Bone Notes

Bone Notes
 Bone is a living tissue, which makes up the body

skeleton and is one of the hardest structures of the
animal body.
 Bone or osseous tissue represents the highest

differentiation among supporting tissues.
 It possesses a certain degree of hardness and

elasticity.
2 https://www.nursingsathi.com
FUNCTIONS
 It provides shape and support for the body.
 It provides site of attachment for tendons and muscles,

which are essential for locomotion.
 Protects vital organs of the body.
 Serves as a storage site for minerals.
 Provides the medium, the marrow for the development

and storage of blood cells.
CLASSIFICATION OF
BONES
According to Orban’s 12 edition
th
BASED ON
BASED ON MICROSCOPIC
ACC.TO SHAPE
DEVELOPMENT STRUCTURE
• LONG BONES 1) MATURE BONE:

A) COMPACT BONE
• SHORT BONES (CORTICAL/LAMELLAR)
ENDOCHONDRAL
• FLAT BONES BONES B) CANCELLOUS BONE
(SPONGY)
• IRREGULAR INTRAMEMBRANOUS
BONES 2) IMMATURE/WOVEN
BONES
BONE
• SESAMOID
BONES
CLASSIFICATION BY LEKHOLM AND ZARB,1985
QUALITY 2 :
QUALITY 1 : thick layer of QUALITY 3: thin QUALITY 4: thin
homogenous compact bone layer of cortical layer of cortical
surrounding a bone surrounding bone surrounding
compact bone dense trabecular
core of dense a core of low
trabecular bone. bone of favorable density trabecular
5 strength. https://www.nursingsathi.com
MISCH BONE DENSITY CLASSIFICATION:
ANATOMY OF BONE
• THE SHAFT OR MAIN
DIAPHYSIS PORTION OF THE BONE
• THE EXTREMETIES OR
EPIPHYSIS ENDS OF THE BONE
• THE REGION IN A MATURE

METAPHYSIS BONE WHERE DIAPHYSIS
JOIN EPIPHYSIS
a thin layer of hyaline cartilage

ARTICULAR covering the epiphysis where bone
CARTILAGE forms a joint with another bone.
• The tissue covering the outer surface of bone. It
consists of two layers. The outer fibrous layer is
rich in blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
PERIOSTEUM nerves that pass into the bone and inner layer is
composed of osteoblasts surrounded by
osteoprogenitor cells.
MEDULLARY The space within the diaphysis that contains the fatty
OR MARROW yellow marrow in adults. Yellow marrow consists
primarily of fat cells and a few scattered blood cells.
CAVITY Thus, yellow marrow functions in fat storage.
• A layer of osteoprogenitor cells and

ENDOSTEUM osteoblasts that lines medullary cavity
and also contains scattered osteoclasts
GROSS BONE
HISTOLOGY
 Characteristic of all bones
are a dense outer sheet of
compact bone and a
central, medullary cavity.
 In living bone the cavity is

filled with red or yellow
bone marrow that is
interrupted, particularly at
the extremities of long
bones, by a network of
bone trabeculae
(trabecular, cancellous,
or spongy bone are the
terms used to describe this
network ).
compact bone consists of
microscopic layers or
lamellae.
Three distinct types of

layering are recognized:
circumferential,
concentric, and
interstitial.
Circumferential lamellae
enclose the entire adult
bone, forming its outer and
inner perimeters.
 Concentric lamellae make up the bulk of compact bone and form the basic
metabolic unit of bone, the osteon (also called the haversian system).
 The osteon is a cylinder of bone, generally oriented parallel to the long axis
of the bone. In the center of each is a canal, the haversian canal, which is
lined by a single layer of bone cells that cover the bone surface; each canal
houses a capillary. Adjacent haversian canals are interconnected by
Volkmann canals, channels that, like haversian canals, contain blood
vessels, thus creating a rich vascular network throughout compact bone.
Interstitial lamellae are interspersed between adjacent
concentric lamellae and fill the spaces between them.
Surrounding the outer aspect of every compact bone is
connective tissue membrane, the Periosteum, which has two
layers.
The outer layer of the periosteum consists of a dense, irregular

