Ders notu 1 of 97

CmpE 2 2 0

Lecture N o t e s

Fa l l 2023

H. B i r k , Yilmaz

Ders notu 2 of 97
 (statement) declarative sentence that
Dern: A proposition is a

i s either T R U E o r
FA L S E

SisonintegerVpr
tix: si.

52: (×+yy=*y
opi
Do not r u n fast × n o t prop.

z§
s,;

su:
f o r all my E R (xty)2=x2ey2 ✓

i s false
Ss: This statement × c

Godel incompleteness theorem

⑧ Using logical connectives w e form n e w props o u t o f prev. given props.

Symabo
Stacee l-
v
o r

implies
i f and onlyi f I >

7 o r ~
not

Ders notu 3 of 97
 17 P Q
f Given t h a t P, Q a r e statements, then N

P V Q a r e

also
P Q
statements.
P ⇐ Q

TP

Ex: (Png) V r

1 )main connective

in sentence i s t h e last
Defn: The main connective a

connec tive to be applied.

Ex: 7 (pug) : 7 i s the main connec tive.

hypothesis q " ""

"p
Condition statement p §?? " implies a

if p then 9

Pt§¥¥ p
q provided

i s a
that p

s u f f i c i e n t condition * a t a

t r u e conclusion i s true
@ N o t e t h a t a n y implication with a

" "

" a " false hypotesis

⑧ N o t e t h a t any

Ders notu 4 of 97
 µ£×]?¥.,
×-1=-2 TRUE

µ,p ,,,
q,

Contrapositivey
equivalent
µ
>
E 7g p
p q

§
,q ,p,,§ Contraposithe
>

x#-I
7g: x- 1 ¥ - 2 T p :

¥p: ×=-t g: x 2=1 p a TRUE

FA L S E
q p

Ders notu 5 of 97
Biconditional-tat:
<
q i p iff g
p

if both and p
is defined t o b e true p a q
•
p# 9

a r e TRUE.

is sufficient condition f o r a
p g p a

i s a
necessary
" "
p
q

p i s a su fficient a n d necessary condition f o r 9

p q

formed by
Detox Let p,q,r ,s . . . b e props. Any n e w prop

said t o be
them using the 7,v, n , , # a r e
signs

complex p r o p s .

Jet A ,B complex props ;

A and B a r e said t o be
logically
t r u t h va l u e s f o r
equivalent ( A I B ) if A and B h ave t h e s a m e

all possible t r u t h values o f p ,q , r . . . .

Ders notu 6 of 97
 OH Main Logical Equivalences (You can directly u s e i n proofs)

• 7 7 p= p Rule o f double negation

•
p q I
7pv9 O R form o f implication

c o n t r apositive of a n imp.
•
p a E 7 q 7p

}
• 7 (pug) E 7 p n
7 9
de Morgan's L a w
• > (Png) = > p v , g

and disjunction
Theorem: Associativity o f Injunction

i ) (pace)a r = p n (gar)

i i ) (pug)u r = pv (qur)

e x : Jet b e p r o p s . T h e n t h e followings
p ,a , r a r e
taffgglofiff
e
a ) Gp a ) n ( a r)] (p r )

RulesofInference-
i s statement that is assumed i n t h e context o f
Ose A premise
a

a
proof

Ders notu 7 of 97
 @ A-proof i s a step by step demonstration t h a t a s t a te m e n t c a n

be derived f r o m a collection o f premises. E a c h s t e p o f a

b e shown t o be a
proof is either a premise o r c a n

o f inference.
consequence o f prev. steps using cer tain rules

8 Modus Ponens R u l e (MP)

[pn(p aY q

following statements are true,

E x : Let's assume the

si:" I f i t i s raining t h e n there a r e clouds i n the sky" TRUE

÷i÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷"'m."-msn.m.me

0A Adjoining Premises R u l e

be proved from t h e
premises c a n be
statement t h a t c a n
Any
adjoined to the premises i n a p r o o f.

Ex:§§§P
Prove r

2) P V9 proof: 1 ) pug (premise)

9)r>
2) (pug) G p g ) (premise)
3) 7p q (by M P ( l a n d 2))
Ders notu 8 of 97
 4) 7 p (premise)

5) 9 (Adj. step3 , MP (3,4))

6) a r

7) r (Adj 5,6, MP (5,6))

Direct Proof o f a n Implication

To prove a implication p 9 from a set o f premises R,

i t i s sufficient t o assert a hypothesis P a s a n aditional premise

and show t h a t t h e conclusion q is provable f r o m t h e augmented set

of premises.
@ Due t o t h e tautology@ ( p a)] [(rap) q]
#

Adjunction R u l e

from the set o f promises

I f both p and q a r e provable
set o f premises R
provable f r o m t h e
R, then P a 9 is

@ Due t o t h e
tautology:[(R p)n(r q)] ( r (pna)]

Ders notu 9 of 97
 Substitution Rule

P # 9
then w e c a n substitute
If w e have the premise

for and q for p .

p q

Contradiction R u l e

To
prove q from a set o f premises R, it i s sufficient

premise t o deduce contradiction.

to u s e 7 g a s a n additional a

@ pv (gar) = (pug) ( p w ) n

Discussion → How t o prove p a

1) Assume p and show 9 (direct proof)

2) Prove 7 9 7p (proof by contrapositive)

→ Assume 7 g → reach
Tp

3) Assume 7 (p a) i e 7 ( 7P V 9) and reach contradiction

i e P a 7 9

Ders notu 10 of 97
 Predicate Calculus

Notalatical statements a r e propositions.

-1<5 this is a
prop and i t i s
TRUE

dependso t h e value o f ×

proposition because i t n
X ?4 = 0 not a

connectives used i n propositional

Predicate calculus involves logical

quantifiers.
calculus and also variables, predicates, and

unspecified object that

Defn: Variable representing a n
i s a symbol

c a n be chosen f r o m a Univ. set V.

Defn: A predicate is a sentence P (x,,x2,.... xn) involving

variables x. , xz... x n with the property t h a t

"when specific v a l u e s f r o m t h e universal set a r e assigned t o

either TRUE o -
FALSE".
resulting statement
i s
×'s...- ' n , t h e

e x : V= I R x2Ly2-I → false f o r x=y=0

Tr u e for x = 0 y-4

Ders notu 11 of 97
 IN { 0 , 1 , 2 . . . . . }
= natural nuns

IN? { I , 2 . . . . . } positive natural n u n s

# =
{ . . . . - 2 , - 1 , 0, 1 , 2 . . . } Integers

Q =
{rational nuns} =
{Pg / p , q E E q to}
?
{Equivalence sequences} →
IR = {real nuns} = classes o f Cauchy

① =
{xtyi / x ,y ER}

i nt h e s e t A
Not
A {x
= E Q Ix cri} → R i s a n upper bound.

(B =
{x E IR I x c a } → Be a " "
"
I n the set B

✓
What i s the LEAST b. that is rational?
v .

↳There i s n o such element.

@ solution s e t

If PCx) i s a predicate thent h e s e t o f elements f r o m a

given

universe U that m a k e P c x ) true i s called t h e s o l u t i o n set

f o r PCA in U and it i s written a s { x : P( x ) }

Ders notu 12 of 97
 Quantifiers
T h e expression the " f o r m y x " ,
" fo r every x ", " fo r all x ",

least ×"
"There exist s o m e x " "there e x i s t × " "there exists a t o n e
, ,

a r e symbolized b y quantifiers.

① Universal Quantifier (tx)

② Existential Quantifier (Fx)

③ Descriptive Quantifier ( F ! x) "There ex i s ts a unique"

] i s i t TRUE (HER f y E R ) that x2ty2-City)2

No
2

R) x2ty2= ( x g )
+

} i s i t TRUE ( FxE R Fg c- that

Yes such t h a t
,
x2eyz=(xty)2
} is i t TRUE (tx E R Fy E R ) 7

Ye s

Asymbolcannotappearihamathemati
calstatementinlessiti
first by quantifier
introduced a

Ders notu 13 of 97
 fI://ftp.yertaycx true

false
2 ) F y E R " HxERt
7 y a x

YER" ✓
Proof o f 4: Jet x o E Rt take y
=
¥ then

fxifveryrealnvmberiseitherpositiveg
negatiue.orzero.tt/h4
VxE R x > O V x c o v x - O (restricted form)

V.x x E R x > o v x c o V X - O (standart form)

V x x E R pA )
÷÷÷÷÷
F x X E N a n dPix) FEIN PIX)

F x try x .y E R sexy) FxERty E R sexy)

£ ¥ X E Up Universal set o f people

Vf fruits
y E
h a 1,

l i ke st o e a t
Llay) person x y

1 ) V x E -Up HyE O f thy)

Every person l i v e s every f r u i t

2 ) F xC -Up F y e Vf flag)
fruit
Every person likes a t least o n e

Ders notu 14 of 97
 3) F x Up Hy E V f tally)
There i s a t least a person
that likes every f r u i t .

!÷÷÷÷÷÷~*i÷→..... doesn't have re d h a i r. → F xUp 7pm)

>
Q : There i s a t least one person w h o

has red hair

pix): person x

w i t h quantifiers a n d variables and then negate them.

f-× : w r i t e t h e statements

1) The o f eve r y non-zero r e a l number i s positive.

square

/
+ V xE R 1 9 0 } x2>O t " × ( ×E R ) { 0 3 × z >o )

210)
-
F xE R I { o } r e o -
Fx ( x C-R l { O } and X

Rule 7[fxER pix)] = FxE R 7pA)

Rule 7[txFy Rhyl] = Fxty 7 Ray)

I I find t h e negation o f

V. E C -R t FN C -I N X m >O and Ix,-LICE

Meg: F-E E IR" V N E N

X E O o r lx,-LI I E

Ders notu 15 of 97
 Prooftechniquesy

implication
f ) Direct proof o f a n

2 ) Proof b y
c a s e s

by contrapositive
3 ) Proof
contradiction
4) Proof by

5 ) B iconditional proof
Mathematical Induction
6 ) Proof b y

there e x i s t s a n X E Z 7 z=2x
Defn: An integer 2 - E Z i s called even if

divides b o r a i s a divisor
Defn: suppose that a ,b E Z , w e say a

o f b o r b i s a multiple o f a i f there e x i s t s a n integer c such

that a c a b . w e define i t a s alb

Ha,b E Z alb ⇐ Fc E R a c e b

t w o divisors.
is called prime i f f it has
exactly
Defn: A natural number n

in 1N (l and n)

The greatest common divisor

Defn: J e t a,b E Z , not both equal t o zero.

o f a and b (denoted b y g o d(a)b)) i s t h e unique integer w i t h

the following props.

Ders notu 16 of 97
 i) d la n d lb

ii) if d, E Z and (d.l a and d i l b ) then d i l d

iii) d >O

÷.is?:::i..:.::::i:..........e*mn...ms."
true and w e hypothesis w i t h o t h e r known t r u e statements
u s e the along
and relevant definitions t o deduce t h e conclusion.

