Sense Organs

FUNCTION
• HEARING – the ear transduces mechanical
energy (in the form of sound waves) into
electrical energy (in the form of nerve impulses)
and transmits information to the brain. Parts of
ear involved in hearing are external, middle and
inner ear.
• MAINTAIN BALANCE – delivers information to
the brain on position and movement of the head
as related to gravitational pull. Only the inner ear
is involved.

STRUCTURES
• EXTERNAL EAR
⎯ Pinna = Auricle
⎯ External acoustic meatus = Ear canal
• MIDDLE EAR
⎯ Tympanic cavity connects with pharynx via
the auditory tube EAR CANAL
• INNER EAR • mainly cartilaginous, but also has a bony portion
⎯ Membranous labyrinth within the bony • cartilaginous portion represents the tubular lateral
labyrinth portion of auricular cartilage
⎯ Functions for both balance and hearing • auricular cartilage is small tubular piece of
cartilage, increases mobility of external ear by
joining external ears main portion with its deepest
portion
• the course is roughly “L-shaped”
• the bony portion is short, represents extension of
bone from external acoustic meatus of the skull
on lateral aspect of tympanic bulla

• Consists of an air-filled tympanic cavity

connected with the nasopharynx via the auditory
tube and closed to the outside by the tympanic
membrane at the level of the external acoustic
meatus
⎯ has a small, dorsal epitympanic recess, and;
⎯ a large, ventral tympanic bulla
• TYMPANIC MEMBRANE – the eardrum; thin,
PINNA / AURICLE semitransparent membrane situated at the
• Portion that is visible externally lumen of external acoustic meatus
• Supported by auricular cartilage which is elastic ⎯ separates the external ear from the middle
in nature ear
• AURICULAR CARTILAGE – rostral surface is ⎯ attached to temporal bone by tympanic ring
concave and caudal contour is convex forming a
natural “scoop” for sound waves

REGIONS OF PINNA
• CONCHA – most proximal, strongly
curved portion
⎯ portion closest to the head
⎯ conchal cavity
⎯ has several elevations of cartilage:
o Tragus
o pretragic incisure
o Antitragus
o intertragic incisure
• SCAPHA – more distal flattened portion of pinna

TRANSCRIBED BY: PRAISE GINEL B. CABUGUASON

Sense Organs
• The middle portion of the tympanic cavity • theorized to aid in perception of sounds at both
contains the three auditory ossicles: very high and very low ranges
⎯ Malleus
⎯ Incus MUSCLES OF MIDDLE EAR
⎯ Stapes • tenses or firms the tympanic membrane and
• The two muscles associated with them: bony chain as a protective measure against
excessive vibration
⎯ the tensor tympani on the malleus
1. TENSOR TYMPANI – attaches to malleus,
⎯ the stapedius on the stapes innervated by mandibular division of
trigeminal nerve
TYMPANIC CAVITY 2. STAPEDIUS – attaches to stapes, innervated
• Divided into 3 portions: by facial nerve
⎯ Epitympanic recess
⎯ Tympanic cavity proper
⎯ Tympanic bulla BONY LABYRINTH
• A closed bony chamber that entirely encloses
1. EPITYMPANIC RECESS and protects the delicate membranous labyrinth
• smallest most dorsal of the three chambers in the petrous part of temporal bon
• contains the auditory ossicles and associated • Consists of 3 continuous fluid filled regions:
muscles ⎯ Vestibule
• AUDITORY OSSICLES ⎯ 3 Semicircular Canals
⎯ Malleus ⎯ Cochlea
o resemblance to hammer
o largest most lateral adjacent to tympanic
membrane
o manubrium – “handle”, elongated part of
malleus, embedded in the fibrous layer of
the ear drum
o tiny hook – provides insertion point for
tensor tympani muscle
o head – articulates with incus
⎯ Incus – resemblance to anvil
⎯ Stapes – “stirrup”, smallest bone in the entire
body

PERILYMPH
• Similar to CSF
• fluid that fills the space between external surface
of membranous labyrinth and internal surface of
bony labyrinth