connective tissue termed the fibrous layer. The inner layer of
the periosteum, next to the bone surface, consists of bone
cells, their precursors, and a rich microvascular supply.
The internal surfaces of compact and cancellous bone are

covered by Endosteum.
However, this layer is not well demarcated and consists of

loose connective tissue containing osteogenic cells and that
physically separates the bone surface from the marrow within.
The periosteal surface of bone is more active in bone formation

than the endosteal one. 15 https://www.nursingsathi.com
CANCELLOUS BONE/TRABECULAR
BONE /SPONGY BONE:
 Looks like poorly organized tissue in
contrast to compact bone.
 Does not contain any true osteon.
 Consists of long, slender spicules
called as trabeculae.
 Marrow spaces are large.
 Trabeculae are oriented along the
lines of stress to withstand the
forces applied to bone.
 Osteocytes in trabeculae receive
nourishment directly from blood
circulating through marrow cavities
 It makes up most of the bone
tissue of short, flat and irregular
bones and most of epiphysis of long
bones.
COMPOSITION OF BONE
OSTEOPROGENITOR CELLS
OSTEOBLAST CELLS
CELLS OSTEOCYTES
OSTEOCLAST CELLS
 COLLAGEN: 88-90% TYPE 1

ORGANIC PART  NON COLLAGEN:10-11%
A)GYLCOPROTEINS 6-9%
33%-35% B)PROTEOGLYCANS 8%
C)SIALOPROTEINS 35%
D)LIPIDS 4%
 CALCIUM & PHOSPHATE

 MAGNESIUM
INORGANIC PART  TRACE ELEMENTS: Nickel, iron,
65-67% Fluoride, cadmium, zinc,
magnesiu
ORGANIC MATRIX
 It is known as OSTEOID and is made of collagen and non
collagenous proteins.
 COLLAGEN is the major organic component in mineralized bone

tissues.
 Type I collagen (>95%) is the major organic component in

mineralized bone and together with type V collagen (<5%) forms
heterotypic fiber bundles that provide the basic structural integrity
of CT.
 Alveolar bone contains type I, V, III and XII collagen.
 Type I, V and XII collagens are expressed by osteoblasts.

NON COLLAGENOUS PROTEINS
 Comprise remaining 10% of the total organic content of bone
matrix.
1) OSTEOCALCIN
 Represents less than 15% of the

non collagenous bone protein
 the first non collagenous

proteins to be recognized.
 Also known as BONE GLA

PROTEIN as it contains the
amino acid ɣ-carboxyl glutamic
acid.
2) OSTEOPONTIN AND BONE SIALOPROTEIN
 Previously termed as bone
sialoproteins I and II respectively.
 Glutamic acid is predominant in

bone sialoprotein aspartate in
osteopontin.
 BSP is restricted to mineralizing

tissues whereas osteopontin has a
more generalized distribution.
 Bone sialoprotein is thought to

function in initiation of mineral
crystal formation in vivo. In
contrast, osteopontin is a potent
inhibitor of hydroxyapatite crystal
growth.
3) OSTEONECTIN
 Comprises about 25% of non collagenous proteins.
 Bound to hydroxyapatite crystals.
 also known as secreted protein, acidic and rich in cysteine
[SPARC]).
 It is a secreted calcium binding glycoprotein, that interacts with
extracellular matrix molecules.
 It may play a role in the regulation of cell adhesion and
proliferation and modulation
of cytokine activity.
4) PROTEOGLYCANS
 Also present in the bone matrix
 A large chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan has been

