcanbeusedused:

I
. Toppanbal
ance(
elect
ri
cal
type)

I
I. Beam bal
ance(
mechani
cal
type)

I
II
. Lev
erbal
ance(
mechani
cal
type)

AdvantagesofEl
ect
ri
calBal
ance( TopPanBal
ance)Over
theBeam Bal
ance(
Mechani
calType)

1. El
ect
ri
cal
bal
ancei
saccur
ate.

2. I
tiseasyt
ouset
hanbeam bal
ance.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

22
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

V=L×W ×h

=6c
m ×4c
m ×3c
m

V=72c
m3

m 200g
ρ= ; =2.
7777g
/cm3
v 72c
m3

1g
/cm3=1000kg
/m3

2.
7777g
/cm3=2.
777×1000kg
/m3

=2778kg
/m3

1. Thedensi
tyofasubst
ancei cm3.Expr
s15g/ esst
hisi
nSI
Densi
ty
uni
ts
 Itis def
ined as t
he mass peruni
tvol
ume ofa
1c
1g m3=1000kg
lm3
subst
ance.
15g
/cm3×1000kg
lm3
 Densi
tyi
sdenot
edbyaGr
eekl
ett
err
ho(
ρ) 15g
lcm3=
1gc
m3
mass =15000kg
/m3
De
nsi
ty=
vol
ume

2. The figur
e alongside shows a measuri
ng cyl
i
nderwhi
ch
m m contai
nswat erini
ti
allyatl
evelA.Whena soli
dofmass11g
ρ= ;v= ;m =ρ×v
v ρ
i
si mmer sedinwat erthelevelr
aisest
oB.Det er
minet
he
densit
yoft hesoli
d.

 Sinc
ema s
sisme a
s ure
dinkga ndvol
umei nm3thenthe
SIunitofdens
ityistheki
logr
amperc ubi
cmeter(kg/m3
orkgm-3)

1g
/cm3=1000kg
/m3

Vol
umeofs
oli
d= VB-VA
Exampl
es
48c
m3-33c
m3=15c
m3
3 3
3. Showt
hat1g/c
m =1000kg/m
m
ρ=
1g v
g
/cm3=
1cm3 30g g
= =2.
000 3
0.001kg 15cm3 c
m
=
000001m3
0. =2000kg
/m3

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

23
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

=1000kg
/m3

4. Det
erminet
hedensi
tyi
nkg/m3 ofasol
idwhosemassi
s Exer
cise
40gandwhosedi
mensi
onsi
ncm are30×40×3
1. Thedi
agram bel
owshowst hechangei
nvol
umeofwateri
na
V=L×W ×h measur
ingcyli
nderwhenanirr
egul
arsol
idi
simmer
sedini
t.

V=30×3×4=360c
m3

m
ρ=
v

40g
=0. c
11111gm3
360c
m3

o 1g1c
m3=1000kg
lm3
Gi
vent
hatt
hemassoft hesol
idis56.7gdeter
minet
hedensi
tyof
0.
1111g
/cm3×1000kg
lm3 t
hesol
i
ding/ 3
cm (gi
veanswercorr
ectto2deci
malpl
aces
0.
1111g
lcm3=
c
1gm3

=111.
1kg
/m3 2. Compl
etet
het
abl
e

mass vol
ume Densi
ty

5. Awoodenbl
ockofmass200gis4.0cm wi
de3.
0cm thi
ck 0.
012kg 20cm3 0. cm3
6gl
and6.
0cm l
ong.Cal
cul
atet
hedensi
tyoft
hewoodenbl
ock
i
nkg/m3 200g ….
….…cm3 m3
800kgl

……….
tonnes 125m3 ….
…..
glcm3

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

24
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

m
Densi
tyBot
tl
e V=
ρ
 I
tisasmal lglassbott
lefi
ttedwi
thgl
assstopper
0.
080kg
(
madeofgr ound gl
ass)whichhasaholethrough =
1000kg
/m3
whi
chexcessl
iquidf
lowsout
.
3
=0.
00008m

i
) Vol
umeoft
hedensi
tybot
tl
e
Pr
ecaut
ionsWhenUsi
ngaDensi
tyBot
tl
e
Vol
umeoft
hede
nsi
tybot
tl
e
1. Thebot
tl
eshouldbeheldbytheneckwhenwipi
ngit
.
Thi
sist o pr
eventitf
rom expandi
ng duet
o body =Vol
umeofwa
terf
il
li
ngi
t.
warmt
hwhenhel dbysi
desbyusi
nghands. 3
Vol
umeoft
hede
nsi
tybot
tl
e=0.
000008m
2. Theout
sideoft
hebot
tl
emustbewi
peddr
ycar
eful
l
y.

3. Thereshouldbenoai
rbubbl
eswhent
hebot
tl
eis
i
i
) Massofsol
i
dDi
npar
tb)
fi
l
ledwit
hliqui
d.
i
i
i) 96-8g

=48g

=0.
088kg

i
v) Densi
tyofsol
i
dD
m
ρ=
v

N/BDensit
ybott
lei
susedmeasur
ethedensi
tyofei
ther 0.
088kg
=
l
iqui
dorsoli
d. 00008m3
0.

=1100kg
/m3

Exampl
es

1. Themassofadensi tybott
leis20.
0gwhenempt y,70.0g v) Vol
umeofwat
eri
nc)
whenful
lofwaterand55.0gwhenfullofasecondli
quidx. m
Cal
cul
atethedensi
tyoftheli
quid(
takedensit
yofwat erto V=
ρ
3
be1g/
cm )
0.030kg
S
olut
ion =
1000kg/m3
 Ma
ssofe
mpt
yde
nsi
tybot
tl
e =20.
0g
000030m3
=0.
 Ma
ssofde
nsi
tybot
tl
e+wa
t=70.
0g
vi
) Massofsol
i
dDi
nd)
.
 Ma
ssofwa
teri
nde
nsi
tybot
tl=50.
0g
m =ρ×v
m 50.0g
 Vol
umeofde
nsi
tybot
tl
e= = =50c
m3 m =1100×(
0. 000030)
000080-0.
ρ 1g
/cm3

 Ma
ssofde
nsi
tybot
tl
e+l
iqui
d =55.
0g m =0.
055k

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

25
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 Ma
ssofl
iqui
dfi
ll
ingt
hebot
tl
e Exer
cise

=55.
0-20.
0=35.
0g

 Vol
umeofl
iqui
d=vol
umeofde
nsi
tybot
tl
e Adensi
tybott
lehasamassof17. 5gwhenempty.Whenf
ullof
wat
erit
smassi s37.5g.Whenfullofl
i
qui
dxi t
smassis35g.If
=50c
m3 3
t
hedensi
tyofwateri
s1000kg/
m, fi
ndt
hedensi
tyofl
i
qui
dx.
m
 ρofl
iqui
dx=
v

0 0.
35. 7g Densi
tyofMi
xtur
es
= = 3
50 cm
 Ami xt
urei
sobtai
nedbyputt
ingtwoormoresubst
ance
=700kg
/m3
suchthatt
heydonotr
eactwithoneanot
her
.
2. I
nanexperi
menttodet er
minet
hedensi
tyofacer
tai
nsol
i
d
 Thedensi t
yofthemi xt
urel
iesbet
weenthedensit
iesof
D,thefol
l
owingr eadi
ngswereobtai
nedusi
ngadensity
bot
tle i
ts consti
tuent subst
ances and depends on thei
r
proport
ions.
a) Massofemptydensit
ybottl
e=8g
Totalmas
soft
hemixtur
e
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtur
e=
b) Massofadensi
tybot
tl
eandsol
i
dD=96g Tot
alvol
umeofmi
xture

c) Massofdensi
tybot
tl
e+30gwat
er+sol
i
dD=132g

d) Massofdensi
tybot
tl
e+wat
er=88g Exampl
e

Cal
cul
ate 1. Amixtur
econsi sof40cm3ofwat
st erand60cm3ofli
qui
dX.if
vi
i
) Massofwat
eri
ndensi
tybot
tl
einpar
td)
. t
hedensiti
esofwaterandli
quidXare1.0g/cm3and0.
8g/cm3
r
especti
vel
y,cal
cul
atethedensi
tyofthemixtur
e.
88g-8g=80g
Ma
ssofwa
ter=ρw ×Vw
=0.
080kg
=1.
0gc
/m3×40c
m3
vi
i
i) Vol
umeofwat
eri
nd)( t
akedensi
tyofwat
erbe
3 =40g
1000kg/m) .
ma
ssofl
i dx=ρx×Vx
qui

=0.
8gc
/m3×60c
m3=48g

mas
sofwa
ter+massofl
iquidX
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtur
e=
vol
umeofwa
ter+vol
umeofliqui
dX

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

26
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

40g+48g Si
mpl
ePendul
um
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtur
e=
40cm3+60c
m3
 I
ti s a dev
ice t
hatcan be used t
o det
ermi
ne t
ime
88g i
nterv
als.
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtur
e= =0.
880g
/cm3
100c
m3
 I
tmakesosci
l
lat
ionswhendi
spl
acedsl
i
ght
ly.
3 3
2. Asoluti
oncontains40cm byvol umeofalcoholand60cm
water
.Ifthedensit
yofthealcoholi
s0.
79g/cm3andwat s  Anosci
eri l
lat
ioni
sacompl
etet
oandf
romot
ion.
1.
0g/cm3.Calcul
atethedensit
yofthesol
ution.

ma
ssofwa
ter =ρw×Vw
Exper
iment
3
/
=1gcm ×60cm =60g
3

Aim: To det
ermi
ne t
ime t
aken t
o compl
ete gi
ven
ma
ssofa
lcohol=ρa×Va osci
l
lat
ions

=0. /
79gcm3×40cm3 =31.
6g Apparatus:Pendul
um bob,t
hread,st
opwat
ch,cl
amp,boss
andretortst
and.
mas
sofwa
ter+massofa
lcohol
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtur
e=
vol
umeofwa
ter+vol
umeofa l
cohol Pr
ocedur
e
60g+31.
6g 91.
6g
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtur
e= = i
) Sety
ourappar
atusasshownbel
ow.
3 3
60cm +40c
3
m 100c m
3
=0.
916g
/cm

Ti
me

 Ti
mei
sthemeasur
eofdur
ati
on.

 SIuni
tist
hesecond(
s).

Mul
ti
plesandsub-mul
ti
plesofsecond
i
) Sli
ghtl
ydispl
acet
hebobanddet
ermi
net
het
ime
1mi
nut
e=60s
econd
takentomake3osci
l
lat
ions
1hour=3600s
econd
i
i
) Repeatthepr
oceduref
ort
hefol
lowi
ngnumberof
1da
y=24hour
s=86400s
econd osci
ll
ati
onsandfi
ll
thet
abl
ebel
ow.

1s
econd=100c
ent-
sec
ond No. of Ti
me(
s) Time f or 1
osci
l
lat
ions osci
ll
ati
on, T
1s
econd=1000mi
ll
is
econd(
ms) (s)

1s
econd=1000000mi
cros
econd(
µs) 2

Measur
ementofTi
me 6

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

27
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 Ti
meismeasuredusingeit
herthestopwatchora 8
st
opcl
ockdependi
ngonlev
elofaccur
acyr
equir
ed.
Cal
cul
ati
ons

Ti
mef
or1osci
l
lat
ioncanbecal
cul
atedas:
Advant
agesofSt
opWat
chOverSt
opCl
ock
Ti
mef
ornosc
il
lat
ions
T=
1.
)Stop wat
ch i
seasyt
o handl
eand r
ead t
han st
op n
cl
ock.

2.
)Iti
smor
eaccur
atet
hanst
opcl
ock.

Exampl
e

Expr
esst
het
imeshownont
hest
opwat
chscr
eenbel
owi
nSI
.

Revi
sionExer
cise

1) I
dent
ifyt
hemi st
akei
nthef
oll
owi
ngSIuni
tsandhencewr
it
e
t
hem cor
rect
ly.

(
a)Amper
es(
a)

(
b)Candel
a(cand)
=10×60+22+34×0.
01
(
c) Met
res(
M)
=600+22+0.
34=622.
343s
econds
(
d)Kal
vi
n

(
e) Seconds

(
f) Ki
logr
ams

(
g)Pascal
s

(
h)newt
ons

2) conver
tthef
oll
owi
ngi
ntoder
ivedSIuni
ts

(
a)0.
01cm

b)100cm2
(

(
c) 20days

(
d)3.
625g

(
e) 324t
onnes

(
f) 5dm3

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

28
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

(
g)400ml

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

29
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

3) Est
imat
ethel
engt
hoft
hecur
veshown.

4) Def
inedensi
tyandgi
vei
tsSIuni
ts.

5) Aburetteshowsal i
qui
dlevelas20cm3.Tendropsofthe I
ftheini
ti
alr
eadi
ngwasat0cm mar
k,det
ermi
net
hevol
umeof
sameliquideachofvolume0.5cm3 ar
eadded.Calcul
ate onedr
op.
thenewliqui
dlevel
.

6) Anempt ydensi
tybott
lehasamassof15g.Whenf ul
lof
al
coholofdensi
ty0.
8g/cm3,
itsmassi
s47g.Cal
cul
ate:
-

i
) Thevol
umeoft
hebot
tl
e. 14.Ami xtureismadeupoftwomet al
sXandY.Themass
ofthemi xturei
s30gandt hevol
umeoft hemixtureis4.
5
i
i) I
tsmasswhenf
ullofwat
er. 3
cm .Determi net
hemassofmet alXinthemixture.(
Densit
y
ofmetalXi s6000Kgm-3anddensi
tyofmetalYi s7900
i
ii
)Itmasswhenf
ullofmer
cur
yofdensi
ty13. cm3.
6g/
Kgm-3)
7) A measur i
ngcylindercont ns8cm3 ofwat
ai er.A small
pieceofbr assofmass24gi sloweredcareful
lyintoa
measur i
ngcyli
ndersothatitiscar
eful
lysubmerged,ift
he
densityofthebrassis8g/cm3,whatisthenewr eadi
ngof
thelevelofwat
erinthecyli nm3.
nderi

8) A Eur ekacanofmass60gandcr osssectionalareaof

60cm2 i sfi
ll
edwit
hwaterofdensit
y1g/ cm3.Apieceof
steelofmass20ganddensi
ty8g/cm3 i
sloweredcaref
ull
y
i
nt othecanasshown

Cal
cul
ate;

a) Thetot
almassofwaterandtheEur
ekacan
bef
orethemetalwasl
owered.

b) Thevol
umeofwat
ert
hatoverf
lower
ed.

c) Thef
inalmassoft
heeur
ekacanandi
tscont
ent
s

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

30
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

d) Infi
ndingthedensi
tyofli
qui
d,whyisthemethod
ofusi
ngdensitybot
tl
emor eaccurat
ethant
he
oneofusingameasuringcyl
inder
.

9) 25cm3ofal i
qui
dxofdensi
ty1.2g/cm3ismixedwit
hliqui
d
ofvolume30cm3 and0.
9g/cm3 wit
houtchangei
nvolume.
Calcul
atet
hedensit
yoft
hemi xt
ure.

10)Themassofanemptydensi
tybot
tl
eis25.
0g.I
tsmass
whenf
il
ledwit
hwateri
s50.0gandwhenfi
ll
edfor
mali
nit
s
massi
s60.0g.Cal
cul
ate.

a) Massofwat
er

b) Vol
umeofwat
er.

c) Vol
umeofbot
tl
e.

d) Massoff
ormal
in.

e) Vol
umeoff
ormal
in.

f
) Densi
tyoff
ormal
in.

11)Abutcherhasabeam bal
anceandmasses0.
5kgand2
kg.Howwouldhemeasure1.5kgofmeatonthebal
ance
atonce?

12)Deter
minet
hedensi
tyi
nkg/m3ofasol
idwhosemassi
s
40gandwhosedi
mensionsi
ncm ar
e30x4x3

13)Fi
gur
ebel
owshowst
her
eadi
ngonabur
ett
eaf
ter55dr
ops
ofal
iqui
dhavebeenused.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

31
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Chapt
erThr
ee FORCE
Def
ini
ti
onofFor
ce c) Thefi
gur
ebel
owshowstwoobj
ect
sofmassm1andm2
act
eduponbyaf
orceF
 Force r
efer
st o a push ora pul
lthatr
esul
tfr
om
i
nteract
ionofbodi
es.

 I
tist
hatwhi
chchangest
hest
ateofmot
ionofabody
.

 TheSIuni
toff
or st
cei henewt
on(
N).
I
denti
fyforceF
 Force has bot
h magni
tude and di
rect
ion and i
s
represent
edbyast
rai
ghtl
inewit
hanar ow asshown Gr
r avi
tat
ionalforce
below.
2. Cent
ri
pet
alFor
ce

 Thisi
saf orcewhi
chmai
ntai
nsabodyt
omov
eina
ci
rcul
aror
bitorpat
h.
 Thelengt
hofthel
ineshowsthemagnit
udeoft
hefor
ce
 I
tisdir
ect
edt
owar
dst
hecent
reoft
heci
rcul
aror
bit/
whi
lethearr
owheadshowsthedi
rect
ionoft
hefor
ce.
t
rack.
Ef
fect
sofFor
ce
Examplesofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chcent
ri
pet
alf
orceact
s
i
. For
cecanmakest
ati
onar
yobj
ectmov
e. i
nclude:

i
i
. I
tcani
ncr
easespeedofmov
ingobj
ect
.  Whi
rl
ingast
onet
iedt
oast
ri
ng.

i
i
i. I
tcanst
opamov
ingobj
ect
.

i
v. I
tcandecr
easespeedofmov
ingobj
ect
.

v
. I
tcanchangeshapeofanobj
ect(
i.
e.candef
orm
anobj
ect
).

v
i. I
tcanmakeanobj ecttur
naboutaf ixedpoi
nt
(
piv
ot)
.Thi
siscal
l
edturni
ngef
fectoff
orce.

v
ii
. I
tcanchanget
hedi
rect
ionofamov
ingobj
ect
.

Exer
cise  Theear
thr
evol
vi
ngar
oundt
hesunal
ongi
tisor
bit
.
Whi
choft
heef
fect
sabovecanbecausedby:
 Cent
ri
fugeusedt
osepar
ategheef
rom mi
l
k.
a) Apushonl
y?
 Acarmov
ingr
oundaci
rcul
art
rackorr
oad(
cor
ner
).
b) Apul
lonl
y?
3. Magnet
icf
orce
c) Apushorapul
l
?
 Magnet
icf
orcei
sthef
orceofat
tract
ionorr
epul
si
on

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

32
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Ty
pesoff
orce duet
oamagnet
.

 I
tisnon-
cont
actf
orce.

1. Gr
avi
tat
ionalFor
ce  Magnet
icatt
ract
ionoccur
sbet weenamagnetanda
magnet
ic mater
ialorbet ween unl
ike pol
es ofa
 I
tr efer
st othefor
ceofat tr
act
ionbetweenanytwo magnetwhi
lerepul
sionoccursbetweenli
kepol
esof
bodiese.g.f
orceofat
tract
ionbetweentheear
thand magnet
.
themoon.

 Gr
avi
tat
ional
for sanon-
cei cont
actf
orce.

Gr
avi
tat
ionalFor
ceoft
heEar
th

 I
tisthef
orceofat
tract
iononbodi
est
owar
dthecent
re
oft
heeart
h.

Fact
orsaf
fect
inggr
avi
tat
ionalf
orce
4. Upt
hrustf
orce
I
. Massesoft
heobj
ect
s-Thel
argert
hemassest
he
st
rongert
hegr
avi
tat
ional
for
ce.  Upt
hrust i
s an upwar
df or
ce acting on obj
ect
s
i
mmer sedi
nfl
uids(
li
qui
dsorgases)
.
I
I. Di
stanceofsepar
ati
onbet
weent
het
woobj
ect
s.The
l
onger the di
stance of separ
ati
on t
he weaker  Upt
hrustcanal
sobedefi
nedastheappar
entl
ossi
n
gr
avi
tat
ional
for
ce. wei
ghtofabodyimmer
sedinal
iqui
dorgas.

Exampl
es

a) Whatar
enon-
cont
actf
orces?

 Therear
efor
ceswhi
chacteveni
fobj
ect
sar
enoti
ncont
act
wit
honeanot
her.

b) Explai
nwhyabal
lthr
ownupwar
dsr
etur
nsbackt
othe
ground

 I
tisduet
oat
tract
ionbyear
th’
sgr
avi
tat
ionalf
orce

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

33
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Upt
hrus
tonabody f
) Smoot
heni
ngsur
faces.

=we
ightofbodyi
nai
r-we
ightofbodyi
nfl
uid g) Usi
ngbal
lbear
ings.

 Upt
hr sacont
usti actf
orce. h) Ai
rcushi
oni
ng

6. El
ect
rost
ati
cFor
ce

 Elect
rostat
icforce i
st he for
ce of att
ract
ion or
repul
sionbetweenel
ectr
ical
l
ychargedbodi
es.

 I
tis non-
cont
actf
orce.Ther et
e ar wo t
ypes of
Examplesofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chupt
hrustf
orceact
s el
ect
ri
calchar
ges(
posi
ti
veandnegat
ive)
.
i
nclude:
 Att
racti
onoccursbet
weenunli
kechar
gesi.
e.posi
ti
ve
 Bal
l
oonst
ori
sing and negati
ve whi
lerepul
si
on occur
s bet
ween li
ke
charges.
 Swi
mmer
sandboat
sfl
oat
ing

 Bodiesimmersed i
nli
qui
dswei
ghi
ng l
esst
han t
hei
r
weighti
nai
r.

Numer
icalExampl
e

Abodyweighs100Ni nairand80Nwhensubmer
gedi
nwat
er.
Cal
cul
atet
heupthr
ustact
ingonit
.
Examplesofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chel
ect
rost
ati
cfor
ceact
s
upt
hrus
t=a
ppa
rentl
ossi
nwe
ight i
nclude:

=100N-
80N=20N a) Aplast
icrul
erorpenrubbedwithpi
eceofdr
ycl
oth
orhai
ratt
ract
spiecesofpaper
.

b) Awipedglasswindow r
apidl
yattr
act
sdustduet
o
5. Fr
ict
ionalFor
ce char
gesl
eftonthem dur
ingwipi
ng.

 Thi
si saf orce t
hatopposes mot
ion bet
ween t
wo c) Poli
shedshoesr api
dlyat
tractdustduet
ochar
ges
sur
facest
hatarei
ncont
act. l
eftonthem dur
ingbrushi
ng.

 Fr
ict
ionalfor
cei nfl
uids(
li
qui
d and gases)i
scal
l
ed d) Anyl
onclot
hproducescr
ackl
i
ngsoundandst
icks
vi
scousdrag(vi
scosi
ty)
. ont
hebodywhenbeingr
emovedet
c.

 Fr
icti
onalf
orce i
sacont actf
orce anditactsi
nthe
di
recti
onopposi
tetot
hatofmoti
onoft hebody
.
7. Act
ionandReact
ionFor
ces

 Acti
onandr eacti
onar
etwoequalf
orcesact
ingi
n
opposi
tedi
recti
ons.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

34
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

econt
 Theyar actf
orces.

 Whenablockofwoodi splacedonat abl

e,i
tsweight
(
acti
on)actsont hetabl
e.Ther eact
ionofthetable
(
opposi
teforce)act
sontheblock.

Advant
agesofFr
ict
ionalFor
ce

Fr
ict
ional
for
cehel
psi
n:

a) Wr
it
ing.

b) Br
aki
ng.

c) Wal
ki
ng.

d) Er
asi
ng.

e) Li
ght
ingamat
chst
icket
c

8. Nucl
earFor
ce
Di
sadvant
agesofFr
ict
ionalFor
ce  Thi
sisaf orcet
hatbi
ndspr
otonsandneut
ronsi
n
at
omicnuclei
.
a) Causeswearandt
ear
.
 Nucl
earf
or sacont
cei actf
orce.
b) Hi
nder
smot
ion.

c) Pr
oducesunwant
edheat
.

d) Pr
oducesunwant
edsound.