VESTIBULE
• central portion, encloses the utriculus and
sacculus
• with two openings:
2. TYMPANIC CAVITY PROPER
⎯ vestibular window – receives the stapes
• midportion region adjoining the tympanic
⎯ cochlear window – covered by membranes,
membrane
sometimes called secondary tympanic
• midportion of the cavity receives the opening of membrane
auditory tube (from nasopharynx) and
• with channels:
communicates in the inner ear by way of
vestibular (oval) and cochlear (round) windows ⎯ vestibular aqueduct – houses the
endolymphatic duct
⎯ PROMONTORY – houses the cochlea of
inner ear ⎯ cochlear aqueduct – drains the perilymph
into the epidural space
⎯ COCHLEAR WINDOW (round window)
⎯ VESTIBULAR WINDOW (oval window) SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
• houses the semicircular ducts
3. TYMPANIC BULLA
• ventral portion, ventrally expanded “bubble” of COCHLEA
bone visible from external surface of skull • encloses the cochlear duct

TRANSCRIBED BY: PRAISE GINEL B. CABUGUASON

Sense Organs
• resembles a snail shell • whereas the macula of the saccule may be more
1. Modiolus – central hollow core of bone sensitive to vibrational stimuli and loud sounds.
o Spiral ganglion – housed within
modiolus, receives input from sensory SPIRAL ORGAN
cells in the cochlear duct • The spiral organ, formerly organ of Corti, is a
2. Spiral canal – actual lumen of cochlea, collection of hair cells and supporting cells that
spiral around modiolus rests on the basilar membrane
3. Spiral lamina – shelf of bone that extend
outward from the modiolus INNERVATION OF THE INNER EAR
• SPACE WITHIN BONY COCHLEA
⎯ Scala Vestibuli - that lies dorsal to bony • VASCULARIZATION
spiral lamina ⎯ Arterial supply – labyrinthine artery
⎯ Scala Tympani - lies ventral to bony spiral ⎯ Venous drainage – two channels along
lamina vestibular and cochlear aqueducts
• INNERVATION: via vestibulocochlear nerve
⎯ Balance – vestibular nerve passes from
semicircular ducts
⎯ Hearing – cochlear nerve passes from
cochlea

STRUCTURES OF INNER EAR THAT FUNCTIONS

TO MAINTAIN BALANCE
– UTRICULUS AND SEMICIRCULAR DUCTS
UTRICULUS
• expanded region of membranous canal situated
at base of semicircular ducts
MACULE – “spot”
• sensory region in the wall of utriculus
• generates information related to position of head
MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH relative to gravity
• Consist of 4 fluid-filled compartments; within the • transmits information to the brain via the
component of the bony labyrinth vestibulocochlear nerve
⎯ Saccule and utriculus within the vestibule; • covered with gelatinous layer statoconia (calcium
⎯ 3 semicircular ducts within bony carbonate crystals)
semicircular canals SEMICIRCULAR DUCTS
⎯ Cochlear duct within bony cochlea • 3 horseshoe-shaped ducts
• Ampullae – dilations at one end
ENDOLYMPHATIC DUCT • Crista – sensory structure within ampulla,
• blind ended channel that extends from saccules sensory hairs are deflected by motions in
into the epidural space endolymph
• terminates at expanded endolymphatic sac
• plays a role in resorption of endolymph STRUCTURES OF INNER EAR THAT FUNCTIONS
FOR HEARING
– SACCULUS AND COCHLEAR DUCTS
ENDOLYMPH
SACCULUS
• clear dialysate of blood formed from vessels in
• expanded region at the base of cochlear duct
specialized regions of membranous labyrinth
• sensory macule is present and functions in
• fills all parts of membranous labyrinth
hearing
• mediate the function of membranous labyrinth
COCHLEAR DUCT
• waves in fluid can be induced by movement of
• the floor (base) is formed by basilar membrane,
head (balance) or transmission of sound waves
separates the cavity of cochlear duct from the
(hearing)
cochlea (scala tympani)
• the roof is formed by vestibular membrane (scala
CRISTA AMPULLARIS
vestibuli)
• receptor organ associated with semicircular duct;
ORGAN OF CORTI (spiral organ)
function in dynamic equilibrium
• extremely specialized region that transduces
mechanical energy (fluid waves) into electrical
MACULA
energy (nervous impulses) for transmission to
• receptor organ found in the utriculus and saccule;
brain
function in static equilibrium;
• mechanism involves deflection of sensory hair
• the macula of the utriculus may be more
cells
important as a receptor for sensing changes in
• transmission is via cochlear portion of
head posture,
vestibulocochlear nerve

