WEEK 1: IMPORTANCE OF READING

READING
 It is an activity that challenges our beliefs, inspires our imagination, and expands our
understanding of the world.
 It involves a complex interaction between the text and the reader.
 It is an indispensable skill that requires continuous practice, development, and
refinement.

Importance of Reading

READING BROADENS YOUR HORIZONS

Reading gives you an insight into diversity and other cultures.
By reading books, you get a glimpse of other cultures and places. Books expand your
horizons, letting you see other countries, other people and so many other things you have never
seen or imagined. It’s the perfect way to visit a strange country in your mind. When we open a
book while sitting in the comfort of our rooms, like time traveling, we transport our imaginations
to a world purely based on the imaginations of the author. We learn about everything they want
you to know, see the world through their eyes and their perspective, learn about new people,
discover their traditions, cultures, and all that makes them unique and unforgettable. Reading
lets us understand the way of living of other cultures. For example, when we read about the life
of the Chinese, we get to know more about them and we may enhance our understanding of the
way they live their lives.

READING BUILDS SELF-ESTEEM.

In a world where competition in every walk of life prevails, we need to build our
personality as to have considerable confidence in ourselves. People who lack confidence in
their early stages often grow up to be shy, and at times suicidal, since they develop a victim
mentality owing to the lack of confidence in themselves. They find it hard to face even the
smallest of challenges life throws at them, instead of simply giving up. Reading books sharpens
many skills and all together they’ll build confidence. Students who spend time reading books are
more confident when asked to recite compared to those who do not. This is because they have
something to share based on what they read in articles, magazines or books.

READING HELPS DEVELOP A STRONG SENSE OF CHARACTER.

Better understanding of human nature
According to studies, losing yourself in books, especially fiction, might increase your
empathy. By reading a book, you become part of the story and feel the pain and other emotions
of the characters. This in turn allows your mind to become more aware of how different things
affect other people. Eventually, this improves your ability to empathize with other people. In
addition, through reading books, we become more aware of the reasons why certain things
happen to us and others and with that we develop a strong mindset to face life's struggles.
 READING IMPROVES SCHOOL PERFORMANCE.
Avid readers also are known to get better grades throughout the middle, high school, and
college.
Students who indulge in reading a book and learning new things do better at school.
They are more creative, open to new ideas, and develop empathy for others. For instance,
students who read about heroes idolize them, students who love reading anatomy books dream
of becoming a doctor, etc. They learn to empathize with characters in the books and want to be
like them. Not only that, they learn valuable life lessons such as helping others and being kind.
Moral codes such as goods things will be appreciated and evils punished take root in their
minds too, as a result of which they learn to stay away from trouble. Reading may help us
master our lessons if we practice reading our lessons every day. Mastery of lesson may result
to good grades in class. So, practice reading your lessons every now and then.

READING IMPROVES CREATIVITY

Reading enables you to think of unique and unfamiliar ideas.
Reading enables lifelong learning and an insatiable thirst for knowledge. Books are a
window to the world -- a glimpse into cultures past, present, and future, as interpreted by their
authors and filtered through our own imaginations. You can discover an amazing amount of
information about where we've been, where we're going, and how things work. The more you
know, the more you'll be able to share. You'll be a better conversationalist, a quicker thinker, a
better problem solver. In any sort of creative field, these are skills that come in pretty handy.
Furthermore, reading allows us to think of new things based on the ideas that we read in an
article or in a magazine.

READING IS A COMPLEX PROCESS.

Reading improves concentration and our ability to focus for a longer period of time. We
live in the information age. A fast-paced world where we're surrounded by gadgets feeding us
words, data, links, status updates, ads, and all sorts of other information that we can't possibly
process and digest. Books require active engagement and concentration -- they completely
absorb your mind. It takes effort to read words, figure out what they mean, and why they were
written that way. While you read you're building images, thoughts, and opinions in your head.
You're using critical thinking and logic to process this information, to understand the concepts
and ideas being passed to you by the author. And again, the more you train your brain to
concentrate, the easier it becomes. Reading leads to better concentration and better
concentration leads to clear thinking. When we read, we do not only use our eyes but we also
use our brain to process and decode the words that we read.

READING IMPROVES DISCIPLINE AND MEMORY.

Every time you read a book, you have to remember the setting of the book, the
characters, their backgrounds, their history, their personalities, the sub-plots and so much more.
As your brain learns to remember all this, your memory becomes better. What’s more, with
every new memory you create, you create new pathways and this strengthens the existing
ones. Reading also improves discipline when we use it as a tool to understand policies, rules
and regulations, and signage.
 READING INCREASES IMAGINATION.
It creates a mental picture that reduces boredom and enhances activity.
The more we read, the more enlightened we become. Gaining knowledge empowers our minds
and broadens its range. Reading broadens our imagination by stimulating the right side of our
brain. It literally opens our minds to new possibilities and new ideas helping us experience and
analyzes the world through others' lives. When we read fiction books, we usually imagine the
setting and characters of the story as if we are the director and/or writer.

READING IMPROVES VOCABULARY

Reading exposes us to new terms.
Even as adults, when we read, we come across many new words we never really heard
of. By reading, young people encounter new words more frequently and sometimes repetitively
and therefore can see them better in their context.

WORDS ARE OUR EVERYDAY TOOLS.

Wisely used words define the person’s attitude and showcase the method of
communication. It is the process of expressing the ideas, insights, and emotions. Many
understand the importance of its expression, but others don’t realize its importance. The power
of words is beyond expression, it defines what the person wants to express.

THE READING PROCESS

 Reading is a process that involves recognizing words, leading to the development of
comprehension.
 According to research, reading is a process that negotiates the meaning between the
text and its reader. The reading process involves three stages which we are going to
discuss for the next topic
 There are three processes of reading. These are pre- reading, while reading and post-
reading.

1. PRE-READING
 It is the process of skimming a text to locate key ideas before carefully reading a text (or a
chapter of a text) from start to end. Also called previewing or surveying. Pre-reading
provides an overview that can increase reading speed and efficiency.

KEY POINTS:

Pre-viewing
It is a strategy that readers use to recall prior knowledge and set a purpose for reading.
It calls for readers to skim a text before reading, looking for various features and information that
will help as they return to read it in detail later.

Freewriting
It is a writing strategy developed by Peter Elbow in 1973. It is similar to brainstorming but
is written in sentence and paragraph form without stopping. For example, your teacher will ask
you to write anything that comes to your mind when you read the title of the story that you are
going to read.
Surveying
It is a broad look at a text, focusing on the general aspects rather than details, with the
main purpose being to decide on the value of the text, to determine whether it is worth reading
more closely. For example, your teacher will ask you questions that aim to gather information on
whether the book or article she presented is good book.

