Unit-2

Relational model, Algebra and calculus

The relational model:

RELATIONAL MODEL

Relational model is simple model is simple model in which database is represented as a

collection of “relations” where each relation is represented by two-dimensional table.

The relational model was founded by E.F.Codd of the IBM in 1972.The basic concept in
the relational model is that of a relation.

Properties:

o It is column homogeneous. In other words, in any given column of a table, all

items are of the same kind.
o Each item is a simple number or a character string. That is a table must be in first
normal form.
o All rows of a table are distinct.
o The ordering of rows with in a table is immaterial

The column of a table is assigned distinct names and the ordering of these columns in immaterial.
Domain, attributes tuples and relational:

Tuple:

Each row in a table represents a record and is called a tuple .A

table containing ‘n’attributes in a record is called is called n-tuple.
Attributes:

The name of each column in a table is used to interpret its

meaning and is called anattribute.Each table is called a relation.
In the above table, account_number, branch name, balance are the attributes.
Domain:

A domain is a set of values that can be given to an attributes. So

every attribute in a table has a specific domain. Values to these
attributes can not be assigned outsidetheir domains.
Relation:

A relation consist of
o Relational schema
o Relation instance

Relational schema:

A relational schema specifies the relation’ name, its attributes and

the domain of eachattribute. If R is the name of a relation and
A1,A2,… and is a list of attributes representing R then
R(A1,A2,…,an) is called a relational schema. Each attribute in
this relational schema takes a value from some specific domain
called domain(Ai).
Example:

PERSON(PERSON_IDinteger,NAME:
STRING,AGE:INTEGER,ADDRESS:string)
Total number of attributes in a relation denotes the degree of a
relation.since the PERSON relation schemea contains four
attributes ,so this relation is of degree 4.

Relation Instance:

A relational instance denoted as r is a collection of tuples for

a given relationalschema at a specific point of time.
A relation state r to the relations schema R(A1,A2…,An) also
denoted by r® is a setof n-tuples
R{t1,t2,…tm}
 Where each n-tuple is an
ordered list of n values
T=<v1,v2,….vn>
Where each vi belongs to domain (Ai) or contains null values.
The relation schema is also called ‘intension’ and the relation
state is also called ‘extension’.
Eg:

Relation schema for student:

STUDENT(rollno:strinhg,name:string,city:string,age:integer

Relation instance:
Student:
Rollno Name City Age
101 Sujit Bam 23
102 kunal bbsr 22

Keys:
Super key:
A super key is an attribute or a set of attributes used to identify the records uniquely in a relation.

For example , customer-id,(cname,customer-id),(cname,telno)

Candidate key:
Super keys of a relation can contain extra attributes . candidate keys are minimal super keys. i.e,
such a key contains no extraneous attribute. An attribute is called extraneous if even after
removing it from the key, makes the remaining attributes still has the properties of a key.

In a relation R, a candidate key for R is a subset of the set of attributes of R,

which have the following properties:
 Uniqueness: no two distinct tuples in R have the same values for
the candidate key
 Irreducible: No proper subset of the candidate key has the
uniqueness property that is the candidate key.
 A candidate key’s values must exist. It can’t be null.
 The values of a candidate key must be stable. Its value can not change
outside the control of the system.

Eg: (cname,telno)
Primary key:
The primary key is the candidate key that is chosen by the database designer as
the principal means of identifying entities with in an entity set. The remaining
candidate keys if any are called alternate key.
RELATIONAL CONSTRAINTS:
There are three types of constraints on relational database that include
o DOMAIN CONSTRAINTS
o KEY CONSTRAINTS
o INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS

DOMAIN CONSTRAINTS:
It specifies that each attribute in a relation an atomic value from the
corresponding domains. The data types associated with commercial RDBMS
domains include:
Standard numeric data types for integer
o Real numbers
o Characters
o Fixed length strings and variable length strings
Thus, domain constraints specifies the condition that we to put on each instance of the relation. So the values that
appear in each column must be drawn from the domain associated with that column.
Rollno Name City Age
101 Sujit Bam 23
102 kunal bbsr 22

Key constraints:
This constraints states that the key attribute value in each tuple msut be unique .i.e, no two tuples
contain the same value for the key attribute.(null values can allowed)

Emp(empcode,name,address) . here empcode can be unique

Integrity constraints:

There are two types of integrity constraints:

o Entity integrity constraints
o Referential integrity constraints

Entity integrity constraints:

It states that no primary key value can be null and unique. This is because the primary key is used to
identify individual tuple in the relation. So we will not be able to identify the records uniquely
containing null values for the primary key attributes. This constraint is specified on one individual
relation.

