10 Training in Sports

Sports Training

Training is a process of preparing an individual for any event, activity or job. Usually in
sports, we use the term sports training, which denotes the sense of preparing sports
persons for the highest level of performance. According to Mathew (1981), “Sports training
is the basic form of preparation of a sportsman.” Keeping in view the aim of sports training
in competitive sports, the following objectives of sports training may be set to reach the aim

1. Personality development
2. Physical fitness and development
3. Skill/Technique development
4. Tactical development
5. Mental Training

Strength

Strength is the ability of a muscle to exert force in single muscle contraction or it is the
ability to overcome resistance. Strength is an essential component of physical fitness.
Types of strength are

1. Maximum strength
2. Explosive strength
3. Strength endurance
4. Static strength

Training Methods for Improving Strength

(i) Isometric Exercises

An isometric contraction occurs when there is tension on a muscle but no movement is

made, causing the length of the muscle to remain the same. These isometric exercises
were first introduced by Hettinger and Muller (1953). Examples of these exercises are
pressing or pushing a wall, lifting a very heavy weight, holding a static position, pulling the
rope in tug-of-wall etc.
Advantages of isometric exercises are as follows
  Develops static strength.
 Need less time.
 Can be performed anywhere because no equipment is required.

Disadvantages of isometric exercises are as follows

 Muscles gain most strength at the angle used in exercise.

 Avoid if you have heart problems as they cause a rise in blood pressure due to a drop
in blood flow to the muscle during the contraction.
 Develops dynamic strength.

(ii) Isotonic Exercises

Isotonic exercise is a form of exercise which involves controlled contraction and extension
of muscles and mobilisation of the joints around those muscles. Examples include a push-
up or squat. These were developed by De Loone (1954). Isotonic exercises are of two types

Concentric Eccentric

Advantages of isotonic exercises are as follows

 Strengthens the muscle throughout the range of motion.

 Can be adapted easily to suit different sports. Disadvantages of isotonic exercises are
as follows
 Muscle soreness after exercise because of the high stress level.
 Muscles gain the dynamic strength when they are at their weakest point of action.

(iii) Isokinetic Exercises

Isokinetic exercises are performed on specially designed machines. These exercises were
developed by Perrine in 1968.

In these exercises, there is movement along with continuous tension in both flexor and extensor
muscles e.g. swimming, cycling etc.
Advantages of isokinetic exercises are as follows

 They develop a high level of dynamic as well as explosive strength.

 These are effective for almost every game.

Disadvantages of isokinetic exercises are as follows

  They require special types of equipment.
 They must be performed under observation of a coach.

Endurance

Endurance is the ability to do sports movements with the desired quality and speed under
conditions of fatigue.
Types of endurance are

1. Aerobic Endurance Aerobic means ‘with oxygen’ During aerobic work, the body is
working at a level that the demands for oxygen and fuel can be met by the body’s
intake.
2. Anaerobic Endurance During anaerobic (without oxygen) work involving maximum
effort, the body is working so hard that the demands for oxygen and fuel exceed the
rate of supply and the muscles have to rely on the stored reserves of fuel.
3. Speed Endurance Speed endurance is used to develop the coordination of muscle
contraction.
4. Strength Endurance Strength endurance is used to develop the athlete’s capacity to
maintain the quality of his muscles’ contractile force.

Advantages of endurance are as follows

 Needs only a small amount of easy to use, accessible equipment, if any.

 Good for aerobic fitness.
 Good for losing weight.

Disadvantages of endurance are as follows

 Can be boring.
 Does not improve anaerobic fitness, so it is not as good for team games like football or
hockey which involve short bursts of speed.

Training Method for Endurance Development

1. Continuous Training
2. Interval Training
3. Fartlek Training

Advantages of training method for endurance development are as follows

 It is good for increasing strength and cardio respiratory endurance.

 Several athletics can take part in the training programme at a time.
 It does not require any equipment and can be organised easily.
  This training method is not rigid; it is flexible in nature.