Met
hodsofReduci
ngFr
ict
ionalFor
ce

i
) Oi
l
ingandgr
easi
ng.

j
) Usi
ngr
oll
ers.

k) St
reaml
i
ningbodi
es.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

35
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

9. Tensi
onFor
ce i
i
i) Brist
les ofa brush spr
ead in waterbutcl
ing
togetherwhenthebrushisret
riev
edoutofwater
.
 I
tisaf
orcewhi
chact
sonst
ret
chedbodi
es. Thecl i
ngingt
ogetherofbri
stl
esisduetosur
face
tensi
onofwat eronthesurf
aceofbri
stl
es.
 Tensi
onisasar esul
toft
woopposi
ngf
orcesappl
i
ed
oneateachendofabody.

 I
tisacont
actf
orce.

i
v) Adr opofwat erf
rom aburett
eorwat ert
apgr
ows
andst r
etchesoutbefor
eitfall
soffduetosur
face
tensiononthesurfaceoft
hedr op.

Not
e:Sur
facet
ensi
onact
sal
ongt
hesur
faceofal
i
qui
dso
astor
educesurf
acearea.Thi
scanbei
l
lust
rat
edbyt
he
fol
l
owi
ngobser
vati
ons:

i
) Whenbubbl eofsoapisblowntot hewi
deendof
10.Sur
faceTensi
on thefunnelandt heleftwit
htheupperend,t he
bubblerecedesslowl
yunti
litf
lat
tenstoafil
m.It
 Surfacetensi
oni
sdefi
nedast hefor
ceperuni
tlengthin
ther
efor
emakesi tssurf
aceassmal l
aspossi
ble.
theplaneofal i
qui
dsurfaceactingatri
ghtangleson
eit
hersideofani
maginar
ylinedrawnint
hatsurface.

Mol
ecul
arExpl
anat
ionofSur
faceTensi
on

 Amol eculedeepi ntheli

quidi
ssur r
oundedbyl iquidon
al
lsidessot hatthenetfor
ceoni ti
szero.Amol ecul
e
onthesur facehasf ewermolecul
esont hev apourside
andt her
eforewi l
lexperi
encear esult
antinwardf orce,
i
i
) Whenaf il
m ofasoapcontainedinawi r
eloopis
causi
ngt hesur f
aceoftheli
quidtobeintension.
punctur
edorpiercedatpointXasshownbel ow,
the remaini
ng part of the fi
l
m acqui res a
mi ni
mum area.The thr
ead istheref
ore pull
ed
Examplesofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chsur
facet
ensi
onf
orceact
s from onesidemaki ngaper f
ectcurve.Thisis
i
nclude: becauseoff or
cesofsurfacetensi
onf rom one
sideonl
y.
i
) Asteelr
azorbl
adeorneedl
efloat
swhencar ef
ull
y
pl
aced on wat
eralt
hough st
eelis denserthan
water
.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

36
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

i
i
) Aglassofwatercanbefi
lledwit
hwaterabovet
he Fact
orsAff
ect
ingSur
faceTensi
on
bri
m wit
houtwat erpour
ing out.Thi
sis due t
o
surf
acet
ensi
onont hesur
faceofwater
. i
) I
mpuri
ties

 Impuri
ti
esr educesurf
acet ensi
onofal i
qui
d.Soap
(det
ergent
)weakens t he cohesi
veforces bet
ween
surf
ace li
quid molecules and ther
efor
er educi
ng
surf
acetension.

i
i
) Temper
atur
e

 Temperat
urereducessurf
acetensi
onofthel iqui
d
because i
tweakens cohesi
veforce ofat
tracti
on
betweenl
iqui
dmolecul
es.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

37
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Exer
cise  Thelev
elofmercur
yi ncapi
l
laryt
ubesisl
owerthan
thatofmercur
yint hebasin.Bei
ng l
owesti
nt he
Expl
aint
hef
oll
owi
ngobser
vat
ions:
narr
owtube.
a) Asteelneedleplacedcaref
ull
yonthesurf
aceofwaterdoes
 Inbothcapil
laryt
ubesmercurycurvesdownwardsat
notsi
nk.
theedge(doesnotwetglass)
.Thisisduetostr
onger
b) Whenasmal ldropofdetergent
sisplacedonwat er
,the cohesi
vef orce bet
ween mer cur
y molecul
es than
fl
oati
ngneedlemovesr api
dlyawayfr
om itandsi
nkswhen adhesi
ve f orces bet
ween mer cur
y and gl ass
moredetergentisadded molecul
es.

c) Amatchsti
ckwr
appedatoneendwit
hsoapstar
tsmovi
ng  Thedownwar
dcur
vei edconv
scal
l exmeni
scus
i
mmediat
elyi
nonedir
ect
ionwhenpl
acedont
hesurf
aceof
wat
er.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

38
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

11.Adhesi
on(
adhesi
vef
orce) Wat
eronCl
eanandWaxedgl
asssur
faces

 Adhesion refer
st ot he f
orce ofatt
ract
ion between
molecules ofdi f
fer
entkind e.g.for
ce ofat t
ract
ion
bet
weenwat erandglassmolecul
es.

Exampl
esofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chadhesi
vef
orceact
sincl
ude:
 Whenwaterisdroppedonacl eanpieceofgl ass,i
t
1) Li
qui
dwet
ti
nggl
ass.
spr
eadsbecauseadhesi
vef or
cesbetweengl assand
2) Pai
ntst
icki
ngonwal
l
. watermol
eculesarestrongert hancohesi
vef orces
bet
weenwatermolecul
es.
3) I
nkst
icki
ngonpaper
.
 Whenwat erisdroppedonwaxedgl asssurface,i
t
4) Chal
kmar
kst
icki
ngont
heboar
d. roll
si nt
o smalldroplets.Thisi s because waxing
reduces adhesi
vef or
ce between wat erand glass
mol ecul
es.Cohesivef orce becomes gr eat
ert han
12.Cohesi
on(
Cohesi
veFor
ce) adhesivefor
ce.

 Cohesion ref
erst othe for
ce ofatt
racti
on bet
ween
moleculesofsamekinde.g.for
ceofat
tract
ionbet
ween
MassandWei
ght
watermolecules.
 Massi
sdef
inedast
hequant
it
yofmat
teri
nabody
.
SomeEf
fect
sofAdhesi
veandCohesi
veFor
ces
 Weighti
sthegrav
itat
ionalpul
lonabody
.Iti
saf
orce
a) Capi
l
lar
yTubesDi
ppedi
nWat
er andther
efor
eit
sSIunitisNewton(
N).

 Thedirect
ionofact
ionofwei
ghtonear
thi
stowar
ds
thecentr
eoftheear
th

Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenMassandWei
ght

 Massandwei
ghtar
erel
atedasf
oll
ows:

we
ight

=ma
ss×a
cce
ler
ati
onduet
ogr
avi
ty
 Inbothcapill
arytubeswat ercurv
esupwar dsatthe
edge(wetsglass)
.Theri
seofwat erupthet ubeisdue (
Gra
vit
ati
ona
lfi
elds
tre
ngt
h)
toadhesi
veforcesbetweenglassandwat ermolecul
es
bei
ng stronger than cohesi
ve force of attr
acti
on W =Mg
betweenwatermolecul
es.

 Theupwar
dcur
vei edconcav
scal
l emeni
scus.
Def
ini
ti
onofaccel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
ty(
g)

 I
tisdef
inedasthegr
avi
tat
ionalf
orceact
ingonauni
t
b) Capi
l
lar
yTubesDi
ppedi
nMer
cur
y massataplace.

 TheSIuni
tofg(
grav
itat
ionalf
iel
dst
rengt st
h)i he
newt
onperki
l
ogr
am (
N/kg)

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

39
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 Note:Agr aphofwei
ghtversusmassi
sast
rai
ghtl
i
ne
thr
oughtheor i
ginandthesl opeoft
hegr
aphgives
accel
erat
ionduetograv
ity
,gi .
e.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

40
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenMassandWei
ght a) Ti
me

b) Temper
atur
e

Mass weight c) Ener

gy
Thequant
it
yofmatter Gravit
ati
onal
pull
onan
i
nanobjectbody object d) Speed
TheSIuni
tkg SIuniti
sthenewton
(ki
l
ogram) e) Ar
ea
Const
antever
ywher
e Var
iesfrom pl
acetopl
ace
f
) Vol
ume
Ascal
arquanti
ty Avectorquant
ity
g) Lengt
h
Measured using a Measur
edusi
ngaspr
ing
beam bal
ance bal
ance
h) Mass

i
) Di
stance.

Exampl
es 1)
1. St
ateareasonastowhyweightofabodyvar
iesf
rom pl
acet
o
2) Vect
orQuant
it
y
pl
aceontheeart
h’ssur
face.
A vectorquant
it
yis one wi
th bot
h magni
tude and
di
rect
ione.
g.
Gravi
tat
ionalf
iel
dstrengthvar
iesfr
om onepl
acetoanotheronthe
eart
h’ssurf
acebeingstrongatthepol
esandweakattheequator
. i
) Wei
ght

i
i
) For
ce

2. Anobj
ectwei
ghs1000Nonear
th’
ssur
face(
g=10N/
kg) i
i
i) Vel
oci
ty

a) Cal
cul
atei
tsmass. i
v) Moment
um

w=mg v
) Accel
erat
ion

N v
i) Di
spl
acement
1000N=m ×10
kg

1000N
m= =100kg
10N/ kg  I
ft he weightofa cari s 8000 N,8000 giv
es
magnitude ofthe wei
ght,N ist he SIuni
tand
di
rect
ionistowardst
hecentr
eoftheearth.
b) I
fthesameobj ectweighs160Nonthemoonsur
face,f
indt
he
gr
avi
tat
ionalf
ieldstr
engthofthemoon.

W =mg Resul
tantvect
or

160=100×g  Thisisthesum oft woormorevector

staki
ngi
nto
accountthedi
rect
ionoft
hevect
ors.
160
g= =1.
60N/
kg
100
Exampl
e

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

41
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

3. A massof7.
5kghasawei ghtof30N onacertai
nplanet
. Fi
ndtheresult
antfor
ceoft
hef
orcesact
ingona
Cal
cul
atet
heaccel
erat
ionduetogr
avi
tyonthi
spl
anet. poi
ntobj
ectshownbel
ow.
W =mg

30=7.
5×g

30 (
a)
g= =4N/
kg
7.
5

4. Amanhasamassof70kg.cal
cul
ate:
Sol
uti
on
a) Hi
s weighton ear
th wher
ethe gr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
st
rengt
his10N/
kg. (+4N)+(+5N)= +9N

W =mg

70×10=700N

b) Hi
s weighton moon wher
ethe gr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
st
rengt
his1.
7N/
kg.
(
b)
W =mg

70×1.
7=119N

Scal
arandVect
orQuant
it
ies Sol
uti
on

1) Scal
arQuant
it
y (-
7N)+(-
3N)+(+2N)+(+4=-4N

 A scal
arquant
it
yisonewi
thmagni
tudeonl
ybutno
di
rect
ione.
g.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

42
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Exampl
es 11)Def
inet
het
erms.

1) Thefi
gurebel
owshowst
wogl
asst
ubesofdi
ff
erentdi
amet
er a) Mass
di
ppedinwater
.
b) Wei
ght
.

12)Themassofalumpofgoldisconst
antever
ywher
e,buti
ts
wei
ghti
snot.Expl
aint
his.

13) Amanhasamassof70kg.Cal
cul
ate:

a) Hi
s weighton ear
th,wher
ethe gr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
st
rengt
his10N/
kg.
Expl
ainwhyh2i
sgr
eat
ert
hanh1
b) Hi
swei ghtonthemoon,wher
ethegr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
i
) Adhesi
vefor
ceinnar
rowt
ubei
sgr
eat
ert
hanadhesi
ve st
rengt
hi s1.
7N/kg.
f
orceinwi
dert
ube.
14)Amassof7. 5kghaswei ghtof30N onacertai
nplanet
.
i
i
) Volumeofwat
erinbothtubesi
sthesamehencet
he Cal
culat
etheaccel
erat
ionduetogr
avi
tyo nt
hispl
anet
.
col
umnofwateri
nnar
rowtubeh2i
sgr
eat
er.
15)Def
inethef
oll
owingterms,gi
vi
ngexamples.
2) Nametwof
orcest
hatdet
ermi
net
heshapeofl
i
qui
ddr
opon
a) Vect
orquant
it
y
t
hesol
i
dsur
face
b) Scal
arquant
it
y
Cohesi
veandadhesi
vef
orces
16) (
a)Def
inear
esul
tantvect
or.
3) Gi
vear easonwhywei
ghtoft
hebodyvar
iesf
rom pl
acet
o
pl
ace. (
a) Fi
ndtheresul
tantofaf
orceof4Nandaf orceof
8Nacti
ngatthesamepointonanobj
ecti
f:
Thegr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
dst
rengt
hvar
iesf
rom pl
acet
opl
ace.
i
) The f
orce acti
nthe same di
rect
ion i
nthe same
4) A metalbi
nwasobser vedt of
loatonthesur f
aceofpur e st
rai
ghtli
ne.
water
.Howevert he pi
n sankwhen a f
ew drops ofsoap
sol
uti
onwereaddedtothewater
.Expl
aint
hisobservat
ion. i
i) Thefor
ceacti ntheopposi
tedi
rect
ionsbuti
nthe
samest
rai
ghtl
ine.
Soapsol
uti
onisani
mpuri
ty.Whenaddedtowater
,itl
ower
sthe
sur
facet
ensi
on(bydi
ssol
vi
ng)ofwatermaki
ngtheneedl
et nk. 17)Show di
osi agr
ammat
icall
yhow for
cesof7N and9N canbe
combinedtogi
vearesult
antt
ogivear
esul
tantf
orceof
:

(
a)16N (
b)2N
Revi
sionExer
cise

1) Byconsi
deri
ng action-
react
ion f
orces,i
dent
if
ywhywat
er
ri
sesupathi
ncapil
larytube.

2) Gi
vet
woexampl
esofcont
actf
orceandnon-
cont
actf
orce.

3) Sket
chhowavect
orquant
it
yisr
epr
esent
edonadi
agr
am.

4) Def
inef
orceandgi
veSIuni
t.

5) Nameal
lthef
orcesact
ingont
hef
oll
owi
ngbodi
es:

(
a) Aboxpl
acedonat
abl
e

(
b) Amasssuspendedf
rom aspr
ingbal
ance.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

43
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

(
c) Amovi
ngcarnegot
iat
ingabend.

6) Def
inecohesi
vef
orceandadhesi
vef
orce.

7) Expl
ainwhyamanusi ngaparachutefal
lst
hroughai
rsl
owl
y
whil
eastonef
allt
hroughai
rveryfast.

8) Aspr
ingst
ret
chesby6cm whensuppor
ti
ngal
oadof15N.

(
b) Byhow muchwoul
ditst
ret
chwhensuppor
ti
nga
l
oadof5kg?

(
c) Whatl
oadwoul
dmaket
hespr
ingext
endby25mm?

9) Expl
ain each of t
he fol
lowi
ng,usi
ng t
he behavi
our of
molecul
eswherepossi
ble:

(
a) Asteelneedl
epl
acedcar
eful
lyont
hesur
faceofwat
er
doesnotsi
nk.

(
b) Whenasmal ldropofdetergentisplacedonwat er
,the
needl
emovesr api
dlyawayfrom itandsinkswhenmor e
deter
gentisadded.(assumet hatdetergentdoesnot
aff
ectthedensityofwater
)

(
c) A match –st
ickr ubbed atoneend with soap st
arts
movingi
mmedi atel
yinonedirect
ionwhenplacedont he
sur
faceofwater.

10)Def
inesur
facet
ensi
on.

a) How doestemper
atureriseand i
mpur
it
iesaf
fectt
he
sur
facet
ensi
onofwater?

b) Howwoul
dthesur
facet
ensi
onofwat
erbei
ncr
eased?

Chapt
erFour PRES
SURE

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

44
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Def
ini
ti
onofPr
essur
e Weig
ht
a
)Mi
nimumPr
ess
ure=
Ma
ximumAre
a
 Pr
essur
eref
erst
ofor
ceact
ingper
pendi
cul
arl
yperuni
t
ar
ea. 48×10
=
4×3
 Sinceforceismeasuredinnewtonsandareai
nsquare
met er
,thent heSIunitofpressureist
henewtonper 480
= m2
=40N/
12
squaremet er(N/m2)orthepascal(Pa)
.1newtonper
squaremet er( m2)=1pascal(
N/ Pa)
Force F=P×A Weig
ht 480
Pr
ess
ure= b)Ma
ximumPr
ess
ure= =
Ar
ea Mi
nimumar
ea 2×3

F F m2
=80N/
P= A=
A P

5. Anobjectwhosear
eaofcontactwi
tht
hefl s5m2exer
oori tsa
pr
essureof900pascal
.Cal
culat
eit
smass

F(
Wei
ght
)=P×A
Pr
essur
einSol
i
ds
We
ig m2×5m2
ht=900N/
For
ceexer
tedbyasol
i
drest
ingonasur
facei
sequalt
othe
w
wei
ghtt
heobject
. m=
g
For
ce(
wei
ghtofs
oli
d)
Pr
ess
ure= 4500N
Ar
eaofc
ont
act = =450kg
.
10N/kg

6. Tr
ackswhi
chcar
ryheavyl
oadshavemanywheel
s.Expl
ain.

we
ightofs
oli
d Manywheelsi ncreasethear eaofcont
actwi t
htheground
Ma
ximumPr
ess
ure=
Mi
nimumAr
ea ther
ebyr
educingpr essur
eexer t
edontheroad.Thi
spr
events
damageofther oadsbytracks.

7. Ablockofcopperofdensi
ty9g/cm3 measur
es5cm by3cm
we
ightofs
oli
d by2cm.Gi
venthatgis10N/kg,
deter
mine:
Mi
nimumPr
ess
ure=
Ma
ximumAr
ea

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingPr
essur
einSol
i
ds
a) Themaxi
mum pr
essur
e
1. Wei
ghtoft
hesol
i
d(f
orce)
We i
ght
Ma
ximumpr
ess
ure=
 Ifthe ar
ea ofcontactbetween soli
d and sur
face i
s Mi
nimumarea
const
ant,pr
essur
eincr
easeswithweight.
ρVg
Ma
ximumpr
ess
ure=
2. Ar
eaofcont
actoft
hesol
i
dwi
thsur
face. Mi
nimumar
ea

 Thesmal l
erthearea,thehigherthepressur
ei fsame kg
9000 3×(
30×10-6m3)×10N/
kg
for
ceisappli
ed.Therefor
epr essur
ecanber educedby m
=
i
ncreasi
ngtheareaofcontact
. -4 2
6× 10 m
Exampl
es m2
=4500N/

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

45
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

b) Themi ni
mum pr
essur
ethati
tcanexer
tonahor
izont
al
sur
face.
1. Ablockofasoapst oneofdi
mension4m by2m by3m i
s48kg
andismadetorestonasmoot hhori
zont
alsur
face Weig
ht,
W
Mi
nimumpr
ess
ure=
Ma
ximumare
a
2. Cal
cul
atet
hemi
nimum pr
essur
eitexer
tsont
hesur
face.
2.
7N
3. Cal
cul
atet
hemaxi
mum pr
essur
eitwi
l
lexer
tont
hesur
face = 2
15×10-4m

2.
7N
= m2
=1800N/
0015m2
0.

8. I
tispai
nfuli
fonet
ri
est
oli
ftaheavyl
oadbyat
hinst
ri
ng.

Therei
sasmal lar
eaofcont
actwi
ththefi
nger
swhenat hi
n
str
ingi
sused.Asar esul
t,morepr
essur
eisgener
atedand
thi
sispai
nful
.

Exer
cise 2. Densi
tyoft
heLi
qui
d

1. Api ckupcar r
yingst oneswei ghs40, 000N.Theweighti y  Pr
sevenl essurei
nliqui
dsincreaseswi t
hdensityoftheli
quid.
spreadacr osst he4t ypes.Thear eaofcont actofeachtir
ewi t
h
thegr oundi s0. 05m2.Cal culatethepr essur
eexertedbyeach  Consi dertwo ident
icalcy l
i
nder sfil
l
edwi thwat er( of
3
ti
reont hegr ound. densit
y 1000kg/ m ) and gl yceri
ne ( of densi ty
1260kg/m3)respect
ively
.
2. At humbi susedt opushat humbpi nint
oapi eceofwood.
Explainint ermsofpr essurewhyt hepressureonwood i s
 PressureatpointBi sgreaterthanpressureatpoi ntA
greaterthant hepr essur eont hethumb.
becauseglyceri
neisdensert hanwat erandt herefore
3. Anel ephantofmass2800kghasf eetofaverageareaof200 exert
smor epressur
et hanwat er.
cm2.Avul tureofmass12kgwal ksbesi detheelephantona
muddyar ea,t heaver agear eaoft hef eetofthevult
ureis2.0
cm2.Whi chonei slikelyt osink?Expl ai
nyouranswershowi ng
anynecessar ycalculations.

4. Agirlst
andi
nguprightexer
tsapressur
eof15000N/ m2 onthe
f
loor
.Giventhatt
het ot
alar
eaofcontactofshoesandt
hef l
oor
i
s0.02m2.

a) Det
ermi
net
hemassoft
hegi
rl
.

b) Deter
minet
hepressur
eshewoul
dexer
tont
hef
loori
fshe
st
oodononefoot.

5. A block of copper of densi

ty 8. cm3 measur
9 g/ es
10cm ×6cm ×4cm.Givent
hatthefor
ceofgravi
t s10Nkg-1, ToDemonst
yi rat
eVar
iat
ionofPr
essur
ewi
thDept
hofLi
qui
ds
det
ermine:
 Consi
deratal
lti
nwi
thholesA,BandCequallyspaced
a) Themaxi
mum pr
essur
e.
ononesideal
ongav
ert
icall
ineasshownbel
ow.
b) Themi ni
mum pr
essur
ethati
tcanexer
tonahor
izont
al
sur
face.  Whent heti
nisf
il
ledwit
hwat er
,thewaterjet
soutoft
he
holeswit
hthatf
rom holeAthrownf ar
thestfol
l
owedby
thatfr
om hol
eBandlastlyf
rom holeC.

Pr
essur
einLi
qui
ds  ThismeansthatpressureofwateratAi sgreat
ert han
pressur
eatBandpr essur
eatBisgreaterthanpressure
Fact
orsAf
fect
ingPr
essur
einLi
qui
ds atC.Hence,
Pressureinli
qui
dsincr
easeswi t
hdepth.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

46
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

1. Dept
hoft
heLi
qui
d

 Pr
essur
einl
i
qui
dsi
ncr
easeswi
thdept
h.

 Thisi
sthereasonastowhywallsofadam ar
ethi
ckerat
thebott
om thanatthetopasshownbelow.Thi
ckwalls
atthebott
om ofthedam wi
thst
andhighpr
essur
eduet o
wateratt
hebottom.

 Pressureincreasi
ngwithdepthofli
quidexpl
ainswhya
diveratt
hebot tom oft
heseaexperi
encesmorepressure
duet omor eweightofwaterabov
ehimt hanadivernear To Demonstr
ate Var
iat
ion ofPr
essur
e wi
th Dept
h and
thetop/surfaceofthesea. Densi
tyofLi
qui
ds

 Considerat ranspar
entglassvesselfi
l
ledwit
hwater
andat hi
stl
ef unnelconnect
edtoau- tubef
il
ledwi
th
col
oredwat ertosomel ev
eldi
ppedint
oit.

 I sobser
ti vedthatthedeeperthefunnelgoesbel
owthe
surf
aceofwater,t
hegreaterthediff
erenceinl
evel
sof
waterint
hetwol i
mbsoft heu-tube,h.Thisisdueto
i
ncreasei
npressur
ewithdepth.

 Whengl yceri
neisusedinpl aceofwateritisobserved  Thepr essur
e p,exertedatt hebot t
om (base)oft he
thatatt he same depththe dif
fer
ence i
nl evel
s,h is cont
ainerbytheweightoftheliquidabov eiti
sgivenby:
great
erthanwhenwat erisused.Thi
sisbecauseglyceri
n
i
sdensert hanwaterandtherefor
eiti
spressureatsame F w(wei
g htofl
iqui
d)
P= =
depthishighert
hanthatofwater. A A(
cross-s
ect
iona r
eaoftheconta
ine
r)

Butw=ρAhg

Whe
reAh=vol
umeoft
hel
iqui
d

Ahρg
∴P=
A

P=hρg
.Thi
sist
hef
lui
dpr
ess
uref
ormul
a.

