Introduction to Power Measurement

In a d.c. circuit if VL is the voltage supplied to load and It is the load current then the d .o load power is given
by the product of the load Supply voltage VL and the load current it Thus employing voltmeter and ammeter,
power can be measured.

Necessity of Wattmeter

Consider the circuit using voltmeter and ammeter for the measurement of power, as shown In the Fig. 3.1.

The ammeter measures the load current IL and there is voltage drop VA = ILRA across the ammeter where
RA is the ammeter resistance.

Hence the product of ammeter and voltmeter does not give correct power consumed by the load.

If the voltmeter is shifted across the load to measure the load voltage, the circuit becomes as shown in the
Fig. 3.2
Now voltmeter is across the load, it measures VL correctly but ammeter measures current I which is sum of
IL and Iv.

Thus by any method, the power measured is higher than the power actually consumed by the load, The
power loss in the instrument near the load causes the error.

A. C. Power

In an a.c. circuit, the instantaneous power fluctuates with time and is the product of the instantaneous values
of voltage and current in the circuit.
The above expression shows that only ammeter and voltmeter is not sufficient to measure power. The
measurement of cosΦ is also required.

Therefore in a.c. circuits also, the wattmeter is used which senses the angle between voltage and current and
directly gives the power consumption of the circuit in watts considering the effect of cosΦ into account.

Let us study the electrodynamometer principle as the wattmeters used are generally of electrodynamometer
type.

Electrodynamometer Type Instruments

The electrodynamometer type instrument is a transfer instrument A transfer instrument is one which is
calibrated with a d.c. source and used without any modifications for a.c measurements, Such a transfer
instrument has same accuracy for A.C and d.c measurements. The electrodynamometer type instruments are
often used in accurate a.c voltmeters and ammeters, not only at the powerline frequency but also in the lower
audio frequency range. with some little modifications, it can be used as a wattmeter for the power
measurements.

Why PMMC instruments can not be used for a.c measurements?

The PMMC instrument cannot be used on a.c. currents or voltages If a.c. supply is given lo these
instruments, an alternating torque will be developed Due to moment of inertia of the moving system, the
pointer will not follow the rapidly changing alternating torque and will fail to show any reading. in order that
the instrument should be able to read a.c. quantities, the magnetic field in the air gap must change along with
the change in current. This principle is used in the electrodynamometer type instrument. Instead of a
permanent magnet, the electrodynamometer type instrument uses the current under measurement to produce
the necessary field flux.

Construction

The Fig. 3.3 shows the construction of the electrodynamometer type Instrument.

The various parts of the electrodynamometer type instrument are:

Fixed Coils: The necessary field required for the operation of the instrument is produced by the fixed coils.
A uniform field is obtained near the center of coil due to division of coil in two sections, These coils are air
cored. Fixed coils are wound with fine wire for using as voltmeter, while for ammeters and wattmeters it is
wound with heavy wire. The coils are usually vanished. They are clamped in place against the coil supports.
This makes the construction rigid. Ceramic is usually used for mounting supports If metal parts would have
been used then it would weaken the field of the fixed coil.
Moving coil: The moving coil is wound either as a self-sustaining coil or else on a non-metallic former, If
metallic former is used, then it would induce eddy currents in it The construction of moving coil is made
light as well as rigid. İt is air cored.

Controlling:The controlling torque İS provided by springs, these springs act as leads to the moving coil.

Moving system: The moving coil is mounted on an aluminium spindle. it consists of counter weights and
pointer Sometimes a suspension may be used, in case a high accuracy is desired.

Damping:The damping torque is provided by air friction, by a pair of aluminium vanes which are attached
to the spindle at the bottom. They move in sector shaped chambers. As operating field would be distorted by
eddy current damping, it is not employed.

Shielding:The field produced by these instruments is very weak. Even earth's magnetic field considerably
affects the reading. So shielding is done to protect it from stray magnetic fields. It is done by enclosing in a
casing of high permeability alloy

Cases and Scales:Laboratory Standard instruments are usually contained in polished wooden or metal cases
which are rigid the case is supported by adjustable leveling screws.

A spirit level may be provided to ensure proper leveling.

For using electrodynamometer instrument as ammeter, fixed and moving coils are connected in series and
carry the same current. A suitable shunt is connected to these coils to limit current through them up to
desired limit The electrodynamometer instruments can be used as a voltmeter by connecting the fixed and
moving coils in series with a high non-inductive resistance. it is most accurate type of voltmeter.