Disadvantages of training method for endurance development are as follows

 The trainee does very hard training which is sometimes difficult to see his/her efforts
making.
 Sometimes the athlete is likely to drop efforts.
 As it is not pre-planned so it may cause accidents.
 An appropriate check on trainees cannot be maintained.

Speed

It is the ability to cover distance in minimum possible time or the ability to perform
movement in the shortest possible time. It is the quickness of movement of body parts.
Speed used in endurance is called speed endurance. It is the ability to do work faster.
Different types of speed are

1. Maximum speed
2. Explosive speed (power)
3. Speed endurance

Training Methods for Speed Development

A speed development programme can be framed according to need, level and training state
of the players.

1. Acceleration Run Acceleration runs are usually adopted to develop speed specially in
attaining maximum speed from a stationary position.
2. Pace Races or Run Pace races mean running the whole distance of a race at a
constant speed. In pace races, an athlete runs the race with uniform speed, generally
800 m and above.

Flexibility and Its Methods

Flexibility is . the ability to perform a joint action through a range of movements. It is needed
to perform everyday, activities with relative ease. Flexibility tends to deteriorate with age.
Without adequate flexibility, daily activities are more difficult to perform. Being flexible
significantly reduces the chance of experiencing occasional and chronic back pain.
There are two types of flexibility
 1. Passive flexibility
2. Active flexibility

Methods of flexibility development are as follows

1. Ballistic Method It is the oldest form of doing stretching exercises. This method
involves jerk in movement.
2. Slow Stretching Method In this method the muscle or joint involved is stretched to the
maximum possible limit using slow movement.
3. Slow Stretching and Holding Method It is the extension of slow stretching method.
4. Post-Isometric Stretching This method of-flexibility development is based on the
principle of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.

Coordination

Coordination is one of the main components of physical fitness. It is the ability to perform
smooth and accurate movements involving different parts of the body. It requires good
awareness of relative limb and body positions, and good integration between the senses
and muscles involved in the movement.
Different types of coordinative abilities are

1. Differentiation ability
2. Orientation ability
3. Coupling ability
4. Reaction ability
5. Balance ability
6. Rhythm ability
7. Adaptation ability

Circuit Training

It is a form of body conditioning or resistance training using high intensity aerobics. It

targets strength building and muscular endurance. Activities in circuit training are step ups,
stomach crunch, squat ups, jogging, skipping etc.
Impact of circuit training are

 Get maximum result in minimum time.

 Increases rate of metabolism.
 Enhances cardiovascular fitness.
 Enhances muscle endurance.
 Helps in strength training.

9sychology and Sports

Sports Psychology and Its Importance

The word psychology refers to the study of human behaviour and sports psychology denotes a sub-
category of psychology that deals with the behaviour of athletes and teams engaged in competitive
sports Sports psychology is important because it.

1. analyses the behaviour of sportsmen

2. identifies talent for specific sports
3. creates a better learning situation
4. stabilises the performance of athletes for a longer period
5. encourages players to make a comeback in professional sports
6. is important from the research point of view

Stress

Stress is experienced when individuals feel that they cannot cope with a situation with which they are
presented. If athletes are in a stressful situation then their athletic performance, whether this be in
competition or in training, will be affected.

Management of Stress

There are many aspects of an athlete’s life that can be stressful at certain times. By proper planning,
the level of stress that the athletes and perhaps the coach will encounter can be reduced This can be
done by following the steps given below.

 Aim to exercise regularly

 Eat healthy
 Get enough sleep
 Set realistic goals
 Accept mistakes
 Use imagination
 Take a break
 Use relaxation techniques

Coping Strategies

In psychology, coping is expending conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems
and seeking to master, minimise or tolerate stress or conflict. We are discussing here only two types
of coping strategies.

(i) Problem Focused Coping

Problem focused coping targets the causes of stress in practical ways which tackles the
problem or stressful situation that is causing stress, consequently, directly reducing the
stress. Problem focused strategies aim to remove or reduce the cause of the stressor
Problem focused strategies include.