 Fr
om t
hef
ormul
aiti
scl hatpr
eart essur
einf
lui
dsdoes
notdepend on cr
oss-sect
ion ar
eaoft
hecont
ainer
hol
dingt
heli
quid.

ToDemonstr
atet
hatPr
essur
eatEqualDept
h,Act
sEqual
l
yin Exampl
es
Al
lDi
rect
ions

 Consideratinwi t
ht wosi mi
larholesoni t
ssideatsame
1.
) Adi verwor ki
ngunderwateri
s15m belowt hesurfaceoft
he
heightasshownal ongside. sea.Cal culat
ethepressur
eduet owaterexperi
encedbythe
diver(takeg=10N/kg)anddensi
tyofseawat ert
obeequalto
 Whent heti
ni sfil
ledwi t
hwat er
,itisobservedthatwater 3
1.03g/cm .
travel
soutoft hehol esequalhor i
zontaldist
ancesfrom
thecan.Ther eforepr essur
eexer tedatequaldept hi s

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

47
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

samei
nal
ldi
rect
ions. P=hρg

=15m ×1030kg
/m3×10N/
kg

m2
=154500N/

2.
) Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsal
i
qui
dinapai
l
.

Fl
uidPr
essur
eFor
mul
a

 Consi
deracont
ainerwit
hcr
oss-sect
ionarea,A,f
il
led
wit
hal i
qui
dofdensity
,ρ,t
ot hehei
ght,h,asshown
al
ongsi
de.

Iftheli
qui
dhasadensi t
yof0.
79g/cm3,det
ermi
net
hepr
essur
e
exert
edatthebot
tom oft
hepai
lbyt
heli
qui
d.

o P=hρg

=0.
45m ×790kg
/m3×10N/
kg

m2
=3555N/

b) Suggestar
easonwhypailmanuf
act
urespr
efert
heshape
showntoothershapes

To reduce the heightoft he pailbutmai nt

aint
he
capaci
ty.Thisr educes the pressur
e exer
ted byt
he
l
iqui
datt hebott
om oft hepail
.

3.
) Cal
cul
atet
hepressur
eexertedby76mm col
umnofmer
cur
y
gi
vent
hati
tsdensi
tyi
s13.6g/cm3

o p=hρg

kg
o =0.
76m ×13600 3×10N/
kg
m

o m2
=103360N/

4.
) A columnofgl ycer
in8. 20m high,acolumnofseawat er
10.08m hi
gh,acolumnofmer cury0.
76m hi
ghandcol umnof
fr
eshwat er10.34m hi ghexer tthesamepr essureatthe
bottom of a cont ai
ner . Arr
ange these substances in
decreasi
ngorderoft
heirdensiti
es.

Mer
cur
y,gl
ycer
ine,
seawat
er,
freshwat
er

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

48
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Pascal
’
sPri
nci
ple(
ThePr
inci
pleofTr
ansmi
ssi
onofPr
essur
e  Pressur
eexer
tedont
hel
i
qui
dbypi
ston,
Sduet
ofor
ce,
i
nLiqui
ds) FS,i
sPS.

 Pascal’
spri
ncipl
estat
esthatpr
essur
eappli
edatonepar
t FS
PS=
i
nal iqui
dist r
ansmit
tedequal
l
ytoallot
herpart
softhe AS
enl
argedli
quid.
 By Pascal
’
s princi
plethi
s pr
essur
e PS i
s equalt
o
Demonst
rat
ingPascal
’
sPr
inci
ple pr
essurePLexer
tedbyli
qui
donpist
on,L.
 Consi
derali
quidunderpressur
eduet
ofor
ce,
F,act
ingon PS=PL
thepl
ungerasshownbelow.
Fs FL
=
 Not
e:Thehol
esar
eofequal
diamet
er. As AL

Exampl
es

1. Thef
igurebel
owshowst womassesplacedonl
ightpi
stons.
Thepist
onsarehel
dst at
ionar
ybytheliqui
dwhosedensity
0. cm3.Det
8g/ er
minetheforceF.

 Whent heplungerispushedin,watersqui
rt
soutoft he
hol
es wi t
h equalf orce.This shows that pressure
gener
ated byt he pi
ston on t
he wateristransmitted
equal
lytoallot
herpar
tsoftheli
qui
d.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofPascal
’
sPr
inci
ple

 Pascal
’
s Pri
nci
pleis appl
ied i
nt he worki
ng oft
he
hydr
auli
cmachi
nes.Thesemachi
nesincl
ude: FB FA(
i.
e.w=mg
)
o hρg+ =
AB AA
a) Hydrauli
cpressusedt ocompr
esst
ext
il
epr
oduct
s
l
ikeblanket
sforpacki
ng. 60×10N kg FB
o =1.
8m ×800 3×10N/
Kg+
0008m
0. 2 m 00025m2
0.
b) Hy
draul
i
cli
ftusedt
ohoi
stcar
singar
ages.
N FB
c) Hy
draul
i
cbr
akesyst
em usedf
orbr
aki
ngi
ncar
s. o 750000 2=1440N/
m2+
m 0.
00025
Pr
essur
eTr
ansmi
ssi
oni
nHydr
aul
i
cMachi
nes

 Notethatpr
essur
eatsamel
eveli
nthel
i
qui
dist
hesame
( N
m
N
m)
o FB = 750000 2-1440 2 0.
00025m2

asseenearl
ier
. =187.
14N

 Considert hehy dr
aul
i
cmachinebelow consist
ingofa
smallpiston,S,andalar
gepi
ston,
L,ofcross-sect
ionas
shownal ongside. 2. Theareaofthelargesyri
ngeinanexperi
menti s18cm2 and
2
thatoft
hesmalleroneis3.0cm .Afor
ceof2Ni sappli
edon
thesmallerpi
ston.Fi
nd thef orcepr
oduced onthelarger
pist
on.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

49
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

50
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Fs FL Pr
oper
ti
esoft
heHydr
aul
i
cBr
akeFl
uid
o =
As AL
(
a) I
tshoul
dnotcor
rodepar
tsoft
hesyst
em
2N FL
o =
0018m2
0003m2 0.
0. (
b) I
tshoul
dbehi
ghl
yincompr
essi
ble

2N×0.0018m2 (
c) I
tshouldhaveal
owf
reezi
ngpoi
ntandhi
ghboi
l
ing
FL= =12N poi
nt.
0003m2
0.

4. Thediagr
am bel
owshowsau-t
ubefi
ll
edtwoli
qui f At
ds,xandy.I mospheri
cPressure
3
thedensi
tyofli
qui
dyis1.
00g/cm ,det
ermi
nethedensi
tyof
 Thisisthepressureexer
tedont
heear
th’
ssur
faceby
l
iqui
dx.
t
hecol
umnofai raroundi
t.

ToDemonstr
ateExi
stenceofAtmospher
ic
Pr
essur
e(Cr
ushingCanExperi
ment)

 Consi
derat incont ai
nerwithsomewaterinit
.The
o hxρxg=hyρyg cont
aineris heated forsome ti
me whi
l
e open and
cl
osedaf t
erwi t
hdrawingheati
ng.Col
dwateristhen
N kg pour
edoni ti
mmedi ately
.
o 0.
40m ×ρx×10 =0.
30m ×1000 3×10N/
kg
kg m

4.
0Nm N
o ×ρ =3000 2
kg x m

kg
o ρx=750 3
m

Hydr
aul
i
cBr
akeSyst
em

 The hydr
auli
c br
ake syst
em uses the pr
inciple of
tr
ansmi
ssionofpr
essur
einli
qui
ds(Pascal
’
sprincipl
e)in
i
tsoper
ati
on.

 I sobser
ti vedthatthecontai
nercrushesinwar dswhen
col
dwat erispouredonit.Thi
sisbecausest eam f r
om
boi
lingwat erdri
vesouttheairi
nsi
det hecont ainerand
a par t
ialvacuum is cr
eated when t he containeris
cooled.The hi gheratmospheri
c pressuref r
om t he
outsidecrushesthecont
aineri
nwards.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

51
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Exampl
e

Aseadiveri
s18m belowt hesur
faceofseawater
.Ift
hedensi
ty
ofseawateris1.
03g/cm3 andgis10N/kg,determi
nethetot
al
pr
essur
eonhim.(Takeatmospher
icpressur m2)
epa=103000N/ .

Tot
alpr
ess
ure=hρg+Pa

kg N
=18m ×1030 3×10 +103000N/
m2
m kg

ModeofOper
ati
onofHydr
aul
i
cBr
akeSyst
em m2
=288400N/

 When asmal lf orcei sappl i

ed on t he brakepedal ,it
pushest hepistonoft hemast ercyli
nderi nwards.This
producesapr essur ethatisequal lyt r
ansmi t
tedt othe
pistonsi nthesl avecyl i
nders.Thepr essuregener at
esa
force whi ch pushest he pi
stonsoft he slav
e cy l
i
nder
outwar ds.Thepi stonst henpusht hebr akeshoesand
thereforet he brake l i
ning outwards.The br ake lini
ng
touchesandst opsr otati
ngwheel drum.

 The return spr

ing r
etur
ns the br
ake shoes i
ntot
hei
r
ori
ginalpositi
on af
terforceon brakepedalhasbeen
remov ed.

Measur
ementofPr
essur
e 2) Thedi agram below show amer curymanomet er.Somedr y
gas is presenti nthe closed space.Ift he atmospher
ic
1) U-TubeMonomet
er pressureis105000N/ m2anddensityofmercury13600kg/m3,
determinepressureofthegas(takeg=10N/kg).
 I
ti omeasur
susedt egaspr
essur
e.

 I
tconsi
stsofu-t
ubef
il
ledwi
thsui
tabl
eli
qui
dtosome
l
evel
.

 Consideru-
tubemanometerbel
ow i
nwhi
chonel
i
mbi
s
connectedt
ogassuppl
y.

o hρg+Pg=Pa

kg N
o 0.
25m ×13600 3×10 +Pg=105000N/
m2
m kg

o m2+Pg=105000N/
34000N/ m2

N N
o Pg=105000 2-34000 2
m m

o m2
=71000N/
 AandBar eatthesamehorizont
all
evelandt
her
efor
e
pr
essur
eatAisequal
topr
essureatB.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

52
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 PressureatAi sduetothegas,pg whi

l
epressureatBis 2) MercuryBar
ometer
duetot hecol
umnofl i
qui
dandatmospheri
cpr essur
e.
 Itisusedtomeasureat
mospher
icpressur
e.
Pressurea PA =Pr
tA, essur
eatB,PB
 Itempl oy
sthefactt
hatat
mospher
icpressur
esuppor
ts
Pg=hρg+Pa acolumnofli
quidi
natube.

 Wher
eρi
sthedensi
tyofl
i
qui
dint
heu-t
ube. Const
ruct
ionofMer
cur
yBar
omet
er

 Iti
smadeofathick-wal
l
edgl
asst
ubeofabout1m l
ong
seal
edatoneend.
Exampl
es
 Thetubeist
henfi
l
ledcaref
ull
ywithmer curyt
othetop.
1) Thehei
ght
,hofawatermanomet
eri
s20cm whenusedt
o
measur
epr
essur
eofagas.  Anybubblesofairi
nthetubear eremov edbyclosi
ng
theopenendandi
nvert
ingthetubeseveral
ly.

 Thet
ubei
stheni
nver
tedi
ntoadi
shf
il
ledwi
thmer
cur
y.

 Mercur
yispr
efer
redintheconstr
ucti
onofbar
omet
ert
o
ot
herli
qui
dsbecauseisv
t eryhighdensi
ty.

a) Deter
minethepr
essur
eduet
ogas,I
fat
mospher
icpr
essur
eis
m2.
103000N/

o Pg=hρg+Pa

o =0.
20m ×1000kg
/m3×10N/ m2
kg+103000N/ 
o m2
=105000N/

b) Whatwoul
dbet
hehei
ghti
fthel
i
qui
dusedi
sgl
ycer
inofdensi
ty
1. cm3
26g/

o Pg=hρg+Pa
N
o 105000 2=h×1260kg/m3×10N/kg+103000N/m2
m

o m2=12600N/
105000N/ m3×h+103000N/
m2

o m2=12600N/
2000N/ m3×h

m2
2000N/
h= =0.
16m
12600N/m3

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

53
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Usi
ngMer
cur
yBar
omet
er

 Thehei
ghth,oft hemercur
ycol
umni
sthemeasur
eof
at
mospher
icpressure.

 Thecolumnofmer
cur
yh,atseal
eveli
s76cmHg.
InSI
uni
titi
s:

Pa=hρg
Si
phon
0.
76m ×13600kg
/m3×10N/ m2
kg=103360N/
 Si
phoni
susedt
otr
ansf
erl
i
qui
dfr
om onecont
ainert
o
 The atmospher
ic pressur
e atsea lev
eli s cal
led one
another.
atmospher
eorst andardatmospher
icpressur
e( 76cmHg
or103360N/m2)  Theuseofsi phontotr
ansf
erli
quidduetopressure
di
fferencei
scaledsi
l phoni
ng.Consi
dert
hesiphoning
Exampl
es ar
rangementshownbel
ow.
1) Astudenti
naplacewherethemer cur
ybarometerreads75cm
wantedtomakeanalcoholbarometer
.Ifal
coholhasadensi t
y
of800kg/m3,
whatist
hemi ni
mum lengthofthet
ubet hatcoul
d
beused?

Pa=hHgρHgg=halρalg

75m ×13600kg/m3 ×10N/kg=hal×800kg/m3 ×10N/kg

0.

10200
hal= =12.
75m
8000

2) Thebar ometr
icheightinat ownis70cm mercur
y.Giventhat
thestandardatmospher i
cpressur
eis76cm mercuryandt he
densi
tyofmer cur
yi m3,det
s13600kg/ ermi
nethealti
tudeofthe  Pr
essureatA isequaltopr
essur
eatBandi
tist
he
town.(Densi
tyofairis1.
25kg/ 3
m) . at
mo spher
icpr
essur
e,Pa

(Not
e:St
andar
dpr
essur
eref
erst
otheat
mospher
icpr eat  Pr
essur essur
eatci sequaltopressur
eatBpluspr
essur
e
seal
evel
). duetowatercol
umn, h,
ie.PC=PB +hρg
.

Pdi
ff
ere
nce=Pa
tse
ale
vel
-Pa
ttown  Pressur
ediff
erencebetweenBandC(i
.e.PC-PB =hρg
)
i
s whatmakes t he l
i
quidtof l
ow f
rom the upper
hHgsl-hHgtn)×ρHg×g=hair×ρair×g
( contai
nert
othelowerone.
(
0. 70)m ×13600kg/m3 ×10N/kg=hair×1.
76-0. 25kg/m3 ×10N/kg Condi
ti
onsunderwhi
chSi
phonWor
ks
8160
hair= =652.
8m(
Thi
sist
hea
lti
tudeoft
het
own) a) Thetubemustbefil
ledwi
tht
hel
i
qui
dfi
rst
.Thi
scr
eat
es
12.
50
apressur
edi
ff
erence.
3) Thefi
gurebel
owshowsapersonsucki
ngwat
erusi
ngast
raw.
Expl
ainhowsucki
ngi
smadepossi
ble. b) Ther
emustbeadi
ff
erencei
nlevel
sofl
i
qui
dint
het
wo
cont
ainer
s.

c) The end ofthe tube mustremai

n bel
ow t
he l
i
qui
d
sur
faceoftheuppercontai
ner
.
Exampl
e

When one sucks pressur

einside t
he str
aw reduces bel he Thef
ow t i
gurebel
owshowshowt oemptywat
erf
rom al
arget
anki
nto
at
mospheri
cpr essur
e.Thepressuredif
fer
encecauseswat ertogo alowlyi
ngtankusi
ngr
ubbert
ubing.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

54
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

i
ntot
hest
rawandr
iseupt
othemout
h.

Test
ingt
heVacuum i
ntheBar
omet
er

 Thevacuum i
stestedbyti
lt
ingthet ube.I
fthetubei
sful
ly
fi
ll
edthenthespacei sav acuum buti fthetubeisnot
ful
lyfi
l
ledt
henthespaceisnotav acuum; i
thassomeair
occupyi
ngi
tandt her
efor
e,thebaromet eri
sfault
y.

2) TheBi
cycl
ePump

 The l
eatherwasheract h av
sasbot alve and pi
ston
i
nsi
det hepumpbarrel
.

 Whenthepumphandl eisdrawnoutasshown,ai ri
nthe
a) Explain whythe tube mustbe f il
l
ed wi
th waterbeforethe barr
elexpan ds and i
ts pr
essur
e reduces bel
ow t
he
empt yi
ngprocessstarts. atmospher
icp r
es sure.Ai
r f
rom out
sidethepumpt hen
fl
owspastt hel eatherwasherintothebar r
el.Atthe
Tocreatepressur
edifferencebetweenCandDthiswilll
eadto sametime,thehigherairpressur
einthetyr
eclosesthe
cont
inuousflowofwat erfrom t
heuppert
anktothelowertank. tyr
eval
ve.
b) Soon af
ter t
he tank begi
ns t
o empt yt he l
ower end i
s  Whenthepumphandl
eispushedi
n,theai
risfor
ced
momentari
l
yblockedbypl
aci
ngafingeratendD.
i
ntot
hetyr
ethr
ought
hety
reval
vewhi
chnowopens.
I
. Det
ermi
nepr
essur
edi
ff
erencebet
weenpoi
ntAandD.
Not
e:Ther
eisani
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
eoft
hepump
o PAD =hρg bar
relduri
ngpumpingt
hisi
sbecauseoft
hewor
kdone
i
ncompr essi
ngai
r.
kg N
o PAD =2m ×1000 3×10
m kg

o PAD =20000N/m2 3) TheLi

ftPump
I
I. whatwil
lbethepressureexper
iencedbyt
hef
ingeratpointD.
(
takedensi
tyofwater m3andpa=100,
=1000kg/ 000N/m2

o PD =Patm +hρg

N N2
o PD =100000 2+20000
m m

o =120000Nm-2

Appl
i
cat
ionsofPr
essur
einLi
qui
dsandGases

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

55
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

1) ASyr
inge

 When thepi ston ispul l

ed upwar ds( duri
ng upstroke),
spaceiscreatedi nthebar r
elthusl oweringthepressure
i
nside below at mospher i
c pr essure. The hi gher
atmospher
icpr essureactingont hel i
quidpushest he
l
iquidi
ntothebar rel
.  Tostartt
hepump,waterispouredontopofthepist
on
sothatgoodai
rti
ghtseali
smader oundthepi
stonand
 Duri
ng a down st roke,the pressurei nside i
ncreases i
nv al
vePthepumpisoperatedbymeansofalever
aboveatmospher i
cpr essureandt heliquidisexpel l
ed
fr
om thebarrel
. Upstr
oke

 Whent heplungermov esupduri

ngtheupstroke,val
veR
closesduetoitsweightandpressureofwaterabov ei
t.
Att he same time,airabovev al
ve expands and its
pressur
er educes below atmospheri
c pressure.The
atmosphericpressureont hewaterint hewel lbel
ow
thuspusheswat eruptopastval
veintothebarrel
.

 The pl
ungeri
s moved up and downhi
l
lthe space
bet
weenRandSisf
il
ledwit
hwater.

Downst
roke

 Dur
ingdownst
roke,val
veScl
osesduet
oit
swei
ghtand
pr
essur
eofwateraboveit
.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

56
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Li
mit
ati
onsoft
heLi
ftPump Exer
ciseonappl
i
cat
ionsofpr
essur
e

 I
npr act
ical
,thepossi
blehei
ghtofwat erthatcanbe (
a) Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsal
i
ftpump
r
aisedbythi
spumpislesst
han10m becauseof

i
)Low at
mospheri
cpr
essur
einpl
aceshi
gh
abov
esealev
el,

i
i
)Leakageatt
hev
alv
esandpi
stons

4) TheFor
cePump

Thi
spumpi
susedt
orai
sewat
ert
ohei
ght
sofmor
ethan
10m. Expl
ainwhy,
whent
hepi
stoni
s;

(
) Pul
l
edupwar
ds,
val
veAopenswhi
l
eval
veBcl
oses.

(
c) Pusheddownwar
ds,
val
veAcl
oseswhi
l
eval
veBopens

(
d)Aft
ersever
alst
rokes,wat
err
isesabovet
hepi
stonasshown
bel
ow.

St
atehowwat
eri
sremovedf
rom t
hecyl
i
ndert
hrought
hespout
.

(
e) Ali
f tpumpcanl i
ftwat
eruptoamaximum hei ghtof10m.
det
er minethemaximum hei
ghttowhi
chthepumpcanr ai
se
par
af f
in.(
takedensi
tyofpar
aff
inas800kgm-3anddensi
tyof
Upst
roke wateras1000kgm-3)

 Duri
ngupstr
oke,airabovethevalv
eFexpandsandi ts (
f) Stat
eonef
act
orthatdet
ermi
nest
hehei
ghtt
owhi
chaf
orce
pr
essurereduces below atmospher
ic pressure.The pumpcanl
i
ftwat
er.
at
mospheri
cpressureonwat eri
nthewellpusheswat er
uppastval
veFintothebarr
el.Pr
essur
eabov ev al
veGi s
at
mospheri
c.Hence,t hi
svalvedoesnotopen i nthis
st
roke.

Downst
roke

 Dur i
ngthedownst roke,t
hev alveFcl oses.Increasein
pressureduet owaterinthebar relopensv alveG and
forceswat erintochamberSsot hataswat erf il
lsthe
chamber ,airistrappedandcompr essedatt heupper
part.Duringthenextupst roke,valv
eG cl osesandt he
compr essedairexpandsensuringacont i
nuousflow.

Advant
ageofFor
cePumpovert
hel
i
ftpump

a) I
tenabl
esacont
inuousf
lowofwat
er.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

57
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

b) Thehei
ghttowhi
chi
tcanr
aisedoesnotdependon
at
mospheri
c.

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingWor
kingoft
heFor
cePump

a) Amountoff
orceappl
i
eddur
ingt
hedownst
roke.

 Abi
li
tyofthepumpandi
tsworki
ngpart
stowit
hst
and
pr
essureofthecol
umnofwat
erinchamberc.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

58
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Revi
sionExer
cise 15.Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsahydr
aul
i
cpr
ess

1. Apistonwhosedi ameteris1.4m ispushedintoacyl

inder
contai
ningafluid,I
fthepressur
epr oducedinthecyl
i
nderis4.
0
x105pa, Cal
culatethefor
ceappliedont hepist
on.

2. Anoct opusisrest
ingi
ntheocean.Ift
heoctopusi
satadept
h
of47m inseawhosewat erhasadensi
tyof1200kg/m3,
cal
culatethepr
essureexperi
encedbyt
heoctopus(Take
atmosphericpr
essure=1.0125x105Pa)

3. Explainwhyifai
rgetsinthebrakesyst
em woul
dreducet
he
eff
iciencyoft
hebr
akes.(
2marks)

4. Aconcret
ebl
ockofmass50kgr
est
sont
hesur
faceoft
het
abl
e Thetwopist
onsareofareas10mm2and20mm2r especti
vel
y.A
asshownbel
ow. for
ceof100Nisappli
edont hesmal
lerpi
ston,
findtheloadthat
canbeli
ft
edonthelargerpi
stoni
f:

a. Thepist
onhasnegl
i
gibl
ewei
ghtandnof
ri
cti
onalf
orces
exi
st.

b. Thepist
onshavenegl
i
gibl
ewei
ghtandf
ri
cti
onal
10Nand
40Nrespect
ivel
y.

Thesmall
erpi
stonhasthewei ght5Nt helar
gerpist
onhasa
Whatisthemaximum pr
essur
ethatcanbeexer
tedont
he wei
ghtof10Nandthefr
ict
ionalforcesarenegl
igi
ble.
benchbythebl
ock?

5. Aholeofarea4.0cm²atthebot
tom ofatank5m deepi
sclosed
wit
hacor k.Determinethefor
ceont hecorkwhenthetankis
fi
l
ledwithwat er
.( Takeg=10msˉ ²anddensityofwater=
1000kgmˉ³).