Referential integrity constraints:

It states that the tuple in one relation that refers to another relation must refer to an existing tuple in
that relation. This constraints is specified on two relations .
If a column is declared as foreign key that must be primary key of another table.

Department(deptcode,dname) Here the deptcode is the primary key.

Emp(empcode,name,city,deptcode). Here the deptcode is foreign key.
 CODD'S RULES

Rule 1 : The information Rule.

"All information in a relational data base is represented explicitly at the logical level and in exactly
one way - by values in tables."
Everything within the database exists in tables and is accessed via table access routines.
Rule 2 : Guaranteed access Rule.
"Each and every datum (atomic value) in a relational data base is guaranteed to be logically
accessible by resorting to a combination of table name, primary key value and column name."
To access any data-item you specify which column within which table it exists, there is no reading
of characters 10 to 20 of a 255 byte string.
Rule 3 : Systematic treatment of null values.
"Null values (distinct from the empty character string or a string of blank characters and distinct
from zero or any other number) are supported in fully relational DBMS for representing missing
information and inapplicable information in a systematic way, independent of data type."
If data does not exist or does not apply then a value of NULL is applied, this is understood by the
RDBMS as meaning non-applicable data.
Rule 4 : Dynamic on-line catalog based on the relational model.
"The data base description is represented at the logical level in the same way as-ordinary data, so
that authorized users can apply the same relational language to its interrogation as they apply to the
regular data."
The Data Dictionary is held within the RDBMS, thus there is no-need for off-line volumes to tell
you the structure of the database.
Rule 5 : Comprehensive data sub-language Rule.
"A relational system may support several languages and various modes of terminal use (for
example, the fill-in-the-blanks mode). However, there must be at least one language whose
statements are expressible, per some well-defined syntax, as character strings and that is
comprehensive in supporting all the following items
 Data Definition
 View Definition
 Data Manipulation (Interactive and by program).
 Integrity Constraints
 Authorization.
Every RDBMS should provide a language to allow the user to query the contents of the RDBMS
and also manipulate the contents of the RDBMS.
Rule 6 : .View updating Rule
"All views that are theoretically updateable are also updateable by the system."
Not only can the user modify data, but so can the RDBMS when the user is not logged-in.
Rule 7 : High-level insert, update and delete.
"The capability of handling a base relation or a derived relation as a single operand applies not only
to the retrieval of data but also to the insertion, update and deletion of data."
The user should be able to modify several tables by modifying the view to which they act as base
tables.
Rule 8 : Physical data independence.
"Application programs and terminal activities remain logically unimpaired whenever any changes
are made in either storage representations or access methods."
The user should not be aware of where or upon which media data-files are stored
Rule 9 : Logical data independence.
"Application programs and terminal activities remain logically unimpaired when information-
preserving changes of any kind that theoretically permit un-impairment are made to the base tables."
User programs and the user should not be aware of any changes to the structure of the tables (such
as the addition of extra columns).
Rule 10 : Integrity independence.
"Integrity constraints specific to a particular relational data base must be definable in the relational
data sub-language and storable in the catalog, not in the application programs."
If a column only accepts certain values, then it is the RDBMS which enforces these constraints and
not the user program, this means that an invalid value can never be entered into this column, whilst
if the constraints were enforced via programs there is always a chance that a buggy program might
allow incorrect values into the system.
Rule 11 : Distribution independence.
"A relational DBMS has distribution independence."
The RDBMS may spread across more than one system and across several networks, however to the
end-user the tables should appear no different to those that are local.
Rule 12 : Non-subversion Rule.
"If a relational system has a low-level (single-record-at-a-time) language, that low level cannot be
used to subvert or bypass the integrity Rules and constraints expressed in the higher level relational
language (multiple-records-at-a-time)."
Enforcing Integrity Constraints in DBMS
Introduction

Integrity constraints are rules that specify the conditions that must be met for the data in a database to be considered
valid. These constraints help to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the data by limiting the values that can be entered for
a particular attribute and specifying the relationships between entities in the database.

There are several types of integrity constraints that can be enforced in a DBMS:

 Domain constraints: These constraints specify the values that can be assigned to an attribute in a database. For
example, a domain constraint might specify that the values for an "age" attribute must be integers between 0 and
120.

 Participation constraints: These constraints specify the relationship between entities in a database. For example, a
participation constraint might specify that every employee must be assigned to a department.

 Entity integrity constraints: These constraints specify rules for the primary key of an entity. For example, an entity
integrity constraint might specify that the primary key cannot be null.

 Referential integrity constraints: These constraints specify rules for foreign keys in a database. For example, a
referential integrity constraint might specify that a foreign key value must match the value of the primary key in
another table.

 User-defined constraints: These constraints are defined by the database administrator and can be used to specify
custom rules for the data in a database.

