Chapter 7

Magnetism
7.1. Magnetic permeability (𝝁)
 It is the characteristic property of a medium.
 It indicates the ease with which the material allows the magnetic
lines of force to pass through it.
 It is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation
of a magnetic field within itself.
 In other words, it is the degree of magnetization that a material
obtains in response to an applied magnetic field.
 SI-UNITS: Henry per meter (H/m) or Newton per Ampere square (𝑁
.𝐴−2 )
 The Magnetic induction 𝐵 is proportional to the applied Magnetic
field intensity, H → 𝐵 ∝ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻, Hence, 𝜇 = 𝐵/H
7.2. Magnetization(𝑀)
o It is a measure of how the material responds when magnetic field is applied to it.
o A magnetic field can be described by either of two vectors such as :
 The magnetic induction𝑩 or the magnetic field intensity𝑯 , which are related in vacuum by;-
𝑩 = 𝜇𝑜𝑯 (7.1)
 Where 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝐻/𝑚 is the permeability of free space.
 The magnetic flux density B has a unit of Wb/m2 or Tesla(T).
Magnetization (M):- is also termed magnetic polarization, is a vector quantity that measures the
density of permanent or induced dipole moment in a given magnetic material.
 When a material medium is placed in a magnetic field, the medium is magnetized.
 The magnetic induction inside the medium is then given by the relation:-
𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑯 + 𝜇0 𝑴 (7.2)
From eqn(7.2),the induction is composed of two parts: the part 𝜇𝑜𝑯 is generated by the external
sources, and the part 𝜇𝑜𝑴 , due to the magnetization of the medium.
Cont…

 𝑴 is directly proportional to the external field(𝑯):