Questioning
It is a strategy that readers use to engage with the text. Questioning techniques help the
reader to clarify and comprehend what he is reading. Struggling readers tend not to ask
questions of themselves or the text as they read. For example, Upon knowing the title of the text
that you are going to read, there are questions in your mind which you would like to be
answered after reading the text.

Exploring assumptions about the author

An assumption is a point that the author doesn't even try to prove. Rather than proving
the assumption, the author simply assumes it is true. Remember: An assumption is not a point
that the author tries to prove and fails. It's a point he or she doesn't even try to prove. For
example, if it's your first time to read a certain book but you are familiar with the author, you may
think of assumptions as regards the theme of the book.

Identifying the purpose

The purpose of reading is to connect the ideas on the page to what you already know. If
you don't know anything about a subject, then pouring words of text into your mind is like
pouring water into your hand. For example, if you plan to read any text, then it is given that you
have your main objective or goal. it could be for information or entertainment.

Selecting a reading system (SQ3R- survey, question, read, recite, review)

These are based on the knowledge the readers need to design in their reading program.
They select the right tools and develop support systems. If you are planning to read, you may
use the SQ3R method for you to better understand the text that you are going to read.

2. WHILE READING
 While-listening or While-reading is a stage, or group of stages frequently found in lessons
that aim at helping students develop receptive skills, such as listening or reading. This is the
moment where students are actually exposed to the recorded or written text.

KEY POINTS:

Getting the meaning of words (context clues)

Using the context of the paragraph to define unknown words can also be helpful.
Although it takes practice, it is the easiest and most efficient way to identify words. Often, using
the context is the only way to figure out the meaning of the word as it is used in the sentence,
passage, or chapter. For example, if you encounter an unfamiliar word while reading, you may
look for a context clue for you to understand the meaning of the word.
Predicting
This strategy involves the ability of readers to get meaning from a text by making
informed predictions. Good readers use predicting as a way to connect their existing knowledge
to new information from a text to get meaning from what they read. If you are reading a story,
you can think of possible events to happen based on what is previously happening in the story.
Another is, let's say you read an open-ended story. As a reader, you may think of an ending of
the story based on the events in the story.

Inferring
This means figuring out something that the author doesn't actually say. You can use
clues that are in the text, and things from your own mind. Sometimes it's called "reading
between the lines," and it adds a lot more meaning to the story. For example, the author did not
inform you that the two characters in the story that you are reading are lovers but through the
information or descriptions of the author, you can say that the two main characters are lovers.

Monitoring comprehension
It is a process in which students determine whether they understand what they are
reading. If they realize that they cannot articulate the main idea of the passage, they can take
steps to repair their comprehension before continuing to read. While reading, we can actually
say if we understood the text that we are reading or not, so as a reader we may ask questions
to ourselves to check our understanding.

Annotating the text

It is any action that deliberately interacts with a text to enhance the reader's
understanding of, recall of, and reaction to the text. Sometimes called "close reading,"
annotating usually involves highlighting or underlining key pieces of text and making notes in the
margins of the text.

Reflecting
This is designed to encourage students to complete readings before coming to class, to
reflect more deeply on the content of the reading, to make personal meaning from the meaning,
and to develop their metacognitive skills for lifelong learning.

3. POST-READING
 This process provides students a way to summarize, reflect, and question what they have
just read.

KEY POINTS:

Summarizing
It teaches students how to discern the most important ideas in a text, how to ignore
irrelevant information, and how to integrate the central ideas in a meaningful way. Teaching
students to summarize improves their memory for what is read. After reading a story, try to
recall the events that happened and state it in least possible words.

Paraphrasing
This is commonly thought of as copying information from a text source and changing a
few words. That process rarely results in retention of learning because the copying act can be
done almost automatically and without much conscious thought. Paraphrasing is actually part of
summarizing, when we summarize, we use our own words. Therefore, we use other
terms/words to state an idea without altering its main point/s.

Drawing conclusions
It is using information that is implied or inferred to make meaning out of what is not
clearly stated. Writers give readers hints or clues that help them read between the lines, since
not everything is explicitly stated or spelled out all the time.

Making graphic organizers

This can improve the readers reading comprehension by using graphic organizers.
These simple, visual tools allow kids to break down stories and nonfiction texts. They also help
kids keep track of thoughts as they read. Graphic organizers come in many forms. There are
many different graphic organizers that we may use in arranging the ideas of a text or a book.
You will learn about the graphic organizers later in this subject.

Journal writing
It is simply the act of informal writing as a regular practice. Journals take many forms
and serve different purposes, some creative some personal. Writers keep journals as a place to
record thoughts, practice their craft, and catalogue ideas as they occur to them.

When we read with a purpose, we usually ask ourselves our main objective. The different key
points or tasks are of great help for us to achieve our main objective

WEEK 2: BASIC READING SKILLS/TYPES OF READING

BASIC READING SKILLS

 Rapid Reading
 includes skimming a text for specific information to answer true or false statements or filling
gaps in a summary, scanning a text to match headings to paragraphs, and scanning
jumbled paragraphs and then reading them carefully to put them into the correct order.

Skimming is a reading technique meant to look for main or general ideas in a text, without
going into detailed and exhaustive reading. In skimming, a reader reads only important
information, but not everything. This technique works effectively in non-fiction materials,
newspapers, and long novels.

Examples:
 Read the table of contents or chapter overview to learn the main divisions of ideas.
 Glance through the main headings in each chapter just to see a word or two. Read the
headings of charts and tables.
 Read the entire introductory paragraph and then the first and last sentence only of each
following paragraph. For each paragraph, read only the first few words of each sentence
or to locate the main idea.
 Stop and quickly read the sentences containing keywords indicated in boldface or italics.
 When you think you have found something significant, stop to read the entire sentence
to make sure. Then go on the same way. Resist the temptation to stop to read details
you don't need.
 Read chapter summaries when provided.
Scanning is reading a text quickly in order to find specific information, e.g. figures or names. It
can be contrasted with skimming, which is reading quickly to get a general idea of meaning.

Examples:
 When we are searching for a telephone number in a directory, we scan the page for the
name of the specific person we are looking for.
 When we are looking for the specific subject in the list of subjects for a semester.
 Looking for a bus/airplane schedule

 Previewing
 It allows readers to set the purpose and link the content of the material to their background
knowledge.

 Literal Reading
 It is the understanding of information and facts directly stated in the text. It is recognized as
the first and most basic level of comprehension in reading. It involves understanding of
ideas and facts that are directly stated in the printed material.