"⇐÷;÷÷¥÷
Outwhe o f t h e proof o f "p q "

€÷ rules and
relevant defn-s.

£y["o%m¥
1f × i s o d d , then x2 i s odd

odd
Proof: Suppose
x i s

Intl
Inez x =

× 2 = 4n2+ b u t I

x2= 2K¥21)-11

So 7 hE Z 7 × 2 = 2h t t

Therefore x 2 i s odd.

Ders notu 17 of 97
 numbers w i t h
^ U c b
Theorem: I f x , y , u , u are real KY

then x t u Lytle

Assume ^ U L -
Proof: x , y ,u , u E R 2 K Y
① ②

① xtucytu

② cityc i t y

50 X t u c y-14 c y t e

Therefore xtucy + 6

Prove t h a t if × E R and x2-4×tb=x then x=2orx=3~

E R and x2-hub-×
Proof: suppose ×

then x2 - 5×+6=0

then (x-2)(x-3) = 0

x - 2 ⇐ 3
then o r

Prove t h a t Rt i f xey then T x t My

t x ,y E
Proof: suppose x
E y
s o 0 Ey-x
2
s o 0 E fry)2-(a)
s o O E
Cryer) (rg-rx)
%
s o O E
(Fy- r x )
s o
fiery

Ders notu 18 of 97
 20ProofbyCaµ
i n which t h e hypothesis
i s a n "or statement"
T o prove a n implication
to consider t w o c a s e s .
i t i s necessary and sufficient
statement
t h e conclusion follows from t h e f i r s t "

i) prove t h a t " '

n l , a second
ii) l . n n n

more than t w o cases.

same technique i f there a r e

Ex F x ,y E R Ixtylelxltlyl

Proof:

lxty-xtycxty.INT/y1casei- lyley
then 1×1e x s o
c a s e i) x 2 0 220

ilxz0ycothenlxl=Xlyl=-yxty? t w o cases f o r this

Ixttlyl
lxtylexty E x - y
-

c a s e i i .I ) xtyzo then
Ex-y 1×1+41
Ixtyle-x-y
=

c a s e i i .2 ) xty t o they

similar t o c a s e two.
c a s e iii) x c o yzo
+ ly)
then i x . *
lyle-y
Ixtyle-x-ye-x-y-1×1
c a s e iv) x c o
geo

multiple o f 4
I t C-1 ) (2h-l)
"
i s a

¥ If n E IN then

exercise

Ders notu 19 of 97
 :÷i÷÷÷÷÷÷÷.
statements, w e
may prove"n g sp"
T o prove p q

÷±÷D
i f then g
Theorem: p

(contrapositive proof)
pro-ofi

I f then
x¥¥
b e integer. i s even × i s odd.
jet a n

¥
×

contrapositive)
Proof: (proof b y

Assume × i s even.

26
S o 7-l e E Z 7
462-126+5=22%5%+1
⇐

x 2 . 6×+5
=
s o

So 7hE E F 8=24+1

S o @is not even.

§m%°
°fbYcontradictµ
.EE#:.............
Proof: Assume f o r contradiction>p

Q
Ders notu 20 of 97
 Thon: The n u m b e r w h o s e square i s 2 = 2 '

2- i s not rational.

Proof: Assume f o r contradiction 2 - i s rational

god(a)b)
= L
E Z b # O
s o 2*= § a,b

(2*12=522 ie. 2=822

So

S o 2b2=a2 (D)
s o a2 i s e v e n

so a i s e ve n

s o F kE E 2 k = a

S o 12612=a2=2b2 (by A )

So 462 - 2b?

So 262 = b2

S o b2 i s even

b i s even
s o

( a )b)2 2
s o gcd
*

Hence 2 ' i s NOT rational

rational i f there e x i s t s integers a , b

Defn: A r e a l number × is called

i s called
such that b#O and X- § . A r e a l number y

is not
rational.
irrational i f
g

Ders notu 21 of 97
 T h m : Thee exists infinitely many prime numbers.

there finite number o f

for contradiction a r e
Proof: Assume
primes.
of numbers.
S o l e t Pru b e t h e set prime

i .e , R =
{Pls B ' ' -'P¥}
gest

N o w consider p = p , Pz... pn + 1

So i s positive and p >1 and p > pm

p

since i s the
also p i s not a
prime number pm

largest.

o f numbers.
So p
i s the product s o m e prime

So FBER 7 Pulp

so Fc E Z re-c= P

Then 1 =
p-Cp-l)
=
pie.c - ( p, Pz... pn)

⇐
=p, (c-II, Pi)
ifk

w o w thot pies,)

> Thus Pull

Ders notu 22 of 97
 Alternative:

there finite number o f

Assume f o r contradiction a r e
Proof:
primes.
of numbers.
S o l e t Pru b e t h e set prime

i .e . R =
{ P i , P z . . . . Pn}
Forgest

N o w consider p = p , Pz... pn + 1

So i s positive and p >1 and p > pm

p

since i s the
also p i s not a
prime number pm

largest.

by any prime
Ppi
s o
P i s not divided
be i t s e l f.
i t must a
prime
,

contra
adiction
} ¥ t@ then a is odd.
Suppose t o E Z i f
£ ¥
and a i s even
Proof: Assume for a

for s o m e • E Z

7 2-Za-17=26
Thus F k E E a

2C
F cE Z 7 a =

So a
2-20+7=452 - 4 4 7 = 2 (2%2,13)+1

Thus a 2 - 2 a t 7 i s odd.

Ders notu 23 of 97
 contradiction o f statements o f t h e f o r m
Remark: Proofs b y

p q c a n usually b e replaced b y proofs b y

contrapositive.

2nd proof: (by contrapos.)

i s even
want Crae) i s odd
suppose a

s o FcE E a=2c

S o he-he+7 = ( ** )
( ** )
s o 21212,1¥-11 =

s o ( * * ) i s µ
%:÷÷÷÷÷÷ .

www.m
Proposition P ⇐ s Q
w i l l prove P Q
Proof: ( l ) first w e

SuppIze P

Hence Q

.p.ae# SupposeQ

Ee p

Ders notu 24 of 97
 is odd i f f odd.
Propisition: l e t n be a n
integer. T h e n n n2 i s

Proof: ( p Q)
i s odd. wart: n 2 i s odd
suppose n

s o 7k€27 Z n-26+1

So n2= he?-146+1=2%21%-11

So n2 i s odd.

(Q P )
contrapositive
let's prove by
i s even
want: n2
Suppose n i s e v e r i

o.n.o.o.II.EE (x)" have t o

find a n object a o and s h o w a ,

T o prove "Fx p w e

pcao) i s true.
has property P C ) . i .e .

Disproving Universal statements

§ o f

pal" t h e negation
To disprove " V x w e h ave t o prove
and
i .e " F x 7 p A ) ". S o w e h ave t o find a n
object a o
.

s h o wt h a t pcao) i s false.

@ Disproving o f existential statements.

t o prove the negation.

T o disprove " F x pix)" w e have

technique.
i .e . " t h x 7pA)". By a proof

Ders notu 25 of 97
 t x E R if then x2cY Disprove by counterexample: x - - 2
yet
Ex: xcy
B u r a benter s n o w s e r u s u ro r.

bOPrincipleofmathematrcallnduct

principle o f Natural Numbers:

We l l ordering
1N h a s a smallest element i n
nonempty subset o f
Every
In'
1 + 3+ S t . . . . t h - 1 )
Question: I s i t true that

l l n 2=1
n =

4 n2 = 4
Nez

n= 3 g n 3=9

Mathematical Induction (MI)

propositions
let Pi,P z , . . . Pn be

Assume
H l ) P, i s true (Basis step)
Pn Pnt, (Induction step)
H2) F n n--1,2... the implication

proposition P n
i s true
Then t h n-1,2...

gR
B§g
Readproofy

Ders notu 26 of 97
 1 4 2 2 T. . . .
Ex: Prove t h a t H n E N +
n2=n(n+gl2¥
Proof'. by M I

Basis step: p , i s true s i n c e 1 2= 1.2¥

true w a n t : Pati i s true
Induction steps. Assume
i s
pn

n z
nCntM(2n#
So 12+22.... =

12-122....n2+@+112 =
^lAt)g(2n¥+ ( n+ 1 )
S o

So =
(anti) [nl2f#+ntl]
[22-1+64+62]
= (htt).
[2n2tg7ntb_]
= (htt).

=(ntD-lntg2)(2n#

t r u e
So pm,
i s

Hence t n Pa M I
by

¥ k t x ' x ) z × h
M I
Proof b y
V
(texts I t x
Basis step: n - l true
w a n t :Pnt, i s
true f o rs o m e
n
Pa i s
Inductionstep: Assume

(tix)" z tenx
muttby
It ×
,(So
So flex)"" z f i n x ) (tix)
" ' ×
soatnms.EE?tnEos-"
' "

S o Pati is true
Ders notu 27 of 97
 Hence P n i s t r u e U n -42,3... by M I

principle o f Mathematical Induction (General form) please read

Principle o f Mathematical Induction

strong
[ Let Pyo , Pyotr,.... P n b e a list o f statements

If i ) pho i s true
all true then Pati i s true
ii) i f pyo,... P n a r e

i .e . (phonpleot,... or Pa) Pm,

Then Pn i st rue for a l l n 260

then 1 is either prime o r i s a product o f

Ex: E a c h integer greater
primes.
"
l , t '
I I l ' n n
N
Ph: F n E IN n-32

mathematical induction:
proof b y strong
2 is prune.
Pz
a
i s true since
Basis step:
Pa TRUE W a r t : Pnt, i strue.
Induction step: Assume Pz, B , . .
- -
a r e

N o w consider (ntl) is either penne o r notp-ime

ntl then Pati i s true

c a s e 1: if i s prime
i f Atl i s not prime
c a s e 2 :
where a ,b
<ntl a,bs1
ntl a-b
s o 7-a , b E N
-

hypothesis o f t h e induction step

by induction

Pa Pb true.
w e h ave and a r e

Ders notu 28 of 97
 Then e a c h o f a and b i s e i t h e r prime o r multiples o f primes

s o a =
9,.... 9 s w h e re qi's o r e primes

b = r i . . . . . . r e where r i ' s o r e primes

Hence n t l = a-b =
9 , . . . . qs. r,.... re
→ multiples o f primes.

Pati true
'
- . i s

Hence fnPn n 2 2

PYIIII.IE?I-
goona......moeosseatsoepiaaa b o x containing
then there i s a t least o n e
into 2 boxes,
two o r more objects.

contradiction f o r interested)
(Proof b y contraposithe o r

number
o f hairs
people having
same
a t least
two
E x : Prove there a r e
that
hair)
people w i t h
n o

their h e a d (excluding
the
o n

= 100-000
head
number o f h a re s o n
P r o o f : avg
M a x i s = I-000. 0 0 0

7.7b 2 0 2 0
w o r l d population:

4 4 . . . . . . Yu
Gffdntitebjdea.PH
#placed i n t o a box.es then there exists o n e box

containing a t l e a s t (E) objects.

