Table 4.

6 Criteria in Tables 2A and 2B for establishing design stress intensity values for
ferrous and nonferrous for wrought and cast materials other than bolting

Criteria Section II, Part D, Mandatory Section II, Part D, Mandatory

Paragraph 2-110 Appendix 1, 2007 Edition Appendix 1, 2021 Edition
2-110(a)
3 3
all temperatures all temperatures
2-110(b) 1.1 1.1
see Note 1 3 3
above room temperature above room temperature
2-110(c) 2 2
3 3
all temperatures all temperatures
2-110(d) 2 2
see Notes 1 and 2 3 3
or 0.9 or 0.9
above room temperature above room temperature
where:
avg = multiplier applied to average stress for rupture in 100,000 hr. At 1500°F and below, avg = 0.67. Above
1500°F, it is determined from the slope of the log time‐to‐rupture versus log stress plot at 100,000 hr such
that log [ avg ] = 1/n, but avg may not exceed 0.67.
n= a negative number equal to Δ log time-to‐rupture divided by Δ log stress at 100,000 hr.
RT = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of tensile strength to the room temperature
tensile strength
RY = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of yield strength to the room temperature
yield strength
SC = average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1,000 hr.
avg = average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
min = minimum stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
= specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature.
= specified minimum yield strength at room temperature.
Notes:
1. The Committee considers the yield strength at temperature to be , and the tensile strength at temperature to
be 1.1 .
2. For austenitic stainless steels, nickel alloys, copper alloys, and cobalt alloys having an ⁄ ratio less than
0.625, the design stress intensity values in Tables 2A and 2B may exceed two‐thirds and may be as high as 90%
of the yield strength at temperature.

Table 4.7 Criteria in Tables 2A and 2B for establishing design stress intensity values
for ferrous and nonferrous for welded pipe and tubing other than bolting

Criteria Section II, Part D, Mandatory Section II, Part D, Mandatory

Paragraph 2-110 Appendix 1, 2007 Edition Appendix 1, 2021 Edition
2-110(a) 0.85 0.85
3 3
all temperatures all temperatures
2-110(b) 1.1 x 0.85 1.1 x 0.85
see Note 1 3 3

65
 above room temperature above room temperature
2-110(c) 2 2
x 0.85 x x 0.85 x
3 3
all temperatures all temperatures
2-110(d) 2 2
x 0.85 x x 0.85 x
see Notes 1 and 2 3 3
or 0.9 x 0.85 x or 0.9 x 0.85 x
above room temperature above room temperature
where:
avg = multiplier applied to average stress for rupture in 100,000 hr. At 1500°F and below, avg = 0.67. Above
1500°F, it is determined from the slope of the log time‐to‐rupture versus log stress plot at 100,000 hr such
that log [ avg ] = 1/n, but avg may not exceed 0.67.
n= a negative number equal to Δ log time-to‐rupture divided by Δ log stress at 100,000 hr.
RT = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of tensile strength to the room temperature
tensile strength.
RY = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of yield strength to the room temperature
yield strength.
SC = average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1,000 hr.
avg = average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
min = minimum stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
= specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature.
= specified minimum yield strength at room temperature.
Notes:
1. The Committee considers the yield strength at temperature to be , and the tensile strength at temperature to
be 1.1 .
2. For austenitic stainless steels, nickel alloys, copper alloys, and cobalt alloys having an ⁄ ratio less than
0.625, the design stress intensity values in Tables 2A and 2B may exceed two‐thirds and may be as high as 90%
of the yield strength at temperature.