TRANSCRIBED BY: PRAISE GINEL B. CABUGUASON

Sense Organs
TECTORIAL MEMBRANE
• awning-like membrane extending over surface of
hair cells
• respond to fluid waves in endolymph, contacting
hair cells causing them to “fire

• pinna collects sounds

• funnels it thru external ear canal to the middle ear

• tympanic membrane vibrates

• vibration is transmitted to the chain of auditory • As a consequence of its dual origin, the eye has
ossicles, amplified 20x both central and peripheral neural elements.
• stapes moves against the membrane covering • The optic nerve is a central nervous system
the vestibular window which transfers energy to structure with myelin formed by oligodendroglial
the inner ear cells, whereas the nerves of the extraocular
muscles and iris are peripheral nervous system
structures with lemmocyte (Schwann cell)
• site where mechanical impulses are transformed sheaths for myelin.
into electrical nervous impulses that can be • The vascular and fibrous tunics surrounding the
interpreted by the brain optic nerve are homologous to the meninges
a) mechanical energy transferred to perilymph in surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
wave form, propagated, enters the scala • The intervaginal space of the optic nerve is
vestibule of the cochlea continuous with the subarachnoid space of the
b) movement transferred to vestibular brain and contains cerebrospinal fluid.
membrane The eye includes the following:
c) vestibular membrane vibrates, move against • ORBIT
the endolymph • THE EYEBALL OR GLOBE
d) wave pass thru the endolymph, impinge on ⎯ Fibrous tunic (outer)
tectorial membrane of cochlear duct which ⎯ Vascular tunic (middle)
causes to contact the hair cells which vibrates ⎯ Nervous tunic (inner)
* this is the point at which actual transduction
• ADNEXA
of mechanical energy to electrical energy
⎯ Eyelids and Conjunctiva
actually takes place
e) cells of spiral organ transmit impulses to the ⎯ Nictitating membrane
brain via the cochlear nerve ⎯ Lacrimal Apparatus
⎯ Extraocular muscles
⎯ Vessels and nerves within the orbit

• The eye (the organ for vision) develops as a

neuroectodermal outgrowth of the embryonic • Deep bony cavity in the rostral surface of the skull
prosencephalon that contacts surface ectoderm • It houses the globe and adnexa
and is enveloped by induced mesodermal and
neural crest mesenchyme.
• The definitive eye and its adnexa are contained • THE FIBROUS TUNIC
within an orbit that is only partly bony. • THE VASCULAR TUNIC
• Associated with the bulb of the eye are • THE NERVOUS TUNIC
extraocular muscles that move it; periorbital
fascia and fat that surround and cushion it; FIBROUS TUNIC
eyelids and conjunctiva that protect it; and a
• Composed of very dense collagenous and elastic
lacrimal apparatus that keeps its surface moist,
tissue and fibrocytes
provides the first barrier to infection, and helps to
FUNCTIONS
nourish the cornea.
⎯ gives the eyes its shape and stiffness by resisting
pressure of internal fluid
⎯ protects internal vascular and light sensitive
portions of the eye from environment
⎯ refracts (bends) the light and conducts light to
retina
⎯ provide site for attachment of extraocular
muscles