Taking control Information seeking Evaluation

(ii) Emotion Focused Coping

It is directed towards changing one’s own emotional reaction to a stressor Emotion focused
coping strategies are effective in the management of unchangeable stressors. These coping
mechanisms involve a cognitive reappraisal process that includes self-reflection and taking
control over one’s emotions. Emotion focused strategies include.

 Keeping yourself busy to take your mind off the issue.

 Letting off steam.
 Praying for guidance and strength.
 Distracting yourself (e.g. watching TV, eating).
 Building yourself up to expect the worst.

Personality

The word personality is derived from Latin word persona meaning the mask. In ancient Greece, the
actors used to wear masks to hide their identities while portraying their roles in a theatrical play. To
an ordinary person, the word personality conveys the meaning of one’s physical appearance, his
habits, his ways of dressing, his reputation, his manners and other similar characteristics.

Types of Personality

[Sheldon and Jung Classification]

The concept of personality and its types have been formulated by many psychologists. The
personality type on the basis of physical attributes is given by William Herbert Sheldon. It is as
follows

1. Endomorph The endomorph is physically quite round, with wide hips, narrow shoulders which
makes them pear-shaped Lot of fat is spread across the body. They are sociable, fun-loving,
tolerant, even-tempered, good humoured, relaxed and love food.
 2. Ectomorph They are quite the opposite of endomorph. They have narrow shoulders and hips,
thin, narrow face, high forehead, thin, narrow chest and very little body fat. They are self-
conscious, private, introvert, socially anxious, intense, emotionally restrained and thoughtful.
3. Mesomorph They are somewhere between endomorph and ectomorph. They have large head,
broad shoulders, narrow waist (wedge shaped), muscular body, strong limbs and little body fat.
They are well proportioned. They are adventurous, courageous, assertive, bold, competitive,
with a desire to dominate, take risk, rise to power.

The personality type on mental basis is formulated by Carl Jung. These are as follows

 Extroverts Have more self-confidence, take more interest in others, are outgoing, lively and
realistic. They are very social and form friends quite easily. Actors, social and political leaders
etc belong to this group.
 Introverts Are too self-conscious, more interested in their own thoughts and ideas, self-
centered, shy, reserved and lovers of solitude. They do not make friends easily andkeep in’the’
background op social occasions. Philosophers, poets, artists and scientists belong to this class.
 Ambiverts Doubting whether people can be divided into these two extremes, he put most of the
people in this category and they-have been labelled as ‘ambiverts.’ The.ambiverts are a mixture
of both the extremes in a balanced manner. Ambiverts are neither outgoing nor reserved to
themselves. They are able to adjust themselves to any situation.

Role of Sports in Personality Development

Sports helps an individual much more than in the physical aspects alone. It builds character, teaches
and develops strategic thinking, analytical thinking, leadership skills, goal setting and risk taking. It
teaches individual to develop the following which ultimately develop the personality of the
individual

 Team spirit
 Leadership skill
 Fairplay
 Never give up
 Great leveller
 Focus
 Strength and abilities
 Process and result
 Planning
 Earnestness and sincerity
 Observation and analysis
 Positive attitude

Big Five Theory

The ‘big five’ are the broad categories of five personality traits that are universal. They are as
follows
  Extraversion It is characterised by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and
high amounts of emotional expressiveness. People high in extraversion are extroverts and low
in extraversion are introverts.
 Agreeableness This includes attributes like trust, kindness, affection and other social
behaviours. People high in agreeableness are more cooperative and people low ih this trait are
more competitive and manipulative.
 Conscientiousness Characteristics include high level of thoughtfulness, good impulse control
and goal-directed behaviours. People high on this trait are organised and mindful of details.
 Neuroticism Characteristics are sadness, moodiness and emotional instability. People high in
this trait experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability and sadness. People low in this trait are
more stable and emotionally , resilient.
 Openness Characteristics are imagination and insight. People high in this trait are creative,
adventurous and have a broad range of interests. People low in this trait are more traditional and
less in abstract thinking.