4.4.3 Basis for Establishing Allowable Stress Values in Table 3

Criteria for establishing allowable stress values in Table 3 are provided in Mandatory Appendix 2,
Table 2-120(a) in Section II, Part D of the 2007 and 2021 editions of the ASME BPVC. Table 3 provides
allowable stress values for bolting materials for use in Section VIII, Division 1 and Section VIII,
Division 2 (using Part 4.16 of Section VIII, Division 2) construction. Allowable stress values at any
temperature are provided in Table 3 for materials whose strength has not been enhanced by heat treatment
or by strain hardening and materials whose strength has been enhanced by heat treatment or by strain
hardening. The allowable stress value shown at any temperature in Table 3 for materials whose strength
has not been enhanced by heat treatment or by strain hardening is the least of the following:
2-120(a)(1) one‐fourth of the specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature
2-120(a)(2) one‐fourth of the tensile strength at temperature
2-120(a)(3) two‐thirds of the specified minimum yield strength at room temperature
2-120(a)(4) two‐thirds of the yield strength at temperature
The allowable stress value shown at any temperature in Table 3 for materials whose strength has been
enhanced by heat treatment or by strain hardening is the least of the following:
2-120(b)(1) one‐fifth of the specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature
2-120(b)(2) one‐fourth of the tensile strength at temperature

66
 2-120(b)(3) one‐fourth of the specified minimum yield strength at room temperature
2-120(b)(4) two‐thirds of the yield strength at temperature
At temperatures in the range where creep and stress rupture strength govern the selection of stresses, the
maximum allowable stress value for all materials is established by the Committee not to exceed the
lowest of the following:
2-120(d)(1) 100% of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1,000 hr.
2-120(d)(2) 100 avg % of the average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
2-120(d)(3) 80% of the minimum stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
A comparison of allowable stress values in Section II, Part D, Subpart 1, Table 3 in the 2007 and 2021
editions of the ASME BPVC is provided in Table 4.8 and Table 4.9 of this report. Table 4.8 provides
allowable stress values for annealed ferrous and nonferrous bolting materials and products. Table 4.9
provides allowable stress values for ferrous and nonferrous bolting materials and products with strength
enhanced by heat treatment or strain hardening.

Table 4.8 Criteria in Table 3 for establishing allowable stress values for
annealed ferrous and nonferrous bolting

Criteria Section II, Part D, Mandatory Section II, Part D, Mandatory

Paragraph 2.120 Appendix 2, 2007 Edition Appendix 2, 2021 Edition
2-120(a)(1)
4 4
all temperatures all temperatures
2-120(a)(2) 1.1 1.1
see Note 1 4 4
above room temperature above room temperature
2-120(a)(3) 2 2
3 3
all temperatures all temperatures
2-120(a)(4) 2 2
see Note 1 3 3
above room temperature above room temperature
2-120(d)(1) 1.0 SC 1.0 SC
above room temperature above room temperature
2-120(d)(2) avg avg avg avg
above room temperature above room temperature
2-120(d)(3) 0.8 min 0.8 min
above room temperature above room temperature
where:
avg = multiplier applied to average stress for rupture in 100,000 hr. At 1500°F and below, avg = 0.67. Above
1500°F, it is determined from the slope of the log time‐to‐rupture versus log stress plot at 100,000 hr such
that log [ avg ] = 1/n, but avg may not exceed 0.67.
n= a negative number equal to Δ log time-to‐rupture divided by Δ log stress at 100,000 hr.
RT = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of tensile strength to the room temperature
tensile strength.
RY = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of yield strength to the room temperature
yield strength.

67
SC = average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1,000 hr.
avg = average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
min = minimum stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
= specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature.
= specified minimum yield strength at room temperature.
Notes:
1. The Committee considers the yield strength at temperature to be , and the tensile strength at temperature to
be 1.1 .