TRANSCRIBED BY: PRAISE GINEL B. CABUGUASON

Sense Organs
TWO PARTS OF FIBROUS TUNIC • suspends the lens within the eyes
• SCLERA • acts to change the thickness of the lens
⎯ Opaque/white portion of the eye, (accommodation)
approximately 75 % of the globes surface • ciliary muscles are smooth muscle bundles that
⎯ consists of a dense network of collagen and originate on the sclera and attach to the base of
elastic fibers and their fibrocytes the ciliary body
• CORNEA IRIS
⎯ Transparent/clear portion of the eye, • Most anterior, smallest segment of vascular tunic
approximately 25% of anterior segment of • Thin, flat circular structure attached to ciliary body
fibrous tunic • MELANIN GRANULES – responsible for eye
⎯ avascular, nutrients arrive thru the capillary coloration
loops at the limbus a. Melanin is the only pigment present in the iris
• PUPIL – central opening in the iris; round in dogs;
⎯ innervation: long ciliary nerves enters the has set of smooth muscles:
cornea at the limbus a) pupillary dilator
❖ Limbus corneae – border where sclera and o radially arranged; draws pupil open and
cornea meets admits more light; sympathetic
b) pupillary constrictor (sphincter)
o circumferentially arranged; draws the pupil
closed; parasympathetic

VASCULAR TUNIC
• Lies internal to fibrous tunic
• Referred to as “uvea” (latin: grape)
• Extremely vascular and heavily pigmented
• Three regions:
⎯ Choroid
⎯ Ciliary body NERVOUS TUNIC
⎯ iris RETINA
CHOROID • inner most layer; having 3 parts and a divisionary
• Posterior part, consists of dense meshwork of zone
blood vessels ⎯ Optic – visual
• Functions: ⎯ Ciliary – non-visual
⎯ provide nutrient and oxygen to retina ⎯ Iridial – non-visual
⎯ limits light scatter 3 PARTS OF THE RETINA
⎯ improves vision in low-light situations • OPTIC PART (pars optica retinae)
• TAPETUM LUCIDUM ⎯ has the photoreceptor layer, in which are
⎯ structure adapted to increase light intensity found the specialized neural receptor cells of
under low-lighting situations the visual system, the rods and cones
⎯ avascular region of choroid ⎯ largest part, relatively thick with 10 layers of
⎯ contains rod shaped crystals that refract cells; has pigment that gives the pupil black
incoming light color
⎯ Present in all domestic mammals except the ⎯ presence of light sensitive cells that are layer
pigs 9 out of 10
⎯ optic disc, a “blind” spot because no
⎯ exquisitely sensitive to the toxic effects of a
beta adrenergic blocking agent but no toxic photoreceptors are present, leaves the globe
effects to Beagles since it inherit an aplasia of to become optic nerve
the tapetum ⎯ central area is the area of particularly acute
CILIARY BODY vision
• forms from thickening of choroid that is raised ❖ Ora serrata
inward into posterior chamber of the eye ⎯ boundary between visual (optical) and non-
visual (ciliary and iridial) parts of retina

TRANSCRIBED BY: PRAISE GINEL B. CABUGUASON

Sense Organs
• CILIARY PART (pars ciliaris retinae) • POSTERIOR CHAMBER
⎯ produces aqueous humor via active ⎯ bounded anteriorly by the iris, posteriorly by
secretion the lens capsule and anterior face of the
• IRIDIAL PART (pars iridica retinae) vitreous, and peripherally by the zonule and
⎯ bilayered epithelial layer ciliary epithelium
⎯ covering posterior surface of iris *These two chambers have direct communication
thru the pupil and filled with aqueous humor:
produced by ciliary part of the retina
• VITREOUS CHAMBER
⎯ approximately 80% of the volume of the
globe
❖ Vitreous body
⎯ a clear gel that fills the vitreous chamber
⎯ almost 98% water, other components are
solid (eg. Protein) and fine fibers
⎯ normally acellular
⎯ tightly adheres to lens capsule, ciliary part of
retina, and optic disc

LENS
• solid yet soft, transparent, deformable structure
situated in hyaloid fossa: a depression in the
anterior surface of vitreous body
• composed of elongate epithelial cells (lens
fibers); fixed in position by a delicate suspensory
apparatus, the zonula ciliaris
• enveloped by elastic capsule; avascular in adult
dogs
• Functions:
⎯ Brings images into focus in the retina
• Lens accommodation
⎯ process by which ciliary processes zonules
and ciliary muscles alter the shape of the lens CONJUNCTIVA
to change the distance at which objects are • mucous membrane that covers certain regions of
focused the eye
• PALPEBRAL CONJUNCTIVA – lines inner
surface of upper, lower and third eyelid
• BULBAR CONJUNCTIVA – covers the sclera
• CONJUNCTIVAL FORNIX – point of reflection of
palpebral ang bulbar conjunctiva