Motivation and its Types

Motivation is a process through which an individual is inspired m stimulated to act in a particular
fashion or manner towards a particular direction.

1. Internal Motivation or Intrinsic Motivation

This motivation is within an individual and guides one to perform better to satisfy one’s own
personal feelings. Internal motivation depends upon basic needs like biological needs (thirst,
hunger), social needs (family, friends etc), psychological needs (interest, attitude, love, self-esteem)
and personal needs (safety, personality, economical etc).

3. External Motivation or Extrinsic Motivation

This motivation depends upon environmental factors. External motivation has great impact on
an individual’s performance. It is of various types like

 Rewards
 Punishment
 Active participation
 Equipment and surroundings
 Teaching methods
 Audio-Visual aids
 Test-evaluations and competitions
 Teacher-pupil relationship
Techniques of Motivation

Various techniques of motivation are applied on sportspersons which can enable them to achieve the
top positions in the field of sports and games. These techniques of motivation are

1. Haying an Innovative Curriculum Many elementary skills basic to sports development have
already developed in most of the children by the time they reach primary school age.
2. Knowing Your Athlete Each athlete comes from a different background with varied
experiences and having different degrees of maturity.
3. Teacher as a Motivator A teacher or coach who has participated in the sport himself, who is
highly skilled and can demonstrate and explain the skill more accurately and can plan the next
competition wisely, is a great asset in motivating the athletes.
4. Freedom to Beginners To motivate young beginners, they should be allowed a greater degree
of freedom in their early attempts.
5. Level of Aspiration/ Goal Setting As we know that achieving performance goals is a sign of
competence that affects motivation positively, it is necessary to set realistic goals based on
one’s own abilities.
6. Identifying Incentive Factors If an athlete perceives that any particular kind of experiences
are available to him in a given sport and he feels that these will be pleasant, enjoyable or
satisfying, then he will choose to participate in that game or sport and not any other.
7. Assigning Well-Defined Roles Assigning well-defined roles to athletes enhances their
perception of self-competence.

Exercise Adherence

Exercise adherence refers to maintaining an exercise regimen for a prolonged period of time
following the initial adoption phase. Exercise adherence is voluntary, self-regulated and largely a
psychological issue.

Determinants of Exercise Adherence

1. Demographic Variables Education, income, gender, socio-economic status etc are some of the
demographic variables which determine the exercise adherence of people. Educated people
with high income are health-conscious and they are adherent with their exercising habits.
2. Spousal Support It is critical to enhance adherence rates for people in exercise programmes.
3. Group Exercising It generally produces higher levels of adherence than exercising alone. Group
exercising makes people exciting and interesting.
4. Early Involvement If people engage in sports and physical activity during childhood, they are
adherent to their exercising habits.
Reasons to Exercise

We all unconsciously know that exercise is good for us. It is fair to say that everyone wants to be
healthy. At the same time, it is probably equally fair to say that most of us are not exercising enough.
The main incentive that can make us start exercising is overall health improvement.

Here is the list of powerful reasons to exercise

1. Longevity
People who are physically active live longer. Regular exercise habit reduces the risk of dying
prematurely.

2. Weight Control
Regular physical activity helps to reach and maintain a healthy weight. Exercises speed, up, the rate
of , energy use, resulting in increased metabolism. When metabolism increases through exercise, the
body weight remains under-control.

3. Bone Strength
An active lifestyle benefits bone density. Regular weight-bearing exercise promotes bone formation,
delays bone loss and may protect against osteoporosis (form of bone loss associated with aging).

4. Strong Immune System

Regular exercise is beneficial for immune function. Exercise or physical activity may help flush
bacteria out of the lungs and airways. This increases the immunity of body and reduces chance of
getting a cold, flu or other illness.

5. Cholesterol Lowering Effect

Physical exercise favourably influences blood cholesterol levels in our body. Exercise positively
alters cholesterol metabolism by increasing the production and action of several enzymes in the
muscles and liver that function to convert some of the cholesterol to a more favourable form.