Table 4.9 Criteria in Table 3 for establishing allowable stress values for ferrous and
nonferrous bolting with strength enhanced by heat treatment of strain hardening

Criteria
Section II, Part D, Mandatory Section II, Part D, Mandatory
Paragraph 2-120
Appendix 1, 2007 Edition Appendix 1, 2021 Edition
see Note 2
2-120(b)(1)
5 5
all temperatures all temperatures
2-120(b)(2) 1.1 1.1
see Note 1 4 4
above room temperature above room temperature
2-120(b)(3)
4 4
all temperatures all temperatures
2-120(b)(4) 2 2
see Note 1 3 3
above room temperature above room temperature
2-120(d)(1) 1.0 SC 1.0 SC
above room temperature above room temperature
2-120(d)(2) avg avg avg avg
above room temperature above room temperature
2-120(d)(3) 0.8 min 0.8 min
above room temperature above room temperature
where:
avg = multiplier applied to average stress for rupture in 100,000 hr. At 1500°F and below, avg = 0.67. Above
1500°F, it is determined from the slope of the log time‐to‐rupture versus log stress plot at 100,000 hr such
that log [ avg ] = 1/n, but avg may not exceed 0.67.
n= a negative number equal to Δ log time-to‐rupture divided by Δ log stress at 100,000 hr.
RT = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of tensile strength to the room temperature
tensile strength.
RY = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of yield strength to the room temperature
yield strength.
SC = average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1,000 hr.
avg = average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
min = minimum stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
= specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature.
= specified minimum yield strength at room temperature.

68
Notes:
1. The Committee considers the yield strength at temperature to be , and the tensile strength at temperature to
be 1.1 .
2. For materials whose strength has been enhanced by heat treatment or by strain hardening, the criteria shown
shall govern unless the values are lower than for the annealed material, in which case the annealed values shall
be used.

4.4.4 Basis for Establishing Design Stress Intensity Values in Table 4

Criteria for establishing design stress intensity values in Table 4 are provided in Mandatory Appendix 2,
Table 2-130(a) in Section II, Part D of the 2007 and 2021 edition of the ASME BPVC. Table 4 provides
design stress intensities for bolting materials used in Section VIII, Division 2 (using Part 5 and Annex 5.F
of Section VIII, Division 2) construction. The allowable stress or design stress intensity values shown at
any temperature in Table 4 is the least of the following:
(a) For materials whose strength has not been enhanced by heat treatment or strain hardening:
(1) one-fourth of the specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature
(2) one fourth of the tensile strength at temperature
(3) two-thirds of the specified minimum yield strength at room temperature
(4) two-thirds of the yield strength at temperature
(b) For materials whose strength has been enhanced by heat treatment or strain hardening:
(1) one-third of the specified minimum yield strength at room temperature
(2) one-third of the yield strength at temperature
A comparison of design stress intensity values in Section II, Part D, Subpart 1, Table 4 in the 2007 and
2021 editions of the ASME BPVC is provided in Table 4.10 and Table 4.11 of this report. Table 4.10
provides design stress intensity values for ferrous and nonferrous bolting with strength not enhanced by
heat treatment or strain hardening. Table 4.11 provides design stress intensity values for ferrous and
nonferrous bolting with strength enhanced by heat treatment or strain hardening.

Table 4.10 Criteria in Table 4 for establishing allowable stress or design stress intensity values for ferrous
and nonferrous bolting with strength not enhanced by heat treatment or strain hardening

Criteria Section II, Part D, Mandatory Section II, Part D, Mandatory

Paragraph 2-130 Appendix 2, 2007 Edition Appendix, 2021 Edition
2-130(a)(1) N/A
4
room temperature and below
2-130(a)(2) N/A 1.1
see Note 1 4
above room temperature
2-130(a)(3) N/A 2
3
room temperature and below
2-130(a)(4) N/A 2
see Note 1 3
above room temperature
where:
N/A = not applicable

69
RT = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of tensile strength to the room temperature
tensile strength
RY = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of yield strength to the room temperature
yield strength
= specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature.
= specified minimum yield strength at room temperature.
Notes:
1. The Committee considers the yield strength at temperature to be , and the tensile strength at temperature to
be 1.1 .