Ways to Enforce Integrity Constraints

There are several ways to enforce integrity constraints in a DBMS:

 Declarative referential integrity: This method involves specifying the integrity constraints at the time of database
design and allowing the DBMS to enforce them automatically.

 Triggers: A trigger is a special type of stored procedure that is executed automatically by the DBMS when certain
events occur (such as inserting, updating, or deleting data). Triggers can be used to enforce integrity constraints by
checking for and rejecting invalid data.

 Stored procedures: A stored procedure is a pre-defined set of SQL statements that can be executed as a single unit.
Stored procedures can be used to enforce integrity constraints by performing checks on the data before it is inserted,
updated, or deleted.

 Application-level code: Integrity constraints can also be enforced at the application level by writing code to check for
and reject invalid data before it is entered into the database.

It is important to carefully consider the appropriate method for enforcing integrity constraints in a DBMS in order to ensure
the accuracy and consistency of the data.
Querying relational data:
A relational database query is a question about the data, and the
answer consists of a new relation containing the result. For example,
we might want to find all students AGE less than 18 or all students
enrolled in perticular course.
The SELECT statement is used to fetch the data from a database
table which returns this data in the form of a result table. These
result tables are called result-sets.
Syntax in Mysql
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
If you want to select all the fields available in the table, use the
following syntax:
Syntax in Mysql
SELECT * FROM table_name;
The symbol ´*´ means that we retain all fields of selected tuples in
the result.
We can retrieve rows corresponding to students who are younger
than 18 withthe following SQL query:
Example:
SELECT * FROM Students WHERE age < 18;
The condition age < 18 in the WHERE clause specifies that we want
to select only tuples in which the age field has a value less than 18.
In addition to selecting a subset of tuples, a query can extract a
subset of the fields of each selected tuple. we can compute the
student_id and First_name of students who are younger than 18
with the following query:
Example:
SELECT ID,FirstName FROM Students WHERE age < 18;
SQL Aliases
Aliases are the temporary names given to tables or columns. An alias
is created with the AS keyword.
Alias Column Syntax in Mysql
SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name;

Alias Table Syntax in Mysql

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name AS alias_name;

Example:
SELECT studentID AS ID,
FROM students AS S;
Aliases can be useful when:
 There are more than one table involved in a query
  Functions are used in the query
 Column names are big or not very readable
 Two or more columns are combined togeth
SELECT data from Multiple Tables
We can also combine information from multiple tables.
Syntax in Mysql
SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2
FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.column1 = table2.column1;
Example:
SELECT S.name, E.cid
FROM Students AS S, Enrolled AS E
WHERE S.sid = E.sid;

Logical database design:

A Logical Database is a special type of ABAP (Advance Business
Application and Programming) that is used to retrieve data from
various tables and the data is interrelated to each other. Also, a logical
database provides a read-only view of Data.

Structure Of Logical Database:

A Logical database uses only a hierarchical structure of tables i.e. Data
is organized in a Tree-like Structure and the data is stored as records
that are connected to each other through edges (Links). Logical
Database contains Open SQL statements which are used to read data
from the database. The logical database reads the program, stores
them in the program if required, and passes them line by line to the
application program.

Structure of Logical database

Features of Logical Database:

In this section, let us look at some features of a logical database:

 We can select only that type of Data that we need.

 Data Authentication is done in order to maintain security.

  Logical Database uses hierarchical Structure due to this data
integrity is maintained.

Goal Of Logical Database:

The goal of Logical Database is to create well-structured tables that
reflect the need of the user. The tables of the Logical database store
data in a non-redundant manner and foreign keys will be used in tables
so that relationships among tables and entities will be supported.

Tasks Of Logical Database:

Below is some important task of Logical Database:

 With the help of the Logical database, we will read the same data
from multiple programs.

 A logical database defines the same user interface for multiple

programs.

 Logical Database ensures the Authorization checks for the

centralized sensitive database.

 With the help of a Logical Database, Performance is improved.

Like in Logical Database we will use joins instead of multiple
SELECT statements, which will improve response time and this will
increase the Performance of Logical Database.

Data View Of Logical Database:

Logical Database provides a particular view of Logical Database tables.
A logical database is appropriately used when the structure of the
Database is Large. It is convenient to use flow i.e
  SELECT

 READ

 PROCESS

 DISPLAY

In order to work with databases efficiently. The data of the Logical

Database is hierarchical in nature. The tables are linked to each other in
a Foreign Key relationship.

Diagrammatically, the Data View of Logical Database is shown as:

Points To Remember:

 Tables must have Foreign Key Relationship.

  A logical Database consists of logically related tables that are
arranged in a hierarchical manner used for reading or retrieving
Data.