6. A measuringcyl i
nderofheight25cm i
sf i
ll
edt oaheightof
15cm wi t
h wat erand the restis occupied by ker
osene.
Determi
net hepressureacti
ngoni t
sbase( densi
tyofwater=
1gcmˉ ³densit
y ofker osene = 0.
8gcmˉ³and at mospheric
pressur
e=103,000pa).

7. St
ate one advant
age ofhydr
aul
i
c br
akes overmechani
cal
br
akes.

8. Expl
ainwhyaladyweari
ngsharpheel
edshoesi
snotl
i
kel
yto
ski
donasli
pperymuddyroad.

9. Why does at
mospher
ic pr
essur
e decr
ease t
owar
ds hi
gher
al
ti
tude?

10. Showt
hatPr
essur
einf
lui
dsi
sgi
venby P=hρg

11.Gi
veareasonwhynosebl
eedi
ngi
sli
kel
ytooccuratt
het
opofa
mount
ain.

12. Ablockofglassofdensi
ty2. cm3 hasdi
5g/ mensi
ons8cm by
10cm by15cm.Itispl
acedononeofi t
sfacesonahori
zont
al
surf
ace.Cal
culat
e:-

a) Thewei
ghtoft
hebl
ock

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

59
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

b) Thegreatestpr
essur
eitcanexer
tont
hehor
izont
al
sur
face.

c) The leastpr
essur
eitcan exer
ton t
he hor
izont
al
sur
face.

13.Thereadingofamer curybar
omet eri
s75.58cm atthebaseof
amount ainand66.37cm att
hesummi t.Cal
cul
atethehei
ghtof
3
themount ai
n( Densi
tyofmer cur
y=13. 6g/m anddensityof
air
=1.25kg/m3

14.Inahydraul
icbrake,t
hemast
erpi
stonhasanar 4mm2and
eaof
2
thewheelpistoneachhasanareaof4cm .Fi ndthef
orces
appl
i
edt ot hewheelwhenaf or
ceof10N i sappl
i
edont he
masterpist
on.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

60
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Chapt
erFi
ve PARTI
CULATENATUREOFMATTER
I
ntr
oduct
ion

 Mat
teri
sany
thi
ngt
hatoccupi
esspaceandhasmass.

 Matt
erisnotcontinuousbuti
tismadeupofev
eryt
iny
par
ti
cleshencepar
tici
pat
enat
ureofmat
ter
.

 Par
ticul
ate nat
ure of mat
ter t
herefor
eref
erst
o t
he
exi
stenceofmatteri
nver
yti
nypar
ticl
es.

Experi
mentt
odemonst
rat
ethatMat
teri
smadeupofTi
ny
Part
icl
es

i
) UseofaPi
eceofPaper  Thechal
kdusti sobservedt obei nconst
antrandom
moti
on.Thisis due t othecont inuouscol
li
sion of
 Apieceofpapercanbecutcont i
nuousl
yunt ilwhent he chal
kdustparti
cleswi t
ht hewat ermolecul
eswhi ch
smallpiecescannotbecutintopiecesanyf urt
her.This arei
nconti
nuousr andom mot i
on.
suggeststhatt
hesheetofpaperi
smadeoft i
nypi ecesof
paper.Hencematteri
smadeupoftinypar
ti
cles. ToDemonst
rat
eBr owni anmot i
oni nGases(TheSmoke
Cel
lExper
iment
)

 Consi
der t
he set up bel
ow f
or t
he smoke cel
l
exper
iment
.

i
i
) Di
l
uti
ngPot
assi
um Per
manganat
eSol
uti
on

 Theprocessofdi
lut
ingpurpl
epotassium manganese(
VII
)
canconti
nueunt
ilt
hesolut
ionappearscol
orl
ess.

 This suggests that t he part

icl
es of pot assium
permanganat
earespreadevenl
yinwaterandeachdi
lution
processspr
eadthem fur
ther
.Thi
sisapr ooft
hatmatteris
madeupoft i
nypart
icl
eswhichcanbeseparat
ed.
 Not e:Thesmokei sintroducedi ntothesmokecel lby
Expl
ainwhyi ti spossi blet o dissol
vesugari nwat erwithoutany burningt hest rawandl etti
ngt hesmokef i
l
lt hesmoke
noti
ceablei ncreasesi nvol umeofwat er.Thesugarpar ti
clesoccupy cellfr om t heot herend.Smokei susedher ebecause
thesmal li
ntermol ecularspacesofwat ermol ecul
es.Thisbehaviourof smokepar ti
clesar eli
ghtandbr i
ght .
sugarsuggest st hatmat terismadeupofver yti
nypart
icl
es.
 The conv ergingl ens isusedt of ocus/concent rate
Browni anmot ion conv er ge t he l ight t o t he smoke cel lt her
eby
i
llumi natingt hesmoke.Themi croscopeassi stst he
 Br owni anmot i
onr eferstot herandom mov ementofl iquid obser v erseet heil
luminat edsmokepar ticl
escl earl
y .
andgaspar t
icl
es.
 Thebr i
ghtspecksar eobser vedmovi ngr andoml yi n
ToDemonst r
at eBr owni anmot ioninLi quids the smoke cel l
.The br i
ghtspecksar et he smoke
particleswhi chscat ter/r eflectlightshi ni
ngont hem.
 Consi dert he set -up al ongside i n which chalk dusti s Theymov er andoml yduet ocont inuouscol lisi
onwi th
sprinkledont hesur f
aceofwat eri nt hebeakerandt he i
nv i
si bleai rpar t
icleswhi char eincont inuousr andom
beakercov eredusi ngat ranspar entl i
d.Thebehav iourof mot ion.
chalkdusti sthenobser vedwi t
ht hehel pofahandl ensas
shownbel ow.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

61
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

62
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

TheKi
net
icTheor
yofMat
ter Exampl
e

 Theaboveexperi
ment
sonBr ownianmot i
onconstit
utethe Usi
ngabl ockdiagram andcorrectter
minologyshow how one
ki
net
ictheor
yofmat t
erwhichstatesthatmat t
erismade st
ateo fma t
terchangestot heo t
herw henthetemperat
ureis
upofti
nypart
icl
eswhi
chareincontinuousrandom moti
on. changed.Def
ineal
lter
mi nol
ogiesused.

i
) Melt
ing-i
stheprocessbywhi
chasol
i
dchangest
oa
Ar
rangementofPar
ti
clesi
nMat
ter l
iqui
datfi
xedtemperat
ure.
Sol
i
ds i
i
) Evaporat
ion -istheprocessbywhi
chal
i
qui
d
changestoagasatanyt
emperatur
e.
 Par
ti
cles ar
e cl
osel
y packed t
oget
heri
n an or
gani
zed
mannerandinfi
xedposi
ti
on. i
i
i) Condensat
ion -isthepr
ocessbywhi
chagaschanges
toali
quidatf
ixedtemper
ature.
 Part
iclesinsoliddonotmov erandomlybutinsteadvibrat
e
aboutt heirf
ixedpositi
ons(vi
brator
ymot ion)becauseof iv) Freezi
ng -isthepr
ocessbywhi
chal
i
qui
d
very strong inter
molecul
ar f
orce (cohesivef or
ce).Thi
s changestoasol
i
datf
ixedt
emper
atur
e.
expl
ainswhysol i
dshavefi
xedvolumeanddef ini
teshape. v) Subl
imat
ion -istheprocessbywhichasol
idchanges
togasdi
rect
lywi
thoutpassi
ngthel
iqui
dstat
e.

vi
) Deposi
ti
on -i stheprocessbywhichagaschanges
tosol
iddi
rect
lywi
thoutpassingt
hel
iquidst
ate.

Di
ff
usi
on

 Di f
fusion r
eferst ot he pr
ocess bywhi ch par
ti
cles
Li
qui
ds spreadfrom regionofhighconcentrat
iontoar egion
oflowconcent rat
ion.Noti
ceabl
ediff
usiontakesplace
 Part
icl
esi nli
quidsarenotcl
oselyfi
xedasinsoli
dsbut i
nl i
quidsandgasesduet othei
rconti
nuousr andom
moveaboutrandomly(Br
ownianmoti
on).Thi
sisbecause mot i
on.
t
heinter
molecul
arfor
cesinli
quidsar
eweakerthanthose
i
nsoli
ds. Demonst r
ati
ngDiffusioninLi
quids

 Thesamer easonexpl
ainswhyli
quidshavenof xedshape  Consi
i der t
he set up below used t oinvesti
gat
e
butassumetheshapeofthecontai
ner. dif
fusioni
nliqui
ds.Concent
rat
edc opper(I
I)sul
phat
e
(bl
ueincolour)i
scaref
ull
yandslowlyint
roducedint
o
 Theinter
molecul
arfor
ceinli
qui
dsisstrongert
haningases thebeakert
hroughafunneltoobt
aintwolayers.
areasonast owhyl i dshav
qui efixedvolumebutgases
don’
t.

Gases

 Parti
clesingasesar ef
urtherapar
tandhav eanincreased  Aft
ersomet i
me, i
tisobser vedthatt
heboundar y
random mot i
oncomparedtoli
qui
dparti
cl
es. betweenthetwoli
quidsdi sappearsanda
homogenouspalebluemi xtur
eisobtained.Thisi
s
 Thisis because ofv eryweak inter
molecul
arforces in
becauset
hereisagr eaterrateofmov ementofwat er
gasespar t
icl
esascompar edtoli
quidsandsol i
ds.The
part
icl
esfrom t
hewat erlayertocopper( I
I)sul
phat
e
samer easonexplai
nswhygaseshav enodefini
teshape
l
ayer.Att
hesamet imet her ei
sgreatermov ementof

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

63
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

andvol
ume. copper(
II
)sul
phat
epart
icl
esfrom t
hecopper(
II
)
sul
phatel
ayert
othewaterl
ayer.

 Not
e:I
fhotl
iqui
dsareused,f
ormati
onoft
hemixt
ure
wi
ll
befast
erbecausethepar
ti
clesmovef
ast
erdueto
i
ncr
easedki
neti
cenergy.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

64
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Demonst
rat
ingDi
ff
usi
oni
nGases (
b)Ont
hedi
agr
am,
showt
heobser
vat
ion

 Consi
der the setup bel
ow used t
o demonst
r e (
at c) I
ftheexper i
mentwasper
for
medatahi ghtemperat
urewil
l
di
ff
usioni
ngases youe xpecti
t t
otakel
ongerorshor
terti
met oform whi
te
deposi
t?Explai
n.

Short
erti
me.Thisisbecauseani ncreaseintemperat
ure
i
ncreasestheki
neticenergyoftheparti
clesofthegases
andhenceincreasedrateofdif
fusionofthegases.

Di
ff
usi
ont
hroughPor
ousMat
eri
als

 Whent hecardboardi sremov edandt het wojarspr essed

together,itis observed thatahomogenouspal ebr own
mixtureformsi nthetwoj ars.Thisisbecausebromi negas
spreadsi ntogasjarcontainingairatagr eat
errate.Att he
samet imeai rspreadsintogasj arcontai
ningbromineata
greaterrate.

 Not
e:Di
ff
usi
oni
ngasesi
sfast
ert
hani
nli
qui
dsbecause:

(
a)Gaseshavel
owdensi
ty.

(
b)Gaseshavehi
ghki
net
icener
gy.

(
c)Gasesver
yweakcohesi
vef
orces.
 I
nit
ial
l
y ,
hydrogengasdif
fusesint
otheporouspotsat
Rat
esofDi
ff
usi
onofGases afasterrat
et hanairdif
fusi
ngout .Asar esul
t,ai
r
bubbl
esoutofwaterasshowni nfi
gurei
).
 Di ff
erentgaseshav edi
f f
erentrat
esofdi
ff
usi
ondependi
ng
ont heirdensi
tyorr
elat
ivemasses.  Whent hegassuppl yisstoppedhy drogengasdi ff
use
outoft hepotthrought hefineholesataf asterr at
e
 A gas wi t
h a hi
gherdensi t
yhas heavi
erpar
ti
cl
es and thanairget
sbacki ntothepot .Thi
sdecreasesthegas
thereforeitsrat
eofdi ff
usionislowert
hanthegaswith pressureint he potand as a r esultthe higher
lowerdensi t
y. atmospheri
cpr essureactingont hewat ersurfacein
thebeakertopusheswat erupt hetubeasinfigureii)
.
Example
Note:Thebeakeri
susedtoconf
inet
hehydrogengas
 Inthefi
gurebel
ow,ammoni
agasandhydr
ochl
ori
caci
dgasdi
ff
use aroundtheporouspot
.Iti
sobvi
ousthatai
risdenser
andreact
. t
hanhydr
ogengas.

(
a) St
ateandexpl
aint
heobser
vat
ionmadeaf
tersomet
ime.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

65
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 A whi t
e deposi
ti sf ormed near the cotton woolsoaked in
concentr
atedinhydrochl
ori
cacid.Theammoni agasislessdense
andhasl i
ghtpar
ti
clesthusi
twil
ldif
fusefasterthant
hehydrochl
ori
c
gaswhichisdense.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

66
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Revi
sionExer
cise

1. Whati
smat
ter
?

2. Withtheai
dofadiagr
am,descr
ibeanexper
imentthatyouwoul
d
usetoshowthatmatt
eri
smadeupoft i
nypart
icl
es.

3. Dur
ingacl
assdi
scussi
on,Emmanuelobser
vedt
hatBr
owni
an
moti
onwasonl
yexhibi
tedbysmal
lpart
icl
es.

(
a) I
sthi
sobser
vat
ioncor
rect
?

(
b)Expl
ainyouransweri
n(a)above.

4. St
atet
heki
net
ict
heor
yofmat
ter
.

5. Di
sti
ngui
shbetweenthet
hreest
atesofmat
teri
nter
msoft
he
i
nter
molecul
arf
orces.

6. Whatf
act
ordet
ermi
nest
hest
ateofmat
ter
?

7. Expl
ainwhysol
i
dsar
enotcompr
essi
blewhi
l
egasesar
e.

8. Def
ineBr
owni
anmot
ion.

9. Duri
ngBrowni
anmot i
onexper
iment,thesmokepar
ti
clesmustbe
smallandl
i
ght.Expl
ainwhyi
tisnecessaryt
hatt
heparti
clesbe
l
ight
.

10.Smokeisint
roducedi
ntosmokecel
lwhi
chi
sthenvi
ewedundera
micr
oscope.

(
a) Whatdoyouobser
vet
hrought
hemi
croscope?

(
b)Whatconcl
usi
oncanbedr
awnf
rom t
hisobser
vat
ion?

11.Temper
atur
eaf
fect
sBr
owni
anmot
ion.Expl
ain.

12.Lycopodium powderisli
ghtl
yspri
nkledonacl eanwatersur
face
i
nal argetray.Aredhotneedl
eisplungedintothecentr
eofthe
watersurface.St
ateandexplai
nwhati sobserved.

13. Def
inedi
ff
usi
on.

14.Descr
ibeanexper
imentt
odemonst
rat
ethepr
ocessofdi
ff
usi
on
i
n;

(
i) Li
qui
ds

(
ii
) Gases.

15.Nameandexpl
aint
hef
act
orst
hataf
fectt
her
ateofdi
ff
usi
oni
n
gases.

Chapt
erSi
x THERMALEXPANS
ION
PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

67
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Def
ini
ti
on Ther
momet
ri
cLi
qui
ds

 Ther
malexpansi
onr
efer
stoi
ncr
easei
nvol
umeofabody  Theyi
nclude:
whenheat
ed.
a) Mercury

b) Al
cohol
Temper
atur
e
c) Oil
ofcr
eosot
e
 Temperat
urei
sthedegr
ee(ext
ent
)ofhot
nessorcol
dness
ofabodyonsomechosenscal
e. Pr
opert
iesofaGoodTher
momet
ri
cLi
qui
d

 Temper
atur
eismeasuredusi
ngathermomet
erandi
tisa a) I
tshoul
dnotwetglass.
basi
cquant
iywhoseSIuni
t tist
heKelvi
n.
b) I
tshoul
dexpandunifor
mly(
regul
arl
y).
0
 Degr
eeCelsi
us( C)i
sanot
heruni
tinwhi
cht
emper
atur
es
c) I
tshoul
dbeagoodconduct
orofheat
.
canbemeasured.
d) I
tshoul
dbev
isi
ble.
 Temper
atur
eisascal
arquant
it
y.
e) I
tshoul
dhav
ehi
ghboi
l
ingpoi
nt.
Ther
momet
ers
f
) I
tshouldhavelowfreezi
ngpoi
nt.
 A thermometer is an inst
rument used t
o measur e
temper
atur
e.Therearemanyt ypesoft
hermomet
ers,each  Note:Watercannotbeusedasat her
momet
erl
i
qui
d
desi
gnedforaspecif
icuse. because:
Li
qui
d-i
n-Gl
assTher
momet
er(
CommonTher
momet
er) (
a)I
twet
sgl
ass,
 The li
qui
d commonly used i
nal iqui
d– i n – gl
ass (
b)I
texpandsi
rr
egul
arl
y(anomal
ousl
y),
ther
momet smer
eri cury.Al
coholcanalsobeused.
(
c)I
tisabadconduct
orofheat
,
 Not
e:Al
i
qui
dusedi
nther
momet
eri
scommonl
yknownas
t
her
momet
ri
cli
qui
d. (
d)I
tisi
nvi
sibl
e(col
our
less)
,

Feat
uresofaLi
qui
d–I
n–Gl
assTher
momet
er (
e)I
thasar
elat
ivel
yhi
ghf
reezi
ngpoi
nt.

Compar
ison between Mer
cur
y and Al
cohol as
Ther
mometri
cLi
quids

Mer
cur
y Al
cohol
(
a)
I
thas a hi
gh boi
l
ing I
thasal
owboi
l
ingpoi
nt
ABul
b
poi 3570C)
nt( . 780C)
( .
 Contai
ns the thermomet
ri
cliqui
d.Itist n wal
hi l
ed to
i
ncreasesensit
ivit
yofthethermomet
er(i
.e.al
l
ow qui
ck I
thasar
elat
ivel
yhi
gher I
t has a l
ow mel
ti
ng
tr
ansferofheat
). mel
ti
ngpoi –390C)
nt( . poi
nt(
-1150C)
.
(
b)Capi
l
lar
yBor
e
Itis a good t
her
mal Itis a poor t
her
mal
 I
tal
lows t
he l
iqui
di nt
he bul
btor
ise and f
allwhen conduct
or. conduct
or.
t
emper
atur
echanges.
I
texpandsr
egul
arl
y. I
tsexpansi
oni
ssl
i
ght
ly
 Ithasasmal ldi
amet
ertoincreasei
tsaccur
acysothata i
rr
egul
ar.
smallchangeint
emperat
urecaneasi
lybemeasur
ed.
I
tdoesnotwetgl
ass. I
twet
sgl
ass.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

68
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

(
c)Gl
assSt
em I
tisopaqueandsi
l
ver
y. Iti s transpar
ent and
therefor
e has t o be
 I smadeupoft
ti hickgl
asstostr
engt
hent
het
her
momet
er
coloured to make i t
andther
efor
epr
otectt
heli
qui
dinsi
de.
visi
ble.
 Thi
ckgl soact
assal sasamagni
fyi
nggl
asst
omagni
fyt
he
l
i
qui
dthr
ead.  Not
es

I
. Alcoholthermometeristhebestf
oruseinverycol
d
condit
ionsbecausei t
sf r
eezi
ngpointi
sverylow (-
0
115c) but cannot be used i n a ver y hi
gh
temperaturebecausei t
sboili
ngpointi
sr el
ati
vel
y
l
ow( 780C) .

I
I. Mer cur
y t her
momet ersis bestforuse in high
temperatur
e because ofi t
s high boi
li
ng points
(3570c)butcannotbeusedinverylowtemperature
becausei thasar el
ati
vel
yhighf r
eezi
ng poi
nt( -
0
39c) .

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

69
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Cal
i
brat
ingLi
qui
d-i
n–Gl
assTher
momet
er 1) Anuncalibr
atedmercuryther
momet eri
sat t
achedtoacm
scalewhichreads14cm i npur emelti
ngiceand30cm in
 At
her
momet
erhast
womai
nfi
xedpoi
nts: steam.Ifitreads10cm i nfreezingmi xt
ure,whati
sthe
temperat
ureofthef
reezi
ngmi xture?
I
. Theupperf
ixedpoi 1000c)
nt(
o I
nme
lti
ngi
ce,
14c
mcor
res o00C
pondst
0
I
I. Thel
owerf
ixedpoi
nt(c) o I
nst
eam,
30c
mc
0
or
res o100C
pondst
 Theupperfixedpointismarkedbyputti
ngthebulboft he o ∴1000C-00Cc
orr
espondst
o30c
m-14c
m
ther
mometer in st eam of water boi
li
ng at standard
atmospher
icpressureof76cmHg. o 1000Cc
orr
esponds16c
mle
ngt
h

 Thelowerf
ixedpoi
nti
smar kedbyput
ti
ngt
hebul
boft
he m ×1000C
1c
o 1c
mcor
res
pondst
o 250C
=6.
ther
mometerinpur
emelt
ingice. 16c
m

 Ther
angebetweenupperfi
xedpointandl
owerf
ixedpoi
nt o Temper
atur
eofthef
ree
zingmi
xtur
eis:
0
i
ssubdi
videdi
ntoequaldi
vi
sionsof1Ceach. 0 0
25C=-250C
10-14)×6.
0C+(
The Celsi
us (Cent
igr
ade) and Kel
vi
n (
Ther
modynami
c
Temper
atur
e)Scal
e
2) Af aul
tyther
mometerreads18℃ aticepointand80℃ at
 TheCelsiusscalehasfixedpoi
ntsat00Cand1000Cwhi l
e steam point
.Det
erminet hecor
recttemperat
urewhen i
t
theKelv
inscalehasf i
xedpoint
sat273Kf orpuremelt
ing reads60℃.
i
ceand373Kf orst
eam orpureboil
ingwateratst
andard
0
atmospheri
cpressure. o Ati
cepoi
nt,
18 Cc
orr
espondst
oac
tua
lly00C
0
 Temper
atur
eonCelsi
usscal
eandKel
vi
nscal
ear
erel
ated o Ats
tea
mpoi
nt,
80 Cc
orr
espondst
oac
tua
lly1000C
by:
T(K)=θ(℃)+273.
o 800C-180C)c
( orr
espondst
oac
tua
ll 1000C-00C)
y(
Absol
uteZer
oTemper
atur
e
o 620Cf
aul
tyc
orr
espondst
oac
tua
lly1000C
 Thisisthelowesttemperat
ureonKelvi
nscalei
nwhi
cht
he 10C×1000C 0
energyofthepart
iclesi
namat er
ial
iszero. o 10Cf
aul
tyc
orr
espondst
oac
tua
lly 0
=1.
6C
62C
 I
tsv
al szer
uei oKel
vi
n(2730C)
- . o Cor
rec
tte
mpe
rat
urewhe
nfa
ult
yoner
eads600Ci
s:

0℃ +(
60-18)×1.
6℃ =67.
2℃

Exer
cise

1) Afault
ymer cur
yther
mometerr
eads15℃ whendippedi
nto
melt
ingiceand95℃ wheninst
eam atnormalat
mospheri
c
pr
essure.Whatwouldthi
sther
mometerreadwhendipped
i
ntoaliqui
dat25℃

2) When mar
king t
he f
ixed poi
nts on a t
hermometeri
tis
Exampl
es obser
vedt
hatat0℃ t hemercurythr
eadi sofl
ength2cm

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

70
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

3) Conver
t each of t
he f
oll
owi
ng f
rom Cel
sius t
o Kel
vi
n and9cm at
100℃.Whatt
emper
atur
ewoul
dcor
respondt
oa
(
Hint
:us
eT(
K)=θ(
℃)+273.
) l
engt
hof4cm?