Summarizing teaches students how to discern the most important ideas in a text, how to ignore
irrelevant information, and how to integrate the central ideas in a meaningful way. Teaching
students to summarize improves their memory for what is read.

Paraphrasing is commonly thought of as copying information from a text source and changing
a few words. That process rarely results in retention of learning because the copying act can be
done almost automatically and without much conscious thought.

Note Taking is writing the important details present in the text.

 Inferential Reading
 It refers to the process of deducing facts and ideas not directly expressed in the text.
 "How did you arrive at that conclusion?" and "Why does salt cause ice to melt?" Asking how
and why questions helps you weigh the merits of the answers. From there you can develop
evaluative questions and responses that do include your own thoughts and ideas.

 Critical Reading
 It refers to the closed and thorough evaluation of the claim in the text in terms of relevance,
validity and logic. Critical reading is making abstract ideas to concrete ones.
 TYPES OF READING

DEVELOPMENTAL READING
 It is a systematic instruction which aims to develop the student’s reading skills.

Developmental Stages in Reading

Stage 1: The Emergent Pre-Reader (Typically Between 6 Months To 6 Years Old)

During the initial phase of the reading development process children sample and learn from a
full range of multiple sounds, words, concepts, images, stories, exposure to print, literacy
materials, and just plain talk during the first five years of life.

Stage 2: The Novice Reader (Typically Between 6 To 7 Years Old)

During the second phase of the reading development process children are learning the
relationships between letters and sounds and amongst printed and spoken words. The child
begins to read stories with high-frequency words and phonically regular words and uses
emerging skills and insights to “sound out” new one-syllable words.

Stage 3: The Decoding Reader (Typically Between 7 – 9 Years Old)

During the third phase of the reading development, process children are beginning to read
familiar stories and text with increasing fluency. This is accomplished by consolidating the
foundational decoding elements, sight vocabulary, and meaning in the reading of stories and
selections that the child is already familiar with.

Stage 4: The Fluent, Comprehending Reader (Typically Between 9 – 15 Years Old)

During the fourth phase of the reading development process, reading is used to acquire new
ideas to gain new knowledge, to experience new feelings, to acquire new attitudes, and to
explore issues from multiple perspectives. Reading includes the study of textbooks, reference
works, trade books, newspapers, and magazines that contain new ideas and values, new
vocabulary and syntax.

Stage 5: The Expert Reader (Typically From 16 Years and Older)

During the fifth phase of the reading development process, the learner is reading from a wide
range of advanced materials, both expository and narrative, with multiple viewpoints. Learners
are reading broadly across the disciplines, including the physical, biological and social sciences
as well as the humanities, politics and current affairs.

PLEASURE OR RECREATIONAL READING

 It is a more passive type of reading. It aims to provide enjoyment and entertainment.

Examples of pleasure reading or recreational reading include reading novels, short stories,
jokes, comics, poetry, lyrics in your most convenient time. This type of reading doesn’t require
someone to intently focus on the reading material for the information rather it entails delight and
gratification on the content of the text.

FUNCTIONAL READING
 It is designed to help students learn basic functional reading ability, such as reading school
forms and instructions.

Examples of functional reading include reading a pamphlet, using a TV guide, and comparing
ticket prices. As observed, these reading activities are basically functional. They are intended to
make someone have the ability to function as independently as possible.

REMEDIAL READING
 It is a type of reading which aims to correct the effects of poor teaching and poor learning.

When someone gives himself a time to improve his prowess when it comes to reading and
comprehension, he uses remedial reading. This will lead to the improvement of poor reading
and comprehension to better and accurate understanding.

WEEK 3: IMPORTANCE OF WRITING

IMPORTANCE OF WRITING

Writing is critical to becoming a good reader.

Writing goes with reading. If you want to be a better writer then read. Reading is also an
important tool in developing the skill of writing. Writing also clears your head so you would be
analytical in thinking. It helps you process your emotions. Writing down what’s on our mind is a
great way to work through inner conflict or process your feelings around a particular situation.
It’s similar to talking a situation through with a friend, except it’s a useful way of strengthening
your self-soothing abilities and enhancing your self-knowledge.

Writing is an essential job skill.

Without writers, we wouldn’t have such iconic slogans as we do right now. The first one that
comes to mind is Nike’s “Just Do It.” Three simple words, strung together in such a way that
everyone immediately knows it’s Nike—and those words encompass what Nike is about.
Companies fail without good writers to communicate the company’s mission and values. This
goes back to communication. In any job, you’ll have to write at least something. Emails, reports,
post-it notes on your boss’s desk. Writing well means the people reading it don’t waste time and
effort trying to decipher what you wrote. It also means there’s no confusion about a message
you (or someone else) meant to send. Nothing’s worse than a CEO writing a company-wide
email that sparks panic because she used vague wording and didn’t consider her audience.

Writing is the primary basis upon which one’s work, learning, and intellect will be judged
—in college, in the work place and in the community.

This is an important one, especially in business settings. Poorly written memos, reports, emails,
publications, presentations, and documentation sheds a bad light on the person who wrote it.
When your writing is clear, concise, targeted, and proofread (by yourself or a grammar nerd),
you don’t give people a reason to question your abilities.

Writing equips us with communication and thinking skills.

This is probably the most impactful reason why writing is important. If you can’t or don’t write,
you probably find it more difficult to communicate with all sorts of people.

Writing expresses who we are as people.

Your words express who you are, your character and personality. Never has this been more
true than today when so much of our communication happens through writing, whether you’re
texting, posting on Facebook, or writing an essay or a blog post. Not only does your written work
have to be pin-perfect in spelling and grammar, but it has to say something and leave the reader
with an impression.

Writing makes our thinking and learning visible and permanent.

When we write things down, we have a chance to explore dreams and ambitions that we might
not feel safe revealing to anyone else yet. We also have a space to keep track of all our ideas
and desires so we can return to them later.

Writing fosters our ability to explain and refine our ideas to others and ourselves.

Ideas can feel vague until they’re written down. This is a core principle with business plans,
goals, research, and communication. It’s easier to identify what’s realistic when you write your
ideas and see how they take shape and solidify.

Writing preserves our ideas and memories.

Writing is a good way to keep a record of the past so you’ll never forget about it. Writing helps
keep the past so you can savor moments that you could have potentially forgotten and increase
your levels of gratitude. When you are able to look back and see how you have navigated and
handled situations in the past, you’ll feel more confident in yourself and have more courage to
do so in the future.

Writing allows us to understand our lives.

Writing helps you understand how you truly feel. It leads to a deeper understanding of yourself.
It helps us understand our viewpoints and know what people think of us. Writing helps you
accept the past and move to the future. It helps you look back at what you’ve written and
understand the true meaning of your life. Writing helps you identify with yourself and know who
you truly are deep down.