Ders notu 29 of 97
 the n u m b e r o f students required discrete
Ex: What minimum i n a
i s

molten c l a s s t o be s u r e that a t least 6 o f them w i l l relieve

i f t h e re 5 possible grades.
the same grade a r e

{0,1,2 . . . . } Z { . . . . - I , o ,i . . . . }
Recall: IN = =

IN"-{1,2....} Q= {f I p ,a E R 9€03

of objects having a
certain property.
S e t : Collection
said t o b e member
t o set A
a
is
D e f n : An obj. x belonging

element o f A. Denote this a s ×eE¥, ¥4,1

or a n

element.

have t h e s a m e e l e m e n ts .
§ Tw o s e t s a r e equal iff
they
to have A#B
§ W h a t d o e si t mean

tea)
↳ Fx ( xE A n x E B ) v (xEB n x

AORepresentationofsets

1) Listing o f elements {-I, 4 , A }

t h e elements o f t h eset
property shared by
2 ) Giving a

and E l }
A {x/
= x i s a real number

3) By Ve n n Diagrams
✓ ÷.

Ders notu 30 of 97
 let acts
Notation: a ,b E R

Eb}
[ a ,b ] =
{xE R 1 a e x

E R I acxcb}
(a)b) =
{x

called the nullset

s e t with n o
elements i s
= L o r

8 The unique
{}
and denoted by 0 o r

A {xER l x > x} =
0
Ex:
=

A a n d B . If element o f
Given t w o s e t s every
Important Dern: Aisa
element o f B , t h e n w e say
A is also a n

A E B .
subsetofB and denote i t
by
then
subset o f B and A#B, w e

If A i s a
A

apropersubseto-B.
i s
I n this c a s e , w e
say
write A C B .

A E B ⇐ txE¥eaxEAI}×EB

A &B F×EUxEAnx¢B~
FxE A x¢B

g , , a y, , g g , ¥
Ders notu 31 of 97
Proof: Assume for a contradiction 0 ¢ B

x¢B
¥71
s o 7-x E U a

At¥×e,
E B
egg
x

÷ ÷ n
Prop:
-
A E A

- (A E B n B E c) (AEC)
-
f o r any s e t A 0 E A

A EB ^ B E A
t o prove
F o r proving A = D w e need

Setoperations complementofan
universal s e t U, the
set i n a
Defn: Let A b e a

AC i s A-= {xEUlx¢A}
denoted by

Dern: Let E =
{ x e v l pox)}
f-= { x E U I 91×1}
So E N F =
{ x EU/ pix) aged}
Ders notu 32 of 97
 E UF =
{xE v 1 p A ) v acx)}

said t o b e disjoint i f AnB = 0

Dern: T w o s e t s A and B a r e

difference set AIB =

a n d B , the
Defni Given t w o s e t s A

{x / x EA n x EB}

(AIB) V (BIA)
Symmetric Difference: A s B
=

set. T h e power s e t o f S i s denoted

Dern: (Power s e t ) l e t 5 b e a

PCs) 25 i s the s e t o f a l l subsets o f S .

by o r

PCs) =
{x l x Es}

C- Pcs) x E s
i-e. X

lemma: A and B t w o s e t s

⇐ A E B'
AAB 0
i) =

i i ) (Arb)-= A-UBC
c
(AUB ) A c , Bc =
} D e Morgan's laws f o r sets

%°i¥ ) want: A E B '

Assume A n B = 0

Let x E A b e arbitrary.

Jo x EB since AnB = 0
S o x C -B c

A E B '
'

- .

Ders notu 33 of 97
 ( ⇐) Assume f o r a contradiction

c -B c ^
A nB # 0 )
A

s o Fxo C- (AND)
S o (Xo C - A ) n (Xo C -B )
S o (Xoc -A ) n ( Xo #Bc)
¥mvst b e i n BC since AEB'

ix.

I i ) Prove (AnB)' = ACV BC

W e h ave t o prove
(AnB)µµ and (AnBY}(AcVBcµ

① Jet x c- CANBY

s o × E (Ants)
definition o f intersection)
Hence × ¢ A O r x € B (by
EA' o r x c -B e
s o X

s o xE(A'UBC)
-'
.
CANBY E (A'UBC)

(A'UBC)
② Let x E

s o H E A c) o r ( x c- Bc)

S o (x ElA ) o r ( x ¢ B)

Then x Ct (ARB) (by defn. o f int.)

< ① L e tx C -A B B b e
arbitrary
s o × E ( A NB ) s o x e ( A I B )V ( B 'A )
CALB)o ERA)
(Abbe) s o x E r ×

.'. (AnB)' 2
¥Anx¥B) (x÷Bax¥A)
v
s o

want x V B ) )( A nB )
c - CA ( I n 2 ) v (3^4)
⇐ (AND)
X E (AVB) x
(lv3 )n ( 2uh)
(XEAV x EB)n (×¢a ✓ × ¢,)

I
Ders notu 34 of 97
 (AUB) L (ARB) A -B E ( AVB )I CanB )
Exercise prove: A DB = show

ABB 2 ( A r b ) l (ARB)
i .e - (AIB) V (BIA)- ( A U B ) l (ARB)

Productsetsccortesionproduct
set (or cartesian product) o f
sets A and B the product
Given t w o ,

E A b EB}
B AXB = {(a,b) 1 a

A and is,

(a)b ) → o rd e re d pair
↳iii.i i i .i i i .

AXA -
{ ( x ,g) I xEA YEA} = AZ Tf Cx,y) # {my}
different
objects
I n general AXB # B X A

euclidean place
{my}- { y, x }
1122 cartesian plane o r
x)
B u t ( x , y ) # C y,
→
Ex:

x-axis
n o t necessarily.
IR x { o } →

{03×112→ y-axis {x,x } { x }

-

( x ,x ) # (x)

Let A [1,3] B e [2,5)

Ex:
=

AxB= {lay)/ x E c b3 ] years)}

14×13 2 Eyes}
=
{(ay) I

21×25 1 Eyes}
B x A = {(x.y) I

Ders notu 35 of 97
 Let A and B t w o nonempty s e t s
Exercise:
iff A=D
Prove that AxB=BxA

two sets
Ex: Let A and B
any
A O B # 0
AxB= 0
- o r

Prove by c o n t r a pos.

want: AxB
# 0
A t 0 n B # 0
Proof: Assume
i s wrong.
t o w r i t e w i t h wo r d s t h i s
Ibo E B better
Fa o C-A
→
So

S o Cao,Bo) E AXB

So AXB#0

sets
Prove f o r
A ,B , C n o ¥
Ex: any

Ax (Bnc) =
( A xB) n (Axe)
E Bnc
x E A n Y
E A x (Bnc) <
Proof: l e t (x. y) B n y
E e
x EA n ye
< (z)
(3)
( l )

C l l a n d 127
⇐ (x,g ) E AxB by
d ) and (3)
(Hy) E Axc by

(AB) N (Axe)
(x,y) E

(Bnc) = ( A xB )n (Axe)
i . A x

Ders notu 36 of 97
 *%P¥P%tf¥=( o f n
Associativity
An B)n o . . .
" V
"
(AVB ) V C '
- - - .

b) A U (Dvc)
=

Commutatvity o f n
BRA
- -
- -

c) An B
-
-
-

.
- " i , u
. .

BUA.
.
.

d) AVB
=

e) A n 0 = 0
A 1dampotency o f A
f) A MA
-
= - - - - .

n
" U
A - - -

AVA
- - -
=

then A E B n c
and A E C
9) I f A E B

A E C want: A E B n c
E B
proof: Assume A
n

÷ : #
¥¥%E A b e arbitrary
s o a E B since A E B

E C since AEB
S o a

S o
aEBnc.i.AE
/Bnc)

Prop: i) (AuB ) n c = ( A n c ) UlBnc)

i i ) (AnB ) V c = ( A v o n (DVC)

Ders notu 37 of 97
 ÷÷:÷÷÷.
Bsn) CAVB,)n (AV-2)A . . . . . - n (Aubin)
A V (B, n B z . . - -
n =

M I
Proof:
By
AUB,
Basis steps: A V B ,
=

Pn holds Priti holds

I n d step: Assume want!

Bn) = (Avis,)n.. - n (app)

AV (Bin....
Bn)]n (AUBmi)
BnnBn-n) =[AV(Bin....
w ek n o w t h a t A U B i n . . .

knowthatth.rs/equa#- assumption w e
By induction step

lAVBi)nlAVBz)n...
(AUBn) n ' Bna) - n (AU

S o p n t i b o
Let I =
{ 1 )2 , 3 , h } Let A i , A z , As,A n b e sets w e c a n represent

them a s {Ail i c- I } =
{ A i ,A z , A s , Ah}

U Ai =
{x E V / F i o C-I 2 x E Aio}
i E I

×E¥Ai→FioeIs.c.xeA
{x 1fi
E Ai}
;? Ai = E U E I ×

xE¥Ai Vie-nEAi

Ders notu 38 of 97
 Ex: I =
{213,4....} An- [ t , I]

U Ant? ( 0 ,1 ]
n e ,

Proof: let E VA N
( 0,1 ]
①
¥ An E ×

s o FnoE I 3 x E Ano

So x E [Foil]
S o x E (0,1]

An (O> I ]
② ( O, I ] E ¥ proof: l e t × E

s o x > 0
densenessQ
S o F Py E Q 0 2 Ig C X by

choose N o a s 9

El
C l a i m : Denseness o f
rational
s o f a r, C -I 7 Oc# < ×

R
numbers: t o , b E
S o X C- An.
a # b F gE a acqcb
S o × E
¥An
i . (oil] En¥An

¥ktAi=¥)xyERxy}iENN A i
=
{0,013
1122
Prove that
in,
Prove t h a t ¥nAi =

Ders notu 39 of 97
 @ @ @
Relations
A relation 1 2 f r o m A into B
A and B t wo sets.
let
s e t A x B and denoted
i s subset o f t h e product
any
xRy f o r related
AxB. We write ( x .g ) E R o r
by R E

pairs.