200C
a) - Cl
i
nicalTher
momet
er

T=-20+273=253K  Iti
saspecial
typeofther
mometerusedformeasur
ing
humanbodyt emper
aturewhoset
emperatur
erangeis
b) 00C 0 0
about35C-43C.
T=0+273=273K

c) 100C

T=10+273=283K
ubehasaconst
 Thet ri
cti
onwhi
chbr
eakst
hemer
cur
y
2730C
d) -
t
hreadf
ort
emper
atur
ereadi
ngt
obet
aken.
T=-273+273=0K
 Aft
erthether
mometerhasbeenr eadthemer
cur
yis
4) Conver
t each of t
he f
oll
owi
ng f
rom Kel
vi
n t
o 0
C ret
urnedt
ob ul
bbyali
ght
lyshaki
ngthether
momet
er.
(
Hint
:us
eθ(
℃)=T(
K)-273.
)
 Methyl
atedspi
ri
tisusedt
ost
eri
l
izet
het
her
momet
er
a) 0K af
teruse.

θ=0-273=-2730C  Note:cli
nicalt her
mometercannotbe st eri
l
ized by
boil
ingwat erbecauseitwil
lbreaksincet heboil
ing
b) 167K pointofwat erisfarabov
ethet emperat
urerangeof
θ=167-273=-1060C
thether
momet er.

c) 283K

θ=283-273=10℃

d) 3450K

θ=3450-273=3177℃

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

71
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Si
x’
sMaxi
mum andMi
nimum Ther
momet
er

 Thisthermometerrecor
dst hemaximum and mini
mum
temperat
urer
eachedinaplacedur
ingaspeci
fi
edperi
odof
ti
me,sayaday.

Obser
vat
ion:Whent
hebal
lisheat
ed,
itdoesnotpass
thr
ought her i
ngbutwheni tisleftont her i
ngfor
somet i
mes i tpasses t hrough.Expl anation:When
heated, t
heballexpandsandsocannotgot hroughthe
ri
ng.Wheni tisleftont her i
ngf orsomet i
met he
temper atur
e of t he bal
ldecr eases and t he bal
l
contracts.Atthesamet imet her i
ngabsor bssome
heatf r
om thebal lit
stemperatureincreasesandsoi t
expandsal l
owingt hebal
ltopasst hrough.

2. TheBarandGaugeExper
iment

Quest
ion
ModeofOper
ati
onoft
heSi
x’
sTher
momet
er I
nt hefi
gur
ebel
ow,atr
oom t
emper
atur
e,t
hebarf
it
sint
othe
gauge.
 Whent emperaturer i
ses,thealcoholinbulbRexpandsand
pushesthemer curyupt her i
ghtl i
mboft heu-tube.The
mercurypushesi ndexYupwar ds.Thelowerendoft hi
s
i
ndexindicatesthemaxi mum t emperatur
ereachedduri
ng
thespeci
fiedperiod.

 Whent emperaturefal
ls,t
healcoholi
nbulbRcontractsand
mer curyispull
edback,r i
singupinthel
eftl
imb.Thei ndex
Xi st her
efore pushed upwards.Duri
ng contracti
on of
alcohol,theindexYi sleftbehindinthealcoholbyt he
fall
ingmer cury. Themi nimum temper
atur
ei sreadf r
om
thel owerendofindexX.
(
a) Expl
ainwhatwoul
dhappenwhent
hebari
sheat
edandyou
Toresetthet
hermometer
,amagnetisusedt
oret
urnt
he
tr
ytofiti
tint
hegauge.
st
eeli
ndicest
othemercur
ysur
faces.
Thebardoesnotf
iti
ntot
hegaugebecausei
texpandswhen
Expansi
onandCont
ract
ionofSol
i
ds heat
ed.
 When sol i
dsar eheat ed theyexpand (incr
easein si
ze/ (
b)Consi deracasewherethebarisslight
lybi
ggerthanthe
volume)andwhencool edtheycontract(
decreasei
nsize/ gaugeatr oom t
emperat
ure.Expl
ainwhatyouwi lldoto
volume). Mass oft he solid doesnotchange when it maket hebarf
iti
ntot
hegauge.
contractsorexpands.
Heatthegaugesothati
texpandsandthebarwil
lfi
t.
 Densityoft hesol i
dincreaseswhent hebodyi scooled
(becausev olumedecr eases)andi tdecreaseswhent he
bodyi sheated(becausev ol
umei ncr
eases).
Compar
ingExpansi
onandCont
ract
ionofDi
ff
erentMet
als

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

72
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Experi
ment
sto Demonst
rat
eExpansi
on and Cont
ract
ion of Quest
ion
Soli
ds
Anexper
imentwassett
ocompar
etheexpansi
onofdi
ff
erent
1. TheBal
landRi
ngExper
iment met
alsasshownbel
ow.

 Theballandri
ngexperi
mentapparat
usareasshowni
nthe
fi
gurebelow.Theballj
ustpassest
hrought
heri
ngatr
oom
temperat
ureandpressure.

Exampl
e

Thef i
gur
ebel
owshowsabi
met
all
i
cst
ri
patar
oom t
emper
atur
e
(
a) Expl
ainhowt
heexper
imentwor
ks (250C)

o When t he met albarisheat ed i

texpandsand pushest he
pivotedpoi nt
erandt her eadi
ngistakenont hescal
e.Met al
barsoft hesamesi zemadeofdi ff
erentmater
ial
sareat
tached
tot heclamponeatat i
meandheat edforthesamelengthof
ti
me.Ther eadi
ngsont hescalear
erecordedandcompared. i
) Draw thesamebi met
all
i
cst
rpwhenat900c.Expl
i ain
theobservat
ion.
(
b)Whatpr
ecaut
ionsshoul
dbet
akent
oensur
efai
rresul
t

i
) Themet
alsshoul
dbeofsamel
engt
handdi
amet
er.

i
i
) Themet
alsshoul
dbeheat
edusi
ngsamebur
ner
.

Themet
alshoul
dbeheat
edf
orsamel
engt
hoft
ime.

When t
emperatur
ei ncreases above room temper
atur
e
al
umi
num expandsatafasterr
atethancopper
.
Li
nearExpansi
vi
ty

 Li
nearexpansi
vi
tyi
sthet
endencyofamat
eri
alt
oexpand

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

73
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

when heat ed.Dif

ferentmateri
als have di
ff
erentl i
near i
i
) Draw t
hebimet
all
i
cst
ri 250C.Expl
pwhenat- aint
he
expansi
vi
ties meaning thatt
heirrates ofexpansion or obser
vati
on.
contr
acti
onar enotthesameexceptaf ewmateri
als.

 Theunitofl
i
nearexpansi
vi
tyismeasur nperKel
edi vi
n.The
fol
l
owingaresomeexampl es;

Mat
eri
al When t
emperatur
e decr
eases bel
ow room temper
atur
e
Li
nearExpansi
vi
t K-1)
y(
al
umi
num cont
ractsataf
asterr
atet
hancopper
.
Al
umi
num 26x10-6

Br
ass 19x10-6 Appl
i
cat
ionsofExpansi
onandCont
ract
ionofSol
i
ds

1) Expansi
onj
oint
sinSt
eam Pi
pes
Copper 8x10-6
16.
 Pipes carryi
ng steam ar e fi
tted wit
h loops or
I
ron 12x10-6 expansionjoi
ntstoal
lowf orexpansionwhensteam i
s
passingthroughthem andcont r
actionwhentheyare
Concr
ete 11x10-6 cooled.Withouttheloopt heforceofexpansionand
contract
ionwill
causebreakageoft hepi
pes.
St
eel 11x10-6

TheBi
met
all
i
cSt
ri
p

 Bi
metall
icstri
pismadebyr ivet
ingtogethertwomet al
sof
di
ff
erentl
inearexpansi
vi
ti
es.Themet alwhichexpandsata
hi
gherrat
ewhenheat edcontr
actsfasterwhencooled.

 Considerabi met al
l
icst r
ipmadeofironandbr assatroom
temper atureandpr essureinfi
gur
e(a)below.Br asshasa
higherlinearexpansivi
tythanir
onandthereforeexpandsat
af asterr atethan iron.When thest r
ipi sheated toa
temper ature great
ert han room temper atur
ei tbends
towardsi ronasshowni nfi
gur b)andwhent
e( hestr
ipis
cooled,i tbendst owar dsbrassasshown i nf i
gure(c)
below.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

74
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

2. Fi
xi
ngofRai
l
wayLi
ne 5. I
nst
all
ati
onofTel
ephone/El
ect
ri
cWi
res

 Rail
waylinesar econstruct
edi nsectionswi thexpansion  They arel ooselyf i
xed to al
low for contr
acti
on.
gapsandt hesectionsheldtogetherbyfishplat
es.Thebolt Telephoneorel ect
ri
cwiresappeartobeshor t
erand
hol
esi nt herail
sar e ovalto all
ow freeexpansi onand tautinthemor ning.Whenitishot,t
hewi resappear
contr
act
ionofr ai
lsasthebol t
smov efreelyintheholes. l
ongerandsl ackened.

 A moder n method of al
l
owing for expansi
on and
contr
acti
oninrai
lway
sistoplanesl
antther ai
l
ssothat
theyover
lap.

6. TheBi
met
all
i
cMet
alAppl
i
cat
ion

 Oneoft hemostcommonappl icat

ionofabi metalli
c
stri
pisint heinthet her
most at.A thermostatisa
3. Fi
xi
ngofSt
eelBr
idges device f
ormai nt
aini
ng a steady t emperat
ure.The
thermostatshownbelow isusedf orcontrol
li
ngt he
 Inbri
dgesmadeofsteelgi
rder
s,oneendi
sfi
xedandt
he temperatur
e of an iron box.A heat er ci
rcui
ti s
otherendplacedonr
oll
erst
oal
l
ow f
orexpansi
onand connect
edt
hrought
heel
ect
ri
cal
ter
minal
s.
contr
acti
on.

4. Ri
vet
s  I
ft heironboxbecomest oohott hebimetal
li
cst ri
p
bends curvi
ng awayf rom the lowercontact.This
 Thickmet alplat
esinshipsandotherstr
uctur
esarejoi
ned
breaks the cont
act
s and switches of
ft he heater.
togetherbymeansofr iv
ets.Ari
veti
sfitt
edwhenhotand
Wheni tcool
s,thebi
met al
li
cstr
ipbendsclosi
ngupt he
thenhammer edflat
.Oncoolingi
tcont
ractspul
li
ngthetwo
gapbet weenthecontactsandtheheaterisswitched
platesfi
rmlytogether.
onagain.

 I
ftheironboxi srequi
redtobev eryhot( i
.e.high
t
emperatur
e),
thesett
ingknobisadj
ustedtopusht he
metalKsuchthatt
hecontactsar
etighttoget
her.For

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

75
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

l
owtemper
atur
eranget
headjust
ingknobi
srel
eased
sot
hatt
heposi
ti
onKisl
owered.

 Ther
most ati
salsousedtocont
rolthet
emperat
ureof
el
ect
riccookers,el
ect
ri
cheater
sf orwar
mingrooms,
andfr
idges.

Expansi
onandCont
ract
ionofLi
qui
ds

ToDemonst
rat
eExpansi
onofLi
qui
ds

 Consi
derthe f
lask bel
ow f
il
led wi
th col
ored wat
eras
shownbel
ow.

Ef
fect
sofAnomal
ousExpansi
onofWat
er

1) Suppor
tAquat
icLi
fei
nPol
arCount
ri
esDur
ingWi
nter

 Duri
ngwi nterwaterf r
eezersi
ntoice.Icebeingl
ess
densethanwat erfl
oatsonwat er
.Sinceiceisapoor
conduct
orofheat ,i
tinsul
atest
hewat erbel
owagai
nst
heatl
osst oairaboveit.

 Whenthef
laskisheatedi
tisobser
vedthatwat
eri
nthe
gl
asst
ubef
allssl
i
ghtl
yandthenst
art
sri
si
ng.

 Thei ni
ti
alf al
loft hewat erlevelint het
ubei sduet o
expansi
onoft heflaskwhichget sheatedf
irst
.Thewater
star
tsexpandingwhenheatf inall
yreachesi
tanditr
isesup
2) Anomal
ousexpansi
onofwat
erl
eadst
ofor
mat
ionof
thetubesinceliqui
dsexpandf ast
erthansol
ids.
i
cebagswhi
chposeagr
eatdangert
oshi
ps.
 Not
e:Di
ff
erentl
i
qui
dsexpanddi
ff
erent
ly(
i.
e.t
heyhav
e

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

76
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

di
ff
erentr
atesofexpansi
on) 3) Itcauses weat her
ing ofrocks si
nce when water
tr
appedinfreezes;i
texpandsthusbr
eaki
ngrocksinto
 I
ftheabov
eexper
imentwasr
epeat
edusi
ngal
coholand smallpi
eces.
thenmet hy
lat
edspir
itf
ort hesamelengt
hofti
meand
using same heat
er,it woul
d hav
e been not hat 4) I
ed t tcausesbur
sti
ngofwat
erpi
peswhenwat
erf
reezer
s
methyl
atedspi
ri
texpandsmostf
oll
owedbyal
coholand i
nthem.
f
inal
lywater
.
Expansi
onofGases
Anomal
ousExpansi
onofWat
er
Exper
imentt
oDemonst
rat
eExpansi
onandCont
ract
ionof
 Anomal
ousexpansi
onofwat
eri
sdef
i heunusual Gases
nedast
behavi
orofwateri
nwhichitcont
ract
swhenheat
edand
expandswhencool ween0and40C.
edbet  Consi
derthe setup bel
ow which can be used t
o
demonst
rateexpansi
onandcont
ract
ionofgases.
 Consi
derheati
ngi cef r
om - 80C unt
ilitchangestowater
0
anditstemperatureincreasest o8C.A pl otofvol
ume
ver
sestemperatureforthewat erisasi nfi
gure(a)whi
le
densi
tyver
sestemperatureisasi nfigur
e(b)below.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

77
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 Whent
hef
laski
swar
med,i
tisobser
vedt
hatt
hel
evelof 7) Thef
igur
ebel
ow r
epr
esent
sabi
met
all
i
cst
ri
pofmet
alsX
watercolumni nsi
detheglasst
ubedropsindi
cat
ingt hat andYatr
oom t
emper
atur
e
theairhasexpanded.Whent hefl
askiswarmedf urt
her,
somebubbl esareseenattheendofthet
ubeinwat eras
airescapesfr
om thef
lask.

 Whent
hef
laski
scool
ed,wat
erl
ev sobser
eli vedt
ori
seup Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsi
tsshapewhendi
ppedi
ntocr
ushedi
ce
theglasst
ubebecauset
heai
rinsi
det
hef
laskcont
ract
sto
creat
espace.

Exampl
es

1) Thefi
gurebelow showsabeam bal
ancemadeoutofconcr
ete
andr
einf
orcedwit
hst eel Sket
chadi agr
am i
nt hespacegivenbel
ow t
oshow t
heshape
whenthest r
ipisheatedtoat emperat
ure abovether
oom
temper
atur
e

Useadiagram t
oexpl
aint
hebehavi
ouroft
heshapeoft
hebeam
whenheat
edup.

8) Givear easonwhyaconcr etebeam r einforcedwi t

hst eel
doesnotcr ackwhensubj ectedt oChangesi nt emperature.
Thebeam expandsl inear
ly.Thebeam r emainsst r
aightbutl onger Bothconcr eteandst eelhavesamer atesofexpansi on.
thanbef oreheat i
ng.Bot hconcreteandst eelhavesamer atesof Theirvalueofl inearexpansi vityis11x10-6K
expansion.Theirval
ueofl i
nearexpansi
vit
yis11x10-6K
9) Aquaticani malsandpl ant sareobser vedt osur vi
veinfrozen
2) St atetwol iqui
dswhi char eusedi nthermomet er.Alcoholand pond s.Expla i
nt hi
s observ at
ion .
Mer cur
y. Wat erf r
eezesandt hei cef ormedf loatsi nwat erbecause
3) Wi thar eason,st atewhichoft hetwol i
quidsin3( a)abovei s i
tsdensi tyislesst hant hatofwat er
,insul ati
ngwat erbelow
usedt omeasur etemperatur
einareaswher etemperaturesare: i
t.T emp e ratures i
nc reas es do wn the p ond becaus e of
(i
)Bel ow - 0
40C al cohol
,becausei thasal ow freezi
ngpoi ntof anoma lous expansiono f wa t
e r
.
–115oC.

(
i)1500C,
i mer
cur
y,becausei
thasahi
ghboi
l
i ntof357oC,
ngpoi

4) Whatdoyouunder standbythest
atement‘l
owerf
ixedpoint
’ona
temperatur
escale?
Thisisthetemperatur eofpuremelt
ingiceatstandar
d/normal
atmospheri
cpressure;

5) Name t wo adaptati
ons t
hat can be made t
o a mer
cur
y
thermomet ertomakeitmor
esensit
ive.
Usingathinwal l
edbul
b Usi
ng a
narrowercapil
l
arytube

6) Thefi
gurebel
owshowsabimet
all
i
cstr
ipmadeofbr
assandi
ron.
A marbl
eisplacedatendA ofthebimet
all
i
cstr
ipasshown
bel
ow:-

Stat
eandexpl
ainwhatwi
l
lbeobser
vedwhent
hebi
met
all
i
cst
ri
pis
st
rongl
ycool
ed

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

78
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Oncool i
ng,t
hebrasscont
ractsmorethani
ron,hencebecomeshort
er
thanironandf ormsupwardscurve,maki
ngt hemar bl
etorolland
sett
leatthecentr
eofthecurve.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

79
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Revi
sionExer
cise Expl
ainhow r
iseintemperat
urecausest
hepoi
ntert
o
moveinthedi
rect
ionshown.
1. Onepr opert
yofal iqui
dthati
sconsi deredwhil
econstr
ucti
nga
l
iquidinglassther
momet eri
st hattheli
quidexpandsmorethan 9. I
nthesetupshowni nfi
gurebel
ow,iti
sobservedthatthe
theglassforthesamet emperatur
echange.Stateanyothertwo l
evelofwat
eri
nit
ial
l
ydropsbef
orest
arti
ngt
orise.Expl
ain.
propert
iesoftheli
quidst
hatar
econsi der
ed.

2. Giveareasonwhyaconcret
ebeam rei
nfor
cedwithst
eeldoes
notcr
ackwhensubj
ect
edtochangei
ntemperat
ure

3. Explai
nwhyagl asscont
ainerwit
hthi
ckwall
sismoreli
kel
yto
crackthanonewithathi
nwal lwhenaver
yhotl
iqui
dispour
ed
i
ntoi t
.

4. Figur
e below shows a ci
rcui
t di
agr
am f
or cont
rol
l
ing t
he
temperat
ureofaroom.

10.Gi
veareasonwhywat
eri
snotsui
tabl
eli
qui
dforusei
na
t
hermometer
.

11.Thetemper at
ureofwateri
nameasur i
ngcyl
i
nderisl
owered
i
) St
ateandexpl
aint
hepur
poseoft
hebi
met
all
i
cst
ri
p. from about200cto00c.Sket
chagr aphofvol
umeagainst
temperatur
eassumingthatwaterdoesnotfr
eeze.
i
i
) Descri
behowthecircui
tcont
rol
sthet
emper
atur
ewhen
theswit
chSisclosed. 12.Fi
gur ebelow showsaf l
askf i
ll
edwithwat er
.Thef l
askis
fi
ttedwithacor kthr
oughwhi chatubeisinser
ted.Whenthe
5. Fi
gur
ebel
owshowsafir
ealarm ci
rcui
t. fl
aski scooledt hewaterlevelri
sessli
ghtlyandthenfall
s
steadi
ly.Expl
ain.

Expl
ainhowt
heal
armf
unct
ions

6. Figur
ebel
owshowsabimetal
li
cstr
ipatr
oom t
emper
atur
e.Br
ass
expandsmor
ethani
nvarwhenheat
edequal
l
y.

13.Aclini
calthermometerhasaconstrict
ionint hebor
ejust
abovethebulb.St
atetheuseoft
hisconstr
ict
ion.
Sket
chthebi
metall
i
cst
ri
paf
terbei
ngcool
edsever
aldegr
ees 14.Fi
gurebel
ow showsanal
umi
num t
ubet
ight
lyst
ucki
na
bel
owroom t
emperat
ure st
eelt
ube.
7. Fi
gur
ebel
owshowsabi
met
all
i
cther
momet
er.

Expl
ainhowthet
wot ubescanbeseparat
edbyappl
ying
atemperat
urechangeatthesamej unct
iongi
venthat

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

80
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

alumi
num expands mor
ethan st
eelf
ort
he same
temper
atur
eri
se.

15.I
nanexper imentt oinvest
igat
et heunusualexpansionof
wateraf i
xedmassofwat erat00C washeat edunt i
lit
s
temperat
urereached200C.Ont heaxi
sprovided,sketcha
graphofdensit
yagainsttemperatur
eofthewat erfom 00c
r
0
to20C.
8. Figurebelowshowsaflatbot
tomedfl
askcont
aini
ngsomewat er
.
I
ti sheateddir
ect
lywi
thaveryhotfl
ame.Expl
ainwhythef
laskis
l
ikelytocrack.

Chapt
erSev
en HEATTRANS
FER

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

81
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Def
ini
ti
onofHeat  Wood

 Heati
saform ofenergywhi
chfl
owsfr
om apointofhi
gher  Ai
r
t
emperat
uretoanotherpoi
ntofl
owtemper
atur
e.
 Wat
er
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenHeatandTemper
atur
e
 Rubber
HEAT TEMPERATURE
 Pl
ast
ic
For
m ofenergythatf
lows Degree of hotness or
due t o t emperatur
e col
dness of a body in  Gl
ass
di
ff
erence. somechosenscale. Exampl
e

Thefl
ow ofheatcannot Can be measur
ed Thefi
gur
ebelowshowspi
ecesofwoodandir
onofequallengt
h
bemeasur
edpreci
sel
y. accurat
ely usi
ng a anddi
ametermai
ntai
nedi
ncont
actbyasheetofpaper.Afl
ame
i
s t hen passed over t he paper sever al times.
ther
momet er
.

SIuni
tandj
oul
es(
J). SIuni
tisKel
vi
n(k)
.

St
ateandexpl
aint
heobser
vat
ionmade:
ModesofHeatTr
ansf
er
Thepapergetsblackedontheregi
oncoveri
ngt hewoodenr od.
 There ar ethr
ee modes ofheatt
ransf
er: conduct
ion, Thisisbecausewo odi
sap oorconduct
orofhea tandt
h er
efore
convect
ionandradi
ati
on. doesn otconductheatfr
om thepaperandtherefor
ethep aper
burns.I
roni
sagoodconduct orofheatandconductsheataway
Conduct
ion fr
om thepaper.

 Conduct
ioni
sthetransf
erofheatwi
thi
nanobj
ectwi
thout Fact
orsAf
fect
ingTher
malConduct
ivi
ty
themovementoft
heobjectasawhol
e.
1. Nat
ureofMat
eri
als
Mechani
smsofHeatConduct
ion
 Natur
eofmat
eri
almeanswhatt
hemat
eri
ali
smade
(
a)Vi
brat
ionofmol
ecul
es of
.

(
b)Thr
oughf
reeel
ect
rons  Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofMat
eri
alsI
nTer
msofConduct
ion

 Mater
ial
scanbeclassif
iedasgoodorpoorconduct
orsi
n
t
ermsofheatconduct
ion.

(
a)GoodConduct
ors

Goodconduct
orsar
emat
eri
alst
hatcanal
l
ow heatt
opass
t
hrought
hem e.
g.

 Copper

 Si
l
ver  I
tisobservedthatthewaxat
tachedtocopperdrops
fi
rstf
oll
owedbyt hatonal
uminum, i
ronl
eadandt hat
 Al
umi
nium ofwooddi dnotdropsi
ncewoodi sapoorconductor
.
 Br
ass Pr
ecaut
ions

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

82
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 Mer
cur
y (
a)Rodsofsamedi
amet
ert
obeused.

 I
ron (
b)Rodsequall
engt
htobeused.

 Zi
nc (
c)Waxoft
hesamesi
zet
obeused.

 Ti
n

 Leadet
c.