Benefits of Exercise

Exercise is defined as any movement that makes body’s muscles work and requires body to bum
calories. There are many types of physical activity, including swimming, running, jogging, walking,
dancing etc. Being active has been shown to have many health benefits, both physical and mental.
Here is the list of scientifically proven health benefits the regular exercise brings

 Exercise has been shown to improve our mood and decrease feelings of depression, anxiety and
stress. It produces changes in the parts of the brain that regulate stress and anxiety.
  Exercise plays a vital role in building and maintaining strong muscles and bones. Physical
activity like weightlifting can stimulate muscle building when paired with adequate protein
intake.
 Regular exercise has been shown to improve insulin sensitivity, cardiovascular fitness and body
composition, yet decrease blood pressure and blood fat levels.
 Exercise can provide antioxidant protection and promote blood flow, which can protect skin
and delays signs of aging.
 Exercise improves blood flow to the brain and helps health and memory. Among older adults, it
can help protect mental function.
 Exercise can help us to sleep better and feel more energised during the day.
 Exercise has favorable effects on the pain that is, associated with various conditions. It can also
increase.pain tolerance.
 Exercise is crucial to support a fast metabolism and for burning more calories per day.
 Exercise is also helpful in maintaining self-confidence.

Strategies for Enhancing Adherence to Exercise

The choice of whether of not to exercise is a daily decision Although a person’s risk of dropping out
of an exercise programme is lower when he/she has maintained participation for six months or
longer. Following should be strategies for enhancing adherence to exercise

 An individual should identify situations when he/she is likely to experience lapses in his/her
exercise programme. The most common situations include travel, holidays, illness, stress, poor
weather, and competing family obligations.
 People should use realistic plans that work with the exercise schedule and willingness.
 You should make your exercise fun, interesting, challenging and enjoyable.
 There should be adequate break during intensive exercise.
 Exercise should be scheduled with a group or club and isolated exercise habit should be
avoided.

Aggression in Sports
Aggression or aggressiveness means the intention to cause mental or physical harm to a person. This
is done by doing physical harm, showing unkind or nasty behaviour, abusing or using cruel words. A
person shows aggression due to stress, anger or even due to insecurity. Aggression may come
instantly or may build up over time. It can be positive as well as negative. According to Baron and
Richardsons, “Any form of behaviour towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being
who is motivated to avoid such treatment is aggression.”

Concept of Aggression in Sports

In sports, aggression is often seen in the field where players play aggressively. There is a desire to
excel which leads the players to play with high intensity. So aggression is positive when players play
within the rules of the game with high intensity and without harming other players.

However aggression becomes negative when players have an intention to harm other players, use
abusive language or doing other such things which are not within the laws of the game. For example,
pushing another player over a game of football or using abusive language for other players or teams.
Types of Aggression in Sports
In sports, aggression has been defined into two kinds or types. These are instrumental aggression and
hostile aggression.
1. Instrumental Aggression In instrumental aggression, the main aim is to achieve a goal by using
aggression. It is a positive form of aggression. Here the aim of the player is to excel in the sport that
he is playing through high intensity output and competitive spirit. For example, a football player
using aggression to tackle his opponent and win the ball. He is not harming any player but only using
his aggressiveness to gain the ball. Experienced players show instrumental aggression on the field as
they have greater self-control to manage their aggression.

2. Hostile Aggression In hostile aggression, the main aim is to cause harm or injury to your
opponent. It is usually an unplanned, impulsive reaction towards a player who may have become a
threat in achieving the goal. However it may also be planned to cause injury to intended player on
the field. This kind of aggression often arises from insult, hurt, bad feelings, jealousy and threat.

For example, a bowler throwing a bouncer to deliberately injure the batsman or to shake up his
concentration. In some extreme cases, hitting an opponent or deliberately obstructing his path leads
to his fall on the ground. This kind of aggression is usually seen in new players who want to achieve
success quickly. The difference between the two is that instrumental aggression is positive where the
aim is to excel by own efforts while hostile aggression is negative. Here the aim is to excel by
causing harm to others.