For using electrodynamometer Instrument as a wattmeter to measure the power, the fixed coils acts as a
current coil and must be connected in series with the load The moving coil acts as a voltage coil or pressure
coil and must be connected across the supply terminals. The wattmeter indicates the supply power When
current passes through the fixed and moving coils, both coils produce the magnetic fields. The field
produced by fixed coil proportional to the load current while the field produced by the moving coil is
proportional to the voltage. As the deflecting torque is produced due to the interaction of these two fields,
the deflection is proportional to the power supplied to the load.

Torque Equation

Let

I1 = Instantaneous value of current in fixed coil.

I2= Instantaneous value of current in moving coil

L1 = Self inductance of fixed coils

L2 = Self-inductance of moving coil

M - Mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils

The electrodynamometer instrument can be represented by an equivalent circuit as shown in the Fig. 3.4.

Energy input = Energy stored Mechanical energy

Mechanical energy = Energy input - Energy stored

Substracting (2) from (1),

PreviousNext

Single Phase Dynamometer wattmeter

An electrodynamometer type wattmeter is used to measure power. it has two coils, fixed coil which is
current coil and moving coil which is pressure coil or voltage coil The current coil carries the current of the
circuit while pressure coil carries current proportional to the voltage in the circuit This is achieved by
connecting a series resistance in voltage circuit. The connections of an electrodynamometer wattmeter in the
circuit are shown in the Fig. 3.6.

Torque Equation

According to theory of electrodynamics instruments,

PreviousNext

Shape of Scale of Dynamometer wattmeter

Thus the deflection is directly proportional lo power being measured and the scale is uniform over the range
in which (dM / dθ) remains constant. Practically the wattmeter are designed such that dM/dθ remains almost
constant over a range of 40° to 50° on either side of zero mutual inductance position. The M varies linearity
in this zone with respect to θ Thus if zero mutual inductance position is kepi in the middle of the scale then
M varies linearity for the deflections upto 80 o to 100° and thus scale is uniform over the range of 80° to 100 o.
Practically this covers the entire scale range. The shape of scale and variation in mutual inductance is shown
in the Fig. 3.8.
Errors in wattmeter

Practically there are errors in dynamometer wattmeter due to pressure coil parameters such as inductance,
capacitance and due to method of connections. Some corrections are to be applied to compensate for these
errors.

Error due to Pressure coil Inductance

In case of Ideal wattmeter, the current in the pressure coil is in phase with the applied voltage because
thispressure coil is assumed to be purely resistive without any reactance. But if it is having Inductance the
current in the pressure coil lags behind the supply voltage by some angle, Because of this, an error is
introduced in the measurement of true power by the wattmeter. Some correction factor must be applied to
gel exact reading from wattmeter. This can be derived as given below,

Let the current in the pressure coil circuit is lagging behind the supply voltage by an angle β.

If we assume that the load power factor to be lagging then the corresponding phasor diagram is as shown in
the Fig. 3-9, From the Fig. 3.9 we have,
Error due to Pressure Coil Inductance

In addition to Inductance of pressure coil there may be capacitance due to interterm capacitance of the series
resistance. The effect of capacitance is exactly opposite lo that of Inductance. Thus the wattmeter reads low
on lagging power factors.

The phase angle between pressure coil current and applied voltage depends upon the reactance of the
pressure coil circuit The inductive reactance is normally greater than capacitive reactance, thus the phase
angle increases with increase in frequency. If the capacity reactance of the pressure coil circuit is equal to its
inductive reactance, there will be no error due to these effects since the two errors will neutralize each other.

Error Due to Method of Connectlon

There are two ways of connecting wattmeter in a given circuit These are respectively shown in the Fig. 3.12
(a) and (b).

Because of the power loss in the current and pressure coils, error Ls introduced in the measurement of
power.

in connection shown in the Fig. 3-12 (a), pressure coil is connected on the supply side and therefore the
voltage applied to the pressure coil İs the voltage across the load plus the voltage drop across current coil.
Thus wattmeter measures power loss in Its current coil in addition to power consumed by load.
Power indicated by wattmeter = Power consumed by load Power loss in current coil

Power indicated by wattmeter = Power consumed by load I2RC

If wattmeter connections are as shown in the Fig. 3.12 (b) the current coil is on supply side and hence it
carries pressure coil current plus the load current. Thus wattmeter reads in addition to power consumed in
load, the power loss in pressure coil.