(
b)PoorConduct
ors(
Insul
ator
s)

 Thesear
emat er
ial
swhi
chdonotr
eadi
l
yal
l
owheatt
opass
thr
oughthem e.
g.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

83
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

2. The Thi
ckness/Di
amet
er/Cr
oss Sect
ion Ar
ea oft
he  I
ti s obser
ved thatwax on rod B dropped f
ir
st.
Conduct
or Ther
efore, ther
mal conduct
ivi
ty incr
eases wi t
h
decr
easei
nlengt
hoft
heconduct
or.
 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow;
Pr
ecaut
ions

(
a)Rodspl
acedatequaldi
stancef
rom heatsour
ce.

(
b)Rodsofsamemat
eri
alused.
 Itisobservedthatthewaxonthethi
ckerir
onroddr
ops (c)Waxofthesamesizeused.
fi
rst.Thi
si sbecausemoreheatfl
owsthroughathi
cker
conductorperuni
tti
me. (
d)Rodsofsamethi
cknessused.
 Therefor
e,conducti
vit
y of conduct
orsi
ncr
eases wi
th Lagging
thi
cknessoftheconductor
.
 Laggi ngref
erstothecover
ingofagoodconductorof
Precauti
ons heatwi t
hani nsul
ati
ngmat er
ialt
oreduceheatloss
throughsur
faceeff
ects.
(
a)Equalt
imeofexposur
eoft
her
odst
oheat
.
 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow;
(
b)Equall
engt
handt
ypeofr
odsused.

(
c)Samesi
zeofwaxused.

(
d)Rodspl
acedatequaldi
stancesf
rom t
heheatsour
ce.

3. Temper
atur
eDi
ff
erence

 Consi
dert
hesetupsAandBbel
ow.
 Plot
softemper
atur
ev ar
iat
ionf
rom t
hehotendt
othe
coldendwithl
aggingandwi t
houtl
aggi
ngonsame
axeswil
lbeasf
oll
ows;

 I
tisobservedthatwaxinsetupBdroppedfi
rstbecauseof
great
ertemperaturedi
ff
erentt
haninA.Therefor
e,heatis
tr
ansfer
redfasterwhentemper
atur
edif
fer
enceisgreat . Appl
er i
cat
ionsofLaggi
ng

 I
ronpi
pescar
ryi
ngst
eam f
rom boi
l
ersorst
eam wel
l
s
ar
ecov er
edwiththi
ckasbest
osmater
ialwhi
chi
san
Pr
ecaut
ions i
nsul
atortor
educeheatl
ossfr
om st
eam.

(
a)Ther
odsofequaldi
amet
erused. Ther
malconduct
ivi
tyI
nLi
qui
ds

(
b)Rodsofequall
engt
hused.  Li
qui
dsar
egener
all
ypoorconduct
orsofheat
.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

84
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

(
c)Waxofsamesi
zeused.

(
d)Waxplacedatequaldi
stancef
rom oneendoft
her
odi
n
eachcase.

(
e)Rodsofsamemat
eri
alused.

5. Lengt
hoft
heConduct
or

 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow;

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

85
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

ToDemonst
rat
ethatWat
eri
saPoorConduct
or Appl
i
cat
ionsofGoodandPoorConduct
orsofHeat

Exper
iment1 (
a)Cookingutensi
lsandboil
ersar
emadeofmetal
sthat
conductheatrapi
dlywhil
ethei
rhandl
esar
emadeof
 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
owf
ordemonst
rat
ingt
hatwat
eri
s i
nsulator
s(poorconduct
ors)
.
apoorconduct
orofheat
.
(
b)Modernbuil
dingsar
emadeofdoublewal l
swit
han
 i
nsul
atorbetween t
hewall
st o mi
nimi
zeheatloss
f
rom t he house and t
heref
ore mai
ntai
n stabl
e
t
emperatur
e.

(
c)Fi
ref i
ght
ersputonsui
tsmadeofasbestoswhi
chi
sa
poorconductorofheatto keep them saf
e whi
le
putt
ingofff
ir
e.

(
d)Bir
dsf l
apthei
rwi ngsaftergett
ingwettoi
ntr
oduceai
r
pocketswithi
nt heirfeather
st hi
shelpst
omi nimi
ze
 Af
tersomet
imesi
tisobser
vedt
hatwat
eratt
het
opoft
he heatlossf
rom theirbodies.
tubeboi
lswhil
etheiceremainedunmel
ted.Wateri
sapoor
conduct
orofheat.Glassusedformaki
ngt estt
ubeisal
so
(
e)I
n experi
mentsi nvol
vi
ng heat
ing l
iqui
ds in glass
apoorconductorofheat
.
v
e ssel
.Thev
e sseli
sp l
acedonaw i
reg augebecause
thegaugeisagoodconductorofheatitther
efor
e
spreadst
heheatt
oal
argear
eaofthevessel
.

Exper
iment2 Convect
ion

 Anot
herexperi
mentthancanbeusedt
oshowthatwat s  Conv
eri ect
ionist
hepr
ocessbywhi
chheati
str
ansf
err
ed
apoorconduct
orofheati
sasshownbelow. thr
oughflui
ds.

ToDemonst
rat
eConvect
ioni
nLi
qui
ds

Exper
iment1

 Considerthe diagr
am below i n whi
ch potassium
permanganatecryst
alisputatonecorneri
nabeaker
contai
ningwaterandthebeakerheat
edatthatpoint.

 I
tisobser
vedt
hatt
hewaxcoat
ingonbeakercont
aini
ng
mercur
ymeltedwhilethatonbeakercontai
ningwat
erdid
notmelt
.Thisisbecausemercuryisagoodconductorof
heatwhi
lewateri
sapoorconductorheat
.

Ther
malConduct
ivi
tyi
nGases  Aft
ersometime,i
tisobser
vedthatapur
plecol
orat
ion
ri
ses up f
rom potassi
um per
manganateforming a
 Gasesar
epoorconduct
orsofheat
.Thesetupbel
owcan ci
rcularl
oop.Thi
si sduet ocreat
ionofconvect
ion
beusedt
osuppor
tthi
sfact. curr
entsi
nwater.

Exper
iment2

Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

86
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 I
tisobser
vedt
hatt
hemat
chst
ickhel
dwi
thi
ntheunbur
nt
gasregiondoesnotgeti
gni
tedbecausegasi
sapoor
conduct
orofheat
.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

87
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 I
ti s obser
ved t
hatt hepur pl
ecolourat
ionofpot um 2. Engi
assi neCool
ingSystem
permanganatemov esi ntheanti
-cl
ockwisedi
recti
oninthe
tube.Thisisduetocr eati
onofconvecti
oncurrentbyheat  Engi
necool
ingi senhancedbybot
hconduct
ionand
whosedi r
ecti
onisanti-cl
ockwise conv
ect
ionprocesses.

Convect
ioni
nGases

 Consi
dert
hesetupshownbel
ow.

 Themetalsurf
aceconduct
sawayheatf rom engi
ne.
Thi
sheatsupthewat
ersett
ingupconvect
ioncurr
ents
whi
chcir
culat
esasshowninthedi
agram.

 Iti s obser
ved t
hatthe smoke i
s sucked i
ntothe box  Thehotwat erispumpedi ntotheradiat
orwhichhas
thr
oughchimneyPandexi tsthr
oughchi mneyQ.Thi
si s thin copperfins thatconductawayheatf r
om the
duetoconvect
ioncur
rent
swhicharesetupwhentheairin wat er
.
theboxisheat
ed.
 Thef insaremadeofcopperbecausei ti
sthebest
APPLICATIONSOFCONVECTI ONINFLUIDS conductorofheat .Theyarepaintedblackbecausea
blacksurfaceisagoodabsor berofheat.
1. Vent
il
ati
on
 Fastf l
owing ai
rpastf
ins speeds up t
he cool
i
ng
 Vent
il
ati
onr
efer
stot
hesuppl
yoff
reshai
rtot
her
oom. process.

3. Domest
icHotWat
erSyst
em

 Warm ai
rexhal edbytheoccupant softheroom ri
sesand
getsoutthroughv ent
il
atorssinceiti
sl essdense.Fr
esh
col
dairfl
owsi nt
ot heroom throughwindowsanddoor s.
Thiswayconv ecti
oncurrenti
ssetupandt her
ei sal
way s
suppl
yoffreshair.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

88
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

89
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 Hotwaterrisesupbecauseoft
hel
ower
ingofi
tsdensi
ty Appl
i
cat
ionofTher
malRadi
ati
on
whenheated.
1. Sol
arHeat
er
 Col
dwat ermovedownf r
om thecoldwat
ert
ankt
othe
boi
l
erbecausei
tisr
elat
ivel
yheavi
er.

 Theexpansi
onpi pehasanout l
etforexcesswat
ert
hat
coul
dhaveresul
tedfr
om ov
erheati
ng

 Thepipet
hatconveysthehotwat
erandt
hecy
li
nderar
e
l
aggedtomini
mizeheatl
osses.

Ther
mal
Radi
ati
on

 Thermalr adi
ati
on ist he process by whi
ch heat i
s
tr
ansfer
redthroughvacuum.Inthermalr
adi
ati
ont
heref
ore
matteri
snotinvolv
edintransf
erofheat

 I
tisthroughthispr
ocessofradi
ati
onthatr
adi
antheat
r
eachestheear
th’
ssurf
acef
rom t
hesun.

 Thehi
gherthetemperat
ureofabodyt
hemor
etheamount
oft
her
mal r
adiati
on.

Absor
pti
onandEmi
ssi
onofRadi
antHeat

 Agoodabsor berofradi
antheati
salsoagoodemi tt
erof
radi
antheatwhil
eapoorabsorberofradi
antheati
salsoa
pooremitt
eroftheheat.

 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow.

 Copperpi
pei
susedbecauseiti
sagoodconductorof
heatandwil
lconductheati
ntothewat
erinsi
det he
pi
pe.Iti
spaint
edblackcol
ourisagoodabsor
berof
heat
.

 Theglasscoveral
l
ow radi
antheatf
rom thesunto
passthr
oughandprev
entst
heweakerener
gyemit
ted
aft
er.

 Theblackcoppercol
l
ect
orabsorbsheatenergyand
conductsi
ttocopperpi
peswhichtr
ansmitittothe
water.

 Thei
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
alpr
event
sheatf
rom bei
ngl
ost
fr
om t
hepi
pe.

 Thecopperpi
peiscoi
l
edsever
all
ytoi
ncr
easesur
face
 I
tisobser
vedt hatwaterl
evelinl
i
mbAr isesupwhilet
hat areaf
orabsor
pti
onofheat
.
i
nlimbBfall
s.Thisisbecauseboi
li
ngtubeBr ecei
vesmore
heatt
hanboil
ingtubeAwar mingtheai
rinsideitmor
e.The

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

90
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

ai
rexpandsandtheref
orepushesdownt
hewat
eri
nli
mbB.
Asaresultwat
erlev
elinli
mbAr i
ses.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

91
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

2. Ther
mosFl
ask 6. Housesinhotar eashavethei
rwall
sandroofspai
nted
wit
hbr i
ghtcolourstorefl
ectawayheatwhil
ethosein
col
dar eashavewal l
sandr oof
spaint
edsil
verybri
ght
toref
lectasmuchheataspossi bl
ebacktothehouse.

7. Ket
tle,cooki
ngpansandi r
onboxeshavepol
i
shed
sur
facestoreduceheatl
ossthr
ought
her
malr
adi
ati
on

Revi
sionExer
cise

1. Twosi mi laropentinswi t
hequalamount sofwaterat
800cwer el ef
ttocool .IftinAi sshi
nyandt inBi s
blackened,sket chont hesameaxest hegraphsof
temperat ureagainstt
imef orthetwoti
ns.
2. Thef i
gur ebelowshowsaboxwi t
htwoglasstubesA
 Thestopperr
ubberpadandrubberringpadprev
entheat andBpr ojecti
ngfrom thetopofar ect
angul
arwooden
l
ossthroughconduct
ionsi
ncerubberisapoorconduct
or boxwi thr emovableglassfront.
ofheat

 Sil
ver
edwallpr
event
sheatl
ossthroughr
adiat
ionsi
ncet
he
shi
nnysur
faceisapoorr
adi
atorandemit
terofheat
.

 Vacuum prevent heat l

oss through conducti
on and
convect
ionsi
ncethet womodesofheatt r
ansferrequi
re
materi
almedi
um fortr
ansf
erofheat.

 Shockabsorberpr
event
sbreaki
ngoft
hegl
asswal
l
sduet
o
pressur
efr
om theoutsi
de.
(
i) Whatwi l
lbe t he di r
ecti
on of the smoke
 Vacuum sealprevent
sairfr
om reoccupy
ingthevacuum.I
t thr
oug ht heb ox?
i
st hr
oughthev
acuum sealthatai
rwassuckedout. (ii
) What concl usi
on can be made f rom the
observation?
(ii
i
) Whyar et hevent i
lat
ionsforaroom madehigh
upther oof?
3. GreenHouseEff
ect(HeatTrap) 3. Studythesetup bel ow and usei tto answerthe
quest
ionsthatf oll
ows:
 Green houseeffectisa phenomenon i
n which heati
s
all
owedt opasst hr
oughat r
anspar
entmater
ialbutdoes
notpenetr
atetotheoutsi
de.Thi
swayheataccumul at
esi
n
thegreenhouseconti
nuousl
y.

 Gr
eenhousesareusedtoprov
ideappr
opr
iat
econdi
ti
onsi
n
pl
ant
sespeci
all
yincol
dareas.

4. Sol
arConcent
rat
ors

(
a)Whatdoest heexperimenti
ll
ustr
ates?
(
b)Whatt wo factor
s should one considerwhen
select
ingtherodtobeused?
(
c)Statetheobservat
ionsmadeinthisexperiment
.

4. Expl
aint
heGr
eenhouseef
fect
.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

92
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

5. Namet
woexampl
esofgr
eenhousegases.

 Concav erefl
ectori
susedt or ef
lectradi
antheatfr
om t
he
sun into a common poi nt(focus).Temperat
ureatthi
s
pointisv er
yhi ght
hereforetheconcentrat
edheatcanbe
usedf orpurposesl
ikeheati
ngwat er.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

93
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

1. Thediagr am belowshowstheessent
ialf
eat
uresofa
solarheatingpanel.Asmallel
ect
ri
cpumpcircul
atest
he
l
iquidthrought hepipes.

St
atebr
ief
lywhy:

i
. Thepi
pesandmet
alpl
atesar
ebl
ackened.

i
i
. Ther
eisamat
eri
alf
ibr
egl
assont
hepanel
.

2. Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsanel
ect
ri
cir
on.

Twometalplat
esAandBar
eri
vet
edt
ofor
m abi
met
alst
ri
p
asusedabove.

(
i) Whi
chmet
alexpandsmor
e

(i
i
) Expl
ainhowt
heel
ect
ri
cir
onwor
kswhent
hepower
i
son

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

94
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Chapt
erEi
ght ELECTROS
TATI
CSI
I
ntr
oduction Exer
cise
 El ectr
ostati
csi sabr anchofphysi
cst hatdeal
swithst
atc 1. Twobal
i loonsinfl
atedwi t
hairareti
edwi t
hstri
ngsand
el
ect r
icit
ywhi chisanon- movi
ngel ectr
icchargeonthe held1met reapart.Bothbal
loonsarerubbedwi t
hf ur
.
surfaceofanobj ect. Whydot heball
oonsmoveapar twhenbr oughtclose
 Al lsubstancesar emadeofat oms. Atomshav ethr
eesub toget
her?
-atomi cpart
iclesnamel y: 2. Foreach si t
uati
on below state whetherthe force
 Pr otons betweenthem isrepulsi
veoratt
racti
ve.
 Neutrons
 Elect
rons
 Prot
onshaveaposi
ti
vecharge.El
ect
ronshav
eanegat
ive
char
ge.Neutr
onsdonothav eanycharge(i.
e.t
heyare
neut
ral
).
TypesofChar
ges
 Posi tiv
echar ge( s).Thesechar ge(s)ar eobt ai nedwhen
anat om losesanel ect ron(s).
 Negat i
v echar ge( s).Thesechar ge(s)ar eobt ai nedwhen
anat om gai nsanel ect ron(s)
 TheSIuni tofchar gei st hecoul omb, C.
 Achar gedat om ( posi t
ivel yornegat i
v el
y)iscal ledani on.
 Abodyt hathasnei theranegat ivechar genoraposi ti
ve a) Conduct or sandI nsul ators.
char ge cont ains an equalnumber of pr otons and  Subst ances whi ch do notal low el ectrons t o pass
electrons( Neut ralat om) .Whent hesechar gesar eequal throught hem ar ecal ledi nsulat ors.
i
nnumber ,abodyi sel ect r
icall
yneut ral.  Subst ances whi ch al low el ectrons t o pass easi ly
El
ect
rostat icChar gesofaMat eri
al throught hem ar ecal ledconduct ors.Ther easonswhy
 Ahar dr ubberr odgai nsmi ll
ionsofel ectronswheni tis they( met als)conducteasi l
yi sbecausewi thi
nany
rubbedwi thawoolcl ot h.Thecl othl osesel ectronst othe met alsomeel ect ronsar enotat t
ached t o specifi
c
rod and becomes posi ti
vely char ged. The r ubber atomsbutar efreet owanderabout .
becomesnegat ivelychar ged.  I fy ouwer et ohol damet alr odandr ubi twi thwool
 Whengl assr odi sr ubbedwi t
hf ur,thef urlosesel ectrons woul di tbechar ged?NO Howev erify ouf itpol yt
hene
tot hegl assr od.Gl assr odbecomesnegat i
velychar ged handl e ont ot he met alr od i tcan be char ged by
andf urbecomesposi ti
v elychar ged. rubbi ngi t.Weexpl ainthi sbysay ingt hatthepol yt
hene
 Abodyi ssai dt obeposi ti
velychar gedi fithasanexcess i
sani nsul atorandwi llnotal l
ow el ectronst omov e
ofposi ti
v echar gesori thasl ostsomeel ectrons. throughi tonal ongi tssur face.Whenani nsul at
oris
 Abodyi ssai dtobenegat i
velychar gedi fithasanexcess rubbed,t he el ect r
ons whi ch ar et r ansfer r
ed come
ofel ect r
ons i .
e. I fithasgai nedsomeel ect r
ons. from at oms on t he sur face.The met als become
 Thef ol l
owingmat erialsbecomesnegat ivelychar gedby char gedbyel ectronsf rom t hewool .Buti ft hemet al
fri
ctionwhenr ubbed: i
sdi rectlyhel d,t hese el ect ronsi mmedi ately ‘leak’
 Pol ythene awayt ot he ear tht hr ough t he hand on t he body
 Mostpl ast ics wher easwhent hehandl eisi nsulated t heyr emai non
 Eboni t
e the met albecause t hey cannotpass t hrough t he
 Thef oll
owi ng on t heot herhand becomesposy i
tivel
y i
nsul at i
nghandl e.
char gedwhenr ubbed: ChargingMet hods
 Acet at e Thefollowi ngmet hodsar eusedt ochar gemat erials:
 Per spex (a)I nduct ion
 Gl ass (b)Cont act
 Fur (c)Separ ati
on
TheBasi
cLawofElect
rost
ati
cs
 Itst at hat l
es t ike charges r
epel
,unl
i
ke char
ges
att
ract
.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

95
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

(a)I
nduction (
b)Contactmethod
Chargi
ngpolystyrenebal
lnegati
velybyinduct
ion  Suspendthepolystyr
enebal
lcoat
edwithal
umini
um
 Suspendt hepolyst
yreneballcoatedwithalumi
nium usi
ng usingdrysi
lkthr
ead.
drysil
kthread.  Bri
ngachar gedglassrodcl
osetobutnott
ouchi
ng
 Br ing aposit
ivel
y charged glass r
od close t
o butnot thesuspendedball.
touchi
ngt hesuspendedball
.

Note:Theposi
ti
vechar
gesar
erepel
l
edwhi
l
ethenegat
ive  Bri
ngachargedglassrodi
ncont
actwi
tht
hebal
l
,
chargesar
eatt
ract
edtother
od. rol
l
ingi
toverthesurf
ace.
 Touchthesi
deoft
hebal
lawayf
rom t
hegl
assr
odwi
tht
he
fi
nger
.

 Wi
thdr
awt
hechar
gedr
od.
Note:Elect
ronsf
low f
rom t
heear
tht
oneut
ral
i
zet
heposi
ti
ve
chargeonthebal
l.
 Whil
ehol di
ngthegl
assrodneart
hebal
l
,wi
thdr
aw t
he
f
ingerandthent
hegl
assr
od.

Notes
a) Whenaposi ti
verodisroll
edont heball
,someoft he
negati
vechar gesi
nducedint heballar
eneut r
ali
zedby
Note: The r emaining negative char ges r edi
str
ibute someposi t
ivechargesont herod.
themselvesunif
ormlyont heball. b) When t he rod is wi
thdrawn,t he posit
ive charges
 When a bodyi s char
ged byi nduct
ion,i
tacqui r
es the redi
str
ibut
e themselvesalloverthesurf
ace oftherod.
chargest
hatareopposi
tetotheinduci
ngcharge. c) Wh en a b ody is charged by cont
actme thod,it
acquir
eschar gesthataresi mil
artotheonesont he
Questi
on: chargi
ngrod.
Expl
ainbyuseofdi agramshow t heabovemat eri
alcanbe Questi
on:Expl
ainhowamat eriali
schargednegativel
yby
char
gedposit
ivel
ybyinduct
ionmethod. contactmethod

(
c)Separ
ati
onMet
hod
 Placet wospheresAandBt ogethersot
hattheyf
orm
asi ngl
econductor.
 Bring a charged pol
ythene r
od close t
o butnot
touchingsphereA.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

96
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

97
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 Mov esphereB awaysoast obr eakthecontact

,whi e  I
l tconsistsessent i
allyofamet alcap( brass)andr od
holdi
ngthechargedr odi
nposi
tion. (boast)atwhi chisconnect edapi eceofv eryt hin
met alf oi
lcal led t he l eaf ( somet imes gol df oil
,
aluminum) suppor ted wi th a pi ece of i nsulating
mat er
ial( could be cor k,cel lulose acet ate)whi ch
formspar tofaboxwi t
hgl asssl i
des.
 Themet alcasingpr otect st heleaff rom t heeffectof
thedraught .
 Thegl asswi ndow ist r
anspar entf orobser vati
ont obe
made.
 Ther od issuppor t
edbyapl ugofgoodi nsulators
 Withdr
awt hechargedrodandtestthetwospheresusi
nga
whichst opschar gesgi vent othecapf rom spreadi ng
negati
vel
ychargedr odfort
hepresenceandtypeofcharge
tothecaseandhencel eaki ngaway .
i
neachspher e.
 Thecapi sci r
culart oensur euni for
m di stri
buti
onof
chargeoni t.

 Eart
hing-Process ofl
osing charges t
o orgai
ning
char
ges f rom the ear
t h thr
ough a conduct
or.
Representedbythesymbol:

Char
gingaGol
dLeafEl
ect
roscopebyCont
act
 Anel ectroscopei schar gednegat i
velybybr i
ngi nga
Exer
cise chargedpol yt
henest ri
pupt ot heel ectroscopeand
rollitov ert he el ectroscope cap.The negat ivel
y
Whenachar gedrodishel
dcloset
oamet alsphereplacedon
charged pol ythene r od r epel st he negat ive char ge
aninsul
atedstand,t
hechar
gedist
ri
but
ionont hesphereisas
whichspr eadsont hepl ateandt hel eaf ,maki ngt hem
shownbelow.
repeleachot herhencel eafdi vergence.I fthepr ocess
i
sr epeated sev eralt i
mes t he leafdi vergence wi ll
keepsi ncr easingunt ili
tr eachest hemaxi mum poi nt.
This way t he el ect roscope i s sai dt o hav e been
chargedbycont act.
 The met alcap,l eafand r od wi l
lt her eforer emai n
diverged.
 Indampweat her ,thispr ocessmaybedi fficult.Itis
(
a)Whati sthesignofchargeontherod? helpedi far azorbl adei scel l
ot apedont ot hecapso
(
b)Describeasimpl emethodtocharget
herod. thatitproj ectsov ert heedge.Ther azoredgewi l
lt hen
(
c)Expl
ainwhyt hefarsideofthemet alspherehasa bef oundt ogat hert hechar gemor er eadilyt hant he
posi
tivecharge. capal one.
(
d)Whathappenst ot hechar
gesont hemet alspher
e,i
f  To char ge an el ect r
oscope posi ti
v ely,a char ge
thechargedrodi smovedawayf r
om thesphere? cell
uloseacet atest ripisr ubbedal ongt heedgeoft he
TheGol
dLeafEl
ect
roscope cap.El ectronsar eaccept edf rom t hecapt ot hest ri
p
whichmeanst hatt hecapandl eafgai nanetposi ti
ve
charge.
 Thel eafther eforedi vergesagai n.