Table 4.11 Criteria in Table 4 for establishing allowable stress or design stress intensity values for ferrous
and nonferrous bolting with strength enhanced by heat treatment or strain hardening

Criteria Section II, Part D, Mandatory Section II, Part D, Mandatory

Paragraph 2-130 Appendix 2, 2007 Edition Appendix, 2021 Edition
2-130(b)(1)
3 3
room temperature and below room temperature and below
2-130(b)(2)
see Note 1 3 3
above room temperature above room temperature
where:
RY = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of yield strength to the room temperature
yield strength
= specified minimum yield strength at room temperature.
Note:
1. The Committee considers the yield strength at temperature to be .

4.4.5 Basis for Establishing Allowable Stress Values in Table 5A and 5B

Criteria for establishing maximum allowable stress values for Tables 5A and 5B are provided in
Section II, Mandatory Appendix 10, Table 10-100 in Section II, Part D of the 2007 and 2021 editions of
the ASME BPVC. Table 5A and Table 5B provide maximum allowable stress values for construction of
Class 2 vessels in accordance with rules specified in Annex 3-A – Allowable Design Stresses in Section
VIII, Division 2 in the 2021 edition of the ASME BPVC. Based on these criteria, at temperatures below
the range where creep and stress rupture strength govern the selection of stresses, the maximum allowable
stress value is the lowest of the following:
10-100(a)(1) the specified minimum tensile strength ( ) at room temperature divided by 2.4
10-100(a)(2) the specified minimum yield strength ( ) divided by 1.5
10-100(a)(3) the yield strength at temperature ( ) divided by 1.5, except for austenitic
stainless steels, nickel alloys, copper alloys, and cobalt alloys
10-100(a)(4) for austenitic stainless steels, nickel alloys, copper alloys, and cobalt alloys having
a specified minimum yield strength at room temperature, , divided by the
specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature, , ratio (e.g., ⁄ )
less than 0.625, higher stress values are established at temperatures where the
short-time tensile properties govern, to permit use of these alloys where slightly
greater deformation is acceptable. The stress values in this range exceed 66⅔%,
but do not exceed 90%, of the yield strength at temperature, but never exceed two-

70
 thirds of the specified room-temperature minimum yield strength. These higher
stress values are not recommended for the flanges of gasketed joints or other
applications where slight amounts of distortion can cause leakage or malfunction.
At temperatures in the range where creep and stress rupture govern the selection of stresses, the maximum
allowable stress value for all materials is established by the Committee not to exceed the lowest of the
following:
10-100(b)(1) 100% of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1,000 hr.
10-100(b)(2) 100 avg % of the average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
10-100(b)(3) 80% of the minimum stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
A comparison of maximum allowable stress values in Section II, Part D, Subpart 1, Table 5A and
Table 5B in the 2007 and 2021 editions of the ASME BPVC is provided in Tables 4.12 and Table 4.13 of
this report. Maximum allowable stress values for all wrought and cast ferrous and nonferrous materials
expect bolting, and for austenitic stainless steels, nickel alloys, copper alloys, and cobalt alloy product
forms having an ⁄ ratio less than 0.625 are provided on Tables 4.11. Maximum allowable stress
values for all wrought and cast austenitic stainless steels, nickel alloys, copper alloys, and cobalt alloy
product forms having an ⁄ ratio less than 0.625 are provided on Tables 4.12.

Table 4.12 Criteria for establishing allowable stress values for Tables 5A and 5B for all wrought and
cast ferrous and nonferrous materials expect bolting, austenitic stainless steels, nickel alloys,
copper alloys, and cobalt alloys

Criteria Section II, Part D, Mandatory Section II, Part D, Mandatory

Paragraph 10-100 Appendix 10, 2007 Edition Appendix 10, 2021 Edition
10-100(a)(1)
2.4 2.4
all temperatures all temperatures
10-100(a)(2)
1.5 1.5
below room temperature below room temperature
10-100(a)(3)
see Note 1 1.5 1.5
room temperature and above room temperature and above
10-100(a)(4) N/A N/A
10-100(b)(1) 1.0 SC avg 1.0 SC avg
room temperature and above room temperature and above
10-100(b)(2) and min avg avg , 0.8 min min avg avg , 0.8 min
10-100(b)(3)
room temperature and above room temperature and above
where:
avg = multiplier applied to average stress for rupture in 100,000 hr. At 1500°F and below, avg = 0.67. Above
1500°F, it is determined from the slope of the log time‐to‐rupture versus log stress plot at 100,000 hr such
that log [ avg ] = 1/n, but avg may not exceed 0.67.
n= a negative number equal to Δ log time-to‐rupture divided by Δ log stress at 100,000 hr.
N/A = not applicable.
RY = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of yield strength to the room temperature
yield strength.
SC avg = average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1,000 hr.