Power indicated by wattmeter = Power consumed Power loss in by load pressure coil circuit = Power
consumed V2/ Rp by load

with small load current, the voltage drop in current coil is small so connections in Fig- 3-12 (a) introduces
small error Alternatively i( load current is large, the pressure coil current is very small as compared with
load current, Hence power loss in pressure coil circuit is small as compared with power consumed by load.
Thus connection shown in Fig. 3.12 (a) İs preferable for small currents while for large currents the
connections shown in Fig. 3.12 (b) are preferable.

But if load current is high and the power factor is small, connection shown in Fig 3.12 (b) results in large
error as the total power measured is small. in this case a compensating coil may be used for compensation of
error which is explained further in low power factor wattcmeters.

Eddy Current Errors

The current coil produces an alternating magnetic field because of which eddy currents are induced in the
solid metal parts and within the thickness of the conductors. These currents produce field and tries to reduce
flux produced by current coil The phase angle between fluxes in current coil and potential coil is increased
which decreases the deflecting torque produced by the instrument for lagging power factors.

The wattmeter reads low for lagging power factors and reads high for leading power factors. To minimize
this error, solid metal parts are avoided as far as possible.

Standard conductors are used for the current coil if it carries large current. Thus in practice a special type of
wattmeter called low power factor wattmeter (LPF) is used.

Low Power Factor Electrodynamics Type wattmeter

If any circuit is operating at low power factor then power in that circuit is difficult to measure with ordinary
electrodynamometer wattcmeters. The reading of the wattmeter is inaccurate on account of following
reasons,

1. The deflecting torque on the moving system is small as the power factor is low even though the current
and pressure coils are fully excited.

2. The inductance of pressure coil introduces considerable error at low power factors.
in order to get accurate reading from the wattmeter when it is measuring low power, extra adjustments are
required to be made so that there will be compensation of the errors.

When power to be measured is low then the current in the circuit is high as the power factor is low. Thus in
this case pressure coil cannot be connected to supply side as otherwise large error will be produced because
of large current flowing in current coil and corresponding power loss in current coil circuit is measured by
wattmeter.

If pressure coil is connected to load side, power consumed by pressure coil İs measured by wattmeter
which is appreciable in comparison with power to be measured which is small. Hence it is necessary to
compensate for pressure coil current in low power factor wattmeter. The compensated wattmeter is shown in
Fig. 3.13

As shown in the Fig. 3.13 the compensating coil is connected in series with the potential coil and is made as
identical and coincident with current coil as possible. The current coil carries current I I p and produces Its
own field Proportional to this current. The compensating coil carries current lp and produces field
proportional to this current.

This field acts in opposite direction to the field produced by current coil.

Thus the resultant field is due to current 1 only. Hence error due to pressure coil current is neutralized.

Thus at no load condition, the wattmeter should not deflect as the resultant current coil field is zero.
in case of low power factor wattmeter, the pressure coil circuit is designed for low resistance to increase the
current flowing through it so as to have increased torque. in low power factor wattmeter the value of
pressure coil current is 10 times the current in case of high power factor wattcmeters.

We have already seen in previous section that the pressure coil inductance introduces error whose magnitude
is given by VIsinΦtan β. If power factor is low then Φ is large and hence sin£ is large. Thus the error
introduced In the measurement is appreciable which must be compensated. It iscompensated by connecting a
capacitor across a part of series resistance in the pressure coil circuit which is shown in the fig.3.14.

Power In Three Phase System

In a three phase system, the load can be star connected or delta connected having impedance per phase as,

The reactance Xphmay be positive or negative depending on inductive or capacitive load. It is positive for
inductive and negative for capacitive load.

For any load, star or delta connected, the three phase total power is given by,
The wattmeter’s must be properly connected In a three phase system to measure the total power.

Examples of wattmeter Connections and Corresponding Readings

Case i) : Consider delta connected Inductive load and wattmeter connected as shown to measure power.

This is not a phase power reading

Single or One wattmeter Method

This can be only used for balanced three phase load. When the load is balanced, total power can be
calculated as,

Hence one wattmeter is to be used to measure single phase power and then reading is to be multiplied by
three.

Key Point ; wattmeter must be connected in such a way that its current coil must carry I rhand Its current coil
must be across Vph.