extracted from the non mineralized bone matrix, while
two small proteoglycans, Biglycan and decorin
(chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan I and II resp.) have
been found in EDTA extracts of bone.
 Decorin and Biglycan comprise <10% of the non

collagenous proteins in bone, but this decreases with
maturation of bone.
 Decorin binds mainly within the gap region of collagen

fibrils and decorates the fibril surface.
 Biglycan is more prominent in the developing bone and
has been mineralized to pericellular areas.
 It can bind to TGF-β and extracellular matrix
macromolecules including collagen, and thereby
regulate fibrillogenesis.
INORGANIC PART
BONE CELLS
1) OSTEOPROGENITOR CELLS
- derived from mesenchyme
- all connective tissue is derived.
- unspecialized stem cells
- undergo mitosis and develop into “osteoblasts”
- found on inner surface of periosteum and endosteum.

2) OSTEOBLASTS
 They are mononucleated cells responsible for the synthesis and
secretion of the macromolecular organic constituents of bone
matrix.
 Derived from osteoprogenitor cells of mesenchymal origin, which

are present in the bone marrow and other connective tissues.
 Osteoblasts are basophillic, plump cuboidal or slightly elongated

cells.
 The cells are found on the forming surface of growing or

remodeling bone.
 They form a protein mixture known as osteoid (primarily type I

collagen), which mineralizes to become bone.
 Osteoblasts exhibit abundant and well developed protein
synthetic organelle. The intense cytoplasmic basophilia is due to
an abundance of RER.
 Nucleus is situated in the part of the cell that is farthest away

from the adjacent bone surface..
 Osteoblasts also contain prominent bundles of actin, myosin and

cytoskeletal proteins which are associated with maintainence of
cell shape, attachment and motility.
 They exhibit high level of alkaline phosphatase on outer surface

of plasma membrane-used as a cytochemical marker to
distinguish preosteoblasts from fibroblasts.
 Total alkaline phosphatase activity has been recognized as a

reliable indicator of osteoblasts function
Determined
Inducible osteoprogenitor
osteoprogenitor cell
cells
FUNCTIONS
 Formation of new bone via synthesis of various proteins and
polysaccharides.
 Regulation of bone remodeling and mineral metabolism.
 It plays significant role in the mineralisation of osteoid.
 Osteoblasts also secrete small amount of type V collagen,

osteonectin, osteopontin, RANKL, osteoprotegerin, proteoglycans,
proteases, growth factors etc.
 Osteoblasts recognize the resorptive signal and transmit it to the

osteoclast.
 RANKL is a membrane bound TNF related factors that is expressed

by osteoblast/stromal cells. The presence of RANKL is vital in
osteoclast differentiation. 29 https://www.nursingsathi.com
OSTEOCYTES
 Cells of mature bone & lie in the lacunae of bone.
 Represents osteoblasts imprisoned in matrix during bone

formation.
 The number of osteoblasts that becomes osteocytes depends on the

rapidity of bone formation.
 Within the bone matrix, the osteocyte reduces in size, creating a

space around it called the osteocytic lacuna.
 The lacuna can appear ovoid or flattened

 Narrow extensions of these launae form channels called
canaliculi.
 Osteocytic processes are present within these canaliculi.
Osteoblasts communicate with osteocytes through

canaliculi
Osteon with osteocytes Osteocytes residing
in lacunae in bone
 At the distal end, these processes contact the processes of adjacent
cells, i.e other osteocytes through gap junctions.
 They also maintain contact with osteoblasts and bone lining cell on
the surface.
 The canaliculi penetrates the bone matrix and permit diffusion of

nutrients, gases and waste products between osteocytes and blood
vessels.
 This interconnecting system maintains the bone integrity and bone

vitality.
 Failure of the interconnecting system between osteocytes and

osteoblasts leads to sclerosis and death of bone.
 Old osteocytes retract their processes from the canaliculi, and
when dead, their lacunae and canaliculi may get plugged with
debris.
 The death of osteocytes leads to resorption of the matrix by

osteoclasts.
Functions
 Maintains the integrity of the lacunae and canaliculi.
 Keep open the channels for diffusion of nutrients through

bone.
 Play role in removal and deposition of matrix and of calcium

when required.
OSTEOCLASTS
 Bone resorbing cells derived
from hematopoetic cells of
monocyte-macrophage lineage.
 The word osteoclast is derived

from the Greek words for
“bone and broken”.
 Osteoclasts lie in resorption bay

called Howship’s lacunae.
 These are large cells approx.