 Logical Database consist of three main elements:

 Structure of Database

 Selections of Data from Database

 Database Program

 If we want to improve the access time on data, then we use

VIEWS in Logical Database.

Example:
Suppose in a University or College, a HOD wants to get information
about a specific student. So for that, he firstly retrieves the data about
its batch and Branch from a large amount of Data, and he will easily get
information about the required Student but didn’t alter the information
about it.
Advantages Of Logical Database:
Let us look at some advantages of the logical database:

 In a Logical database, we can select meaningful data from a large

amount of data.

 Logical Database consists of Central Authorization which checks

for Database Accesses is Authenticated or not.

 In this Coding, the part is less required to retrieve data from the
database as compared to Other Databases.
  Access performance of reading data from the hierarchical
structure of the Database is good.

 Easy to understand user interfaces.

 Logical Database firstly check functions which further check that

user input is complete, correct, and plausible.

Disadvantages Of Logical Database:

This section shows the disadvantages of the logical database:

 Logical Database takes more time when the required data is at the
last because if that table which is required at the lowest level then
firstly all upper-level tables should be read which takes more time
and this slows down the performance.

 In Logical Database ENDGET command doesn’t exist due to this

the code block associated with an event ends with the next event
statement.

Views:
Views in SQL

o Views in SQL are considered as a virtual table. A view also

contains rows and columns.

o To create the view, we can select the fields from one or more
tables present in the database.

o A view can either have specific rows based on certain condition or

all the rows of a table.

Advantages of View:
1. Complexity: Views help to reduce the complexity. Different views
can be created on the same base table for different users.

2. Security: It increases the security by excluding the sensitive

information from the view.

3. Query Simplicity: It helps to simplify commands from the user. A

view can draw data from several different tables and present it as
a single table.

4. Consistency: A view can present a consistent, unchanged image of

the structure of the database. Views can be used to rename the
columns without affecting the base table.

5. Data Integrity: If data is accessed and entered through a view, the

DBMS can automatically check the data to ensure that it meets
the specified integrity constraints.

6. Storage Capacity: Views take very little space to store the data.

7. Logical Data Independence: View can make the application and

database tables to a certain extent independent.

Disadvantages of View:

The DML statements which can be performed on a view created

using single base table have certain restrictions are:

1. You cannot INSERT if the base table has any not null column that
do not appear in view.

2. You cannot INSERT or UPDATE if any of the column referenced in

the INSERT or UPDATE contains group functions or columns
defined by expression.
3. You can't execute INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE statements on a view
if with read only option is enabled.

4. You can't be created view on temporary tables.

5. You cannot INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE if the view contains group

functions GROUP BY, DISTINCT or a reference to a psuedocolumn
rownum.

6. You can't pass parameters to the SQL server views.

7. You can't associate rules and defaults with views.

Sample table:

Student_Detail

STU_ID NAME ADDRESS

1 Stephan Delhi

2 Kathrin Noida

3 David Ghaziabad

4 Alina Gurugram

Student_Marks

STU_ID NAME MARKS AGE

1 Stephan 97 19
 2 Kathrin 86 21

3 David 74 18

4 Alina 90 20

5 John 96 18

1. Creating view

A view can be created using the CREATE VIEW statement. We can

create a view from a single table or multiple tables.

Syntax:

1. CREATE VIEW view_name AS

2. SELECT column1, column2.....

3. FROM table_name

4. WHERE condition;

2. Creating View from a single table

In this example, we create a View named DetailsView from the

table Student_Detail.

Query:

1. CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS

2. SELECT NAME, ADDRESS

3. FROM Student_Details
4. WHERE STU_ID < 4;

Just like table query, we can query the view to view the data.

1. SELECT * FROM DetailsView;

Output:

NAME ADDRESS

Stephan Delhi

Kathrin Noida

David Ghaziabad

3. Creating View from multiple tables

View from multiple tables can be created by simply include

multiple tables in the SELECT statement.

In the given example, a view is created named MarksView from

two tables Student_Detail and Student_Marks.

Query:

1. CREATE VIEW MarksView AS

2. SELECT Student_Detail.NAME, Student_Detail.ADDRESS, Student_

Marks.MARKS

3. FROM Student_Detail, Student_Mark

4. WHERE Student_Detail.NAME = Student_Marks.NAME;

To display data of View MarksView:

1. SELECT * FROM MarksView;

NAME ADDRESS MARKS

Stephan Delhi 97

Kathrin Noida 86

David Ghaziabad 74

Alina Gurugram 90

4. Deleting View

A view can be deleted using the Drop View statement.