Star Connected Load

This can be achieved by connecting wattmeter as shown in the Fig, 3,18,

But voltage coil must be connected so as to measure Vph i.e. as shown in the Fig. 3.18 i.e. voltage coil
across one tine terminal and other to a neutral point.

Delta Connected Load

Three wattmeter Method

If the load is unbalanced then we can use three wattcmeters which will measure power consumed In each
phase and then all the three readings can be added to get the total power. If load İs unbalanced, power
consumed in each phase will be different and hence three wattmeters are necessary. The connections of the
wattmeter are exactly similar to the connection of one wattmeter.

The connections for Star connected load can be shown as in the Fig 3.22

The connections for Delta connected load can be shown as in the Fig. 3.23

In this method, the power can be measured for unbalanced load but the disadvantages of requirement of
neutral point for star load and arrangement for insertion of current coil in closed deltastill continues.

Key Point: Thus practically single wattmeter as well as three wattmeter methods are rarely used for the
industrial loads, due lo their limitations

Blondel's Theorem

Blondel's Theorem
The Blondel's theorem is about number of wattmeter’s required in a polyphase system for the measurement
of total power.

It states that, If a network is supplied using n conductors, the total power is the sum of the readings of n
wattmeter’s so arranged that a current coil of each wattmeter is In each line and the corresponding pressure
coil is connected between that line and a common point If the common point İs located on one of the lines
then the power may be measured by (n – 1) wattmeters. Thus in a three phase system if common point for
connecting pressure coils is located on one of the lines then only 2 wattmeter’s are sufficient for measuring
the power. This is called two wattmeter method.

Two wattmeter Method:-Method of Connection:

The current coils of the two wattmeter’s are connected in any two lines while the voltage coil of each
wattmeter is connected between its own current coil terminal and the line without a current coil. For
example, the current coils are inserted in the lines R and Y then the pressure coils are connected between RB
for one wattmeter and Y-B for other wattmeter, as shown in the Fig, 3 24. The connections are same for star
or delta connected load. it can be shown that when two wattmeter’s are connected in this way, the algebraic
sum of the two wattmeter readings gives the total power dissipated in the three phase circuit.

Proof of Two wattmeter Method:- Consider star connected load and two vvattmeters connected as shown
in the Fig.3.24.

a) For unbalanced load:- Let us consider the instantaneous values of different-current and voltages.

Note that the r.m.s values are indicated in capital letters like I R, VRY ete. While instantaneous values are
indicated in small letters like Ir, Vry ete.

it is important to note that wattmeter gives average value which is if Icand Vpc are
r.m.s. values of current though current coil and voltage across voltage coil, respectively And instantaneously
wattmeter reads just the product of Instantaneous values of current through current coil and voltage across
pressure coil

According to the connections shown in the Fig. 3.24 instantaneously W 1 and W2 will show following
readings,
Power Factor Calculation by Two wattmeter Method

In case of balanced load, the p.f. can be calculated from W1 and W2 readings.

For Ieading p.f. we get tanΦ negative. But cosine of negative angle is positive.

Effect of P.F. on wattmeter Readings

In the case discussed above W1 will show positive reading with normal connections while W 2 will try to
deflect in negative direction and hence W 2 reading must be obtained by reversing connections of either of the
two coils and must be taken as negative,

So on wattmeter Wı = W2 but W2 must be taken as negative as this reading will be obtained by reversing
connections of any one coil.

Modified Version of 2 wattmeter Method as One wattmeter Method

This method can be used only for balanced loads. In this method, only one wattmeter is used. Its current coil
is introduced in any one line while its voltage coil is connected to other two lines, one after the other in
sequence, with the help of two way switch.

The sum of the two readings gives us total active power in three phase circuit Its connection can be shown as
in the Fig. 3.31.

In the Fig, 3.31 current coil is introduced in

line R and hence it carries current IR.

while one end of pressure coil is connected to

‘R' only and second end gets connected to ‘Y’
when switch is in position 1 and gets
connected to ‘B’ when switch is in position 2.

Assume Star Connected Load : Let us find the

two readings on that wattmeter. Assume load
having p.i. cosΦ lagging.
Key Point : Any unbalanced condition of the load may create large errors in this method hence not preferred
over 2 wattmeter method.