40-100µm in diameter with 15
to 20 closely packed nuclei.
 Under EM, multinucleated osteoclasts exhibit a unique set of
morphologic characteristics.
 Adjacent to the tissue surface, the multinucleated osteoclast cell

membrane is thrown into a myriad of deep folds that form a ruffled
border.
 The cytoplasm of the osteoclast shows

acid phosphatase containing vesicles
and vacuole.
 Mitochondria are extensive and distributed throughout the

cytoplasm, except below the ruffled border.
 Cathepsin containing vesicles and vacuoles are present close to the

ruffled border indicating resorptive activity of these cells.

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Bone Notes

 Bone is a living tissue, which makes up the body

 Bone or osseous tissue represents the highest

 It possesses a certain degree of hardness and

 It provides site of attachment for tendons and muscles,

 Protects vital organs of the body.

 Serves as a storage site for minerals.

 Provides the medium, the marrow for the development

• LONG BONES 1) MATURE BONE:

• THE REGION IN A MATURE

a thin layer of hyaline cartilage

• A layer of osteoprogenitor cells and

 In living bone the cavity is

Three distinct types of

The outer layer of the periosteum consists of a dense, irregular

The internal surfaces of compact and cancellous bone are

However, this layer is not well demarcated and consists of

The periosteal surface of bone is more active in bone formation

 COLLAGEN: 88-90% TYPE 1

 CALCIUM & PHOSPHATE

 COLLAGEN is the major organic component in mineralized bone

 Type I collagen (>95%) is the major organic component in

 Alveolar bone contains type I, V, III and XII collagen.

 Type I, V and XII collagens are expressed by osteoblasts.

 Represents less than 15% of the

 the first non collagenous

 Also known as BONE GLA

 Glutamic acid is predominant in

 BSP is restricted to mineralizing

 Bone sialoprotein is thought to

 A large chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan has been

 Decorin and Biglycan comprise <10% of the non

 Decorin binds mainly within the gap region of collagen

- all connective tissue is derived.

- unspecialized stem cells

- undergo mitosis and develop into “osteoblasts”

- found on inner surface of periosteum and endosteum.

 Derived from osteoprogenitor cells of mesenchymal origin, which

 Osteoblasts are basophillic, plump cuboidal or slightly elongated

 The cells are found on the forming surface of growing or

 They form a protein mixture known as osteoid (primarily type I

 Nucleus is situated in the part of the cell that is farthest away

 Osteoblasts also contain prominent bundles of actin, myosin and

 They exhibit high level of alkaline phosphatase on outer surface

 Total alkaline phosphatase activity has been recognized as a

 Regulation of bone remodeling and mineral metabolism.

 It plays significant role in the mineralisation of osteoid.

 Osteoblasts also secrete small amount of type V collagen,

 Osteoblasts recognize the resorptive signal and transmit it to the

 RANKL is a membrane bound TNF related factors that is expressed

 Represents osteoblasts imprisoned in matrix during bone

 The number of osteoblasts that becomes osteocytes depends on the

 Within the bone matrix, the osteocyte reduces in size, creating a

 The lacuna can appear ovoid or flattened

 Osteocytic processes are present within these canaliculi.

Osteoblasts communicate with osteocytes through

 The canaliculi penetrates the bone matrix and permit diffusion of

 This interconnecting system maintains the bone integrity and bone