Writing allows us to entertain others.

Everybody finds entertainment in different ways. Writing for fun stimulates creative juices that
bleed over into other areas of your life. Imagine if a quick 10-minute creative writing session
helped you solve a problem you were thinking about at work.
 WEEK 4: KNOWLEDGE THAT A WRITER MUST KNOW

KNOWLEDGE THAT A WRITER MUST KNOW

KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE
Conventions are an important feature of effective writing. This includes basic mechanics and
conventions of writing: spelling, capitalization, punctuation, syntax and word usage. Possessing
specific writing skills is very important, as are opportunities to practice and apply learned skills in
writing sentences and paragraphs.

Good writing involves learning and coordinating so many different abilities, and because
struggling writers often have weaknesses in multiple areas, it can be helpful to begin by
focusing on a few specific skills that will impact writing.

KNOWLEDGE OF TOPIC
Several researchers emphasize the role of the writer’s topic knowledge for writing. Content
knowledge means knowing something about the subject you’re writing about. If asked to write a
letter to a politician about pollution, audience need to understand what pollution is. They’ll also
need to know how it affects people, animals, and the environment. And they may need to know
what causes pollution.

KNOWLEDGE OF AUDIENCE
An understanding of audience will help you choose the best mode for your writing. When faced
with the question of audience, inexperienced student writers often think no further than their
instructor. Accurate knowledge of an audience helps with decisions on how to shape a thesis
statement, what information to include and how to organize it, as well as word choice, tone, and
other stylistic considerations.

Writing is a recursive process that involves at least four distinct steps: prewriting, drafting,
revising, and editing. When revising, you might need to revisit some elements of prewriting in
order to develop and expand your new ideas. This is a process that is similar to what you do
while going up and down a ladder when you are painting. Now, check on each part of the
process to read a summary for that component.

Prewriting
Prewriting is anything you do before you write a draft of your document. It includes thinking,
taking notes, talking to others, brainstorming, outlining, and gathering information (e.g.,
interviewing people, researching in the library, or assessing data).

Although prewriting is the first activity you engage in, generating ideas is an activity that occurs
throughout the writing process.

Drafting
Drafting occurs when you put your ideas into sentences and paragraphs. Here you concentrate
upon explaining and supporting your ideas fully. Here you also begin to connect your ideas.
Regardless of how much thinking and planning you do, the process of putting your ideas in
words changes them; often the very words you select evoke additional ideas or implications.

1. Don't pay attention to such things as spelling at this stage.

2. This draft tends to be writer-centered: it is you telling yourself what you know and think
about the topic.

Revising
Revision is the key to producing effective documents. Here you think more deeply about your
readers' needs and expectations. The document becomes reader-centered. How much support
will each idea need to convince your readers? Which terms should be defined for these
particular readers? Is your organization effective? Do readers need to know X before they can
understand Y?

1. At this stage you also refine your prose, making each sentence as concise and accurate
as possible.
2. Make connections between ideas explicit and clear.

Editing
Check for such things as grammar, mechanics, and spelling. The last thing you should do
before printing your document is to spell-check it. Don't edit your writing until the other steps in
the writing process are complete.
 WEEK 5: TEXT AS CONNECTED DISCOURSE

A text is a written form of communication information, which is non-interactive in nature.

 Grammatical cohesion and structure of sentences are analyzed.
 It is usually in written form.
 A text is a large unit of written language.
 It is a group of ideas put together to make a point or one central idea.
 It has a structure that requires the ideas in the discourse to be relevant to each other.
 Examples are press reports, street signs, and documents.

Discourse is in a spoken, written, visual, or audio form communicating information that is

interactive in nature.
 A discourse is an utterance, talk, speech, discussion, and
 It is an extended expression of thoughts or ideas.
 It is often a lengthy discussion of a topic.
 It is arranged in an organized and logical manner.
 Examples are dialogues, conversations, and interactions in audiovisual programs

Note: The main difference between text and discourse is that the text does not specify an agent
whereas the discourse specifies the agent of the information. Thus, a text is necessarily non-
interactive while discourse is necessarily interactive.

Even though the two terms text and discourse are used interchangeably with concern to literary
analytical studies, these two are two diverging subjects.

Purpose of Discourse
TO INFORM
 It provides a descriptive and comprehensive discussion on the topic.

TO PERSUADE
 It tries to convince the readers that the proposed claim or solution is better than any other
proposal.

TO ENTERTAIN
 A discourse that aims to amuse provides a source of entertainment for its readers.
 TYPES OF DISCOURSE
LITERARY

1. Poetic
 It is commonly found in creative works like poems, novels, short stories, and plays.

The Road Not Taken (An Excerpt) By Robert Frost

I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.

NOTE: The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost is an example of Poetic for it is a type of literature
based on the interplay of words and rhythm. It often employs rhyme and meter (a set of rules
governing the number and arrangement of syllables in each line). In poetry, words are strung
together to form sounds, images, and ideas that might be too complex or abstract to describe
directly.

2. Expressive
 It is commonly found in academic journals, letters, diaries, and blogs.

Sunday, 21 June 1942

Everyone at school is waiting to hear what happens next. Who will move up a class, and who
will stay down? We’re all trying to guess! I think my girlfriends and I will be OK, though we’ll
have to wait patiently to find out. Most of my teachers like me, but old Mr. Keesing gets angry
with me because I often talk too much! He made me do some extra homework and write about
‘Someone Who Talks Too Much.’

NOTE: The example above is an example of “expressive” for it talks about the everyday life
routine of a young girl. The content is personal and emotional writing without regard to
punctuation, verb agreement, or other technical aspects of writing.

3. Transactional
 It is commonly found in instructional materials, advertisements, and editorial articles, among
others
How to Cook Chicken Tinola

Ingredients:

1/2 kg chicken wings

1 red onion, peeled and sliced
1 clove of garlic, peeled and crushed
1 small ginger, peeled and julienned
1 small green papaya, peeled and cut into wedges
1-2 stalks of malunggay
1 teaspoon of salt
1 teaspoon of pepper 3-4 cups of water
Procedure:

Prepare all the ingredients.

Heat the pan in a medium flame. Add 2–3 tablespoons of oil.
Sauté garlic, onion, and ginger. Add chicken wings and sauté for 3–4 minutes.
Pour 3–4 cups of water. Let it simmer.
Add the papaya. Simmer until the chicken becomes tender.
Add the malunggay leaves.
Add salt and pepper to taste.
Serve and enjoy.
NOTE: The example above is an example of “transactional” for it gives a specific instruction to
readers. It intends to communicate information between individuals or groups. Non-fiction texts
include (amongst others): magazine articles.