One wattmeter Method for Reactive Volt-amperes Measurement

This can be used for balanced load. in this method, current coil of wattmeter is connected in any one line
and pressure coil is connected across remaining two lines The connection is as shown in the Fig. 3.33.
Extension of Range of wattmeter using Instrument Transformers

For very high voltage circuits, the high rating wattmeters are not available to measure the power. The range
of wattmeter can be expended using instrument transformers. in such high voltage circuits.

The connections are shown in the Fig. 3.35.

The primary winding of C.T. is connected in series with the load and secondary is connected in series with
an ammeter and the current coil of a wattmeter.

The primary winding of P.T is connected across the supply and secondary is connected across voltmeter and
the pressure coil of the wattmeter. One secondary terminal of each transformer and the casings are grounded.

Now both CT. and PT, have errors like ratio error and phase angle error For precise measurements, these
errors must be considered. If not considered, these errors may cause inaccurate measurements. The
correction must be applied to such errors to get the accurate results.

Phasor Diagrams and Correction Factors

The phasor diagrams for lagging and leading P.f. loads are shown In the Fig. 3.36 (a) and (b) respectively.

Lagging power factor; For lagging p.f., 0 is positive i.e. ls loads reversed I while phase of P.T may be
positive or negative i.e. δ can be positive or negative. For phasor diagram shown in Fıg. 336 (a) δ is negative
i.e Vs lags reversed V hence,

Leading power factor: For leading p.f. the Φ is given by,

Correction Factor : The correction factor, neglecting transformation ratio errors is,
Measurement of Energy

The energy is defined as the power delivered over a time interval,

Energy = Power x Time

The electrical energy is defined as the work done over a time interval t and mathematically expressed as,

where v = voltage in volts and i = current in amperes

The energy is measured in joules 0) or watt-sec (W-s). Thus energy of one joule means the power of 1 watt
over a time interval of 1 second.

An electrical energy can also be expressed in the unit watt-hour (Wh) or kitowatt-hour (kwh). Thus one
kilowatt-hour energy means the expenditure of 1 kW power over a time interval of 1 hour. The domestic
electric energy expenditure is measured in kWh and 1 kWh is called l unit of energy.

Single Phase Energymeter

Induction type instruments are most commonly used as energy meters. Energy meter is an integrating
instrument which measures quantity of electricity. Induction type of energy meters are universally used for
domestic and industrial applications.

These meters record the energy in kilowatt-hours (kWh), The Fig. 4.1 (See Fig. 4.1 on next page) shows the
induction type single phase energy meter it works on the principle of induction i.e. on the production of eddy
currents in the moving system by the alternating fluxes. These eddy currents induced in the moving system
interact with each other to produce a driving torque due to which disc rotates to record the energy.
There are four main parts of operating mechanism,

1) Driving system 2) Moving system 3) Braking system 4) Registering system.

1) Driving system: it consists of two electromagnets whose core is made up of silicon steel laminations. The
coil of one of the electromagnets, called current coil, is excited by load current which produces flux further.
The coil of another electromagnet is connected across the supply and it carries current proportional lo supply
voltage.

This coil is called pressure coil. These two electromagnets are called series and shunt magnets respectively

The flux produced by shunt magnet İs brought in exact quadrature with supply voltage with the help of
copper shading bands whose position is adjustable.

2) Moving system: Light aluminium disc mounted in a light alloy shaft is the main part of moving system,
This disc is positioned in between series and shunt magnetic At is supported between jewel bearings. The
moving system runs on hardened steel pivot A pinion engages the shaft with the continuing mechanism.
There are no springs and no controlling torque,

3) Braking system : A permanent magnet is placed near the aluminium disc for braking mechanism, This
magnet reproduced Its own field, The disc moves in the field of this magnet and a braking torque is obtained.
The position of this magnet is adjustable and hence braking torque is adjusted by shifting this magnet to
different radial positions, This magnet is called Braking magnet,

4) Registering mechanism It records continuously a number which is proportional to the revolutions made
by the aluminium disc By a suitable system, a train of reduction gears, the pinion on the shaft drives a series
of pointers. These pointers rotate on round dials which are equally marked with equal divisions, Practically
the pointer type registering mechanism is used, The pointer indicates one kWh when the disc completes
certain number of revolutions, The second dial represents 10 kWh, third 1(H) kWh while on the other sides,
dials measuring 1/100 and 1/10 kwh are also provided. The Fig, 4,2 (a) shows the pointer type register while
the Fig. 4.2 (b) shows the cyclometer type register. In some meters the cyclometer type registering
mechanism is used,