Syntax

1. DROP VIEW view_name;

Example:

If we want to delete the View MarksView, we can do this as:

1. DROP VIEW MarksView;

Significance of Views:

Views are highly significant, as they can provide advantages over

tasks. Views can represent a subset of data contained in a table.
Consequently they can limit the degree of exposure of the
underlying base table to the outer world. They are used for
security purpose in database and act as an intermediate between
 real table schemas and programmability. They act as aggregate
tables.

Types of Views:

There are two types of views.

1. Join View: A join view is a view that has more than one table or
view in its from clause and it does not use any Group by Clause,
Rownum, Distinct and set operation.

2. Inline View: An inline view is a view which is created by replacing

a subquery in the from clause which defines the data source that
can be referenced in the main query. The sub query must be given
an alias for efficient working.

SQL ALTER TABLE:

The ALTER TABLE statement in Structured Query Language allows
you to add, modify, and delete columns of an existing table. This
statement also allows database users to add and remove various
SQL constraints on the existing tables.

Any user can also change the name of the table using this
statement.

ALTER TABLE ADD Column statement in SQL

In many situations, you may require to add the columns in the

existing table. Instead of creating a whole table or database again
 you can easily add single and multiple columns using the ADD
keyword.

Syntax of ALTER TABLE ADD Column statement in SQL

1. ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name column-definition;

The above syntax only allows you to add a single column to the
existing table. If you want to add more than one column to the
table in a single SQL statement, then use the following syntax:

1. ALTER TABLE table_name

2. ADD (column_Name1 column-definition,

3. column_Name2 column-definition,

----------------------------------------------

4. column_NameN column-definition);

Examples of ALTER TABLE ADD Column statement in SQL

Here, we have taken the following two different SQL examples,

which will help you how to add the single and multiple columns in
the existing table using ALTER TABLE statement:
 Example 1: Let's take an example of a table named Cars:

Car Color rate

Hyundai Creta White 10,85,000

Hyundai White 9,50,000

Venue

Hyundai i20 Red 9,00,000

Kia Sonet White 10,00,000

Kia Seltos Black 8,00,000

Swift Dezire Red 7,95,000

Table: Cars

o Suppose, you want to add the new column Car_Model in the

above table. For this, you have to type the following query in the
SQL:

1. ALTER TABLE Cars ADD Car_Model Varchar(20);

This statement will add the Car_Model column to the Cars table.

Example 2: Let's take an example of a table named Employee:

Emp_Id Emp_Name Emp_Salary Emp_City

201 Abhay 25000 Goa

 202 Ankit 45000 Delhi

203 Bheem 30000 Goa

204 Ram 29000 Goa

205 Sumit 40000 Delhi

Table: Employee

o Suppose, you want to add two

columns, Emp_ContactNo. and Emp_EmailID, in the above
Employee table. For this, you have to type the following query in
the SQL:

1. ALTER TABLE Employee ADD ( Emp_ContactNo. Number(13), Emp

_EmailID varchar(50) ;

This statement will add Emp_ContactNo. and Emp_EmailID

columns to the Employee table.

ALTER TABLE MODIFY Column statement in SQL

The MODIFY keyword is used for changing the column definition

of the existing table.

Syntax of ALTER TABLE MODIFY Column statement in SQL

1. ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name column-

definition;

This syntax only allows you to modify a single column of the

existing table. If you want to modify more than one column of the
table in a single SQL statement, then use the following syntax:
1. ALTER TABLE table_name

2. MODIFY (column_Name1 column-definition,

3. column_Name2 column-definition,

4. .....

5. column_NameN column-definition);

Examples of ALTER TABLE MODIFY Column statement in SQL

Here, we have taken the following two different SQL examples,

which will help you how to modify single and multiple columns of
the existing table using ALTER TABLE statement:

Example 1: Let's take an example of a table named Cars:

Car Name Car Car Cost

Color

Hyundai White 10,85,000

Creta

Hyundai White 9,50,000

Venue

Hyundai i20 Red 9,00,000

Kia Sonet White 10,00,000

Kia Seltos Black 8,00,000

 Swift Dezire Red 7,95,000

Table: Cars

o Suppose, you want to modify the datatype of

the Car_Color column of the above table. For this, you have to
type the following query in the SQL:

1. ALTER TABLE Cars ADD Car_Color Varchar(50);

Example 2: Let's take an example of a table named Employee:

Emp_Id Emp_Name Emp_Salary Emp_City

201 Abhay 25000 Goa

202 Ankit 45000 Delhi

203 Bheem 30000 Goa

204 Ram 29000 Goa

205 Sumit 40000 Delhi

Table: Employee

o Suppose, you want to modify the datatypes of two

columns Emp_ContactNo. and Emp_EmailID of the above
Employee table. For this, you have to type the following query in
the SQL:

1. ALTER TABLE Employee ADD ( Emp_ContactNo. Int, Emp_EmailID

varchar(80) ;
ALTER TABLE RENAME Column statement in SQL:
The RENAME keyword is used for changing the name of columns or
fields of the existing table.