NOTE: The example above is an example of “transactional” for it gives a specific instruction to
readers. It intends to communicate information between individuals or groups. Non-fiction texts
include (amongst others): magazine articles.

TYPES OF DISCOURSE
ACADEMIC

1. Argumentation
 It is an academic type of discourse where the writer aims to persuade the audience or
readers.

A recent study confirmed that playing video games may cause children to become violent.

However, this is only true for some children. Dr. Charlotte Cooper and Dr. Markey Vitasa of ABC
University explained that children who manifest a combination of three personality traits―high
neuroticism, disagreeableness, and low levels of conscientiousness―are more likely to be
aggressive toward others after playing video games

NOTE: The example above is considered to be an argumentative essay. It is a genre of writing

that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and
establish a position on the topic concisely.

2. Description
 It is an academic type of discourse that is based on the main impression of the author about
the topic or subject.

When I first saw my childhood friend Margarette, she was about my younger sister Viv’s height.
Her hair was curly and dark, and her skin was pale. But what really struck me when I first saw
her was her big round blue eyes.

NOTE: Analyzing the example above, the primary purpose of the writing itself is to describe a
person, place, or thing in such a way that a picture is formed in the reader's mind. Capturing an
event through descriptive writing involves paying close attention to the details by using all of
your five senses.
3. Exposition
 It is an academic type of discourse that aims to inform, clarify, and explain a phenomenon.

HOW TO SET UP AN EMAIL ACCOUNT

 Choose the web host.
 Look for the sign-up button. Click it.
 Provide the required information.
 Think of a unique username and a password. (Tip: For the password, type in uppercase or
add characters.)
 Start using the newly set up email account.

4. Narration
 It is an academic type of discourse that recalls events chronologically.

I remember the time when I learned how to swim. I was only eight years old and afraid to bathe
in a pool. I envied the kids who played with inflatable balls and animals. Whenever my family
would visit the clubhouse, I would sit beside the pool and never really jump in to join them. A
summer camp opened in our neighborhood, and my mom thought of enrolling my brother and
me in a swimming class. Two days before the class started, my mom gave me a pep talk; that
made me realize that I did not want to miss out the fun just because I was afraid.

NOTE: Narration means the art of storytelling, and the purpose of narrative writing is to tell
stories. Any time you tell a story to a friend or family member about an event or incident in your
day, you engage in a form of narration. In addition, a narrative can be factual or fictional.
 WEEK 6: TECHNIQUES IN SELECTING AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION

Techniques in Selecting and Organizing Information

There are several visual representations to achieve well-organized ideas in reading and writing.
Considering all of them, a writer should know the techniques in selecting and organizing
information. The techniques are classified into four. They are brainstorming, graphic organizing,
outlining, and thesis statement.

1. BRAINSTORMING
 is the most popular tool in generating creative and rich ideas. It is a method designed for
teams to generate their ideas to solve the problems clearly.

How Brainstorming Works

1. Decide for the general or primary topic.

Finding the main topic makes the team easier to generate ideas.

2. Get ideas from everyone.

This is a team work activity, thus, ideas from each member of the group are necessary.

3. Revisit the list.

Once ideas are designed and agreed upon, the topics from the list need to be revisited to
remove and add ideas.

4. Have the list as a guide or an outline for the final product.

The list will serve as the team’s guide from the start up to the final product or output.

Two Methods in Brainstorming

A. Idea List
 It involves writing the main topic and listing down the related ideas.

Topic: Unemployment
1. Jobs
2. Poverty
3. Lack of education
4. Low salary
5. Lack of money
6. Fresh graduates

Notice that the main topic is all about unemployment. Hence, the subtopics listed were related
about unemployment.

B. Idea Map
 It involves writing the main topic and listing down the related ideas.
 It is a visual representation of ideas and their connections with one another.
 It is more structured compared to idealist.
  It shows how one idea subordinates another idea.

2. GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
 These are visual representations of concepts that help us structure information into
organizational patterns. They present essential information and connect these pieces of
information into a coherent framework.

Types of Graphic Organizers

A. Venn Diagram
 It is used to compare and contrast ideas and events.
 It uses two or more overlapping circles to show similar and different attributes. Technically,
Venn diagram does not only require circle as the shape you must use when comparing and
contrasting. Circles were only used because it is the most common shape every time
comparing and contrasting are done.

B. Network Tree
 It is used to represent hierarchy, classification, and branching useful in showing
relationships of scientific categories. Example of network tree is the following figure.

C. Spider Map
 It is used to investigate and enumerate various aspects of a central idea, which could be a
concept, topic, or theme.
 It is also known as semantic map.
D. Problem-Solution Map
 It displays the nature of the problem and how it can be solved.
 It usually contains the problem's description, its causes and effects, and logical solutions.

E. Timeline
 It is used to show how events occurred chronologically through a long bar labeled with dates
and specific events.

2 TYPES OF TIMELINES
Linear Timeline
 It shows how events happened within one period.

Comparative Timeline
 It shows two sets of events that happened within the same period.

F. Plot Diagram
 It is used to map events in the story used to analyze the major parts of a plot.
G. Series of Events Chain
 It is used to show the logical sequence of events.

H. Fishbone Map
 It is used to better understand the casual relationship of a complex phenomenon shows the
factors that cause a specific event or problem, as well as details of each cause.

I. Cycle Map
 It describes how a series of events interact to produce a set of results repeatedly
 Some examples of events that require a cycle are water cycle, metamorphosis, and poverty
cycle.
J. Persuasion Map
 It is used to map out arguments and evidence that prove a viewpoint.
 It is especially useful when processing persuasive or argumentative texts.

3. OUTLINE
 An outline is considered as a plan for writing; a summary that gives the essential feature of a
text. It shows how the parts of a text are related to one another as parts that are of equal
importance, or sections that are subordinate to a main idea.

TWO FORMATS OF OUTLINING

Outline has two formats. They are alphanumeric and decimal. Alphanumeric uses both letters
and numbers as labels. Decimal outline uses only numbers as labels.

PRINCIPLES OF OUTLINING
There are four principles of outlining. They are coordination, subordination, division, and
parallel construction.

Coordination Outlining requires ideas of the same relevance to be labeled in the same way.
The example below highlights the roman numerals I and II. This means that I and II have the
same relevance in terms of topics.

Subordination Outlining shows that minor details have to be placed under their respective
major details. The example below explains that each coordinating outline has two subordinating
outlines.
Division Outlining requires that no cluster should contain only one item. The below outlining
example shows that it is clustered into two. Notice that main topics are divided into two; they are
Positive effects of uniform policy and Negative effects of uniform policy.