We hope the given CBSE Class 12 Physical Education Notes Chapter 11 Psychology and Sports and
Sports will help you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Physical Education Class 12 Notes
Chapter 11 Psychology and Sports and Sports, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at
the earliest.

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Physical Education Class 12 Notes Chapter 10 Kinesiology, Biomechanics and Sports

Axes and Planes

The body performs movements through a plane and around an axis.
Axis An axis is an imaginary line about which the body (or limb) rotates. It can be divided in
three parts

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1. Frontal Horizontal Axis Axis of the body that passes horizontally from side to side at
right angles to the sagittal plane.
2. Vertical Axis Axis of the body that passes from head to foot at right angles to the
transverse plane.
3. Sagittal Horizontal Axis Axis of the body that passes from front to rear lying at right
angles to the frontal plane.

Plane A plane is an imaginary flat surface along which a movement takes place. It can be
divided in three parts

1. Sagittal Plane A vertical plane of the body which passes from front to rear dividing the
body into two symmetrical halves.
2. Transverse Plane Any horizontal plane of i the body which is parallel to the diaphragm
also called the’horizontal plane
3. Frontal Plane Plane of the body which passes from side to side at right angles to . the
sagittal plane also called the coronal plane.
Types of Movements
Physical activity is made possible by movements and motions. Every movement takes
place, in one plane and around one axis. They are categorised by movement type as
follows

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1. Flexion It takes place when the angle decreases between the two bones attached to a
joint.
2. Extension It takes place when the angle between the two bones attached to a joint
increases. Both flexion and extension occur in the sagittal plane about the frontal axis.
3. Adduction It is a movement laterally toward the middle of the body.
4. Abduction It is a movement laterally away from the middle of the body. Both
adduction and abduction occur in the frontal plane about the sagittal axis.

Major Muscles Involved in Running, Jumping and Throwing

Educating ourselves on the muscles we use while exercising is important. The more we
know about our body, the better we can protect it by treating it with care and avoiding injury.

Running
Running on a regular basis has many benefits, including weight loss, stress relief and
maintaining a strong and healthy body. As it is one of the more physically exerting activities,
it can also cause damage to our body such as a pulled hamstring or dislocation of our knee
caps. With a little knowledge, we can help prevent these injuries with the right equipment
and by properly stretching our muscles before the run.

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Primary Muscles Used While Running
Primary muscles will get the most impact from movement and therefor? should receive
more care. Primary muscles while running will include – your quads (quadriceps femoris),
hamstrings, gluteus maximus, iliopsoas, and your calf muscles.

Quads (Quadriceps Femoris)

Quads are muscle groups of four basic muscles located on our front thighs. They are

 The rectus femoris

 The vastus medialis
 The vastus lateralis and
 The vastus intermedius.

Our quads are responsible for moving two of the joints used in running, our knee joint and
our hip joint. They work together to straighten our knees and bend our hips. If we are
interested in strengthening our quad muscles, we should consider doing squats and lunges.
Increasing strength in our muscles apart from running can decrease our risk of injury and
increase our speed.
Hamstrings and Gluteus Maximus
Our hamstrings are made up of four muscle parts on the back of our thighs. These are
known as

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 The semitendinosus
 The semimemb ranosus, and
 The biceps femoris (two parts: long head and short head).

These four parts of our hamstrings allow us to flex our knees. The semitendinosus,
semimembranosus and the long head biceps femoris work together to extend the hips. As
you may have noticed, your hamstrings work opposite your quads in how your knees and
hips move, creating a systematic medley that works well for your body.

The gluteus macimus is the largest of the gluteal muscles. You will recognise it easily as it
is the muscle that contributes most to creating the shape of the buttocks, better known as
butt or rear-end. This muscle will help you keep proper erect posture by extending your
hips.