𝑴 = 𝜒𝑯 (7.3)
Where; proportional constant(𝜒)is called the magnetic susceptibility
of the medium.
Its value may be zero, positive or negative.
7.3. Diamagnetism
• Diamagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect found in all materials. The
origin of diamagnetism is the induced dipole moment due to change in the
orbital motion of electrons in atoms by the applied field.
• What causes diamagnetism?
When an external magnetic field is applied to a molecule/atom having
paired electrons in orbitals, the e − orbital motion (velocity) is altered, w/c
contributes to the magnetic flux being altered. Such molecule/atom is
called diamagnetic.
 A diamagnetic substance is one whose atoms have no permanent magnetic
dipole moment
 Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled by a magnetic field
When an external magnetic field is applied to a diamagnetic substance a
weak magnetic dipole moment is induced in the direction opposite the
field.
Cont..
 Diamagnetic susceptibility is:
 Negative , typically −10−6 𝑡𝑜 − 10−5
 Independent of temperature
Always present, even when there is no permanent dipole moment on
the atom
 Some diamagnetic elements are: Bi, Hg, Ag, C, Pb, Cu,Zn,…
Activity2:What causes diamagnetic susceptibility negative?
7.4. Paramagnetism
Paramagnetism:- refers to the magnetic state of an atom with one or
more unpaired 𝑒lectron𝑠.
 The unpaired 𝑒lectron𝑠 are attracted by a magnetic field due to the
electron’s magnetic dipole moment.
 Hund’s rule states that electron𝑠 must occupy every orbital singly
before any orbital is doubly occupied.
 This may leave the atom with many unpaired electron𝑠. Because
unpaired electron𝑠 can spin in either direction, they display magnetic
moment in any direction.
 This capability allows paramagnetic atoms to be attracted to magnetic
fields.
Cont…
• An atom whose shells are not completely filled has a permanent
magnetic moment, which arises from the combination of the orbital
and spin motions of its electrons.
• Some paramagnetic elements : Al, O, Na, U, Pt,…etc
Activity
 What is the effect of a magnetic field on the permanent magnetic
moment?
7.5.Ferromagnetism
• Both dia- and para- magnetic materials are considered as non-magnetic because
they exhibit magnetization only in presence of an external field.
• Certain materials possess permanent magnetic moments even in the absence of
an external field.
• This is result of permanent unpaired dipoles formed from unfilled energy levels.
• These dipoles can easily line-up with the imposed magnetic field due to the
exchange interaction or mutual reinforcement of the dipoles. These are
chrematistics of ferromagnetism.
• Materials with ferromagnetism (Examples: 6
Fe, Co, Ni, Gd(Gadolinium)) possess
magnetic susceptibilities approaching10 .
• Above the Curie temperature, ferromagnetic materials behave as para-magnetic
materials and their susceptibility is given by the Curie-Weiss law, defined as
𝐶
χ𝑚 =
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐
Where; C – material constant, T – temperature, Tc– Curie temperature.
• Ferromagnets are very strong; dipoles line-up permanently upon application of
external field.
Ferromagnetism has two sub-classes:-
i) Antiferromagnetism and ii) Ferrimagnetism
• Antiferromagnetism • One noticeable characteristic of
• Dipoles line-up, but in opposite directions, antiferromagnets is they attain maximum
resulting in zero magnetization. Eg: Mn, Cr, susceptibility at a critical temperature called
MnO, NiO, CoO, MnCl2 Neel temperature.
• At temperatures above this, antiferromagnets
• Exchange interaction which is responsible for
become para-magnetic.
parallel alignment of spins is extremely
sensitive to inter-atomic spacing and to the
atomic positions. This sensitivity causes anti-
parallel alignment of spins.
• When the strength of anti-parallel spin
magnetic moments is equal, no net spin
moment exists, and resulting susceptibilities
are quite small.
ii) Ferri-magnetism
• Some ceramic materials exhibit net • These materials exhibit a large but field
magnetization. Eg: 𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4 , Ni𝐹𝑒2 𝑂4 . dependent magnetic susceptibility similar to
• In a magnetic field, the dipoles of a cation may ferro magnets.
line up with the field, while dipoles of other • They also show Curie-Weiss behavior. As these
cation may not. These ceramics are called ceramics are good insulators, electrical losses
ferrites, and the effect is known as are minimal, and hence ferrites have lot of
ferrimagnetism. applications in devices such as high frequency
transformers.
• Ferri-magnetism is similar to anti-ferro-
magnetism in that the spins of different atoms
or ions line up anti-parallel. However, the spins
do not cancel each other out, and anet spin
moment exists.
• Below the Neel temperature, therefore,
ferromagnetic materials behave very much like
ferromagnetic materials and are paramagnetic
above the Neel temperature.
7.6. Quantum Theory of Paramagnetism and
Ferromagnetism
• The magnetic moment 𝝁⃗ of the atom in terms of the total angular
momentum 𝑱 is
𝑒
𝜇⃗ = 𝑔 − 𝐽⃗ (6.28)
2𝑚
• where𝑔 is a constant known as the Land𝑒 ̀faactor. Its value depends on
the relative orientations of the orbital and spin angular momenta.
Cont…
• When a magnetic field is applied to the atom, a Zeeman splitting results
whose Zeeman energy is given by:-
𝐸 = 𝜇.⃗ 𝐵 = 𝑔𝜇𝐵 𝐵𝑚𝑗 (7.29)
1
• If the angular momentum quantum number𝑗 = , the component 𝑚𝑗 can
1 1 2
take the values 𝑚𝑗 = − 𝑜𝑟 , resulting in a double splitting, as shown in
2 2
Fig. below.