Parallel Construction Outlining requires all entries in each cluster to use the same structure
and format. Notice that the below example respects the consistency of outlining in terms of
format. It can be concluded that it uses an alphanumeric outlining because it uses numbers and
letters as labels.

KINDS OF OUTLINE ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE

Topic Outline is a systematic arrangement of ideas using broad topics in the form of words or
simple phrases as headers. Observe the example below.
Sentence Outline uses complete sentences as its entries. It is also known as expanded outline.
Observe the example below.

4. THESIS STATEMENT
 Thesis statement is the central idea of a single or multiple-paragraph composition. It is a one
sentence summary that guides, controls, and unifies ideas when writing.

A brave soldier's main notion of life is to fight to win battles, not to be paid for winning them. A
noble clergyman is concerned more with the welfare of the humanity than his pay. A good
doctor desires far more to cure his patient than to get his fee. Thus, for all cultured people, their
duty comes first, then their fee.

Explanation: Based on the above example, it can be concluded that the thesis statement is:
Professionals are not just after the monetary value they can get from their job; rather, they took
an oath to do their service before their salary.
 WEEK 7: PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

Patterns of Development

I. NARRATION
The purpose of narration is to tell a story or relate an event. Narration is a useful tool for
sequencing or putting details and information into some kind of logical order, usually
chronological. Literature uses narration heavily, but it also can be useful in non-fiction, academic
writing for strong impact.

 It is the most basic pattern of development.

 It describes how, when, and where an event or occurrence actually happened.
 It is used to tell a story or focus on a set of related events.

There are also different components of a narrative text.

A. LOGICAL ACTIONS
These are considered the very movements within the plot or the narrative that drive the
characters forward, be it during the dialogue, or within a scene.

Example:
It was late spring the last time we saw Ross. He was standing at the edge of the hill, and he
never saw much as looked up even though we were sure he knew we were there. There was a
bunch of flowers clutched to his fist, but there really was no reason for him to be standing there.
We knew that Carrie wasn't coming to see him. But he stood there anyway, waiting, even as the
afternoon sunlight deepened towards the evening. He must have been standing there for hours.
Take note that the phrases in bold format are the movements performed by the character in the
story.

B. WAY OF NARRATION
It refers to how the writer presents the story. It includes the pace by which scenes are given out.

Having a natural progression of time to the events of the story makes good writing.

B1. Clipped Narration

“He came and talked to us. Then he left the house and then he drove the car back home.

From the term clipped, the author narrated the events briefly and concisely.

B2. Paced Narration

“He came and talked to us for a few moments. He seemed upset, but he managed to get
through all the bad news. Shaking our hands before he left the house come twilight, he seemed
to feel better now that he had delivered the news. He waved from the car as he pulled out of the
driveway, narrowly missing the mailbox again, and drove off to return home.”

Placed narration is a more detailed telling of events. The example above is a detailed narration
of the event in the first column.

C. TERMINOLOGY
It emphasizes the fact that concepts are critical to the narration.
TERMINOLOGY DEFINITION EXAMPLES

· These are words that identify things, places,

and events that can be measured and observed spoon, dog, house
CONCRETE TERMS
· These are terms that have a physical
manifestation in our world.

ABSTRACT TERMS · It refers to ideas or concepts that are love, freedom, feminism
intangible.

GENERAL TERMS · commonly used to denote groups Furniture, organization

SPECIFIC TERMS · It refers to an individual component of the cabinets, desks, chairs

group

SIGNAL WORDS FOR NARRATION

About, Before, In the meantime, Prior to, After, During, Later, Soon, Afterwards, eventually,
Meanwhile, Then, as soon as, Finally, Next, Till, At First, Next week, Today, at this/that point,
immediately, presently, Tomorrow, when, yesterday, until, Second

II. DESCRIPTION
The purpose of the description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event,
or action so that the reader can picture that which is being described. It is heavily based on
sensory details: sight, sound, smell, feel, taste.

It goes into details about a specific object, person, or location, to firmly set its appearance.

It answers the following questions:

 What does it look like?
 What are its characteristics?

CHARACTERISTICS OF DESCRIPTION
 It has a clear focus and sense of purpose.
 It uses sensory details and precise words.
 It presents details in a logical order.

VARIETIES OF DESCRIPTION

OBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION
 It looks into factual and scientific characteristics of what is being described as objectively as
possible.

EXAMPLE:
The Acer barbatum is a small to medium-sized, deciduous tree usually ranging from 15 to 25 m.
(50 to 80 ft.) tall when mature. Its bark is light gray and smooth on younger trees, and it
becomes ridged and furrowed with age. Leaves are opposite and shallowly to deeply palmately
lobed, with a few blunt teeth but no serrations. The leaf sinuses are rounded, unlike those of red
maple (Acerrubrum) which are sharply V-shaped. Also, the sides of terminal leaf lobes are more
or less parallel, while those of red maple is widest at the base, tapering to the tip.

SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION
 A sort of description that the author would normally use to “paint a picture” of how he sees a
character, or how he wants the reader to see a character.

EXAMPLE:
My mother had hair so dark that it looked like a waterfall of ink. She always kept it in a braid that
fell to her slim waist, and always tied with a plain black band. The braid of black slung over her
shoulder, the plaits shining like scales.

III. DEFINITION
Definition moves beyond a dictionary definition to deeply examine a word or concept as we
actually use and understand it. It explains not just what something means or is, but also what
something does, what something is used for, what something looks like.
 VARIETIES OF DEFINITION

SCIENTIFIC DEFINITION
 It defines concepts in the most factual way, which is often used in scientific, proper, or real-
world facts.

EXAMPLE:
A pillow is a rectangular cloth bag stuffed with feathers, foam rubber, or other soft materials,
used to support the head when lying down.

A medal is a metal disk with an inscription or design, made to commemorate an event or

awarded as a distinction to someone such as a soldier, athlete, or scholar.

SUBJECTIVE DEFINITION
 It defines the objects in a more personal way usually derived from the author's own
experiences and opinion

EXAMPLE:
A pillow is a friend, especially at night when no one dares to listen to me.

A medal symbolizes victory and sacrifices of someone who made an effort to achieve
something.

The term could be emphasized by the following:

Characteristics or features
 Function
 Effect
 Origin

SIGNAL WORDS FOR DEFINITION

as defined as, to define, means as defined, refers to, to illustrate

IV. CLASSIFICATION
Classification takes one large concept and divides it into individual pieces. A nice result from
this type of writing is that it helps the reader to understand a complex topic by focusing on its
smaller parts. This is particularly useful when an author has a unique way of dividing the
concepts, to provide new insight into the ways they could be viewed.