A = D = all humans

I b ro t h e r o f y}
R , =
{(x,y)EAxB × i s
nationality}
and a r e o f the same
Rz={(Hy) c-AxBl
x
y

said t o b e a relation o n A
A=B R E AxA i s
Defn: I F

R E AXA
re l a t i o n o n A i .e .
Let R b e
D e t '.
a

i f thx E A x R x
be r e f ¥
⑧ a)R i s said t o
F xE A
i f V x E A xxx i .e

said t o b e irreve
b) R i s (x,x ) # R

i f theyE A xRy yR×

symmetric
xRy yR/x
i ,
a

⑧ c) R
i ,

fxlyE A
i ,

" " asymmetric i f

"
d) R i ,
xRyayRx x=y
antisymmetric i f V.x .YEA
xRz
e) R
a
Fx,y,zEA xRynyRz
" I i 1,
⑧ i f
l ' " a transitive
OR f) R n

Ders notu 40 of 97
 E x : A = { a , b ,c }
R , =
{ ( a , a ) , (asb),(b)a ) , ( b ,c ) }

1¥ tonne
Eire i f ¥ ¥
p,

⇐ theE A x R x
a) R i s reflexive
⇐ s F x C-A
x x x
R i s not-reflexive
VxEA x x x
irreflexice
b) R i s
x R x
A F xE A
n o t irreflexie
R is
E A xRy y R x
symmetric
Vay
c) R i s
EA xRy n y#x
R i s not symmetric
⇐ Fx,y

Kay E A xRy yR/×

d)R is asymmetric
xRy yRx
not
asymmetric ⇐ F x ,yea
R is
y-x
xRynyRx
anti-symmetric V-x.ge A
e)R is y#X
⇐ F x ,y EA xRynyRx n

R i s not ontisym.
xRZ
EA xRy a yRz
f )R is
transitive ⇐ Fa y, z

xR/z
E A xRy a yRz a

R is n o t transitive Fx,y, z
Ibis), Csc),(did), (die)}
b i o ,d } R-{(aia), Cb,a),
Ex: A - { a ,

tons
¥ie i r ¥ ¥
I m
1 ¥
p

Ders notu 41 of 97
 let A - R R-{lay) I x >y }
Ex:

irref@s-ymas-
¥ie
ymqsymtrcnEeRlx.x)

÷⇐i±.
E R
E R
for a l l ×

s o
x=y
E R
want:(xz)
Assume lxy) E R n (gz) E R
>
S o x >y n ytz

s o
X Z Z
E R
s o (x E)

Fx: As I R={(mm) I 7h-m}

m e # b e arbitrary
Reflexivity: Let
n - n - 0 = 7.0

S o 7- I n - n

s o (nm) E R

want: yR×
Symmetrici Assume ×Ry
S o 71 x-y

s o 1-K E E t 7k-x-y
Ders notu 42 of 97
 S o -U-7 =
y-×
I z
s o 7 ly-x

Antisymmetr But
I # 8
y , (8,,, e r

Traffthen went: xRZ

e my ^ yRz
71 y-z
S o 7 1 (x-Y) a

s o 76,E E z 7 6 ,= x-y
762 = y - z
762E Z 7

761-1762 = x - z

50741¥-x-2-
S o 71 x - z

relation A , denoted
Defn: s e t . The identity o n
Jet A be a

is Ida =
{(xx) I x E A }
by Ida

B t h e inverse
relation from A t o then
Dern: Let 12 be a

A and
13 t o
R ' the relation o n

of R
i s
written a s

R' =
{(x,y) E BxA I l y ,x ) E R }

Ders notu 43 of 97
 A i f f 12=12''
Prop: A r e l . R symm.
o n i s

A Wa r t - R - R "
Assume R o n
i s symm.
proof: ( )
L e t ( x .g)E R b e arbitrary.
So ly,x) E R
defn o f R i '.
( x .y) E R '
since
5 0

i . R E R .'

Let (ng) E R " be arbitrary.

S o (y,x) E R
since 1 2 i s symm.
E R
s o (x,y)
.'. R 2 R''

Hence R-R''

symmetric.
Assume R - R " wart: R i s
(e)
(b>a ) E R
Suppose (a)b )E R flap)E R
( ↳a )E R
s o (b,a ) E R " yea,b )E AXA (a)b )E R
R-R''
(b,a ) E R since
s o

i. R i s symmetric.

B and l e t s be a
from A into
Defn: Jet R b e a
re l a t i o n
composition o f S and R
B into C . The
a relation f r o m
from A t o C given by
i s t h e relation Sor

C- A x e l FyEB xRy
^
yst}
sore {(xx)

Ders notu 44 of 97
 t ¥ A-{a,b} B.-{ad} C-{e,f,g}

R,= {(asc), (bid)} Rz={(gc),(bid} S,:{(die), ( d i f ) , (dog)} 52=5,

S ,o r , =
{(bae),(b)f ) i(big)}

520 R z = 0

chaffterjeunonon A

Ris Reflexive ⇐ Ida E R

D = R "
12 i s sym
RNA" E I d a
R i s antisym A

RORER
R i s transitne

OEquivalencerelatron
and R be a d . O n A If R i s reft,
A set
let be a
A
equivalence r e l a t e so n
said t o b e
o n

a n d trans then R i s
sym

11223
F±A={all lines i n

Reft ✓
i f f " " ↳
symm✓
4%2
sough 412E A

t Trans ✓
R={(L,,Lz)EAxA I 41112}
R m 7 -I n - m
F I R i s a rel. o n Z n

nRm FLEE 7 7k-n-m

symm: Assume
s o

s o m - n - 7- the)ez
S o 7 -Im-n

s o mRn ✓
Ders notu 45 of 97
 refli Let x i n 2 be arbitrary
so x - x = O

s o 71 x - x

s o xRx ✓
Trans ✓

IE.mil?:......e.t....o.a.
defined
by X ,
a s
class o f
denoted is
× ,
Jet x G A , equivalence

I-{yEAIxry}
A and A#0.
Remark: L e t R b e a n equivalence reel o n

I nonempty since × E x ( a t least)

jet xEA
=

transit
Z nRmL 3ln-M R: reflrsym✓
b e rel. o n
Let R
a

£ 1
3. 3 r
{ . . . . - 3, 0,
-

s...}]
{ N E Et o r n }
-

5 =
=
' "

Rn}
T= { n E E l l

- yo ,
1 3R n } { . . . .
=
5- { " E E

classes. O ,T , I {5,1-12}=741,
3
We only have eg.
1
s e t w a t R
Quotient

Ders notu 46 of 97
 Defn: Let A be a set and 12 be o n
e a r . r e l .o n A

b e the equiv. classes

for x EA let I
any
f o r the set AIR { I = I x⇐ A}
R .
called quotient o f A big
A, i s

A.
Prop: Let 1 2 be o n
equiv. ret o n
Alxry}
I = {ye
Let H y e A xD
y e s 5=5

want: 5=5
Proofi ( ) Assume ¥y•
E I :
Ta k e a n element z

So x R z
since
R i s symm.
S o
¥ ,
and trans. o f R
S o 2-
Ry by (A) a n d (d)
since R is symm
s o yRz
defer o f equiv. c l a s s
S o ZEJ by
i . icy
Tu b e o n element 2- E
j
s o yRZco)
x R z by (o) ( B ) a n d trans.
s o

So Z E I

s o g-E I

xRy
( ⇐) Assume e = j want:

Ta k e 2 -c - I xRz_*
s o
due t o
s o 2- Rg sym.
↳ a l s o E y s o yRz ,
b e c a u s e o f transitivity. (no,D )
So XRy
Alternative: yes since 5=5 so xRy
yEj s o

Ders notu 47 of 97
 Jet R be equiv. r e l o n s e t A . Then f o r any
×,
YEA
Prop:
o n

i f × Rly then I
ng -
0

tiny#0
¥1
a

Prooff Assume f o r a contradiction

S o FaEA a (Eng)
C-

s o xR_a*, and yRa

s o 9kgi s ,
CA a n d A )
s o xpeyb y trans. by
contradicts w i t h (Fg).

set A .
Corollary: let R b e o n equiv. relation o n a

5=5
Then f o r any
x.
YEA either Eng-O o r

set A said t o
Defn: A family of subsets (Aa),,⇐, of a i s

o f A. I f have
be a partition w e

- A
i)¥A.
ii) a t e Anna-= 0
Va , ,

iii) t o E I Ant 0

A, natural numbers
F I l e t A -- I N - even

As-odd natural numbers

{ A i ,Az} → for ms a
partition f o r N .

Ders notu 48 of 97
 E x : Jet A-IN A o - {o}
A,= { I }

:
ftp.sx/ If R i s o n e av i v o h o r A

xEA3formsapcrhtionfo#
Prop: Itf (Aa),# i s o f A then there ex i s t s a n
a
partition
such that t h e quotient s e t
equivalence relation R o n A

Abe {Aal a
EI}
o f A Want: Freq-In.
Proofi Assume (Aa)* I
" s a
partition
s-t. Ak-{Aa}

Lets define 1 2 o n A xRy i f f F aE I yetta

x .

M¥-0: 1 ) R i s e g . ret.

2) An-{Aa}aeI

be arbitrary s o H E I x E Aa since {AB i s

① r e fe r. Let x E A
elements o f A ,
and × a r e
s o xRx since x
a partition.
R .
x,yEAx by defr
o f
S o
symm: Assume xRy Fin eI

defn. of R .
s o
yRx by
F aE I x,yEAx
trans: Assume xRy and yRz. s o

y ,2 - E
Ap
FB E I

s o yEAanAB
So Aa=Ap (or ers) since

AAAA r s - 0 w h e n x¥p

So y,zEAa
x .

S o xRz
Ders notu 49 of 97
 rein.
Hence R i s o n
e g o.

A, E {An} {Aa} E A R
②
a
we n e e d t o prove

EA
2 .a ) Let i t c- A I R b e arbitrary then x

their F a E I x E A a (since UAa=A)

c l a i m :I = Ax be arbitrary
let Then yRx
-
yet
xEAa)
S o y
c- Ax (since
i . F E Aa
since b o t h xandy
let E A , b e arbitrary then xRy
y
-

a r e elementso f A ,
a n d b yd e f r o f R

s o YET
i . A n C-I

Hence I - A a
Hence t r u e , therefore A, E {Aa}
t h e claim
i s

for s o m e n o C -I
2 . b) l e t Aa. E {Aa}ae± be orb.

Want:AaoE AIR

then l e t × E A , then t h e t h e a b ove proof

Aao=t
s o Aao=xE A I R
i . {An}a c t C- AIR
Q . E .D .

Ders notu 50 of 97
 OrderDelation
i f R antisymmetric
Dern: R be a ref o n a set A, i s
reflexive,

then R i s said to b e a n order reln.

a n d trans.

⇐
F x ,y e a xRy n
yRx y
Recall: R i s antisymm

EY R o rd e r r e l a t i o n
Ex: let A e - R x
Rye> × is a n

Fx; Let D b e a collection o f sets

ARB ⇐ AE B
A ,B E P ✓
AEA s o ARA
then
reft: Let A E P b e arbitrary,
ARD n BRA
assume
b e arbitrary,
anti-symm: l e t A,BEP want: A-B

s o AEB n BEA

A=B
s o
ARB n BRC
Assume
CEP be a b t .
transiting: J e t AD,
want: ARC

so AEB a B E C

S o t a EA a EB FpE B BEC

S o f r EA a E C

S o A E C

So ARC

Ders notu 51 of 97
 bean ordered rd. o n A.
and "E"
Dern: L e t Abe a s e t

Then ( A , E) i s said to b e a n orderetest.

set. Let a )b e A a,b are

Defn: L e t ( A , E) b e a ordered

E b b e a
if o r
¥ 6 a

"E" i s said t o b e
Let (A, E) be ordered s e t .
Defni
a n

asb b ea
i f Ha, B EA o r
a t o t a l .