Hip Flexors (Iliopsoas)

Our hip flexors (or iliopsoas), like our quads, is comprised of a muscle group of two muscles

 The iliacus
 The psoas major

To our right, the shortest muscle, the iliacus, begins on our pelvic crest (the iliac fossa) and
stretches over to our thigh bone (femur). The larger of the muscles, the psoas major,
stretches from our T-12 spinal vertebiae to our Lj-5 spinal vertebrae and there attaches to
the femur. These two muscles work together to help our hips flex. The iliopsoas are often
the culprit behind severe hip pain. If you experience hip pain while running, you should stop
your routine immediately, and go to see your doctor or a chiropractic specialist. Do not
begin running again until they have determined it to be safe.

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Calf Muscles
Our calf muscles are located on the back of our leg, belovv our knee. Though many
anatomists see the calf muscle to be a single muscle (triceps surae), most say that it is a
muscle group, like our quads and hip flexors. This group consists of two main muscles, the

 The gastrocnemius and

 The soleus.
Our calf muscles will allow us to flex our knee and planter flex our ankle. Like our quads,
our calf muscles can be strengthened by doing squats. Other good strength-building
exercises would include calf muscle raises and skipping!

Jumping
Only a small percentage of people has the natural ability to jump high. That is why it is
important to train properly to improve your hops if you are not among that group. Part of this
battle is knowing just what muscles are most important to lift your body off the ground. The
stronger you make them, the more power you will have to jump high.

Quadriceps
The quadriceps rest on the front of the thighs and they have four components the vastus
medialis, vastus lateralis, rectus femoris and vastus intermedius. During a jump, you
perform hip flexion and knee extension, which both activate the quadriceps. Hip flexion
takes place when you move your thigh toward your stomach knee extension takes place
when you straighten your leg. A squat is a specific exercise that can help you gain more
strength in the quads.

Hamstrings
The hamstrings are opposing muscles to the quadriceps and have an opposite function.
You activate your hamstrings through hip extension and knee flexion. Hip extension takes
place when you bend your knee and move your heel toward your butt. Hip extension also
causes you to work the glutes. From an anatomical standpoint, the hamstrings have three
parts: the biceps, femoris, semimembranosus. All parts get activated during the lowering
phase and the explosive phase of a jump. A squat works the hamstrings, but you can place
more emphasis on them by doing a lunge.

Hip Flexors
The hip flexors run from the lower stomach to the top of the thighs. They consist of the
psoas major and iliacus, and because of this, they are often referred to as the iliopsoas. As
the name implies, these muscles get activated when you flex your hip, in similar fashion to
the quads. Although these muscles are small, they are important for explosive motions like
sprinting and jumping. A lying leg raise is a good exercise to strengthen the hip flexors.

Calves
The calves have two parts : the gastrocnemius and soleus. The gastrocnemius has a lateral
head and medial head and it is easily seen on the back of the leg right below the knee. The
soleus sits anterior, or in front of the gastrocnemius. Both parts function to plantar-flex the
foot. This motion occurs when you jump off the ground and point your toes downward.
Jumping rope is a good cardiovascular exercise to train these muscles because of the
repetitive hopping you do on your toes. A tuck jump is a good exercise to work your calves
because it is specific to jumping.
Throwing
Following are the muscles which are used while throwing any thing like ball, football etc. .

Shoulder Muscles
The deltoids are the muscles of your shoulder, which play a crucial role in rotating your aim.
Always warm up adequately by performing arm circles to avoid injuring your rotator cuff,
while performing shoulder exercises.

Triceps
Your triceps are located on the back of your upper arm and aid in the process of extending
your arm at the elbow. This action helps you release the ball with force and push it in the
desired direction. To strengthen your triceps efficiently, perform exercises such as triceps
pushdowns with a rope or pulley and close-grip bench presses.

Latissimus Dorsi
Your latissimus dorsi, often referred to as your lats, are located on either side of your spine.
These large muscles help produce force for throwing and help transfer energy from your
legs to your upper body. Among the best exercises for strengthening your lats are pull ups,
seated cable rows, and bent-over barbell rows.

Abdominals
While many people exercise their abdominal muscles in hopes of attaining a six-pack, this
muscle group is highly functional as well. A strong core facilitates the transfer of power from
your lower body to your upper body, enabling your throws to benefit from the strength of
your legs. Among the best exercises for your abs are hanging leg raises and swiss ball
crunch.