 It divides things into groups, classes, or categories.

 It organizes ideas into divisions based on criteria or standards.

EXAMPLES:

There are two types of discourse. The first type is Academic discourse while the second one is
Literary Discourse.

One type of technique in organizing and selecting information is brainstorming.

A Venn diagram is classified as a graphic organizer.

SIGNAL WORDS FOR CLASSIFICATION

Another, one kind, another kind, the first category, Classified as, the last group, Final type, the
next part

V. EXEMPLIFICATION
It is common to see examples used in all kinds of situations—an idea can be considered too
general or abstract until we see it in action. Exemplification extends this idea even further: it
carries one or more examples into great detail, to show the details of a complex problem in a
way that is easy for readers to understand.

 It provides examples and illustrations to further clarify or explain the concept or subject
matter.
 It presents the general statement and then provides specific and concrete examples to
expound on the main idea.

EXAMPLE:

Dogs are domesticated animals that have been living with humans for generations. Dogs can be
classified in a number of different ways. For example, they can be classified by breed.
Examples of different breeds include beagles, basset hounds, poodles, and countless others as
defined by the American Kennel Club (AKC).

They can also be classified by their role in the lives of their masters and the work they do. For
example, a dog might be a family pet, a working dog, a show dog, or a hunting dog. In many
cases, dogs are defined both by their breed and their role. For example, a dog could be a
beagle that is a family pet.

Notice that in the paragraph above, classification and exemplification are combined to present
the details.

SIGNAL WORDS FOR EXEMPLIFICATION

Specifically, for example, in short, to illustrate, namely, put another way, to clarify, stated
differently, after all, for instance, as an example, in other words, to be specific, Consider the
following, that is, in particular

VI. COMPARE AND CONTRAST

Comparison focuses on similarities between things, and contrast focuses on their differences.
We innately make comparisons all the time, and they appear in many kinds of writings. The goal
of comparison and contrast in academic essays is generally to show that one item is superior to
another, based on a set of evaluations included as part of the writing.

 It organizes ideas based on how events, places, people, things, and concepts are similar
to or different from one another.
 There are two ways to compare and contrast.

SEPARATELY
 Writers using a point-by-point pattern deal with each point of comparison/contrast in an
order that makes sense given the two things being compared. However, under each point,
the same side always needs to come first.
 involves describing one
 item first followed by the second item

SIDE-BY-SIDE
 Writers using side-by-side patterns deal with all of the information for one of the things being
compared first, before moving to all of the information for the other thing being compared.
However, within each side, the points of comparison/contrast need to be dealt with in exactly
the same order.
 Involves discussing
 both items based on each point of comparison

SIGNAL WORDS FOR COMPARING

Also, like, equally, in the same way, likewise, similarly, to compare, in a similar fashion, As, Both
in comparison

SIGNAL WORDS FOR CONTRASTING

Although, despite, in spite of, But, instead, on the other hand, whereas, yet, unlike, in the
meantime, the fact remains, otherwise, nonetheless, And, yet, Conversely, on the contrary,
even so, however, in contrast, still, As opposed to, Counter to, even though, nevertheless

VII. CAUSE AND EFFECT

If narration offers a sequence of events, cause/effect essays offer an explanation about why that
sequence matters. Cause/effect writing is particularly powerful when the author can provide a
cause/effect relationship that the reader wasn’t expecting, and as a result, see the situation in a
new light.

It explains why something happens or what results in a particular event produces. It consists of
the following:

 Paragraph emphasizing cause

 Paragraph emphasizing effect

SIGNAL WORDS FOR CAUSE

As, being that, one reason, for, in that, Due to, Because, owing to, for the reason that, in view
of, in as much as

SIGNAL WORDS FOR EFFECT

Accordingly, for this reason, consequently, As a result, As a consequence, hence, So, Because

VIII. PROBLEM SOLUTION

This type of academic writing has two equally important tasks: clearly identifying a problem, and
then providing a logical, practical solution for that problem. Establishing that a particular
situation is a problem can sometimes be a challenge–many readers might assume that a given
situation is “just the way it is,” for instance.

 It focuses on either a problem or solution in a particular area or situation.

SIGNAL WORDS FOR PROBLEM-SOLUTION

But, Nonetheless, one reason for the, the problem, First, second, one solution is, the solution,
one way is

IX. PERSUASION
It convinces readers to agree to an argument or claim about a particular topic.

SIGNAL WORDS FOR EMPHASIZING A POINT

In fact, with this mind, Again, in that case, for this reason, to emphasize, indeed, to repeat, truly

SIGNAL WORDS FOR CONCLUDING AND SUMMARIZING

Accordingly, all in all, inevitably, in any event, consequently, in a nutshell, to sum up, As I have
said, in brief, in summary, in conclusion, As a result, on the whole, since, due to, therefore, in
essence, in short, thus, finally

SIGNAL WORDS FOR CONCEDING A POINT

it is true that, needless to say, no doubt, Admittedly, to be sure, obviously, of course, Granted,
Assuredly, undoubtedly, Certainly, true

Narration describes what, when, and where something happened.

Definition explains what something is in comparison to other members of its class, along with
any limitations.
Description details what something looks like and its characteristics.
Classification divides things into groups, classes, or categories.
Exemplification provides typical cases or examples of something.
Compare and Contrast tells how something is like other things or how something is different
from other things.
Cause and Effect explains why something happens or what results in a particular event
produces.
Problem Solution focuses on either a problem or solution in a particular area or situation.
Persuasion describes an issue and your position or opinion on the subject.
 WEEK 8: PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEX

A. ORGANIZATION is an important thing to consider in writing a text.

 It refers to the arrangement, which is achieved when ideas are logically and accurately
arranged with a focus on the arrangement of ideas, incidents, evidence, or details in a
definite order in a paragraph, essay, or speech.
 It can be done with a recognizable plan that defines one sentence connection to the other
sentence and paragraph to the other paragraph.

Chronological Order - first, second, later, before, next, as soon as, after, then, finally,
meanwhile, following, last, during, in, on, until

Order of Importance - less, more, primary, next, last, most important, primarily, secondarily

Spatial Order - above, below, besides, next to, in front of, behind, inside, outside, opposite,
within,
Nearby

Definition Order - is, refers to, can be defined as, means, consists of, involves, is a term that, is
called
Classification - classified as, comprises, is composed of, several, varieties of, different stages
of, different groups that

Process - first, next, then, following, after that, last, finally

Cause and Effect - Causes: because, for, since stems from, one cause is, one reason is, leads
to, causes, creates, yields, due to, breeds, for this reason, // Effects: consequently, results in,
one
result is, therefore, thus, as a result, hence

Comparison and Contrast - Similarities: both, also, similarly, like, likewise, too, as well as,
resembles, correspondingly, in the same way, to compare, in comparison, share// Differences:
unlike, differs from, in contrast, on the other hand, instead, despite, nevertheless, however, in
spite of, whereas, as opposed to

Listing - the following, several, for example, for instance, one, another, also, too, in other
words, first, second, numerals (1, 2, 3...), letters (a, b, c...)