A
comparable.
iff two elm. o f are
total o r d e r reln. my
i .e . "E" i s a

order.
(2A, E ) total
( Z , E)
→ not a
→ total order

T.ie?:::I::i-..s.ne...rem.ona
Let B E A a subset o f A (BF 0)

bounded a b o v e i f F aE A
Defoe: w e say ① i s

i s a n upper b o u n d
for B .
s-t. txE B x s a . I n this c a s e a

B bounded a b o v e
Let A -R B-N → i s not

i .e H aE R FnEN n e a en-11
.

Ders notu 52 of 97
 ordered s e t B#0 BEA a subset of A.
Dern: L e t CA,e ) b e o n

lowest upper b a n d
of ① i f w e
E A i s the
We say t h a t
a

have:
i ) V xE B x E a
a '.
Eat f o r anyx E B t h e n a s
I i ) I f a 'E A satisfies ×

f x i . A E # n = z 3 - -
l a b (B)= /

i) s h ow t n Feel → trivial

Ii) Assume f o r a
contradiction (FatE R fbEB b e a') n (del)
claim: Fn, E N T 7 a'
cnn.IE/

Ta k e No_f#tl
s o £ (I-a'

9's 1 -
£ a'-I c-£

i÷:÷÷÷÷÷÷*¥÷
So a ' c Nonof

fxEB a e x
lower b a n d f o r B
i f
E A i s a
We s a y a

call B bdd below.

l owe r b a n d
for the setB w e i s
I f there e x i s t s a

Ders notu 53 of 97
 E x : A- { a ,b i o, d }
E =
{Kia), Cb,b ) , ( c i c ) , Cd,d ) , laic), (aid), Cb,cD, (bid)}
lower bd. for B
Let B - { a i d } Is B b d d . below? Ye s a i s a

Ii I i Il
l' l '
b i ,

GIIfytns.m.II.IM#Ior
that i s bad. above below)

(infinum)
has a supremum

and l e t B E A
E) be ordered s e t
Prop: Let (A, o n

then b - a
for B
i f a card b
o r e
glb
for B
Proof: Assume a ,
b glb
S o a t b since....
b E a n

÷i÷÷÷÷i÷÷÷÷÷ .

said t o
be a mopping
1 2 f r o m A into
B i s
Defn: A relation satisfying
exactly o n e yEB
there exists
if fxEA

x R y.
fCx,) = f ( x 2))
then
If
(i.
e . Fx,,xzEA x .= x z

xRy±Rlx)=y

Ders notu 54 of 97
 pA→
B
the s e t
Defn: The domain o f a relationR d o n ( R ) o r 1 )( R ) i s

of all x E A such that FyEB satisfying xRY'

D (R)-{xlFyeBxRy}
B,
relation 1 2 from A
to
Defn: range o f
a
T h e image o r

such that F x c- A satisfying xD.

1mg(R) i s t h e set o f all yEB

✓
Defn: mapping

A into B then f o r (x.g)E R

Notation: I f R is a mapping f r o m
R : A→ B
o r ×Ry w e write y-Rex) x-13121×7

⑧ Composition o f two Mappings

HA,B¥s,f:AIB g:B → C be two

mappings. W e d e f i n e a n e w mapping denoted gof

A → C
(goof)(x) gof:
=g (fix)) x → gffex))

%÷÷;÷n÷:÷÷?÷'#......."..anie
f (x.) # f c k )
Fx,,xzE A Xi#Xz

ftp.fcxz) x, = X2

Ders notu 55 of 97
 TrisisNO-flness
§ Warning: Fx,,x, EA X - x z fix,)=fCxz)

Prop: Let A,Bf be 3 sets with f : A→ B g:B → c

i s also 1 -T.
be both l-I moppings.
Then gof

Prooff gof: A→ C

x,#Xz Want: gofCx,) #gof(X2)

'§x#
^
Assume
o r
( Assume gofCx,)=gofCxz)
Wa n t : x i = x 2

So g
(fan))=gCfCxz))
l-I
s o flx,)=fCxz) since
g
i s

:÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷i÷÷÷
least xEA s t fax)=y
there
exists a t o n e
I f for
any yEB

F : R→ R
Ex:
x → sink)

disprove f i s onto:
Prove o r

Ars: I choose t o disprove

consider y-2
fxER far)-1-2

Ders notu 56 of 97
 C be onto
Prop: L e t A,B , C be 3 sets f. A→ B g:B →

i s onto.
gof: A→
Then C
mappings.
Wa r t : F xE A gofCxley
Proof: l e t b e arbitrary.
yEC
(w) = i s onto.
So FwE B g L since
g
since f i s onto.
S o I x EA f (x)-w

S o
got( x ) - y
-

9.ee?::tii:.n.':.#iii:a............s.i..
1-1 a n d onto.
be a bijective mapping ( i f f ) f - i s both

sets and f : X → Y
Notation Let X and Y b e two

for subset A o f X w e
be a mapping. any

write f - (A)-
{g E Y I I x EA fam-y} (the image o f the

s e t A)

define preimage o f the

Defn: f o r any subset B o f Y w e

{ xE x t f a t EB}
set ① FIB) { x
- E X I FyEB fix)-y} =

Recall: For A E X

F xE A s-t- y-fix)
YE FCA)
⇐

for some
XEA
⇐ g - f( x )

Ders notu 57 of 97
 Let f : X Y be mapping and A,E X Az E X then
Prop: → a

1) FCA,VAZ) FCA)Uf(Az) -

2) A , E Az FCA) EffAz)

3 ) f ( A . AAz) E FCA,)nfCAz)

P%¥ w i l l prove FCA,VA I =fCAilUflAz)

Let
yEfCA, VAz) b e arbitrary wont: y E FIA,)VflAz)
so Fa E ANAz s-t. flat-y
s o aEA, o r aEAz

So f-(a)Effa) o r Fca)Ef(Az)
So f l a ) E f (Ai)VfCAz)
s o E FCA,)VfCAz)
y

Let Y E FCA,)VflAz) wont: y e FCAiVAz)

s o y
C- FCA,) o r YEFGA,)

so I x .E A ,
s-t fa,)=y
O R 7 × 2 C -A z s - t . F a z ) = L
since MEA, x , EA.UA,
So Fx C - (A.✓ Az) s-t f(×)=y ×2EAz xzERVAz

So y=fcx)Ef(ANAz)

Ders notu 58 of 97
 ② W e will prove A,EAz FCAileftAz)

Assume A,E Az Want: FCA,) E f f A z )

FCA,) then FxEA, s-t. faty

Jet Y E be arbitrary
S o xEAz since Ai C -A z

s o y=fCx) E fCAz)
s o FCA,)EFlAz)
Q. E-D.

f l a i n Az) Wa n t : y EfcAnnfCAz)
③ Let y
E

i
exercise

⑧ Prove o r
# v e FCA.)nfCAz) E f (HAAZ)

§µ
×

"" E " " " " "

Az- {2133 If}?}

FCA,)- { A ; D } f-(Az)- {D,B }

f l a n Az)- { D }

{D,D3¢{D@

Ders notu 59 of 97
 P ro p i Let f : X → Y b e a mopping.

injective iff FA,,Az E X FCA, AA.)- FIA,)nflAz)

Then f i s

Assume f
Want:f(A,hAz)=flA,)nfCAz)
Proofi ( ) i s I-I

f r o m previous f ( A i n Az) E f-(Ar) N f (Az) ✓

prop.

L e t y E f ( A . ) AffAz) then yEfCA.) n y EffAd

So Fy, EA, s-t. y=fCx,) and 7 × 2E A , s-t. y=fCxz)

s o y-fan)=fCxz)
x .= × z
since f i s 1-1
s o

A i nA z s o y=flx) E FCA,AA,)
Hence x=xi=x2 E

i . f l A , )N f ( A z ) E f(A,A Az) ✓

(e) Assume ffA#¥#fCAzT want: f i s I-I

Let and ± × 2 w e ' l l s h ow f(x.) # f e z )

×,,×z E X
× '

choose A i - { x . } Age{ X D

f(AinA z ) - f (O) =
0

FCA,)nf (Az) = ¢
[by the

s o f(x,) #f(42)
f I-I
s o i s

mapping
Propi be two sets and f i x → Y a
Let X , Y

then f o r B, E Y and B, E Y w e have

← ←
(Bi) U f (Ba)
←
1) f- (B,UBz) - f
← ←
2)B, E B z f (B.) E f (Ba)

f- (B.) M f " (Ba)

← ←
3 ) f - (Bink) -

Ders notu 60 of 97
 "

Proof ( 2 ) : Assume B , E B z Want: f (Bi) E f←(Be)

Let × E FIB,) be arbitrary

s o f -( x ) E B ,

s o f-( x ) E 132 since B, E 132

S o xEf←(Bz)

Proof ( 3 ) : 12)
f7B,) since B .N B , E B , and
f - (B. A B )
←
(E) E
"
E 132 "
←
f- ( B i n Bz) E f←(Ba) since l '

Hence
←
f (B,nBz) E f
←
IB,)nf9Bz)
* , A z

(I) Let × E F I B , ) A f (Ba)

S o * E FIB,) n x E f
←
(Ba)

So f l x )E B , n f l x )E B z

S o f i x ) C- (BinBd

S o x E f-
←
(BinBz)

papiktf.x-ITIIIppiissjec.li#ifrfBeyff
(B)) -
B

contradiction:
(a) Proof by
FBEY f f f (B)) # B
←
f i s surj a

c a s e 1 : F a e f f f (B)) ←
or a¢B Not possible

case 2 : FaeB n a ¢ f ( f ← (B)) b }

s t flx)-a
For this a t h e re m u s t b e some ×

since f i s surjective.
Ders notu
but x E f9B) which means a E f f f ← (B)) contradicts w i t h A s 61 of 97
 www.a?ImII#so;
want:D'

Let B E Y be arbitrary
Let y
E f ( f ← CB)), t h e n F xf 9 B ) fat-y
←
Wellrofft f ( x ) c -B since x E f (B)

So y = fix)E B i . f l f TB)) E B

Let y E B
Since f i s surj. F xE X fCx)=yEB
S o x E f
←
(B) s o y=flx) E f ( f 9 B))

i . B Efff
←
(B))

( ⇐) proof by contradiction

Assume (a) n f i s not surjective,

D, must a l s o hold f o r B - Y

( f (Y)) Y
←
f =

Due t o * t F yoE Y f x E X f(x)#yo

÷÷÷÷÷÷:÷÷:÷÷÷÷
i s invertible i f
f i x→ Y
Defn: w e say that a mapping

Fg a mapping g:Y→X sit.