Char
gingaGol
dLeafEl
ect
roscopePosi
ti
vel
ybyI
nduct
ion
 Toucht hecapoft heelectr
oscopewi thyourfi
ngerto
ensurethati
tisf ull
ydischarged.
 Bri
ng a char ged r od (-
)cl ose t
ot he cap ofthe
unchargedelect r
oscope.
 Whiletherodr emainsinitsposit
ion,touchthecap.
 Withdrawthef ingerandsubsequentlyremov et
herod.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

98
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Obser
vat
ions
 Whenthechar gedrod( -)i
sbroughtcl
oset
othecap,
t
heleafri
ses.
 Whenthecapi stouchedwhi l
etherodisi
nposi
ti
on,
t
heleafdi
vergencedecr eases.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

99
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 Whenthefi
ngeri
swi
thdr
awnandt
het
hent
her
od,
thel
eaf
di
ver
ges.
Expl
anat
ion Charge on Char ge Ef
fectonleaf
Whent her odi sbr oughtcloset othecap,el ectronsare el
ectroscope brought di
vergence
repelled tot he plate and the leafmaki ng the leafto near t he
diverge. cap
When t he cap ist ouched,el ect
rons fl
ow t ot he eart
h + + I
ncrease
throught hebody . - - I
ncrease
When t he eart
h connect i
on is broken byr emov ing t
he + - Decrease
fi
ngerandt her od,thepositivechargesr edi
str
ibutesonto - + Decrease
theleafandt hepl ate.Theleafasar esultdiv
ergesandt he +or- Uncharged Decrease
electroscopebecomesposi ti
velycharged. body
UsesofElect
roscope
1. Detecti
ngthepresenceofchar
geonabody
 Char gedbodi esbr oughtneart hecapwi l
lcauset he Chargesi nAi r
l
eaft or ise( di verge).Ift hel eafdoesn’ tdiv er
get he Ai
rcanbechar gedby :
bodyi sunchar ged.  Heat i
ng
2. Measur i
ngt heinsul at i
ngpr opertiesofanobj ect (
mat eri
al)  Radi at i
ons
 Char get heel ectr oscopeandbr i
ngt heobj ectt othetop Appl
icationsofEl ect r
ostaticCharges
oft heel ect
roscopeandear t ht heel ectr
oscope.The
 El ect rostat
icspr ecipi
tator
s
rate atwhi ch t he l eaff allist he measur e oft he
 Fi ngerpr i
nting
conduct ingabi li
tyoft heobj ect.
 Spr aypai nti
ng
3.Tomeasur et hequant ityofchar geonachar gedbody
 phot ocopy ing
 I fabodybei ngt estedhasl i
ttlechar geoni tt heleafof
theel ectroscopewi lldiv
ergeal i
ttleandi fthebodyhas
DangerofEl ectrostatics
muchchar geoni ttheleafwi l
l divergemor e.
 Rubbi ngl iquidmol eculescanbechar ged.Ifthel i
quid
4.test
ingt hesignofchar geonachar gedbody
isi nflammabl e,i t can spark and expl ode.I ti s
 I fachar gedbodyi sbr oughtneart hecapofachar ged
advisabl et ost or ef uelsinmet alcanssot hatany
electroscope,t hel eafoft heel ect r
oscopewi lldiv
erge
chargesgener at edcont inual
lyl
eakout .Thi si st he
mor ei ft hebodyandt heel ect roscopehav esi mil
ar
reasonbehi ndt hepr esenceofloosechai nint ankers
chargesandt hel eafdi vergencewi l
ldecr easei fthe
carryingi nflammabl eli
quids.
twohav edi f
fer entchar ges.
Test
ingf
orchar
ges
a) Char ge an el ect roscope negativ
ely .Bri
ng a negat i
vely Assi
gnment
chargedpol yt
henest ri
pclosetot hecap.Not icethatt he 1.A nyl
on dr
ess st
icks on the bodyand
l
eafdi vergesf urther . cr
ackl
eswhenremoved.Expl
ain.
b) Bringupaposi tiv echargecell
uloseacet atestripcloset o
thesamenegat iv elychargedel
ectroscope.Not icethatthis
ti
met heleafcol lapses( decr
easeindi ver
gence.)
2. You are given a posi t
ivel
y charged
c) Placey ourhand on anyunchar ged met alcloset ot he el
ectr
oscope and a char
ged body.Expl ai
n
chargedel ectroscope.Not i
ceagaint hatt
hel eafcoll
apses. howyouwi l
ldet
erminethetypeofthecharge
 Not ethatt her esul tsinexperi
ment s(b)and( c)wer et he onthechargedbody.
samehencet hecol l
apsingofthel eafisnotev i
dencef or
thepr esenceofachar gedbody .We cant herefore state 3.You ar e provided wit
ht he f
oll
owi ng:
therulef ortestingachar geasfoll
ows: pol
ythene r od,dust er and a uncharged
1) I
ft heleafofchargeelect
roscopediver
gesfurt
herwhena el
ectroscope.Explainhowyouwil
lchargethe
bodybr oughtcl
osetothecapthenthatbodyischar
ged.
2) Thesi gnofthechargeont hebodyisthesameast haton
el
ectroscopenegat i
vely.
theelectr
oscope.
 Incr
easeindiv
ergenceistheonl
ysurewayoft est
ingt he
signofchar
geonabody .Notethatchar
gingbycontactis
notasurewaybutinduct
ioni
s.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

100
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Chapt
erNi
ne CELLSANDS
IMPLECI
RCUI
TS
I
ntr
oduct
ion Not
es

 Elect r
icalener
gyisusedf
orli
ghti
ng,Heat
ingandoperati
ng a) Acircuitt
hatall
owschar
gest omov ei
nacomplete
el
ect r
onicdev i
cessuch asT.V,computers,hi
gh speed pathwhent heswit
chi
sclosedissai obeacl
dt osed
tr
ainset c.Thi
senergyiscar
riedthr
oughconductor
sl i
ke ci
rcuit
.
wires.
b) A cir
cuitt
hatdoesnotallow char
gestomov
ei na
El
ectr
icCur rent completepathsuchacircui
tissaidtobeanopen
(
brokenci
rcui
t)
.Opencir
cui
tcanal
sobeasar
esul
tof
 El
ectri
ccurr
enti
stherat
eoffl
owofchar
ge(
fl
owofchar
ge l
ooseconnect
ionofwi
res.
peruni
tti
me).SIuni
ti heamper
st e(A)
c) For cl
ari
t ness, sy
y and neat mbol
s ar
e used i
n
 Fr
om t
hedef
ini
ti
onabov
e, r
epr
esent
inganel
ect
ri
cal
cir
cui
t.

Cha
rge,
Q
Cur
rent
,I=
Ti
me,t

Q
I= ,Q=I
t
t

Exampl
e

Calcul
atet
heamountofcurr
entfl
owingthr
oughabul
bif360
coulombsofchar
gef
lowsthr
oughiti
n3.5minut
es.
Di
rect
ionoft
heFl
owofEl
ect
ri
cCur
rent
Sol
uti
on
 Convent
ional
ly,
thef l
owofcurrenti
sfrom t
heposi
ti
ve
Q ter
minaltot he negati
veterminalofthe cel
l
.Itis
I=
t opposi
tetothedirect
ionoff
lowofelectr
ons.
360
I=  Thei
nstr
umentf ormeasuri
ngelect
ri
ccur
renti
scall
ed
3.
5x60 anammet erwhileelect
ri
ccurr
entfl
owiscontr
oll
edby
avar
iabl
er esi
stor.
=1.
714A

TypesofEl
ect
ri
cCur
rent

a) Di
rectcur
rent
(d.
c)–whi
chf
lowsi
nonedi
rect
iononl
y

b) Al
ter
nati
ngcurr
ent
(a.
c)–whi
chr
ever
sesdi
rect
ionwi
tha
gi
venfr
equency

Si
mpl
eEl
ect
ri
cCi
rcui
ts

 A simpl
e electri
c ci
rcui
tconsi
stofa cel
l
,a bul
b and
connect
ingwires.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

101
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Devi
ce Symbol

Cel
l

Bat
ter
y

Swi
tch

Bul
b/f
il
ament
l
amp

Wires crossi
ng
wit
h no
connect
ion

Wi
res crossi
ng
wi
thconnecti
on

Fi
xedr
esi
stor

Pot
ent
ial
div
ider

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

102
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Thetablebel
ow shows Cel
l
sinPar
all
el
some ofthe elect
ri
cal
 Twoormor ecell
sareplacedsi
debyside,theposi
tiv
e
symbols used i n
termi
nalsjoinedtogetherandthenegati
vet er
minal
s
drawi
ngcir
cui
ts.Fuse alsoconnectedtoget
her.

Capaci
tor  Whencel
l
sarei
nparal
l
elarr
angementt
hei
re.
m.f
.is
t
hesameast
hee.
m.f
.ofonecel
l.

 Curr
enti s suppl
ied f
ora l
ongert
ime i
n par
all
el
connect
ionofcell
s.
Rheost
at

Ammet
er

Note:Cellsshoul
d shoul
d bearr
anged i
n par
all
elonly
whent heyhavethesamee. m.
fother
wiseonewilldr
ain
t
heot her.
Vol
tmet
er
Bul
bsi
nSer
iesandPar
all
elConnect
ion

Bubsi
nPar
all
el

Gal
vanomet
er  Eachbulbfunct
ionsindependent
ly.I
fonegoesof
f,
other
scont
inuel
ight
ing.

 Ther
e’sdecr
easedresi
stanceasthecurr
enthasmany
al
ter
nati
veloops(completepaths)t
hroughwhichto
El
ect
romot
iveFor
ce(
E.m.
f)andPot
ent
ialDi
ff
erence fl
ow.

 Elect
romoti
vefor
ce( E.
m.f
)refer
sto vol
tageacr
ossthe  Bul
bsinpar al
l
elhavethesamepot
ent
ialdi
ff
erence
termi
nalsofabatt
eryinanopencir
cuit(
whennocurr
ent butdi
ff
erentamount
s ofcur
rent
.
fl
owsi nt
hecir
cui
t)
.

 Potenti
aldif
fer
ence( Pd)r
efer
stothevolt
ageacrosst he
t
erminal
sofabat t
eryinaclosedci
rcui
t(whencurrentis
f
lowingintheci
rcui
t).

 Potent
ialdi
ff
erenceandE.m. far
emeasur
edinvolt
sbyan Bul
bsinSer
ies
i
nstrument caled v
l olt
met er.A vol
tmeter i
s alway
s
connectedi
nparall
el(
across).  Ifonebulbgoesof
f,ot
her
sal
sogoof
f.

 Thedif
fer
encebet
weenPot
ent
ialdi
ff
erenceandE.
m.fis  Ther
e’si
ncreasedr esi
stancethusthebulbsmi
ghtnot
known as l
ost vol
tage beasbri
ghtast hoseinparall
elconnect
ion.
e
.m.
f=P.
d+l
ostvol
tag
e
 Bul
bsinseri
eshavethesamecur
rentbutdi
ff
erent
l
ostvol
tag
e=e
.m.
f-P.
d pot
ent
ial
dif
fer
ence.

 Thi
sv olt
agei
slostbecauseoftheopposit
iont
othef
low
ofchargeswi
thi
nthecel
l(i
nter
nalr
esi
stance)

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

103
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Connect
ingCel
l
sinSer
iesandPar
all
el

Cel
l
sinSer
ies

 Twoormor
ecel
l
sar
econnect
edsucht
hatt
heposi
ti
ve
ter
minal
ofonei
sjoi
nedt
othenegat
ivet
ermi
nal
ofanot
her
one.
Not
e:Bul
bsinparal
lelar
rangementl
i
ghtbr
ight
ert
han
 Twoormor
ecel
l
sconnect
edi
nser
iesmakeabat
ter
y t
hoseinser
iesar
rangement.

Not
e:Connecti
ngcell
sinser
iesi
ncr
easest
hee.
m.fandcur
rent
i
ntheci
rcui
tishigher
.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

104
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Example Not
e:
An elect
ri
cian i
nst
all
ed el
ect
ri
c wiri
ng in a house and
connect
edthebul
bsandtheswit
chesasshowninthebel
ow.C 1) Mat
eri
als whose el
ect
ri
calpr
oper
ti
es f
allbet
ween
thoseofconductor
sandi nsul
ator
sarerefer
redt
oas
semi-conduct
orse.
g.si
l
iconandger mani
um.

2) Somel i
quidssuchasdi lut
esulphur i
caci d,sodi
um
chl
ori
desol uti
onand potassi
um hy droxi
deconduct
el
ectr
ici
ty.Theyar
eref
erredtoaselectrol
ytes.

Sour
cesofEl
ect
ri
cit
y

 Mai
nsour
ces:

 Chemi
cal
cel
l
s
(a) Explai
nwhathappenswhenswi t
ch:
(i) S1isclosed.  Generators
OnlybulbB1willl
ight
;
(ii
) S2isclosed.  Solarcell
s
BulbB1 andB2 li
ghtsbutwithlessbr
ight
ness
 Ot
hersourcesinclude:
becauseofincreaseinr
esist
ance.
(ii
i
)S3isclosed.  Thermocoupl es
BulbB1B2andB3wi llal
ll
ightbutwit
hmuchl essbr
ight
ness
compar edtoa(ii
)  Piezoelectr
icity

(
b)(i
)Usingaredr
awndiagram showt
hebestposi
ti
ont
he Chemi
calCel
l
s
bulbsshoul
dbeinst
all
ed.
Thesearecell
st hatproduceanE.m. fasar esul
tofa
chemical
react
ions.Theyar
ecategor
izedint
otwo:

I
. Pr
imar
ycel
l
s

 Thesear
ecell
swhichcannotber
echar
gedf
oruse
agai
ne.
g.si
mplecel
l
.

Si
mpl
eCel
l

(i
i
)Expl ai
nwhyyouconsi derthearr
angementi n(b)(i
)
abovet obet hebest.
Whent hebulbsar econnect
edsucht hatt
heyareinparall
el,
the
ci
rcuitrésist
ance is si
gnif
icant
lyreduced;and hence mor e
curr
entf l
ow,t hebulbl i
ght
swi thequalbri
ghtnesssincet he
operat
ionvoltageisthesame;

Conduct
orsandI
nsul
ator
s
Def
ect
sofasi
mpl
ecel
l
 Conduct orsaremat eri
alsthatall
owel ect
ri
ccurrenttofl
ow
throught hem e.
g.copper ,
silv
er,graphi
teandalumini
um.  Pol ar
izati
on – accumul at
ionofbubbl esar oundt he
copperpl at
e( posit
ive pl
ate)
.Thi s defectpr ovi
des
 Insulat
orsar emat eri
alsthatdonotal l
ow fl
ow ofelect
ric
i
nsulati
on tot hef l
ow ofcur r
entand al so setsup
currentthroughthem e.g.plasti
c,paperandrubber.
some“ local
”cel l
swi t
hcopperwhoseel ect r
onf low
tendstoopposet heflow ofelect
ronsfr om t hezinc
plat
e.Theov eral
leffectisincreasei nt hei nternal

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

105
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

resi
stance oft
he cel
l
,whi
ch r
educes t
he f
low of
curr
ent.

 Localact
ion–t
hezi
ncpl
atei
sdepl
eted(
eat
enaway
)
asitr
eact
swithdil
utesulphur
icaci
d.I
mpur
it
iesi
n
zi
ncpr
omotel
ocal
action.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

106
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Waysofcor
rect
ingPol
ari
zat
iondef
ect
: TheDr
yCel
l

 Additi
onofpot assi
um dichromat
e( depolari
zer
).Oxy
gen
fr
om thedepolari
zercombineswit
hthehy drogenat
omsto
producewater
.

 Remov
ingcopperpl
ateandbr
ushi
ngof
fthegasbubbl
es.

Waysofcor
rect
ingLocalact
iondef
ect
:

 Useofpur
ezi
nc.

 Coat
ingzi
ncwi
thmer
cur
y(amal
gamat
ion)
.

TheLecl
anche’
cel
l

Local
act
ionandPol
ari
zat
ionhav
ebeenmi
nimi
zedi
nthi
scel
l
.

 I
tisr
efer
r oasdr
edt ycel
lbecausei
thasnol
i
qui
d.

 Theammonium chl
ori
desoluti
onintheLecl
anche’
cel
l
i
srepl
acedwit
ht heammoni um chl
ori
dejel
l
yorpaste
whi
chisusedastheelect
rol
yte.

 Manganese(
IV)oxi
deandactast
hedepol
ari
zer
.

 carbon powderincreases t
he sur
face ar
ea oft
he
posit
iveel
ectr
ode(carbonRod)

 Thezinccaseact i
ngasthenegati
veelect
rodegets
depl
etedbyt heammonium chl
ori
deandchangest o
zi
ncchlor
ide.Local
act
ioni
sstil
ladef
ectint
hiscel
l
.

 Thecel
lcannotber
enewedoncethechemicalact
ion
st
ops.Anewdrycel
lhasane.
m.fofabout1.
5V.
 The car
bon rod (
posi
ti
veter
minal
)is sur
rounded wi
th
manganese(
IV)oxi
demixedwi
thcar
bonpowder. Car
efort
hedr
ycel
l

 Carbonpowderincreasestheef
fect
ivear
eaoft
hepl
ates  Lar
gecurr
entsshoul
dnotbedr
awnf
rom t
hedr
ycel
l
hencereducedr
esistance. wit
hinashor
tti
me.

 The manganese ( IV) oxi

de acts as a depol arzer  Thet
i er
minal
sshoul
dnotbeshor
ted.
(depol
ari
zat
ionissl
owthuslargecur
rentscannotbedr
awn
 Thecel
lsmustbest
oredi
ndrypl
aces.
outofthi
scellst
eadi
lyf
oralongtime).
Usesoft
hedr
ycel
l
s
 Local
act
ioni
sst
il
ladef
ecti
nthi
scel
l
.
 Dr
ycellsar
eusedint
orches,
cal
cul
ator
sandr
adi
os.
 Thecel li
susedf orpurposeswherecur
rentisnotdrawn
from itf ora verylong ti
me,li
ke operati
ng bel
l
s and
telephoneboxes.I
thasal ongerl
if
espant hanthesimpl
e
cell. I
I. Secondar
yCell
s:

 Thesear
erechar
geabl
ecel
l
s.

 Theyar
eal edst
socal
l oragecel
l
sast
heycanst
ore

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

107
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

el
ect
ri
cal
ener
gyaschemi
cal
ener
gy.

 Examples arethe Lead-

acid accumul
atorand t
he
Nickel
-al
kal
ineaccumul
ator
.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

108
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Lead–aci
daccumul
ator Mai
ntenanceoft
heAccumul
ator
s

 Consistofposi
ti
v eandnegati
veplat
eswhicharemadeof 1) The l evelof the electrol
yte shoul
d be checked
l
ead-anti
monyalloy. regularl
yandmai ntai
nedabov et heplates.Topping
shouldbedonebydi st
il
ledwater;NOTACI D!
 Theplatesaredi
ppedinsulphuri
caci
dsoluti
onwhichisan
el
ectrol
yte. 2) Theaccumul atorshouldbechargedwhent hee.m.fof
the celldrops below 1.8 V and when t he r
elat
ive
 Thecapshav esmal lventholeswhich al
low gasesto density oft he acidisf al
ls below 1.12 (usi
ng a
escape(02andH2) hydromet er
).

 I
fthedensi
tyoftheaci
dbecomest
ool
owt
heaccumul
ator 3) Largecurr
entsshoul
dnotbedr
awnf
rom t
hebat
ter
y
i
ssaidtobedischar
ged. foralongti
me.

 I
tischar
gedbyconnect
ingad.
csour
ceasshownbel
ow. 4) Shouldnotbelefti
nadischargedcondit
ionforalong
peri
odassul phati
onmayt akeplace.(thelead(II
)
sul
phatedeposit
sontheplateshardenupandcannot
beconvert
edbacktolead(I
I)oxideandlead.
)

5) Shor
ting/ov
erchar
gingoft
heaccumul
atorshoul
dbe
avoi
ded.

6) The terminal
s shoul
d al
way
s be keptcl
ean and
greased.

7) Theaccumulat
orshoul
dnotbedi r
ect
lyplacedont
he
groundduri
ngstor
age.Itshoul
dber est
edonsome
i
nsulat
orl
ikeawoodenblock.
 Thi si
st hemostrel
iable,l
onglasti
ngandcost
-ef
fect
iveof
thesecondar
ycell
s.A12Vl ead-aci
daccumul
atorhassix Al
kali
neAccumul at
ors:
cel
lsconnect
edinseries.
 The elect
rolyteint hi
scaseisan al
kal
i
nesol
uti
on,
Capaci
tyofanAccumulator suchaspotassium hydr
oxi
de.

 Thisi
stheamountofcur
rentt
hatcanbedr
awni
nagi
ven  Thecommont ypesar
eni
ckel
-cadmi
um andni
ckel
-
ti
mefrom t
hebat
ter
y. i
ronaccumul
ator
s.

 I
tisexpr
essedi
namper
e-hour
s(Ah)
.

Exampl
es

1. Abatt
eryi
srat
ed120AH.Howl
ongwi
l
litwor
kifi
tst
eadi
l
y
suppl
i
esacurr
entof4A?

c
apa
cit
y=c
urr
enti
nampe
res×t
imei
nhour
s
Advant
agesofAl
kal
i
neAccumul
ator
soverLead– Aci
d
120AH=4A×t
ime
Accumulat
ors
120AH
t
ime= =30hour
s 1. Lar
gecurr
entscanbedr
awnf
rom t
hem ov
erashor
t
4A per
iodoft
ime.
2.Thecur
rentcapaci
tyofanaccumul
atori
s40Ah.Fi
ndt
he 2. Theyr
equi
rev
eryl
i
ttl
eat
tent
iont
omai
ntai
n.
amountofcur
rentf
lowi
ngi
ftheaccumul
atori
susedf
or600

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

109
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

mi
nut
es. 3. Theyareli
ghter(
mor
epor
tabl
e)t
hant
heLead–aci
d
c
apa
cit
y=c
urr
enti
nampe
res×t
imei
nhour
s accumulat
ors.

600 4. Theycanbekeptinadischar
gedcondi
ti
onf
orav
ery
40AH=I×
60 l
ongti
mebeforethecel
l
sar er
uined.

40AH
I= =4A
10H

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

110
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Di
sadvant
ages 1. Youareprovidedwithacarbat ter
y,aswit
chandtwo
headl
ight
sofacar .Draw apossibleci
rcui
tdiagr
am
1. Theyar
ever
yexpensi
ve. fort
hearrangementthatwillal
l
owt hedri
vert
oswitch
onthetwolightssi
multaneousl
y.
2. Theyhav
eal
owere.
m.fpercel
l
.
2. (a)Draw awel
l-
label
leddi
agr
am ofadr
ycel
land
UsesofAccumul
ator
s expl
ainhowi
tworks.
Theyareusedinships,hospi
tal
sandbuil
dingswher
elar
ge (b)Whataret
hedef
ect
sandt
her
emedi
esi
nthe
cur
rent
smightbeneededforemergency
. wor
kingofadr
ycel
l
?
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenpr
imar
yandsecondar
ycel
l
s (
c)Howar
edr
ycel
l
smai
ntai
ned?
Pr
imar
ycel
l
s Secondar
ycel
l
s 3. Ei
ghtdrycel
lscanbear r
angedtopr
oduceat
otal
e.
m.fof12V,
justl
i
keacarbat
ter
y.
Cannotber
echar
gedaf
ter Ar
erechar
geabl
e
use a. Whati
se.
m.fofani
ndi
vi
dualcel
l
?