71
 avg = average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
min = minimum stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
= specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature.
= specified minimum yield strength at room temperature.
Note:
1. The Committee considers the yield strength at temperature to be .

Table 4.13 Criteria for establishing allowable stress values for Tables 5A and 5B for all wrought and
cast austenitic stainless steels, nickel alloys, copper alloys, and cobalt alloys

Criteria Section II, Part D, Mandatory Section II, Part D, Mandatory

Paragraph 10-100 Appendix 10, 2007 Edition Appendix 10, 2021 Edition
10-100(a)(1)
2.4 2.4
all temperatures all temperatures
10-100(a)(2)
1.5 1.5
below room temperature below room temperature
10-100(a)(3)
see Note 1 1.5 1.5
room temperature and above room temperature and above
10-100(a)(4) 0.9 0.9
min , min ,
see Note 1 1.5 1.0 1.5 1.0
room temperature and above room temperature and above
10-100(b)(1) 1.0 SC avg 1.0 SC avg
room temperature and above room temperature and above
10-100(b)(2) and min avg avg , 0.8 min min avg avg , 0.8 min
10-100(b)(3)
room temperature and above room temperature and above
where:
avg = multiplier applied to average stress for rupture in 100,000 hr. At 1500°F and below, avg = 0.67. Above
1500°F, it is determined from the slope of the log time‐to‐rupture versus log stress plot at 100,000 hr such
that log [ avg ] = 1/n, but avg may not exceed 0.67.
n= a negative number equal to Δ log time-to‐rupture divided by Δ log stress at 100,000 hr.
RY = ratio of the average temperature dependent trend curve value of yield strength to the room temperature
yield strength
SC avg = average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1,000 hr.
avg = average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
min = minimum stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hr.
= specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature.
= specified minimum yield strength at room temperature.
Note:
1. The Committee considers the yield strength at temperature to be .

4.4.6 Rules for Material Having Higher Allowable Stresses

Rules for materials having higher allowable stresses than those specified in Tables 1A and 1B in
Section II of the ASME BPVC are provided in Part ULT – Alternative Rules for Pressure Vessels

72
Constructed of Materials Having Higher Allowable Stresses at Low Temperature and Mandatory
Appendix 44 – Cold Stretching of Austenitic Stainless Steel Pressure Vessels.

4.4.6.1 Alternative Rules for Material Having a Higher Allowable Stress at Low Temperature

Alternative rules for maximum allowable stress values in tension for pressure vessels constructed using
materials having higher allowable stresses at low temperature are tabulated in Part ULT of the 2007 and
2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC. Part ULT also includes rules that cover
design, fabrication, inspection, testing, marking, reports, and overpressure protection. Paragraph ULT-5 –
General in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC states that material
covered by Part ULT subject to stress due to pressure shall conform to one of the specifications given in
Section II and shall be limited to those listed in Table ULT-23. The title of Table ULT-23 is: V001
Maximum Allowable Stress Values in Tension for 5%, 7%, 8%, and 9% Nickel Steels; Types 304 and
316 Stainless Steels; and 5083 0 Aluminum Alloy at Cryogenic Temperatures for Welded and Nonwelded
Construction. Maximum allowable stress values specified in Table ULT-23 are provided for temperatures
between -320°F and 150°F (100°F in the 2007 edition).

Alternative rules in Part ULT for material having a higher allowable stress at low temperature in the 2007
edition of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC do not included maximum allowable stress values
for Type 316 stainless steel.