• The difference in energy between the levels is

∆𝐸 = 𝐸+𝑚𝑗 − 𝐸−𝑚𝑗 = 𝑔𝜇𝐵 𝐵 (7.30)
Cont…
1
N.B:-The lower level,𝑚𝑗 = − , corresponds to the moment parallel to the
2
field, while the upper level corresponds to the moment opposite to the
field.
The magnetization 𝑀 is given by
𝑀 = 𝑔𝜇𝐵 𝑁1 − 𝑁2 (7.31)
Where:- 𝑔𝜇𝐵 is the z-component of the moment when it is fully aligned with
the field, and 𝑁1 , 𝑁2 are the concentrations of atoms in the lower and upper
levels, respectively.
These two concentrations are related by:-
𝑁2
= 𝑒 −∆𝐸/𝐾𝑇 (7.32)
𝑁1
Where; the term in the exponent on the right is the familiar Boltzmann
factor. Since these concentrations also satisfy the relation 𝑁1 + 𝑁2 = 𝑁,
where 𝑁 is the total concentration.
7.7. The Domain Model
• A magnetic domain is a region within a magnetic material in which the
magnetization is in a uniform direction.
• This means that the individual magnetic moments of the atoms are aligned
with one another and they point in the same direction.
• When cooled below a temperature called the Curie temperature, the
magnetization of a piece of ferromagnetic material spontaneously divides
into many small regions called magnetic domains.
• The magnetization within each domain points in a uniform direction, but
the magnetization of different domains may point in different directions.
• Magnetic domain structure is responsible for the magnetic behavior of
ferromagnetic materials like iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys, and
ferrimagnetic materials like ferrite.
This includes the formation of permanent magnets and the attraction of
ferromagnetic materials to a magnetic field.
 Cont…
• The regions separating magnetic domains are called domain walls, where the
magnetization rotates coherently from the direction in one domain to that in the
next domain.
 The study of magnetic domains is called micromagnetics. Magnetic domains form
in materials which have magnetic ordering; that is, their dipoles spontaneously
align due to the exchange interaction. These are the ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic
and antiferromagnetic materials.
 Paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, in which the dipoles align in response
to an external field but do not spontaneously align, do not have magnetic
domains.
DOMAIN THEORY
• This theory was proposed by Weiss 1907. It explains the hysteresis
and the properties of ferromagnetic materials.
• Magnetic Domains:-
 A ferromagnetic material is divided into a large number of small
regions called domains.
 Each domain is spontaneously magnetized.
 The direction of magnetization various from domain to domain and
the net magnetization is zero, in the absence external magnetic field.
 The two domain separates by domain wall or Block wall.
 Cont…
• When the magnetic field is applied to Ferromagnetic material, the
magnetizations are produced by two ways:
1. By the motion of Domain walls:- The weak magnetic field is applied,
the domains having dipoles parallel to the applied magnetic field
increases in area by the motion of domain walls.
2. By the rotation of Domains:- If strong magnetic field is applied, the
domains are rotated parallel to the field direction.
Cont…
Energies involved in the domain growth
 The total internal energy of the domain structure in a ferromagnetic
material is made up from the following contributions:
1. Exchange energy:- is defained as, “ The interaction energy which makes
the adjacent dipoles align themselves”
2. Crystalline energy(Anisotropy energy):-: In ferromagnetic materials there
are two types of directions of Magnetization namely, a. Easy direction b.
Hard direction. In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be
applied and in hard direction of magnetization, strong field should be
applied. For example, in BCC iron the easy direction is [100], the medium
direction is [110], and the hard direction [111].
3. Domain wall energy
4. Magnetostriction energy
Cont…
• 3. Domain wall energy or Bloch wall energy:-
 Based on the spin alignments, two types of Bloch walls may arise,
namely:- a. Thick wall : When the spins at the boundary are
misaligned and if the direction of the spin changes gradually as shown
figure,
Cont…
• 4. Magnetostriction energy:- When a material is magnetized, it is found that it
suffer a change in dimensions. This phenomenon is known as Magnetostriction.
• The work done by the magnetic field against these elastic restoring forces is
called magnetoelastic energy or Magnetosrictive energy.
• The magnetization process and Hysteresis loop
• A magnetic hysteresis, otherwise known as a hysteresis loop, is a representation
of the magnetizing force (H) versus the magnetic flux density (B) of a
ferromagnetic material.
• A Ferromagnetic sample is usually in the demagnetized state. In order to
magnetize it, one applies an external field.
• Figure below illustrates the progress of the magnetization process as the external
field increases.
• Starting at the origin, the magnetization M increases slowly at first, but more
rapidly as the field is increased, and eventually M saturates at the point, A.
Cont…
Cont…
• The sample clearly exhibits hysteresis, and if the field ℋ alternates
periodically, the magnetization traces the solid curve in Fig.11, which
is the hysteresis loop.
• Hysteresis implies the existence of energy losses in the system.
• These losses are proportional to the area of the loop.
Thanks