EYELIDS (PALPEBRAE)
• mobile skin folds, upper and lower
• closes over the corneal surface to protect the
cornea, exclude light and spread essential tear
film
• upper eyelid more mobile and larger; in dog only
the superior eyelid has eyelashes (cilia)

CHAMBERS OF THE EYE

• Three chambers are distinguished in the interior
of the eye:
⎯ Anterior
⎯ Posterior
⎯ Vitreous chamber
• ANTERIOR CHAMBER *medial and lateral commisures
⎯ the space bounded by the cornea anteriorly *medial and lateral angles (canthi)
and the iris and anterior lens surface *lacrimal caruncle
posteriorly

TRANSCRIBED BY: PRAISE GINEL B. CABUGUASON

Sense Organs
GLANDS OF THE EYELIDS THE TEAR FILM
• SEBACEOUS GLANDS – found in the follicles of • Composition of Tear Film:
the cilia ⎯ SUPERFICIAL OILY LAYER – produced by
• TARSAL GLANDS – present in the free edges of tarsal glands
both eyelids ⎯ MIDDLE AQUEOUS LAYER – produced by
LIGAMENTS OF THE EYELIDS lacrimal gland and gland of the 3rd eyelid
• LATERAL PALPEBRAL LIGAMENT – poorly ⎯ DEEP MUCOUS LAYER – produced by the
developed, anchors the lateral commisure to goblet cells of the conjunctiva
zygomatic arch • Functions of the Tear Film:
• MEDIAL PALPEBRAL LIGAMENT – anchors ⎯ plays an absolute essential role in
medial commisure to frontal bone, serves as maintaining health of the eyes and normal
origin and insertion of orbicularis oculi muscle transparency of the cornea
⎯ keep cells of cornea moist
THIRD EYELID (SEMILUNAR FOLD) OR
⎯ washes foreign body away from the eyes
NICTITATING MEMBRANE
⎯ facilitates diffusion of respiratory gases and
• fold of tissue on ventromedial region of medial
nutrients to and from the avascular cornea
canthus
⎯ contains antimicrobial substance and
• large and very mobile, capable of covering the
dissolves antibodies that help protect against
entire cornea
infection.
• when eye is open, it is withdrawn completely into
the medial canthus
MUSCULATURE OF THE EYE
• intraocular muscles (intrinsic)
• extraocular muscles (extrinsic)
• muscles of the eyelids (palpebral muscles)
INTRAOCULAR MUSCLES
• all smooth muscles lies entirely with-in the globe
⎯ ciliary muscles
⎯ pupillary dilator
⎯ pupillary constrictor
GLANDS OF THE THIRD EYELID EXTRAOCULAR MUSCLES
• SUPERFICIAL GLAND OF THE 3RD EYELID • all skeletal muscles, 7 extraorbital muscles: 4
⎯ mixed seromucous gland that surrounds the rectus muscles, 2 oblique muscles, 1 retractor
base of the cartilage plate muscle
⎯ tear film ⎯ dorsal rectus – rotate the globe upward
⎯ ventral rectus – rotate the globe downward
LACRIMAL APPARATUS ⎯ medial rectus – rotate the globe medially
• responsible for production, dispersion and ⎯ lateral rectus – rotate the globe laterally
disposal of tears *all are innervated by oculomotor nerve except lateral
• Tear PRODUCING structures: rectus which is innervated by abducent nerve
⎯ lacrimal gland ⎯ dorsal oblique – rotate the dorsal surface of
⎯ tarsal gland the globe medially, innervated by trochlear
nerve
⎯ conjunctival goblet cells
⎯ ventral oblique – rotate the dorsal surface of
⎯ superficial gland of the 3rd eyelid
the globe laterally, innervated by oculomotor
• Tear DISPOSING structures:
nerve
⎯ lacrimal puncta
⎯ retractor bulbi/oculi – withdraws the globe
⎯ lacrimal canaliculi deeper into the orbit, innervated by abducent
⎯ lacrimal sac nerve
⎯ nasolacrimal duct