Smal
l cur
rent can be Largecurr
entcanbedr
awn b. Whyisitpossibl
etostar
tthecarwit
hthelead-
aci
d
dr
awnfr
om them fr
om them accumulat
or,butnotwit
heightdr
ycell
sinseri
es?

4. (a)Dr
awtwoseparat
ediagr
amsshowi
ng al
ead-
aci
d
accumul
atorwheni
tis:
Revi
sionExer
cise a) Char
ging

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

111
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

9. In terms of el ectr
ons, di
sti
ngui
sh between good b) Di
schar
ging.
conductor
s,poorconduct
orsofel
ect
ri
cit
yandinsul
ator
s.
(b)Descri
bethechangest
hatcanobser
veddur
ingt
het
wo
10.(
a)Def
inecur
rentandst
atei
tsSIuni
t. processesabove.

(b)(
i)Achar geof180coul ombsf l
ow throughal amp ( c)Whyi sitdanger oustolightaci garett
enearachar ging
everyminute.Cal culat
ethecur r
entfl
owi ngthrought he carbat tery?
l
amp.
5. (a)Whatdoyouunder standbyt heterm capaci
tyofa
(i
i)Calculatet he numberofel ectrons involved l
ead-acidaccumul ator
?
(chargeofelectroni 6x10-19C)
s1.
(b)Whyi sitef f
ectivetochar geacarbat teryoveral ong
11.Abat terycir
culateschar geroundaci r
cuitfor1.5mi nut es. ti
mew ithav erys ma l
lcurrent r
ath erthanab i
gc ur
rent
I
ft hecur r
enti shel d at2. 5A,whatquant i
tyofchar ge w i
thi
nas hortti
me ?
passest hewi r
e?
(c)Acarbat teryisr at
ed40Ahandi tisexpectedtosupply
12.Defineelectromot i
vef orceanddisti
ngui
shi tfrom potent al aconst
i antcur rentfor120mi nut
es.Whati st hest
rength
di
fferenceofacel l
. ofcurrentdelivered?

13.(
a)Dr
awaci
rcui
tdi
agr
am oft
hree-
cel
ltor
ch. 6. St
ateatleastfi
veprecaut
ionsthatyouwoul
dtaket
o
maint
ainaccumulat
orsinyourl
aborator
y.
(
b)Whatdoyouunder
standby?
7. Stat
etheadvantageanddisadvant
ageoflead-
aci
d
(
i)Openci
rcui
t? accumul
ator
sovertheal
kal
i
neaccumulat
ors.

(
ii
)Cl
osedci
rcui
t? 8. Thef
igur
ebel
owshowst
hesetupf
orasi
mpl
ecel
l
.

14.Expl
ainwhyl
i
ght
sinahousear
ewi
redi
npar
all
elandnoti
n
seri
es.

15.(a)Givet
hreedi
ff
erencesbet
weenpr
imar
yandsecondar
y
cell
s.

(b)I
nmaki
ngasimpl
ecell
,thetwoel
ect
rodesusedar
e
notoft
hesameki
nd.Expl
ain.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

112
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

a)Namet
heEl
ect
rodeAandt
hesol
uti
onB

b)St
atet
wor
easonswhyt
hebul
bgoesof
faf
terashor
tti
me

16.Stateoneadvantageofalead-
acidaccumulat
oroveradry
cell
17.Stateonedefectofasimplecel
landexplai
nhowi tcanbe
corr
ected.
18.Thediagram bel
owshowsasi mplecel
l:
-

a. Namezandsol
uti
ony

b. Nameandexpl
aint
hedef
ectt
hatoccur
satpl
atez

c. Give one met

hod ofpr event
ing t
he def
ectt
hat
occur
satthecopperpl
ate

19.Expl
ainwhyeight1.
5Vcell
sarrangedinser
iestogivea
tot
alof12Vcannotbeusedtostartacar
.Butcarbatt
ery
of12Vstar
tsacar

20.Define the t
erm toppi
ng as used i
n simpl
e cel
l
s and
cir
cuit
s.
21.I)A gi r
lopened up aused up drycelland f
ound t
he
fol
lowing:
a. Thezinccasi
ngwasdepleted

b. Thecel
lwaswat
ery

I
I)Namet
hecel
ldef
ect

I
II
)Threeident
icalbulbsareconnect
edinser i
eswit
habatt
ery
ofdrycells.Atf i
rstthebulbsshinebr ightl
ybutgr
adual
ly
becomedimmer .Usingthesamecells,explai
nhowyouwould
i
ncreaset
hebrill
i
anceoft hebul
bs

22.A carbat t
eryrequires t
opping up wi
th di
sti
ll
ed wat
er
occasionall
y.Explain whythisis necessar yand why
dist
il
ledwat eri
sused
23.Stat
eoneadvant ageof:
a. Alead-aci
daccumul ati
veoveradrycel
l

b. Adr
ycel
loverl
ead-
aci
daccumul
ator

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

113
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

114
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Chapt
erTen RECTI
LINEARPROPAGATI
ONOFLI
GHT
AND
REFLECTI
ONATPLANES
URFACES
I
ntr
oduct
ion  Makeasmal lholeineachoft hethr eecardboards
ensuri
ngt hatall
theholesareatt hesamehei ght
.
 Opt icsisabr anchofphy sicswhi chstudiest
hebehaviour  Thelampsposi t
ionedinsuchawayt hatarayofli
ght
ofli
ghtasi ttr
aversesvariousmedi a. passest hr
oughal lt
heholes.
 Opt ical instr
ument s such as camer as,mi cr
oscopes,  Whent hecar dboardisdispl
acedbymov i
ngitsli
ghtl
y
peri
scopesandl awsgov erni ngtheirworki
ngfor
m amaj or totheonesi de,theey ewillnotseet helamp.This
partofthisbranchofphy sics. showst hatli
ghttravel
sinast r
aightl
ine.
 Lighti saf or
m ofener gy .Li ghtregul
atesyourdai
lylif
e.
Youneedl i
ghttoseet hesi ze,shapeandcolourofthi
ngs RaysofLightandBeam ofLi ght
aroundy ou.  Ar ay is a nar row stream ofl i
ghtofnegl i
gibl
e
thi
cknesswhi leabeam ofl i
ghti sacol l
ect
ionofrays
Sour
cesofLi ght ofli
ght.

 Ther
ear et
wo:luminous(incandescent
)andnon-l
uminous
 Luminousobj
ectsarethosewhi chproducet
heirownlight Ty
pesofbeams
e.
g.sun,
candl
es,
elect
ri
clamps,
glowi
ngwor
mset
c.  A beam i
nwhi chraysar
epar
all
elt
oeachot
heri
s
 Non-
lumi
nousobj
ect
sar
ethosewhi
chdon’
tgi
vet
hei
rown cal
ledpar
all
elbeam.
l
ightbutref
lectli
ghtthatcomesf rom aluminousobj
ect.
Theseareobject
s.Examplesare:t
hemoon, paper,
youetc.
 Youcanseeanobj ectclear
lyifl
ightfr
om itentersyour
eyes.

Tr
anspar
ent,
Transl
ucentandOpaqueObj
ect
s
 Transpar
entobject
sar et
hosewhichall
ow l
i
ghtt
opass
throught hem e.g.agl asswi ndow,clearwat er
,t heair  Abeam i
nwhi cht
heray
sconv
ergeatapoi
nti
scal
l
ed
aroundy ou.Allt hesesubst ancesletlightpasst hrough aconv
ergentbeam.
them.
 Opaqueobj ectsar ethosewhi chcannotallowl
ighttopass
throughthem e.g.wool ,steel
, Br
ick.
 Translucentbodiesar et hosewhi chletli
ghtpasst hrough
them, butscat
terinal ldirect
ionse.g.lampshades,frosted
glass,someplasticet c.

Rect
ili
nearPropagat
ionofLi ght
 Thi sisthepropert yoflighttotrav
elinast rai
ghtli
neina
medium ofhomogeneouspr opagat
iondensity.
 Li ghtdoesnott ravelar oundcorner
s.Thef ormati
onof
shadowsshowst hatl i
ghtt rav
elsinast r
aightlne.When  Abeam i
i nwhicht
her
aysspr
eadsoutf
rom apoi
nti
sa
anopaquebodyi spl acedi nabeam oflight,ashadow i
s di
ver
gentbeam
formed.
Demonstrati
ngRecti
linearPr opagati
onofLight

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

115
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

116
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

ThePi
nhol
eCamer
a

 Api n-holecamer ai smadeusi ngasmal lrectangul

arbox
withapi nhol eatoneend,al argerectangularholeatone
end,al argerectangularholeattheotherend.
 Ther ectangularholeatt hebacki scov eredwithascr een
ofspeci alpaperl i
kegr easeproofpaperwhi chlet
ssome
l
ightpasst hroughi t(i
.e.i
tistr
anslucent). ho=objecthei
ght
hi=i
magehei ght
Adv
antage u=objectdist
ance
 I ti
sabl etof ormf ocusedi magesont hef i
lm ofobjects v=imagedi st
ancefr
om pi
nhole
bothnearandf arfrom thecamer a. Giventhatmagnifi
cati
oni
sm, then
hi v hi v
I
mageFor mat i
onbyaPi nholeCamer a m = or m= andso =
ho u ho u

Examples
1. A pinhol
ecameraofl engt
h15cm f or
msani mage
3cm highofamanstanding9m i
nfr
ontoft
hecamera
whatisthehei
ghtoft
heman?
hi v
=
ho u
0.03m 0. 15m
=
ho 9m
0.03m ×9m
ho= =1.
8m
TheLengt
h(Si
ze)OfI
mage 0.
15m
 Thelengt
hoft hei
magef or
meddependson: 2. LampAofhei ght6cm standsi
nfrontofapinhol
e
a) Thedistanceoftheobj
ectf
rom t
hepi
nhol
e cameraatadistanceof24cm.Thecamerascr
eenis
b) Thelengthofthecamerabox 8cm from t
he pi nhol
e.Whatisthe hei
ghtofthe
image?
MAGNIFI
CATION hi v
 Thisist
herati
ooftheimagesizetotheobjectsi
zeort
he =
ho u
rat
iooft
heimagedist
ancetotheobjectdi
stance. hi 0.
08m
Ima g
es i
ze =
Magni
fi
cat
ion= 0.
06m 0. 24m
objectsi
ze 0.08m
hi= ×0.
06m
imagedi
sta
nce 0.24m
Ma
gni
fi
cat
ion= hi=2m
obj
ectdi
stanc
e

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

117
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Exer
cise ShadowFor
medbyaPoi
ntSour
ce
1. Ani mage100mm l ongofaman2m t allispinnedont opof
a pin-
hole camera.The distance ofpi n holef rom the
screenifthemanisstanding6cm from thepi nhol
e.
2. Anobject1m tallf
ormsani mage5cm t allf
rom thescreen
ofapi nholecamera.Findthedistanceoft heobj ectfr
om
thepinholeoftheobjectifthelengthoft hecamer aboxis
40cm.

Eff
ectontheI
mageFor
medbyt
hePi
nhol
eCamer
aOn:
(a) Manypi
nhol
es
 Eachpi nholewillformi t
simager esul
ti
ngi ntobri
ghterbut  Apoi ntsourceoflightisonewhi chissmal lenough
bl
urredi mage. forallther aysof li
ght t
oc omee f
fect
ivel
yf rom a
(
b)Largepinhole singl
e point
.
 Alargehol eisequi v
alenttoseveralhol
esandwi l
lproduce  Theshadowi sunif
orml yandtot
allydarkalloverand
bri
ghterbutblurredimage. iscalledu mbra.Th eu mbrel
lash apeedg eso nthe
 Howev er,ashar pi magecanbepr oducedwher eawi de shado ws hows t
hat l
ightt
ravel
s ona st
rai
g htli
ne.
hol
eorsev eralholeshav ebeenusedbysi mpl
ypl aci
nga
converginglensi nfrontofthemanyhol esandi ncontact ShadowsFor medbyanExt endedSour ceofLight.
wit
ht hebox.Theconv exlensbri
ngsal lraysfrom apoint
onobjectt ouniquepoi ntonthescreen.

Thepin-holecamer acanbemodi
fi
edasf
oll
owsi
nor
dert
o
takephotographs:
 Shoul d be pai nted bl ack on t he i
nside to el
i
minat
e
refl
ectionoflight .
 Tr anslucentscr eent ober epl
acedbyl ight
-t
ightl
idwit
h
photogr aphi
cf il
mf i
tt
edont heinside.
 Shoul dbecov eredwi t
hat hinblackcardwhichactsasa
shutter.  Anextendedsourceofl i
ghti
slar
geenoughf orrays
Theexposur etimeofapi n-holecamer adependson: tobeseentocomef r
om manypoint
s.
 Si zeoft hepin-hole  Theshadow islar
gerandhasacent raldarkregion
 Li ghti
ngcondi tions cal
led umbr
asur roundedar i
ngofpar t
ialshadow
 Sensi ti
v i
tyofthef i
lm cal
ledpenumbra.
 Lengt hoft hecamer a
Appl
i
cat
ionofext
endedl
i
ghtsour
ces
Advant
ageoft
hePi
nhol
eCamer
aovert
heLensCamer
a a) Lampshadesar eusedathomet opr ovi
deamor e
 The pi nhol
e camer ai s pr efer
red tot he lens camer a pleasantkindofl i
ghtni
ng.
becausei tdoesnotpr oducedi st
orti
on. b) Fluorescentt ubes are usuall
y sur
rounded by a
Thedisadvantagesofusingapi nholecamer a: frostedd i
ff
uset os cat
tert
h el
ight&reduceshadow
a) Ittakesal ongt i
mef ori maget obef or
medsi ncet he sh ar
pn ess.
amountofl ightpassingthrought heholeissmal l
.
b) Itcannotbeusedt ot akephot ographsofmov ingobj s. Ecl
ect ipses
Anecl i
psei sthet otalorparti
aldi
sappearanceofsun
Shadows raysas seenfrom the ear
th.
 Ashadowi sashadecastbyanobj ectbl
ockingdirectray s
oflight.Thef ormati
onofshadowsdependsont hef act TheSolarEclipseorEcl i
pseoftheSun
thatli
ghttravelsi
nast raightli
ne
Thesizeoft heshadowf ormeddependson:
a) Sizeofsour cesofli
ght .
b) Sizeofopaqueobj ect.
c) Distancebet weentheobj ectandsour ceofl
ight.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

118
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

119
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 Ther
ayf
rom t
hesour
ceAOi
scal
l hei
edt nci
dentr
ay.
 Thesolarecl
ipseoccur
swhent
hemooncomesbet
ween Ther aythatbouncesof ffrom theMirrorOi scal
led
thesunandtheeart
h therefl
ectedray.ONist henor mal.
 Theangl ebet ween incidentr ayand thenor malis
TheAnnul
arEcl
i
pseoft
heSun caledAngl
l eofi nci
dentangl e,Ibetweent henormal
andtheRef l
ectedrayiscalledangleofrefl
ecti
on.

TheLawsofRef
lect
ion
1. The angl e ofincidence i
s equaltothe angl
e of
ref
lection.
2. Thei ncidentr
ay,normalandrefl
ect
edrayatthepoi
nt
ofincidencealll
i
eont hesameplane.

TypesofRef
lect
ion
 I
toccur
swhent
hedi
stanceofsepar
ati
onbet
weent
he
a) Regul
arorSpecul
arRef
lect
ion
eart
handt hemoonisgr
eat.Theumbraofthemoondoes
I
toccur
swhenpar al
leli
ncidentr
aysareref
lect
edpar
all
el
nottot
all
ycovert
hesunedgeofthedar
kdiskoft
hemoon.
t
oeachotherwhenrefl
ect
ingsurf
aceissmooth.

LunarEcl
i
pseorEcl
i
pseoft
heMoon

b) I
rr
egul
arorDi
ff
useRef
lect
ion
Paral
l
eli
nci
dentr
aysar
eref
lect
edi
ndi
ff
erentdi
rect
ions
for

 Theecl ipseoft hemoonoccur swhent heear thcomes

betweent hesunandt hemoon.
 Whent hel unarecl i
pseoccurs,itlastslonger(about1hr)
thanthesol areclipsebecauset hemooni smuchsmal l
er
thantheear t
h.
 Dur i
ngat otallunarecl i
psesomel ightreachest hemoon
duetor efractionbyt heeart
h’satmospher e&makei tlook
acopper ycol our. I
mageFormationbyaPlaneMi rr
or.
 Thei mageofan obj ectseen in a planemi r
roris
REFLECTIONBYPLANEMI RRORS. for
medbyr ay
sofl
ighttrav
elli
nginst
raightl
ineswhich
 Whenar ayofl ightmeet saplanemi rr
oritisrefl
ecti
on. areref
lect
edaccor
dingtot helawsofrefl
ect
ion.
 Anor dinarymi rr
ori smadebydeposi t
ingat hinlayerof
metal,oftensi l
verpai ntatt
hebackoft hegl asswhichacts
asther efl
ect i
ngsur face.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

120
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Exer
cise

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

121
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Fr
om t
heabov
edi
agr hatt
am onecanseet hei
magef
ormedi
n 1. Fi
ndt
henumberofi
magesf
ormedwhenmi
rr
orsar
e
aplanemi rr
orisalways: i
ncl nedat20o
i
a)Erect(Upri
ght)
b)Asf arbehindthemirr
orasobjecti
sinfrontofi
t. 2. Findt heanglebetweentwomi rr
orsi
f35i magesare
c)Virt
ual. formed
Avirt
ualimagei sone:
 whi chcannotberecei
vedont hescreen 3. Atwhatangl ewouldt womi r
rorsbeincli
nedifthe
 whi chisformedbyt heinter
secti
onofvi r
tual nu mbe rofi
ma gesfor
me dar
e (
i)17 (
ii
)29?
rays.
Rot
ationofaMi r
ror
c)Lateral
lyi
nvertedi.
e.l
eftappear
sonther i
ght&viceversa
d)Thesamesi zeastheobject
.  When a mi r
rorisrotat
ed thr
ough an angl
eθ t he
r
efl
ect
edr
ayt
urnst
hrough2θ.
I
mageFor
mat
ioni
nPar
all
eli
nMi
rr
ors
 Hence,t
her
efl
ect
edr
ayal
way
stur
nst
hrought
wice
t
heangl
ethr
oughwhi
cht
hemi
rr
ori
srot
ated.

Exer
cise

1. Ami r
rori
srotat
edthr eof15o t
oughanangl hrough
whatangl
edoesther
eflect
edr
ayt
urn?

2. A mir
rorisrotatedt
hroughacertai
nangleandt
he
r
efl
ectedrayturnedt ough40o whatangl
hr ehadt
he
mir
rorbeentur
ned?

 Whenanobj ectisplacedbet weentwoparallelmi rr

orsas 3. Ani nci
dentr aymakesanangl eof25owit
hthenormal.
o
shownabov eaninf
init
enumberofi magesar efor med. I
ft hemi rroristurnedt hrough9 intheant
icl
ockwi
se
 Eachi mageseeni nonemi r
roractsasav i
rt
ualobj ect dir
ect i
onf rom thehor izontal
,thr
oughwhatangleis
whichintur
nformsani magei ntheothermir
ror. ther ef
lectedrayrotated?
 The image becomes f aint
er because l
i
ghtener gy is
absorbedbythemirrorateachsuccessiver
eflection. Appl
icationofPl aneMi r
rors
 Thenumberofi magesf ormedbyt womi r
rorsi ncli
nedat
anangleisgiv
enbyt heformula. (a)ThePer i
scope
360
n= –1
ϴ

 Aper
iscopeconsi
stsofapl
anemi
rr
orspar
all
elt
oone
anot
herandi
ncl
i eof45ot
nedatangl othehor
izont
al.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

122
………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 Theyar
eusedt
ohel
poneseeov
eranobst
acl
e.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

123
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

 Per
iscopesin submar
inesusepr
ismsi
nst
ead ofpl
ane b) Thel
engt
hoft
hecamer
aismadel
onger
.
mir
rorsbecause.
c) Thesingl
ehol
eisr
epl
acedbyf
ourpi
nhol
escl
ose
1. Thesi
l
verpar
toft
hemi
rr
oreasi
l
yget
sdamaged toget
her.

2. Thi
ckmi
rr
orspr
oducemul
ti
pler
efr
act
ions 5. Def
inet
het
ermr
efl
ect
ionofl
i
ght
.

3. Ther
eisnol
ater
ali
nver
sionwi
thpr
isms. 6. St
atet
heLawsofr
efl
ect
ionofl
i
ght
.

7. Themi r
rorAB andCD ar
eatr
ightangl
est
oeach
other
.
(
b)Useofpl
anemi
rr
orsi
ninst
rumentscal
es

 Pl
ane mir
ror
s are of
ten used behi
nd poi
nter
s as
i
nstr
ument
stoimpr
ovet
hereadi
ngaccur
acy
.

 Whenthepointeri
sviewedatanangl
eit
simagewi
l
lbe
seent
hroughthepl
anemirr
or.

 Theimageseenwi l
lenabl
ethereadertoknowt hatr
eading
bei
ngt akenwil
lhaveaner r
orduet oparal
lax.Thereader
wil
ltherefor
eposi
ti
ont heeyevert
ical
l
ysot hattheimage
ofthepointeri
snotseenandhenceacor r
ectreadi
ngwi l
l
betaken. a) Whatisthevalueoft
heangleofi
nci
denceof
therayPQont hemir
rorAB?
 Thesportsgal
vanomet
erusesar
ayofl
i
ghtasapoi
nter b) Compl et
et he di
agr
am to show the pat
h
i
nstead. takenbyt herayPQafterr
efl
ect
ionatboth
mirror
s.
(
c)Thekal
eidoscope
c) Det
ermi
ne:
 I
tappl
i
est
hepr
inci
pleofmi
rr
orsi
ncl
i
nedatanangl
e.
I
. Angl
eofr
efl
ect
iononAB.
 Itconsi
stsoftwomirrorsM1 andM2 pl
acedt
oeachot
her
at600toeachotheri
nsideat
ube. I
I. Angl
einci
denceonCD.

 Theinst
rumentisusedbydesi
gner
stoobt
aini
deason I
II
. Angl
eofr
efl
ect
iononCD.
syst
emati
cpatt
erns.
8. I
fagi r
lwalksawayf
rom apl
anemi
rr
orataspeedof
Revi
sionExer
cise 2m persecond,

1. (a)Sallywentt oMar ysalontohaveherhai rdressed.The I. I nwhatdi

recti
ondoesherimagemove?
salonhadt wopar al
l
elmi rr
orsplacedont hewal l
swhi ch
are3met ersapart
.Whi l
ewai t
ingtobeat
tendedt o, shesat
I
I. Wi thwhatspeeddoesheri
magemove?
atadi stanceof1met erfr
om oneofthewal lsandnot iced
thattherewer emul t
ipleofheri neachmir r
or.Det ermine 9. Thefigur
ebelowshowsmi rr
orsABandCDi ncl
i
nedat
thedistancebet weent het wonearesti
magesf ormedi n
ri
ghtangles.A r
ayPO makesanangl eof30o wi
th
thetwomi rr
ors.
mirr
orABhasasshown.
(b)Twoplanemir
rorsar
epl eof600asshown
acedatanangl
below.Ar
ayofli
ghtmakesanangleof400wi
thmirr
orm1and
goestost
r i
kemi
rrorM2.Fi
ndtheangl
eofrefl
ect
ionofMi
rror
M2

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

124
 ………………………………………………………………………….
.(
232)
………………………………………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

2. Whati
srect
il
inearpr
opagat
ionofl
i
ght
?
(
i)Showthepathoftherayafterr
efl
ect
ionfrom bot
h
3. Drawar aydi
agr
am t
oshowhowapi
nhol
ecamer
afor
ms mir
rors.
animage. (
ii
)Whatistheangl
eofi
ncidenceonthemirr
orCD?

4. St
atet he changes t
hatwoul
d occuri
nthe si
ze and
br
ight
nessoft hei
magefor
medif

a) Theobj
ectdi
stancei
smadel
arge.

PHYSI
CS I
S THEBEST OFTHEBEST SUBJECTS.PHYSI
CSMAKESYOUGREATI
NTHEPHYSI
CALWORLD.

125