Syntax of ALTER TABLE RENAME Column statement in SQL

1. ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME COLUMN old_name to new_n

ame;

Examples of ALTER TABLE RENAME Column statement in SQL

Here, we have taken the following two different SQL examples,

which will help you how to change the name of a column of the
existing table using ALTER TABLE statement:

Example 1: Let's take an example of a table named Cars:

Car Name Car Color Car Cost

Hyundai Creta White 10,85,000

Hyundai Venue White 9,50,000

Hyundai i20 Red 9,00,000

Kia Sonet White 10,00,000

Kia Seltos Black 8,00,000

Swift Dezire Red 7,95,000

Table: Cars
o Suppose, you want to change the name of the Car_Color column
of the above Cars table. For this, you have to type the following
query in the SQL:

1. ALTER TABLE Cars RENAME COLUMN Car_Color to Colors;

This statement will change the name of a column of the Cars table.
To see the changes, you have to type the following query:

1. SELECT * FROM Cars;

Car Name Car Color Car Cost

Hyundai Creta White 10,85,000

Hyundai Venue White 9,50,000

Hyundai i20 Red 9,00,000

Kia Sonet White 10,00,000

Kia Seltos Black 8,00,000

Swift Dezire Red 7,95,000

Table: Cars

Example 2: Let's take an example of a table named Employee:

Emp_Id Emp_Name Emp_Salary Emp_City

201 Abhay 25000 Goa

202 Ankit 45000 Delhi

203 Bheem 30000 Goa

204 Ram 29000 Goa

205 Sumit 40000 Delhi

Table: Employee

o Suppose, you want to change the name of the Emp_City column

of the above Employee table. For this, you have to type the
following query in the SQL:

1. ALTER TABLE Employee RENAME COLUMN Emp_City to Emp_Add

ress;

This statement will change the name of a column of the Employee

table. To see the changes, you have to type the following query:

1. SELECT * FROM Employee;

Emp_Id Emp_Name Emp_Salary Emp_Address

201 Abhay 25000 Goa

202 Ankit 45000 Delhi

203 Bheem 30000 Goa

204 Ram 29000 Goa

205 Sumit 40000 Delhi

Table: Employee

Destroying tables:

Drop

Truncate

ALTER TABLE DROP Column statement in SQL

In many situations, you may require to delete the columns from the
existing table. Instead of deleting the whole table or database you
can use DROP keyword for deleting the columns.

Syntax of ALTER TABLE DROP Column statement in SQL

1. ALTER TABLE table_name DROP Column column_name ;

Examples of ALTER TABLE DROP Column statement in SQL

Here, we have taken the following two different SQL examples,

which will help you how to delete a column from the existing table
using ALTER TABLE statement:

Example 1: Let's take an example of a table named Cars:

Car Name Car Color Car Cost

Hyundai Creta White 10,85,000

Hyundai Venue White 9,50,000

Hyundai i20 Red 9,00,000

Kia Sonet White 10,00,000

Kia Seltos Black 8,00,000

Swift Dezire Red 7,95,000

Table: Cars

o Suppose, you want to delete the Car_Color column from the

above table. For this, you have to type the following query in the
SQL:

1. ALTER TABLE Cars DROP COLUMN Car_Color ;

o Let's check using the following statement that the Car_Color

column is deleted from the table or not:

1. SELECT * FROM Cars;

Car Name Car Cost

Hyundai Creta 10,85,000

Hyundai Venue 9,50,000

Hyundai i20 9,00,000

Kia Sonet 10,00,000

Kia Seltos 8,00,000

Swift Dezire 7,95,000

Table: Cars

SQL DROP TABLE

A SQL DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a table definition and

all data from a table.

This is very important to know that once a table is deleted all the
information available in the table is lost forever, so we have to be
very careful when using this command.

Let's see the syntax to drop the table from the database.

1. DROP TABLE "table_name";

Let us take an example:

First we verify STUDENTS table and then we would delete it from the
database.

1. SQL> DESC STUDENTS;

FIELD TYPE NULL KEY DEFAULT EXTRA

ID Int(11) NO PRI

NAME Varchar(20) NO

AGE Int(11) NO

ADDRESS Varchar(25) YES NULL

1. 4 rows in set (0.00 sec)

This shows that STUDENTS table is available in the database, so we

can drop it as follows:

1. SQL>DROP TABLE STUDENTS;

Now, use the following command to check whether table exists or

not.