Ders notu 62 of 97
 i) fxE X gofCx)=x
ii) fyEY fogly)-Y
i s called t h e inverse o f f,
Then such a mopping g

and w e write g-f"

g:A→B two mappings

Defn: Let f . A → B

iff WEA fo)=gCx)

Then f-g

h:c→D
f : ASB g:B-C
sitebilirni l e t A,B, C;D be sets

fylemmai
burugerle
bite you Then (hog)o f =
holgof)
deff.

t . X Y i s i n v w t b k m i . s i # 9
inverse o f
f-
Proof: Assume g and h a r e both

g:Y→x ^ 90ft) - X - h o f(x) y × E ×

h: Y → ×
fo g (g)
=
y - fohly) byE Y

HYEY fogly)= fohly) s o fog-Foh

golfog) 90%4
Then
Iassociativity
=

Then (got)og= (gof ) o h

s o HyET gig)= hly) since (gof )( x ) - x

Ders notu 63 of 97
 Finite s e t s and Combinatorics.

Defn.it#sad to be equinumerous
A 213
f : A→ B . w e write
if there exists a
bijection

contains finitely many

Defn: A set A- i s s a i d t o b e finite i f it
i f there exists
finite i f A=0 o r
elements. i e . A i s

s-t. Ann 1N, where N n {1,23... n }

-

a natural number n # O

write c o r d( A )= n
I f Ann 1N, w e

sets,then
T h e o r e m : Suppose A ,
B ,C a r e

i) A-A
ii) Ar ts B-A
iii) A I B n a r c A a c

Proof: e x e r c i s e

Ders notu 64 of 97
 O A' n B '
AAB -

suppose A , B , A', B'

-
sets
Thm: a r e

theno Aub%A'v#
iff - 6 ¥ '
Proof: Assume A Wa n t : *

exercise.

finite sets then card CAUB) = c o r d (A)t

A B disjoint
Corollary: I f and a r e

c o r d(B)
proofi exercise

set
let A b e non-empty finite
Prop: card ( A ) - 1
and c a r d (Al{x3)
=

then A l{x} i s finite

I f xEA

s e t s with 1 element cord (A)-1

Proof: consider s o

Alex5 = 0 ✓

with m o r e elements cordCA)> I

consider s e t s

Let x E A be fix)=iENn
arbitrary and

Define g:Al{x} → Nn-i

{
fca) i f fca)ci
g( a )
=

fla)-l i f f -( a ) > i

ALEX} a n d Nn-i
Thus
gisµ§¥#between
B E A then ①i s finite.
Theorem: If A i s finite set and

exercise

Ders notu 65 of 97
 finite sets n AnBt0 then cord (Arb)-cord (A)t c o r aD
l )-cordCAnB)
Prop: I f A,B a r e

Proof: We k n ow t h a t AV B = A V (BIA) and A n (BIA)-0

s o DNA i finite
BIA
¥¥,
s

%¥A£
AUB finite
so i s
%BM)
\ , (a,,,,,,,,, = , + cordCbt

cord (Arb) = cord (A) tod(D@#

fAnB)nlBlA§
c o r d( B ) c o r d( A r b )
c a r d ( A )t
-
<
=

t . I E ? I . . # ' '
www.upg.o.ae# is also finite and c o r d(AxB)= c a r d(A)-cord(B)

+co.aaYpeoof= , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ✓

Ii) I f B ± 0 # A

Assume c o r d( B )= m c a r d(A)=n

S o At {a,,a z , . . . . an}

S o AxB= {a,}xBV{ar3xBV..- {an}X B

=
¥. {a3xB 8

Note t h a t {ai3xB n { a ; }x B =
0 i f i # j

first w e need t o prove {ai} x B

i s finite

fo r all a i E A

F f bi; between B a n d Nm
claim:
Nowdefine B
g:{a}×B→
b
g i s
bij
( a ,b ) →

i . {a3xB a B

and w e know ①FINN s o {a3xBxNm

Ders notu 66 of 97
 i . cord (Ea3xB) = m Ya EA

from ⑧ c a r d (AxB)=
Ecord(saisxD)
6=1

=
§, cord (B) = n . m
= c a r dCA),cordas)

P r o p i l f d x 2 h
Proofi By M l
Induction B a s i s :

Rx)-{0} card (Rx))-20=1 ✓

I f n e o X - 0

Induction Step:
Want Pinot, i s true
Assume Pno is true

their card (pix))-2"

So if c o r d (x)-n

X with not' elements

Lets consider arbitrary
X =
{ai,0 2 . . . Ono,anti}
elements
Now c o n s i d e r X ' = { a , , . . . . ano} w i t h n o

hypothesis w e k n o w cord fpcx')) 2 " -

by induction

P(×') { A i , A z . . - Arno}
=

X?
What a r e t h e subsets o f

a l s o subset o f X

{
s u b s e ts o f X i s
any
only these A,oV(anon)
the s e t s A N {anon}, AzU(anon)..-- ,
Ders notu are a l s o s u b s e ts o f X 67 of 97
 anon} 2%+2" ✓
Hence {a,,... - has subsets

i. Dna i s true

Hence conclude P n I n t o M I
w e i strue
by

Theorem: L e t X .T sets and f i x → Y a

mapping then
b e finite

i) I f f i s 1-1 then c o r d( X ) £ card (t)

o r t o then ordo) 2 card (Y)
Ii) I f f
i s

cedar) card ( t)
Iii) I f f i s bij then =

P r o o f i e x e c
Question: How
many
1 -1 mappings a r e t h e re from X into Y ?

X - {a,,.... a , } PMI exercise

Y- { b. . . . . - n g ×-Ea.-
No,} Y- { b i . - - b n }
set
Theorem: from the set into

teen there exists

µr¥, n - l mappings.

c a r d( x ) = card( t) then
X ,t ' b e finite s e t s if
Question: L e t
there from X into Y
how bijections a r e
many

Ars: n! exercise.

Ders notu 68 of 97
 on} finite s e t w i t h cord (X)-n
Let X = {a,,az,a s - . -
b e a

For leptn define Ap {AEX I

- =P}
c o r d( A )

A,- { { a } , { o z } . . . . - {an}}
Az -
{{a,,az3,{alias}... . -
{a,,an},

{a,,a,}...- --{arians,
't' i
-
'i.
...
{anais}

Theoremi L e t X be finite c a r d( X ) - n IEPEN

p.tn#pi
cord (Ap)-
.

Proof:
{alias.-ap}
Hint: T h e re i s a connection with 1 -1 mappings f r o m

into {a,,oz..- an}

Infinitesetsandcordin
finite said t o b e infinite.
Defn: A s e t B which i s not is

i .e . THEN # f bi; F : Nn→ B

infinite sets?
HOW Can w e compare cord. o f these

N -
{0,42,...} wt
N" C 1N But F f bi; F : N →

n i l
I N E { 1 , 2 ,3 . . . . }
→
n

Ders notu 69 of 97
 n,-11
I - 1 ) Assume f - (no)- f -(n.) s o n o t 1 =

S o n o = N,

onto) L e t n E N T consider n-I C-IN? ✓

then f l u - i ) - n

Defn: Let X ,T be two sets

write card A )= cardio)

f : X → T then w e
a) I f t h e re i s a
big
l-l mapping f . X → Y
but there ex i s t s a
ex i s ts N o b i j
b) I f
n

c o r d(x)< c a r a t )
then w e write f . X→Y
o n t o mopping
t h e r e exists
a n
but
If t h e re ex i s t s N o big.
c)
write c o r d( x ) >c a rd(Y)
then w e

two sets. i f there

Xit be
Let
Theorem: (Cantor Bernstein): -

and
l-l mapping g:x→Y
f : X → Y a

exists a 1-1 mapping

h: X→Y
then t h e re exists a bijection
c o r d(x) Ecord (T) a n d
states t h a t
i .e . , T h e theorem
cord(Y).
c o r d( X )
=

cord( x ) then
card (Y) E

Ders notu 70 of 97
 Theorem: (Cantor) F o r set A#0 c a r d (A) < c o r d (PCA))
any
there ex i s t s l-l f : A→ PCA)
show t h a t mopping
P ro o f
a
w e will

B u t there e x i s t s
NO bij Y : A → PCA)

f : A-→ P A
I-lmepping Let
then f i s l-l
x D {x}
f a t = {x}# {y}-fly)
since x±y

Noabaise
,: A i s finite:
2"#
hence #big'.
cord (PCM)-2" s o n
cord (A)= n

case 2:
A i s infinite:
F f bi; Y: A-→ PCA)
Assume f o r a contradiction

fxEA YA ) C - PCA) s o 4A) E A

T¥et B - 1×44×13
{x E A

C -A s - t eCxo)=B
since
4 i s onto Fx.

case X o # B
c a s e x-c- B
s o X - E flxo)
s o X o¢ @Ko) X o E B

X o£13

(APLIN)))
Remark: card ( N ) < c o r d (PCM) <card

%1f~IITIIF.se. cardiac c a r d i a c card (2")

Ders notu 71 of 97
 covntablecndvn
ctb.se#Defn:
infinite An set × i s said t o b e countable infinite

(denumerable) i f there exists a bijfox,

finite denumerable.
-
A set i s countable of i t i s o r

said t o be
D e r n : An infinite s e t which is Not etui. i s

uncountable.

I n .
¥i÷÷x→µ.
¥ I ± in.in?
÷÷÷÷* tb#sffbij
between X and1N.
o r

f . I N→ X

I N XI N c tbl?

Q cted?

any
subset o f 1N ctrl?
Roth?

Ders notu 72 of 97
 Show t h a t c o r d( E ) cord (N)
=

↳envenwsnation

Proof: consider f : N → E

n a 2 h

claim: f i s a big'

Wa n t : fi)#fly)
¥ : Let x . E 1N b e arbitrary x#y
y
✓
f(x) =2x±2y= f l y )

s o i s even W a n t : findK E N fC61=e

°n¥ Let e E E
arbitrary
e

s o e = 2 4 for s o m e K E N .

s o f ( E )= e

Let H l =
{I, 2,4, 8,16...} s o Hl i s denumerable

consider f : I N→ H I

n ↳ 2"

denumerable.
¥ I NX I N i s

P ro o f i W e will f i n d 1-1 mapping f r o m

1N into NxN,

and from VNXIN i n t o N .

(Cantor-Bernstein Theorem)

w a i t : n i - n e
Let F :N → I N× IN ± : let fch,)=ffrz)
h l → (n,o ) s o (n,,O) ( h2,0 )
=

s o n ,= N z

Ders notu 73 of 97
 let g : I N XN l → IN ± : suppose glam)-glris) wont: n o n m = s

(n,m ) → 2 ^ 3 " s o2 3M = 2 '35

Assume f o r c o n t r. r a n their n-r's1

a

Hence2^3%235 c

sµm=
s o 2"-r 3M = 35
simplifie
s to
= I a X. r¢n

3135 Assume f o r a contr. r > n then r - n >1

If m s s 3"-£1 n o t poss.