Quadriceps
The quadriceps is the major muscle group located on the front of your thigh. This large
group of muscle tissue helps you power the ball toward your intended target as you step
into your throw. Among the most effective exercises for the quadriceps are the barbell step-
up, barbell lunge and barbell squats, which also work your abdominal muscles.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Sir Issac Newton made three laws of motion which are explained below

1. Newton’s First Law of Motion This law is also known as law of inertia. This law states
that a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will remain in motion at the
same speed and in the same direction till any external force is applied on it to change
that state.
2. Newton’s Second Law of Motion This law states that the rate of change in
acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force producing it and inversely
proportional to its mass.
 3. Newton’s Third Law of Motion This law states that to every action, there is always an
equal apd opposite reaction. This law . describes what happens to a body when it
exerts a force on another body. These three laws are still being used to this day to
describe the kinds of objects and speeds that we encounter in everyday life.

Application of Laws of Motion in Sports

First Law

1. Softball The ball is hit into the air. Eventually, gravity will act on the ball, pulling it down
to the ground. Then, it will roll until friction between the ball and the grass stops it.
2. Soccer When a soccer ball is kicked into the air, gravity will pull it back to the ground.
Then, it will continue to roll until friction between the ball and the grass slows it down.
3. Dance When a dancer leaps, he/she only stays in the air for a short amount of time
because air resistance and gravity works against them.
4. Basketball When a basketball is shot, it takes a parabolic path due to gravity acting on
it. Then it slows down due to air resistance and fluid friction.

Second Law
If a baseball player hits a ball with double the force, the rate at which the ball will accelerate
(speed up) will be doubled. Football players can slow down, stop or reverse the direction of
other players depending upon how much force they can generate and in which direction.

Third Law
A swimmer propels herself through the water because the water offers enough counterforce
to oppose the action of her hands pushing, allowing her to move. An athlete can jump
higher off a solid surface because it opposes his body with as much force as he is able to
generate, in contrast to sand or other unstable surface.

Projectile and Factors Affecting Projectile Trajectory

A projectile has a single force that acts upon it-the force of gravity. If there were any other
force acting upon an object then that object would not be a projectile. Projectile motion
refers to the motion of an object projected into the air at an angle.

Factors Affecting Projectile Trajectory

When the human body or an object is projected through space, three forces influence the
course of flight

1. Propelling Force The propelling force produces certain effects depending upon its point
and direction of application. If the application is directly through the projectile’s centre
of gravity, only linear motion results from the force. As the propelling force is moved
farther from the centre of gravity, rotatory motion of the object increases at the
expense of linear motion.
 2. Force of Gravity As soon as contact is broken with a projected object, the force of
gravity begins to diminish the upward velocity of the object. Finally, gravity overcomes
the effects of the upward component of the projectile and the object begins to descend.
3. Effects of Air Resistance As the speed of an object increases, air resistance has a
greater retarding effect.

Friction
The force acting along two surfaces in contact which opposes the motion of one body over
the other is called the force of friction.
Friction is of two types

1. Static Friction The opposing force that comes into play when one body tends to move
over the another surface but the actual motion has yet not started is called static
friction.
2. Dynamic Friction It is the friction between two surfaces that are in relative motion with
respect to each other. It is the opposing force that comes into play when one body is
actually moving over the surface of another body.

Methods of Reducing Friction

1. Polishing By polishing the surfaces in contact, they become smooth and the force of
friction reduces. Many implements like the discus are painted to reduce friction.
2. Lubrication The lubrication of surfaces makes them slippery and this reduces the force
of friction.
3. Streamlining Friction due to air is reduced by streamlining the shape of the body. The
aroplanes are made with a sharp front to reduce friction.
4. Use of Ball Bearings Ball bearings are used to reduce the force of friction. Many sports
require more friction and other need lesser friction. In athletics, the shoes are designed
to increase friction so that better speed can be generated.