TRANSCRIBED BY: PRAISE GINEL B. CABUGUASON

Sense Organs
nucleus has an intrinsic rhythmicity that closely
approximates 24 hours, but the projections from the
retina keeps the nucleus’s cycle entrained to the
actual photoperiod of the day.
Many domestic species are seasonal
breeders, meaning that their reproductive cycles are
determined by the season. The most powerful
determinant of the onset and cessation of breeding
cycles in these species is the length of the day. The
MUSCLES OF THE EYELIDS retinal projections to the suprachiasmatic nucleus are
• PALPEBRAL MUSCLES the brain’s record of day length, and they therefore
⎯ move the eyelid to open or close the eye determine the reproductive cycles via their influence
⎯ adjust eyelid position in response to on the autonomic functions of the hypothalamus. It is
positional changes of the globe common agricultural practice to alter breeding
1. Orbicularis oculi (facial nerve) behavior by exposing animals to artificial light. For
⎯ orbital part surrounds the bony orbit instance, in the horse industry, in which an early
foaling date is desirable, mares are commonly
⎯ palpebral part within the upper and
exposed to artificially increased day length in the
lower eyelid
winter so as to cause these spring breeders to begin
2. Levator palpebrae superioris (oculomotor
fertile estrous cycles earlier than they would if exposed
nerve)
only to natural light.
⎯ primary muscle that act to raise the
upper eyelid There is a widely repeated myth among horse
⎯ ptosis (drooping upper eyelid) trainers that states that visual information from one
3. Retractor anguli oculi superioris (facial side of the body is processed strictly on the opposite
nerve) side of the brain and vice versa. Horse trainers have
⎯ draws the lateral canthus caudally often cited this “fact” as a rationale for schooling
⎯ assists in closure of the eye horses from both sides of the body. While it is true that
4. Palpebral part of the deep sphincter of the herbivores like horses process a majority of visual
neck information from each half of their visual fi eld in the
⎯ depresses the lower lid assists in contralateral visual cortex, there are three reasons
opening the eye why this idea is not neurobiologically sound. One is
⎯ Innervated by buchal branches of facial that not all of the visual information from each eye
nerve crosses to the contralateral cortex; some is processed
5. Superior and inferior tarsal muscles on the ipsilateral (same) side.
⎯ assists in holding the eyelids open Secondly, a small portion of the equine visual
⎯ innervated by sympathetic fibers fi eld is binocular, that is, is seen simultaneously by
both eyes. And finally, the caudal part of the corpus
callosum (the large bundle of axons connecting right
and left cerebral hemispheres) connects the visual
The electrical information generated by cortices of each side so that information is shared
exposure of photoreceptors to light undergoes initial between the hemispheres. Trainers must look
neural processing within the retina. This information elsewhere for an explanation of why horses benefit
ultimately leaves the eye via the optic nerve, the fibers from training on both sides.
of which are the axons of the ganglion cells of the
retina. Most of the axons of the optic nerve synapse in
the thalamus, and from there visual information
travels to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe
of the brain (the most caudal part of the cerebral
cortex) for conscious perception.
A smaller subset of ganglion cell axons project
to other destinations in the brain. Some reach the
rostral colliculi of the mesencephalon, where visual
stimuli induce reflex movements of the eyes and
head. Others project to the pretectal nuclei, also in the
region of the mesencephalon; these nuclei
communicate with the oculomotor nuclei to
coordinate the reflex constriction of the pupils in
response to light. Finally, a very small number of
ganglion cell axons project to a specific group of cells
of the hypothalamus, the suprachiasmatic nucleus.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus is the biologic clock, the
part of the brain that sets circadian rhythms. Circadian
rhythms are physiologic processes that vary regularly
on a daily basis; prominent circadian rhythms include
sleep–wake cycles, melatonin secretion, and body
temperature fluctuations. The suprachiasmatic

TRANSCRIBED BY: PRAISE GINEL B. CABUGUASON