1. SQL> DESC STUDENTS;

1. Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.01 sec)

As you can see, table is dropped so it doesn't display it.

SQL DROP TABLE Example in MySQL

Let's see the command to drop a table from the MySQL database.

1. DROP TABLE table_name;

SQL DROP TABLE Example in Oracle

Let's see the command to drop a table from Oracle database. It is

same as MySQL.

1. DROP TABLE table_name;

SQL DROP TABLE Example in Microsoft SQLServer

Let's see the command to drop a table from SQLServer database. It is
same as MySQL.

1. DROP TABLE table_name;

SQL DELETE TABLE

The DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. If you

want to remove a specific row from a table you should use WHERE
condition.

1. DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

But if you do not specify the WHERE condition it will remove all the
rows from the table.

1. DELETE FROM table_name;

There are some more terms similar to DELETE statement like as

DROP statement and TRUNCATE statement but they are not exactly
same there are some differences between them.

Difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE statements

There is a slight difference b/w delete and truncate statement.

The DELETE statement only deletes the rows from the table based
on the condition defined by WHERE clause or delete all the rows
from the table when condition is not specified.

But it does not free the space containing by the table.

The TRUNCATE statement: it is used to delete all the rows from the
table and free the containing space.
Let's see an "employee" table.

Emp_id Name Address Salary

1 Aryan Allahabad 22000

2 Shurabhi Varanasi 13000

3 Pappu Delhi 24000

Execute the following query to truncate the table:

1. TRUNCATE TABLE employee;

Difference b/w DROP and TRUNCATE statements

When you use the drop statement it deletes the table's row together
with the table's definition so all the relationships of that table with
other tables will no longer be valid.

When you drop a table:

o Table structure will be dropped

o Relationship will be dropped

o Integrity constraints will be dropped

o Access privileges will also be dropped

On the other hand when we TRUNCATE a table, the table structure

remains the same, so you will not face any of the above problems.

SQL TRUNCATE TABLE

A truncate SQL statement is used to remove all rows (complete data)
from a table. It is similar to the DELETE statement with no WHERE
clause.

TRUNCATE TABLE Vs DELETE TABLE

Truncate table is faster and uses lesser resources than DELETE TABLE
command.

TRUNCATE TABLE Vs DROP TABLE

Drop table command can also be used to delete complete table but
it deletes table structure too. TRUNCATE TABLE doesn't delete the
structure of the table.

Let's see the syntax to truncate the table from the database.

1. TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

For example, you can write following command to truncate the data
of employee table

1. TRUNCATE TABLE Employee;

Relational Algebra:
Relational algebra is a procedural query language. It gives a step by
step process to obtain the result of the query. It uses operators to
perform queries.
Types of Relational operation

1. Select Operation:

o The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.

o It is denoted by sigma (σ).

1. Notation: σ p(r)

Where:

σ is used for selection prediction

r is used for relation
p is used as a propositional logic formula which may use connectors
like: AND OR and NOT. These relational can use as relational
operators like =, ≠, ≥, <, >, ≤.

For example: LOAN Relation

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Downtown L-17 1000

Redwood L-23 2000

Perryride L-15 1500

Downtown L-14 1500

Mianus L-13 500

Roundhill L-11 900

Perryride L-16 1300

Input:

1. σ BRANCH_NAME="perryride" (LOAN)

Output:

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Perryride L-15 1500

Perryride L-16 1300

2. Project Operation:
o This operation shows the list of those attributes that we wish to
appear in the result. Rest of the attributes are eliminated from
the table.

o It is denoted by ∏.

1. Notation: ∏ A1, A2, An (r)

Where

A1, A2, A3 is used as an attribute name of relation r.

Example: CUSTOMER RELATION

NAME STREET CITY

Jones Main Harrison

Smith North Rye

Hays Main Harrison

Curry North Rye

Johnson Alma Brooklyn

Brooks Senator Brooklyn

Input:

1. ∏ NAME, CITY (CUSTOMER)

Output:
NAME CITY

Jones Harrison

Smith Rye

Hays Harrison

Curry Rye

Johnson Brooklyn

Brooks Brooklyn

3. Union Operation:

o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The union operation

contains all the tuples that are either in R or S or both in R & S.

o It eliminates the duplicate tuples. It is denoted by ∪.

1. Notation: R ∪ S

A union operation must hold the following condition:

o R and S must have the attribute of the same number.

o Duplicate tuples are eliminated automatically.