2÷gs
a
I f Mcs 35%1 a

*. . , .
... m = s

Hence (n,m7=(vis) i , r - n .

i. g i s I-I

.÷÷i÷:÷:÷÷÷÷÷÷÷*÷ = { a nI n E N }

subset o f N denim.
P a p i Any infinite i s

Proofs Let A EIN b e infinite

Let's u s e Cantor-Bernstein. T h e n

Consider: f : A > I N f i s l-I

x D x

consider f':µ→A
where n o =
min (A)
k n w
n,-min ( A l {no})

hz= min ( A l {no,n,5)

f' i s l - l

Ders notu : 74 of 97
 ne-min (al:[Euis)

Cantor-Bernstein
A is denumerable
by

seti s a l s o ctbl,
Remarki An infinite subset o f a d b l .

then AUB i s also

Propelf A and B a r e two denim. sets

denim.

B denim sets. Wa n t : AUB i s denim.

Prooff Assume A and a r e two

S o A = {ago,....}

Be { h o ,b i . . . . }

c a s t AnB=0
a -
• →
Define p : N → AUB
b o
I →
i f i s even
{an,
n
n ↳ 2 →
a n

zb¥ i f n i s odd
3 → b i

:
An-to
cose¥
exercise

denim. s e t s t h e n A.V A N . . . An is damn.

Remark: I f A i , A z , A , . . . An a r e

(new) b e countaby denim.

Thm: Let A o , A i ,A n . . . . A n . . .
many
sets.
for then A - Yanan is denim.
I f Ain A j - 0 it;

Ders notu 75 of 97
 ^%¥ denum sets A AinAj-0 for it;
Ao,A i , . . . . . , An,.... be

want:A i s damn.

A-= { a i , a i , a i . . . }

A,- {ai,a i , a i . . . 3
{anm I n E
s o A=¥µ An = N men}
:
An =
{af,a i , ai...}

Deane 4:NxN→A claim: big.

4 i s

(mm)↳ ann c-A

done.
if w e this w e a r e
p rove

± : Assume 4 ( h i m ) - Y (n'in.)
s o Ari = ai.
Annan' - 0 when n # n '

§
s o am" c - An ant. E Am w e hone

n - n '

elements b e
set An , these c a n

Them' amneaf. I n the s a m e

i f m - m '
equal
'

. f i s I-I
-

A i n the form
all the elements o f o r e
0M¥ f i s onto since

9,
s o
(nm) maps
t o
arbitrary a r t

Ders notu 76 of 97
 Remark: T h e theorem i s also t r u e i f Ai's arent pairwise disjoint

O R i f s o m e o f t h e Ai's a r e finite.

Them: Q i s denumerable (ctbl. infinite)

Po¥ Q - Q" U Q U {o} and QteQ

"
'II."Italianwww.as.bto.gcaca.ms,
" '

S o w e c a n only focus o n It v . 4:41.FI?fI..,=za3b

OI {Ia l p ,a c -I N 9*0}
Let A i - { F I PEN}
Az { I l
= p c- IN}
'

:
Q E 0 An
d ow n .
ctbl union o f demon. s e t s a r e

n e t

I s R c t b
Them: The interval A = (0,1) i s unctbl.

Proofi Assume for a contradiction A is d b l . infinite (denim)

s o list the elements o f A.

I c a n

¥.::::::::::::
'

, ÷::""" b i= {§ i f ai'#s
otherwise

÷..................
l

i,
i
§ot but
here

b¢{xo,x . . . . . }
Hence 10,1) unctbl.

Ders notu 77 of 97
 with alb the interval Ca,b ) i s unctbl.
Prep: any a,bE R

Proofi y:(0,1) → (a,b)

→ (i-t) a + tb
t

claim: Q is a bijection (proof exercise)

c o rd ( a )b ) = card ( 0, 1 )

unctbl.FI#2ordwumiwa
i . ( a )b ) i s

f-1,1)

¥¥...
Y:R C-i, i
→ ) . - -

x - . ÷ .

C l a i m : Cf i s a big
w a r t : 91×1=1441
1 1 : Assume x ,y E R x#y
b e a r b i t r a r y.

case: x .y > o 41×7 =

¥ 4cg) -

¥g
contradiction
Assume f o r a
¥ , =¥y

xtx/y=y+x/y x - y

*
S o 41×7=1 @Cy)

Ders notu 78 of 97
 c a s e
casein x ,y c o ,
same

case: X >O
yao
W L O G

Uk)- ¥ 4cg)- Ig 41×3>0

41g)L O

s o Yi)#Ky)

claim 4 i s onto

Let y.EC-1,11 b e arbitrary

i s mapped to go
this × ,
N o w consider x . = Figg. claim:

61×0)- yo ✓

set o f all infinite sequences consisting

Faeth L e t So,, be the ,
dawn
o f Z e r o s and Is.

So,, i s unctbl.

Proofi We will prove i t w i t h direct proof b y finding

a bij btw so,, and P (IN)

4: so,, → PIN)
{is
%"-Plait-¥,
when a i
claim: Qi s bij
exercise

Ders notu 79 of 97
gproofiAssumeforacortradictionsonisdenvmfctbl.im#

A =
{Ii} where I i = ( i , it'] i EIN

=
{Io,I i , I z . . . . }

I n t r o r a
non-empty s e t . A binary operation o n

Defn: Let X b e any

from X x x into X .
X means a mapping

€ - y o r ×
by o r x # y
Notation: f ( x ,y ) x

N.
Binary operations o n

(n,m)ElNxN ' → a m E N
Exe: n * m = h t m

E N
n * m - n-M
( n ,m ) EINXIN t o n .m

Let Y be set and X= 2Y

Ex. any

(A)B ) E x x x i n AUBEX is a n operation o n X

operation X . W e say
Defn: Let X be
any
set and * be
any
o n

that
E X x - y
-
y* x

i) h e is commutative i f t x ,y
(x-g)*
assIi@eifttxiy.z (ynez) = z
E X x p

ii) * i s

Ders notu 80 of 97
Ex: Let X:
{ ({ bd)
/ a , b,c , d ER} (set o f 2 × 2 matrices)

Then + is commutative & associative.

• is n o t commutative & associative

defined X"
w i t h"an operation * o n
A ×
Notation: set

will b e denoted by (x,r )

Defn: Let ( X ,o ) b e a s e t with op. , w e

say that ( x , x )

has a neutral element (uniteleon.) I f there e x i s t s e E X

s-t. t hE X X - e - X - e * X .

Ex: l) (N,t ) e - O

1
2) (N,-) e -

3) let X - {(Ed) I a m ,a , d ER}

(x, t ) e-(88)
(x..) e . (Ii)
has at most
(X,-)
o n e
Prop: Any set with a n op.
-

neutral e l t .

than
contradiction ( X , re) has m o r e

¥ : Assume for a

o n e neutral e l f.

WLOG lets consider t w o distinc t neutral e l t s .

Ders notu 81 of 97
 e ,# e z

s o e , * e z - e , =
e z- e , since ez i s a neutral e l f .
" "
' l 1 1 1 ' .

e z 8 e , =
e z = e, * e z e ,

S o e z * e , = e z Fe, = e z* e , §

Hence ( x ,* ) h a s a t most o n e neutral e l f .

Assume t h a t
Deff let ( x ,* ) be a set w i t h op.

neutral e l f. E X . We say t h a t
(Xin) has a e

E X i s invertible i f t h e r e ex i s t s s o m e
a n e l f, a

b - b
b E X satisfying a = e = a *

b e t h e inverse o f a
said t o
I n this c a s e b i s

a " - a .
and denoted by o r

defined
£mm"¥n
is
µ a = e * a
Fe YaE
=
I E X X a - e
e a t , eat.
E X a ' = a ' *a
E X invertible i f Fa' sit. a * - e
a i s

INT #IN)
l) (Nyt) → only i s i nve r t i b l e (for X E - x

2 ¥ e = ° e

inverse
- x i s t h e
e z
2) (Zit) → e - 0 Fx E # → s o

I 1 and - 1 invertible.
3) (Igo) → e -
only i s

4) X -
{({3) / a , b,c ,d ER}

(x,.)→e=( 'o:)
detM-lad-be)
L e t M e ({Y) M
i s invertible i f f detM#O

Ders notu 82 of 97
 ex:('i') i s not i nve r t i b l e

ex:(↳ S O
coso)
-since
for some fixed 0 E R
since

n"
N i s invertible.
det N - 1 s o

N-'=
(coso coso)
since

-since

N - N-'= (IT) = N ' '. N

Propp: Let (X,o ) be a set with anassoc.co#

invertible then the
Let e b e t h e unit e l f. If some x e x i s

inverse o f × i s unique.
E X i s invertible b u t i t i s not
Proof: Assume f o r a contradiction . . . . X

d i f fe re n t inverses o f × . Let's
S o there a r e a t least two
unique.
c a l l them and E X and # Z .
YEX + y

S o
y
-
y-
e -
y - ( x - z ) c)
by a s s o c .
=
(y* x ) * z
= e * z

= z

determined under t h e s e
Hence the inverse o f × is uniquely
assumptions.

defined Ql{-I} Q'

E I l e t 1 be a n operation o n =

Fa,b
abtbcommjLetaibEQAatb-
E OF a-1b e a t

IsabetbnaabbZIabEn@i.l, is c o m m . o n Q'

Ders notu 83 of 97
 µ : exercise.

u n i t I s there a u n i t e l f. for QB?

satisfying a t e - a . l a
W e n e e d t o find e that i s

e - a
a t e = a t o n e +

0
s o a e t e =

S o e (ah)-O
e = 0 since a#-1

Is
every eat. o f Q' invertible]

Let a E Q*=Ql{-I} find a ' E Of s .e . a t a '= O-a'-19

W e need t o f i n d a ' s . t . a t a a ' + a l s o

a'(atD = - a

al -
1¥ since a t - 1

S o a ' = QB

i . a' =
2¥, i s the inverse o f a under ( o r , -1)

PIP: Let (X,@) b e a set with a n assoc. op. *

I f my E X a r e t wo invertible e H s i n X then X *
Y

i s also invertible and (x-y)" g-' * = x"

Proof: Let e
b e t h e neutral e a t . (Xia)
Cy-'*x ) - ( x y)
(x¥±(y-§
*
= e s
show
We need to

AE = ((x-g)* y")-x =
(x-(yay"))e x - '
=
Ders notu 84 of 97
 = Xxx-'=e

similarly (y-'* x " ) - ( x * y ) = e

AOA x i o m o fc h o
non-empty sets
Let {Xi l i e I } be a
family o f

the s e t I then there e x i s t s

indexed by index ,

a function

for each i E I f -( i ) C -X i
F : I →
¥, Xi s-t.

f i r e .
F i s called the choice

C -X i i e I }
F (I) =
{x / Fei)=x

{xi l i e I } collec tion o f

Poggi
i f i s a

claim:
# j X i n ¢X j =
s e t s i .e Hi,; c- I i

},
disjoint .
f " "
Echisi"
then i#j F e i ) * f -( j ) s o

there i s a set formed

claim The axiom o f choice says
e a c h set X i
element o u t o f
by choosing
o n e

o f sets.
i n o u r collection

Ders notu 85 of 97
 1. I T ? : : : : : : : : - . . . . i . m .
relation o n ✗ .