PreviousNext
Theory of Single Phase Induction Type Energy meter

Theory of Single Phase Induction Type Energy meter

Since the pressure coil is carried by shunt magnet M 2 which is connected across the supply, it carries current
proportion. it to the voltage. Series magnet M1 carries current coil which carries the load current Both these
coils produce alternating fluxes Φ sh and Φse Respectively. These fluxes are proportional to currents in their
coils. Parts of each of these fluxes link with the disc and induces e.m.f. in it, Due to these e.m.f. eddy
currents are induced in the disc The eddy current induced by the electromagnet M 2 react with magnetic field
produced by M1. Also eddy currents induced by electromagnet Mı react with magnetic field produced by M 2.
Thus each portion of the disc experiences a mechanical force and due to motor action, disc rotates. The
speed of disc is controlled by the C shaped magnet called braking magnet. When disc rotates in the air gap,
eddy currents are induced in disc which opposes the cause producing them i.e relative motion of disc with
respect to magnet. Hence braking torque T b generated. This is proportional to speed N of disc. By adjusting
position of this magnet, desired speed of disc is obtained. Spindle is connected to recording mechanism
through gears which record the energy supplied.

A simple functional diagram of driving mechanism is shown in the Fig. 4.3.

The current Ip produces the total flux Φpt which has tv/o components Φg and Φp. The major portion is Φg
which flows through the side gaps as the reluctance of this part is very small While Φp flows across the air
gap and across the disc and is responsible to produce the eddy e.m.f. E p in the disc which produces the eddy
current lep in the disc. The Φp is small and is in phase with Ip. it is proportional to Ip and hence to supply
voltage V as it produces Ip through pressure coil. Φ p lags the supply voltage V by an angle slightly less than
90o. The current coil carries the load current I and produces the flux Φs. This is proportional to I and in phase
with it. This flux is responsible to induce eddy e.m.f. E es in the disc which produces the eddy current Iw in
the disc. This interacts with the flux Φ P to produce the torque while the eddy current I cp interacts with Φp to
produce the torque. These two torques are opposite in direction and the net torque produced is the difference
between these two torques.

Torque Equation

The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 4.4

Errors and Compensations

Errors and Compensations

There are various errors present in the single phase induction type energymeter.

The driving system can cause the errors due lo inaccurate phase angles, abnormal frequencies, effect of
temperature on the resistance and unsymmetrical magnet circuit, The braking system also can cause error
due to change in the strength of the braking magnet, change in resistance of the disc, abnormal friction of
moving disc ete. To get accurate reading, these errors are required to be compensated. Hence some
adjustments are provided in the energymeter to minimize these errors.

Lag Adjustment or Power Factor Adjustment

It is absolutely necessary that meter should measure correctly for all power factor conditions of the loads.
This is possible when the flux produced due to current in the pressure coil lags the applied voltage by 90°.
But the iron loss and resistance of winding do not allow the flux to lag by exact 90° with respect to the
voltage.

The arrangement used to adjust this angle to be 90° is called lag adjustment A magnetic shunt circuit is
introduced in the device which allows the main portion of the shunt magnet flux to bypass the gap in which
the disc rotates. it is possible to produce an m.m.f, in the proper phase relation to the shunt magnet flux to
bring Φsh i.e. Φp in exact quadrature with the voltage.

This is shown in the Fig. 4.5. The lag coil is used in addition to shunt coil The lag coil is few turns of fairly
thick wire placed around the central limb of the shunt magnet. The part of shunt flux i,e. Φ p links with the lag
coil to induce an e.m.f. in it. This produces the lag coil current IL.
This current produces a m.m.f. AT L in phase with IL. Thus now the phase of Φ p is decided by the combined
m.m,f, of lag coil and shunt coil. This can be adjusted by adjusting the resistance connected across the lag
coil. when resistance increases, current and m.m.f. of lag coil decreases which decreases the value of the lag
angle of coil hence Φsh lag behind the voltage by exactly 90°.