Example:

DEPOSITOR RELATION
CUSTOMER_NAME ACCOUNT_NO

Johnson A-101

Smith A-121

Mayes A-321

Turner A-176

Johnson A-273

Jones A-472

Lindsay A-284

BORROW RELATION

CUSTOMER_NAME LOAN_NO

Jones L-17

Smith L-23

Hayes L-15

Jackson L-14

Curry L-93
Smith L-11

Williams L-17

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∪ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSI

TOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

Johnson

Smith

Hayes

Turner

Jones

Lindsay

Jackson

Curry

Williams
Mayes

4. Set Intersection:

o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection

operation contains all tuples that are in both R & S.

o It is denoted by intersection ∩.

1. Notation: R ∩ S

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∩ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSI

TOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

Smith

Jones

5. Set Difference:

o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection

operation contains all tuples that are in R but not in S.

o It is denoted by intersection minus (-).

1. Notation: R - S

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) -
∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

Jackson

Hayes

Willians

Curry

6. Cartesian product

o The Cartesian product is used to combine each row in one table

with each row in the other table. It is also known as a cross
product.

o It is denoted by X.

1. Notation: E X D

Example:

EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT

1 Smith A

2 Harry C

3 John B

DEPARTMENT

DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME

A Marketing

B Sales

C Legal

Input:

1. EMPLOYEE X DEPARTMENT

Output:

EMP_I EMP_NAM EMP_DEP DEPT_N DEPT_NAM

D E T O E

1 Smith A A Marketing

1 Smith A B Sales

1 Smith A C Legal
2 Harry C A Marketing

2 Harry C B Sales

2 Harry C C Legal

3 John B A Marketing

3 John B B Sales

3 John B C Legal

7. Rename Operation:

The rename operation is used to rename the output relation. It is

denoted by rho (ρ).

Example: We can use the rename operator to rename STUDENT

relation to STUDENT1.

1. ρ(STUDENT1, STUDENT)

Relational Calculus:
There is an alternate way of formulating queries known as Relational
Calculus. Relational calculus is a non-procedural query language. In
the non-procedural query language, the user is concerned with the
details of how to obtain the end results. The relational calculus tells
what to do but never explains how to do. Most commercial
relational languages are based on aspects of relational calculus
including SQL-QBE and QUEL.
Why it is called Relational Calculus?

It is based on Predicate calculus, a name derived from branch of

symbolic language. A predicate is a truth-valued function with
arguments. On substituting values for the arguments, the function
result in an expression called a proposition. It can be either true or
false. It is a tailored version of a subset of the Predicate Calculus to
communicate with the relational database.

Many of the calculus expressions involves the use of Quantifiers.

There are two types of quantifiers:

o Universal Quantifiers: The universal quantifier denoted by ∀ is

read as for all which means that in a given set of tuples exactly all
tuples satisfy a given condition.

o Existential Quantifiers: The existential quantifier denoted by ∃ is

read as for all which means that in a given set of tuples there is at
least one occurrences whose value satisfy a given condition.

Before using the concept of quantifiers in formulas, we need to

know the concept of Free and Bound Variables.

A tuple variable t is bound if it is quantified which means that if it

appears in any occurrences a variable that is not bound is said to be
free.

Free and bound variables may be compared with global and local
variable of programming languages.

Types of Relational calculus:

1. Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC)

It is a non-procedural query language which is based on finding a

number of tuple variables also known as range variable for which
predicate holds true. It describes the desired information without
giving a specific procedure for obtaining that information. The tuple
relational calculus is specified to select the tuples in a relation. In
TRC, filtering variable uses the tuples of a relation. The result of the
relation can have one or more tuples.

Notation:

A Query in the tuple relational calculus is expressed as following

notation

1. {T | P (T)} or {T | Condition (T)}

Where

T is the resulting tuples

P(T) is the condition used to fetch T.

For example:

1. { T.name | Author(T) AND T.article = 'database' }

Output: This query selects the tuples from the AUTHOR relation. It
returns a tuple with 'name' from Author who has written an article
on 'database'.

TRC (tuple relation calculus) can be quantified. In TRC, we can use

Existential (∃) and Universal Quantifiers (∀).

For example:

1. { R| ∃T ∈ Authors(T.article='database' AND R.name=T.name)}

Output: This query will yield the same result as the previous one.

2. Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)

The second form of relation is known as Domain relational calculus.

In domain relational calculus, filtering variable uses the domain of
attributes. Domain relational calculus uses the same operators as
tuple calculus. It uses logical connectives ∧ (and), ∨ (or) and ┓ (not).
It uses Existential (∃) and Universal Quantifiers (∀) to bind the
variable. The QBE or Query by example is a query language related
to domain relational calculus.

Notation:
1. { a1, a2, a3, ..., an | P (a1, a2, a3, ... ,an)}

Where

a1, a2 are attributes

P stands for formula built by inner attributes

For example:

1. {< article, page, subject > | ∈ dbms ∧ subject = 'database'}