4.4.6.2 Rules for Materials Having Higher Allowable Stresses for Cold Stretching of Austenitic
Stainless Steel Pressure Vessels

Maximum design stress values for cold-stretched austenitic stainless steel pressure vessels are provided in
Mandatory Appendix 44. Rules in Paragraph 44-4 – Materials and Allowable Design Stress state:
• The austenitic stainless steels listed in Table 44-4-1 are allowed in the vessel construction.
• The value of allowable design stress, , in tension shall not exceed the value listed in
Table 44-4-1.
All materials specified in Table 44-4-1 conform to specification SA-240/SA-240M, Type 304 and 316
stainless steels. Corresponding maximum design stress values for these materials are shown in Table 5.4
in this report. Further discussions about cold-stretched austenitic stainless steel pressure vessels are
presented in Sect. 5.5 of this report.

Rules in Mandatory Appendix 44 for cold-stretched austenitic stainless steel pressure vessels are not
included in the 2007 edition of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC.

4.4.7 Design Margin Against Bursting

As discussed in Sect 4.4.5 of this report, criterion 10-100(a)(1) in Mandatory Appendix 10 in

Section II, Part D in the 2021 edition of the ASME BPVC limits the maximum allowable stress to the
minimum tensile strength, , at room temperature divided by 2.4. This criterion is applicable to
materials permitted for construction of Class 2 vessels in accordance with rules specified in
Section VIII, Division 2 in the 2021 edition of the ASME BPVC.

The factor 2.4 with respect to ultimate tensile strength is a design margin against bursting [8]. It is also
intended to account for uncertainties in material properties, loading conditions, fabrication and welding,
geometric shape, and the design approach that are difficult to quantify in terms of safety equivalency.

73
The bursting pressure of cylindrical and spherical shells can be predicted with reasonable accuracy if
consideration is given to the strain hardening properties of the material [8]. However, there are no rules in
the ASME BPVC for calculating burst pressure or for taking strain hardening properties into
consideration. Therefore, it is impossible to quantify the magnitude of the design margin for bursting for a
particular pressure vessel design configuration using ASME BPVC rules.

Experimental testing of pressure vessels was conducted at the University of Kansas in 1970s to develop a
better understanding of the bursting mode of failure of pressure vessels designed and fabricated in
accordance with rules specified in Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC. The project included
burst tests on pressure vessels fabricated from three materials with different strain hardening exponents
(Type 304 stainless, SA-516 Gr. 70, and SA-517 Gr. F). These test results provide the basis for
concluding that [8]:
Using the modified Svensson formula and the specified minimum tensile properties, the
theoretical margins of safety for the University of Kansas test vessels (without sharp notches)
designed to Section VIII, Division 2 rules, ranged from about 2.8 for the 304 stainless steel vessel
(with high strain hardening exponent) to about 3.2 for the high strength, quenched and tempered
steel SA-517 (with low strain hardening exponent).
4.5 STRENGTH THEORIES

The stress state at any point in a boiler or pressure vessel is completely defined by the magnitudes and
directions of the three principal stresses. When two or three of these stresses are different from zero, the
proximity to yielding must be determined by means of a strength theory. The following strength theories
are often used in engineering applications.
• maximum stress theory
• maximum shear stress theory (also known as the Tresca yield criterion)
• distortion energy theory (also known as the octahedral shear theory and the von Mises criterion)
The specific strength theory used as the basis for design rules specified in the ASME BPVC varies from
one Construction Code to another.

The maximum stress theory states that the controlling stress is the largest of the three principal stresses.
The Tresca criterion represents a critical value of the maximum shear stress in a material while the von
Mises criterion represents a critical value of the distortional energy stored in a material. The maximum
shear stress theory (Tresca) and the distortion energy theory (von Mises) are both much better than the
maximum stress theory for predicting both yielding and fatigue failure in ductile metals. It is also
important to note that rules specified in the ASME BPVC based on these strength theories are only
applicable to homogenous materials with isotropic material properties.