Instead of lag coil and resistance, many time copper shading bands are placed on the central limb of the
shunt magnet. These bands are adjustable. By moving these bands along the axis of the central limb, the lag
adjustment can be achieved. When bands are moved upwards, the e.m.f. induced in them increases
increasing the m.m.f. produced, hence lag angle increases.

when bands are moved down, the m.m.f. produced by the bands decreases which decreases the lag angle.
Thus the Φ can be brought in exact quadrature with the voltage V. This adjustment is also called power
factor adjustment, quadrature adjustment or inductive load

Light Load Adjustment or Friction Adjustment

Light Load Adjustment or Friction Adjustment

In spite of proper design of the bearings and registering mechanism, there is bound of exist some friction.
Due to this, speed of the meter gets affected which cause the error in the measurement of the energy. To
compensate for this, a metallic loop or strip is provided between central limb of shunt magnet and the disc
Due to this strip an additional torque independent of load is produced which acts on the disc in the direction
of rotation. This compensates for the friction and meter can be made to read accurately. This is shown as
L2 In the Fig. 4.6.
The shading loop L2 is also called light load plate. The interaction between the portions of the flux which are
shaded and unshaded by this loop and the currents they induce in the disc generates a small driving torque
whose value can IH adjusted by lateral movement of the loop 1.2- This additional driving torque overcomes
the frictional error This torque is practically independent of the load and depends on line voltage hence
remains constant The friction error is dominant at rated voltage and very low current i.e. at light loads. The
shading loop can be moved laterally to adjust the speed to provide necessary compensation.

Creeping Adjustment

In some meters, the disc rotates slowly and continuously when there is no load, the rotation of disc without
any current through current coil and only due to excitation of pressure coil is called creeping. This is due to
friction overcompensation The torque produce due to light load adjustment may keep disc rotating. To
prevent creeping, two holes are drilled in the disc, 180° opposite to each other. When the hole comes under
the shunt magnet pole, It gets acted upon by a torque opposite to its rotation. This is shown In the Fig. 4.7

When a hole comes under the shunt magnet, the circular eddy current paths in the disc get distorted. This
distortion is responsibly to produce torque in opposite direction to the rotation of the disc. This stops
creeping. The torque is not very large so as to cause errors under normal operating conditions. In some cases,
a small piece of iron is attached to the edge of the disc. The force of attraction of the braking magnet on the

iron piece is responsible to prevent rotation of disc on no loads.

Overload Compensation

When the disc rotates In the field of series magnetic field under load conditions, it cuts the series flux and
dynamically, e.m.f. is induced in the disc. This produces eddy currents in the disc which interacts with series
magnet flux to produce braking torque. This is proportional to square of the current. This is called self
braking torque and at large loads its value is very high, causing serious errors in the measurement To
minimize this braking torque, the fulli load speed of the disc is kept very low about 10 r.p.m, The current
coil series flux is kept minimum compared to shunt magnet flux. Practically an overload compensating
device in the form of a saturable magnetic shunt for the series magnet core is used. This is shown in the Fig.
4.8.

At high loads, magnetic shunt saturates and diverts some of the series magnetic flux. This compensates for
the self braking torque.

Three Phase Energymeter

Three Phase Energymeter

In a three phase, four wire system, the measurement of energy is to be carried out by a three phase energy
meter. For three phase, three wire system, the energy measurement can be carried out by two element energy
meter, the connections of which are similar to the connections of two wattmeter’s for power measurement in
a three phase, three wire system. So these meters are classified as i) three element energymeter and ii) two
element energymeter.

Three Phase Energymeter

This meter consists of three elements. The construction of an individual element is similar to that of a single
phase energy meter. The pressure coils are denoted as P 1, P2 and P3, The current coils are denoted as C 1,
C2 and C3. All the elements are mounted in a vertical line in common case and have a common spindle,
gearing and registering mechanism. The coils are connected in such a manner that the net torque produced is
sum of the torques due to all the three elements, These are employed for three phase, four wire System w
here fourth wire is a neutral wire. The current coils are connected in series with the lines while pressure coils
are connected across a line and a neutral. Fig. 4.9 shows a three phase energymeter,
One unit of three element three phase element is always cheaper than three units of single phase
energymeter. But due to interaction between eddy currents produced by one element with the flux produced
by another element there may be errors in the measurement by three phase energymeter. Such errors may be
reduced by suitable adjustments.

Two Element Energymeter

The Fig. 4.10 shows a two element energymeter and a simplified connection diagram.

Use of C.T and PT. in Energy Measurement

Use of C.T and PT. in Energy Measurement

The single phase energymeter connections are exactly similar to the connectional of a wattmeter along with
C.T and P.T for power measurement as shown in Fig. 3.60.