R i s compatible with * i f
Defn: We that
say
w e have

and
☑x , y , z E X ✗
Ry ✗☆ Z Ry-z
Z - X R Z A X

E Y Let X - R * : + ✗ Ry ×-ye#

reln. IR.
S o R i s a n equiv o n

Is R compatible with IR?

want: (✗+ 2)R(y+z) a

Assume x ,y, z E IR a ✗ Ry
(Z+XR(z+y)

E )
So E #
x-y

S o (✗+ z)-(y+z) c-
enough since

s o (✗+ 2 ) R(y+Z) + i s commutative.

.". R i s comp.
with +

Ders notu 86 of 97
 R s a m e
9
EI: Let X - R * : malt.

Is R comp. w i t h
* .

-2=12
No! Take x - l yeo

but x . z #g. z

XRy
£ 12/0

cosca-cosy)
R Vx,y E R xRy⇐,
¥ . Let x = * i t

R i s a n e a r. reln. ✓

No. Consider x = It y=-If 2-= II

Is R comp w i t h
* ?

but x e z Rl ytz
XRy

E X xRy six-y
Exe: X - Z re: + F x ,y

R V
is equ. reln.

Is R comp.
with * ? yes.
exercise.

Vx,y E X x R y # S I X-y
EI: X - Z re: o

Reg. ret. ? ✓

I s 1 2 comp with * ? Yes ba.

e x xRy six-y
Let x .
y
5 1 zCx-y) = Z x -Ey

zxRzy

since i s commutative.
enough
.

Ders notu 87 of 97
 Ottomomorphism-
( Y, o ) be two sets with op.
Le t (X,-) and

'→
"
T'" s a i d t o b e a
Defn: A mapping f : ✗ i s

homomorphism

for all f (x, x2) f (x,) o f (x2)

i f ×,,X2 E X
=
*

Ix: Consider (IR,+ ) and (IR,-) f (x)-2"

IR,-1) and (IR).)
Claim: f i s a homomorphism b e t w e e n

L e t ×,,x, e x be arbitrary.

2×1++2
( x , + x2)
f )
Observe that f =
s o m e
+

Also f(×.) fix,) - = 2×1. 2×2 = 2x,

E F : (R,-) → (IR).)
✗ ↔ 2x

Ta b e × , = 3
✗ 2=3 (f x,.kz/=f(g)=29-
f(xil.flxz1=23.23=20

So not a homomorphism.

Ders notu 88 of 97
 E Let f : (Rt).) → (IR, + )
✗ ↔ Inx

Claim: f is a homomorphism

b t w. . .

Direct Proof

Assume ×,,×,
ER" be arbitrary

f (x,) a n d f (x2) E IR
s o

I n (X1- X2) In× , + Inxs

Observe t h a t f (x,. ✗ 2) =
=

= f (x,) + f(x2) ✓

with
( Y, 0 ) b e two s e t s ops.
Pep: Let ( X ,*) and

Y b e o n t o homomorphism.
AND F :
o n
✗ →

i f ( X ,* ) i s commutative then s o i s (Y, O).

1)
" " " " .

2 ) i f ( X ,* )
is a s s o c .

i s t h e neutral e l f . o f ( X ,* ) e ' f l e a ) =

3) i f e -

i s the neutral e l t . o f ( T, o )

elt. E X i s invertible
neutral ✗
4) if ( x ,* ) has a

then f (x) is also invertible and f (x))" = f (x-1)

Ders notu 89 of 97
 Proof:
(X,-) i s commutative want: (Yo) i s comm
1) Assume
↓
Let y,,yz
E Y be arbitrary. 2 ,0 4 2 = 9 2 0 4 ,

Since f i s a n onto homomorphism

f (x,)= y ,
Fx,,xz E X
f (x2) =
92

f ( x ,* ✗ 2) = f ( × , ) of(x2) y , o y ,
[f(xz*
=

← ✗ 1 )= f (x2)o f / ✗ i ) =
9209,
Also n o t e
t h a t × ,* X 2

since
= X2#XI
S o 9,092 =
Yzoy,
☆ i s comm.

2) Assume (X, * ) is a s s o c .

L e t Y i ,92,93 E Y
f ( ✗3 )= y , since f
E X f ( ✗1 ) =
Y ', f(X2) 42,
-

S o ] ×,,xz,×} i s onto.

(9,092)oy, = ( f(x,)of(x2)) of/Xs)

-
1%2%2))-fix})
homomorphisms
)
i s

= F X ,_ ✗ 2) * ✗ 3)
assoc.
F (x, (X2 X)))→
since * i s
* ☆
=

f i s homomorphism
= f (x,) o f / ✗2*+3) → since

" " "

(x,) ◦ (f(✗2 )offxz)) → "

= F

=
y, 0 (92093)

Ders notu
i . (Y,o) is a s s o c .
90 of 97
 of (X,*)
3) Assume e x i s neutral e l t .

Let y E Y be arbitrary.
f
Want: e'-flea) i s n e u t r a l
since onto.
S o ] ×,EX f l y e l t o f (Y, O )
S o

e x
e ,

i s
www.ysnafisn.
* × , =

neutral e l t .
× , = × , * e * since

f @ x . l momapm.sn# fix,) y
-

So
-

↳
Similarly flea)ofY
-
y
-

f#oflea)
element o f (Y>° )
S o flea) i s the identity

neutral elt. AND ✗ E X i s

4) Assume (X,-)
has a

invertible. ( D )

Want: f (x)i s invertible

Let e x be t h e neutral e l t . o f
and (f/x))" = f (x-1)
(X, * )
* ×' e ✗ ' * × × ' i s t h e i n v. o f ×
×' E X × = =

☐ ]
a n d consider y' = f (x')
Let y = f (x)

we'll show y o y'

= e' =
fle) =
y 'o y

f (x') f (✗* x ' ) = fle)

yoy'=f(x) o =

f / X ' *x ) = f(e)
y'oy f / x ' ) o f f x )
=
=

invertible in ( Yo )
S o g-' = fix))" i . y is

Ders notu 91 of 97
 ⚠ "
Otsomorphism

Let (X, *) and ( Y, ° ) be two s e t s w i t h ops.

f: ✗ Y i s said to be a n isomorphism
Def: A mapping
→

AND homomorphism.
If f i s bijection

Isomorphism?
X-R +
Is f a n

F : ✗ → Y

y=R+ . ✗ n e t Ye s .

e×+Y e x . e9=fCx)-fly)
11 Flxty) = =

2) f i s bij

± : tot x,,xz E X
be arbitrary
Wa n t : f ( x , >≠ f (x2)
Assume ✗ i # ✗2

fun"÷E É. "

i . f i s 1 - 1

consider I n (y) E IR
R" s o
chess: l e t y e
✓
flinty)) - y
•
; f i s onto.

Ders notu 92 of 97
 ✗=P'
.

E Let
flx)=ln(x)
+
Y - IR

f i s isomorphism.
f i s bij + f i s homomorphism =

H◦mq;P"?#eat
be arbitrary.

Inx, Inxz f(Xi) + flxe)

f -(x, - ✗ 2 ) Infx.-x2)
=
= + =

i . f i s hom.

I
w a n t : X ,= ✗ 2

Assume f (x,)-f(x2)

So In/×.)-In/x2)

S o ✗ 1=42

1-1
i . f -i s

0 ¥
exercise

☆= • f(x) - 1×1
Let X- R Y - R
F ◦ = .

f ( × , ✗ 2 ) 1×1×21 = = 1×111×21 - f i x i ) f (x2)

i . f i s homomorphism
1 -1 )
b i j . (also
not
f i s not
But f i s not onto s o

f i s n o t isomorphism.
So

Ders notu 93 of 97
 Prof Let (X, t ) ,
(4,0) b e two sets with ops.

and F: ✗ → Y be a n isomorphism.

also isomorphism.
Then f": Y→ X i s a n

¥ : Exercise.

GroupsandRi
ngs-DefIL.at ✗ be a non-empty s e t w i t h a n op. ⊕,
i f
said to be agroups
(×, ⊕), i s

Kx.,xzEX × ,0×2 EX)

closed (i.e.
1) ⊕ i s

2) ⊕ op. i s assoc.
s-t. H E X e⊕x=x=x⊕e
3) there exists identity e l t . e E X
inverse e l t .
4 ) every e l f. of X (✗e x ) h a s

w i t h t w o operations
Defn: Let X be a
non-empty s e t

be aring i f
⊕ and 0 . ( X , ⊕, 0) i s said
to

t h e followings hold.

a) ( X , -0) is a comm. group

b) ⊖ i s a n assoc. op.

distributive o v e r t h e op. ⊕
c) ⊖ i s

Ders notu 94 of 97
 i.e . Hx,y,-2 E X × (y 2 (✗09) (x
=
)
z )

and (y⊕z)ox = (yox) (20.x)

Defn: The
ring ( X , t ) . ) is said t o be comm. ring
"
i f the ." i s c o m m .
op

Defn: I f the ring (X, ⊕ , 0 ) has a neutral e t t . f o r 0

with u n i t (or unitary ring)

then (×, ⊕ , 0 ) is called a
ring

(4,0) Let
⑦ Defn: Let (X, * ) b e two groups. i e .
e -

be t h e unit elements o f ( X , * ) (Y, o ) respectively.

f : ✗ Y be homomorphism.
Le t → a

denoted by Kerff) i s defined

T h e kernel of f,
by following:

Ker f- {✗E x / fix)=eo}

that ker f non-empty since e x E Ker f
Note is

Defn: Let ( G ,* ) be a
group
and l e t It be a non-empty

I t o f G . I f ( H ,* ) is also a
group then w e

say (H,-)
i s a subgroup o f (G, *

Ders notu 95 of 97
 "$"
Y
( X , * ) (4,0) be t wo If f : X →
This groups. a
Let

(Ker (f),*) is subgroup o f ✗

homomorphism, t h e n
a .

subset o f X. Let's s h ow it is
P F : Ke r ( f ) group.
a
is a

☆ op
is a s s o c . since (X,-) is a group.

Let b e the unit e l t o f (X,*)

id.cl: ens

f is
homomorphism. So e*Eker(f)
flea)
a
since
-
e ,

So is e l f. o f her( f )
id. elt. a n

wa n t : X ' Ebert)
I t . Let ✗ E d e r( f )

So f (x) -
e o

So consider f(×"/ =
f (x)" = (eo)" - e o

→
proved
before
S o ✗ "Eber (f)

✓(f),*)iscloe :

want: X , * x , Eber/f)
ker f) a-b.
let ×,,xzE

flx,_ x ) - Eff
e.

.". X , * X2 Eker(f)

Ders notu 96 of 97
 "
group?
E Le t me {(??)-m/ detim)-i} (m).) i s a

exercise

E Let ✗ =
{(%) / a ,b,c,d ER}
and mult. o f
Let +,
-
be t h e usual adition

matrices.

(×, + , - ) is it a ring?

(Ntp)
}?
µ . =
MN + MP

(Ntr)-m = n o n , pre

Ders notu 97 of 97