Clarification - in fact, in other words, clearly

Summary - in summary, in conclusion, in brief, to summarize, to sum up, in short, on the

Example - for example, for instance, to illustrate

Addition - furthermore, additionally, also, besides, further, in addition, moreover, again

B. COHERENCE refers to the overall sense of unity in a passage, including both the main point
of sentences and the main point of each paragraph.

A coherent passage focuses the reader’s attention on the main ideas and the specific people,
things, and events you are writing about.

C. COHESION is also a very important aspect of academic writing because it immediately

affects the tone of your writing.

Cohesive writing does not mean just “grammatically correct” sentences; cohesive writing refers
to the connection of your ideas both at the sentence level and at the paragraph level. Cohesion
is important because it allows writers to make multiple references to people, things, and events
without reintroducing them at each turn. If we had to repeat every time, we wanted to refer to
them, the text would be very tedious to read.

Example:
Credit cards are convenient but dangerous. People often get them in order to make large
purchases easily without saving up lots of money in advance. This is especially helpful for
purchases like cars, kitchen appliances, etc., that you may need to get without delay. However,
this convenience comes at a high price: interest rates. The more money you put on your credit
card, the more the bank or credit union will charge you for that convenience. If you’re not
careful, credit card debt can quickly break the bank and leave you in very dire economic
circumstances.

1. Topic Sentence. The paragraph starts with a very clear, declarative topic sentence, and the
rest of the paragraph follows that sentence. Everything in the paragraph is tied back to the
statement in the beginning.

2. Key terms. The term “credit card” appears repeatedly in this short paragraph. This signals
the reader that the whole paragraph is about the subject of credit cards. Similarly, the word
convenience (and related words) is also peppered throughout. In addition, the key term
“danger” appears in the topic sentence and is then explained fully as the paragraph goes on.

3. Clear transitions. Each sentence flows into the next quite easily, and readers can follow
the line of logic without too much effort.

4. Transitional words used: but, however, and, like

D. UNITY is achieved when a composition is focused on one idea. In a unified text, all
supporting ideas are relevant to the main thought. Without unity, texts will be confusing.

Example:
The Covid-19 pandemic is one of the most dangerous challenges this world has faced in our
lifetime. It is above all a human crisis with severe health and socio-economic consequences.
The World Health Organization, with thousands of its staff, is on the front lines, supporting
Member States and their societies, especially the most vulnerable among them, with guidance,
training, equipment, and concrete life-saving services as they fight the virus.

This virus is unprecedented in our lifetime and requires an unprecedented response. Obviously,
in such conditions, it is possible that the same facts have had different readings by different
entities. Once we have finally turned the page on this epidemic, there must be a time to look
back fully to understand how such a disease emerged and spread its devastation so quickly
across the globe, and how all those involved reacted to the crisis. The lessons learned will be
essential to effectively address similar challenges, as they may arise in the future.

But now is not that time. Now is the time for unity, for the international community to work
together in solidarity to stop this virus and its shattering consequences.

Unity is achieved in the given example because of the following:

 The paragraphs are focused on one topic and has a clear topic sentence and strong
supporting details.
 The paragraphs are focused on one thesis statement that is included in the introductory
paragraph.

E. APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE USE is one of the clearest indicators of a well-written text. It

enables writers to effectively communicate ideas without confusing the reader. It also refers
to the acceptable style of language for a particular form of text.

Do

Use clear and concise sentences.

Note: Use plain and simple language, brief and short sentences.

Be consistent with your pronoun’s point of view.

Note: Use the same person or personal pronoun throughout a sentence.

Don’ts

Avoid redundancies and wordiness, cliche and high-fluting language.

Example: “Michelle was supposed to have her car’s oil changed every 3,000 miles, and since it
had been 3,000 miles since her last oil change, she took her car to the mechanic.”

Instead…
“Michelle had the mechanic change her car’s oil because it had been 3,000 miles since the last
one.”

Avoid sexist language

Sexist language is a language that unnecessarily identifies gender.

Example: Every student should have his notebook with him in class. (Only appropriate at an all-
male school)

F. PROPER MECHANICS focuses on the technicalities of the structure. It determines errors on

subject-verb agreement, prepositions, tenses, grammar, spelling, capitalization,
 abbreviations and acronyms, the use of numbers as part of the statement, and the
punctuation marks.

Do

Always capitalize proper nouns, title of books

Example: Only Julie and I have read the new book.

Always observe the correct spelling of words.

Example: The general appearance of the house is quite good.

Always use the correct preposition.

Example: He arrived at the restaurant five minutes late.

Always remember the general rule of Subject-verb agreement

Example: The women who went to the meeting were bored.

Note: In the example, the verb was agreeing with the subject women not with meeting.

Always use Standard English.

Example: Come quickly! instead of Come quick!
I didn’t break it! instead of I never broke it!

Mention the full name in the first mention. Thereafter, use abbreviations.
Example: In this study, the strategy of the Department of Education towards learning in the new
normal is examined.

DepEd concludes that…

Don’ts

Only Julie and I have read the new book.

Note: Proper nouns are always capitalized, no matter where they fall in a sentence.

The general appearance of the house is quite good.

Note: Words must be spelled correctly at all times.

He arrived in the restaurant five minutes late.

Note: Use in for cities, countries or other large areas.
Use at for specific places (library, a bar, or someone’s house).

The women who went to the meeting was bored.

Note: Subjects and verbs mut agree with one another in number. Thus, if the subject is
singular, its verb must also be plural; if a subject is plural, its verb must also be plural.

Avoid the use of contractions.

A contraction is a shortened form of a word (or group of words) that omits a certain letter or
sounds.

Example: Have you ever read a book that you couldn’t put down? Two popular children’s
books are Charlotte’s Web and Dear Mr. Henshaw. They’re not new books, but they’re both
best sellers. Kids haven’t stopped reading them. With these books, maybe you’ll laugh or maybe
you’ll cry. You’ll feel and think about what you’ve read. That’s one reason why some books
don’t get dusty.

Avoid using exclamation marks.

Note: Normally, exclamation marks are often used in informal writing.