The pressure coil of wattmeter is replaced by pressure coil of energymcter and current coil of wattmeter is
replaced by current coil of energymeter. The Fig. 4.13 shows a two element energymeter with C.T. and PT.

The connections with three element, three phase energymeter are shown in the Fig- 4.14.

But three phase energymeter connections along with CT. and P.T. are little bit different than single phase but
the basic principle of extending the ranges by using CT and P,T remains the Same,
Merz Price Maximum Demand Indicator

The meters used to record the maximum power consumed by the consumer during a particular period are
called maximum demand indicators.

The merz price maximum demand indicator is available as a unit together with an energymeter. The
energymeter records total energy consumption while the maximum demand indicator indicates the maximum
value of the average power over equal intervals of time.

Construction

it consists of a special disc mechanism which drives the pointer through gearing arrangement, which is
coupled to the energymeter spindle. The dial system is coupled to the energymeter spindle for a fixed
interval of time Generally this time interval İs of 30 minutes duration. After the end of this interval, reset
device resets the driving mechanism bringing to zero position. But the pointer is held by special friction
device which indicates the energy consumed during that interval of time.
This pointer position remains fixed unless and until in next intervals of time, the energy consumed exceeds
the one indicated by pointer. Thus pointer then indicates new energy consumption which İs more than the
previous. Thus inall, the pointer indicates the maximum demand expressed in energy consumed per half
hour, for any given period of time.
The Fig. 4.16 shows the merz price maximum demand indicator.
The pin provided drives the pointer forward 'or the set period of time interval.

When the period ends, the cam controlted by a timing gear momentarily disengages the pinion with the help
of beli crank mechanism. Under the spring force, the driving mechanism and pin comes to zero position. The
pointer remaıns at its position indicating the energy consumed during the past înterval of time. in some cases
reset of the driving mechanism is achieved using a switch actuated by small synchronous motor of the
electric clock type. The average maximum demand can be obtained as,

Advantages

The basic advantages of this type of meter are,

1) Accurate maximum demand is measured.

2) The scale is uniform.

Disadvantages

The various disadvantages of this type of meter are,

1) Very costly due to complicated gearing mechanism.

2) If the maximum demand occurs in a time interval and continues over only a small part of the next interval
then it cannot be measured accurately.
Phantom Loading

Phantom Loading

The phantom loading is also called fictitious loading, it is the method of testing an energy meter. When the
capacity of the meter to be tested is very high then tremendous loss of power occurs due lo ordinary loading.
Hence high capacity

fictitious loads are used to test such meters, to avoid wastage of power, in this method, pressure coil is
excited by a normal supply voltage while the current coil is excited by a small battery voltage connected
across it. As impedance of current coil circuit is small, small voltage is enough to circulate the rated current
through the current coil then the total power supplied for the test is sum of power supplied to small pressure
coil current at normal voltage and due to rated current at very low voltage. Thus the overall power loss
during the test is very small.

The arrangement for the phantom loading is shown in the Fig. 4.17

Trivector Meter

The meter which measures the kVAh and kVA of the maximum demand simultaneously is called a trivector
meter.

it consists of a kWh meter and a reactive kVARh meter together. A special summator arrangement used in
between them. Both the meters drive the summator via a complicated gearing arrangement such that the
summator records the kVAh accurately at all the power factors.

it uses five different gearing systems,

1. Watt-meter driving alone at normal speed, unity power factor condition.

2. Watt-hour meter speed slightly reduced and reactive meter speed is reduced considerably. This represents
phase angle of 225° and power factor of 0.925.

3. Both speeds reduced by the same factor and corresponds to power factor of 0.707, phase angle 45o.

4. Watt-hour meter speed is considerably reduced and speed of reactive meter is slightly reduced. This
corresponds to phase angle 67.5° and power factor 0.38.

5. Reactive meter driving alone at normal speed representing zero power factor.
The ratchet coupling is linked to the main common register shaft to which final drive from each gear system
is connected. Thus the shaft is always driven by the direct drive which has the maximum speed, At that time
ali other four slower shafts are idle on ratehets,

As the power factor changes, other gear drive system drives the shaft at higher speed and drive shifts to
different

ratehet. For a given V-I product, the speed of the kwh meter varies as cosΦ where Φ varies between 0° to
90° lagging. The variation of percentage speed against the phase angle curves are provided for the trivector
meter as shown in the Fig. 4.21.