4.5.1 Maximum Stress Theory

Equations specified in Section I and Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC for determining wall
thickness are, by implication, consistent with the maximum stress theory. For thin-walled cylindrical
pressure components at locations that are remote from any discontinuities, the hoop stress is twice the
axial stress and the radial stress on the inside is compressive and equal to the internal pressure, . If the
hoop stress is , the principal stresses are:
1 =
2 = ⁄2
3 =

74
According to the maximum stress theory, the controlling stress is σ, because it is the largest of the three
principal stresses (provided 1 > 3 ).

4.5.2 Maximum Shear Stress Theory Using the Tresca Yield Criterion

Design rules specified in Section VIII, Division 2 in the ASME BPVC prior to the 2007 edition were
consistent with the maximum shear stress theory. This statement is supported by the following text in
Paragraph AD-140(a) in the 1992 edition of Section VIII, Division 2:
The theory of failure used in this Division is the maximum shear stress theory except in the case
of some specially designed configurations, shapes, or design rules included as part of this
Division.
The maximum shear stress theory or Tresca theory of failure relates to the maximum shear stress of
ductile materials. The maximum shear stress at a point is defined as one-half of the algebraic difference
between the largest and the smallest of the three principal stresses. Thus, if the principal stresses are 1,
2 , and 3 , and 1 > 2 > 3 , the maximum shear stress is given by ( 1 3 )⁄2. The maximum shear
stress theory of failure states that yielding in a component occurs when the maximum shear stress reaches
a value equal to the maximum shear stress at the yield point in a uniaxial tensile test. In the uniaxial
tensile test, at yield, 1 = , 2 = 0 , and 3 = 0; therefore, the maximum shear stress is ⁄2, and
yielding in the component occurs when:
( 1 3 )⁄2 = ⁄2 {4.1}
The term “stress intensity” is used to define a stress value that is twice the maximum shear stress and is
equal to the largest algebraic difference between any two of the three principal stresses. Therefore, stress
intensity is directly comparable to strength values found from uniaxial tensile tests.

Beginning with the 2007 edition of Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC, the specified design-by-
rule equations in Part 4 are based on a limit analysis using the Tresca yield criterion that has a
three-dimensional yield or limit surface. This Tresca yield surface is defined by Equation {4.2} in the
principal stress space.
( 1, 2 , 3) = max(| 1 2 |, | 2 3 |, | 3 1 |) = {4.2}

where:
= yield strength in uniaxial tension
4.5.3 Distortion Energy Theory Using the von Mises Yield Criterion

Beginning with the 2007 edition of Section VIII, Division 2, Paragraph 5.2.2.1(b) in the 2007 and 2021
editions of the ASME BPVC state that the maximum distortion energy yield criterion shall be used to
establish the equivalent stress. In this case, the equivalent stress is equal to the von Mises equivalent
stress given by Equation {4.3}.
( 1, = 1⁄√2 [( 2, ( 2, ( 2 ]0.5 {4.3}
2, 3) 1 2) 2 3) 3 1) =
where:
= yield strength in uniaxial tension
Most experiments show that the distortion energy theory (von Mises) is more accurate than the shear
theory (Tresca) because ductile materials behave closer to the von Mises yield criterion. However, the
Tresca yield criterion gives a more conservative estimate on failure compared to the von Mises yield
criterion. Under the same loading conditions, principal stresses determined using the Tresca yield

75
criterion are approximately 15% more than the principal stresses determined using the von Mises yield
criterion. Even though the maximum difference between the von Mises and Tresca yield criteria is only
about 15%, this difference represents a systemic error (divergence) on the part of the Tresca yield
criterion.

4.6 PRINCIPLES OF LIMIT DESIGN THEORY

The stress intensity limits specified in Section II of the ASME BPVC are based on application of limit
design theory principles [6]. In this theory, materials are assumed to exhibit an elastic-perfectly plastic
stress-strain relationship with no strain hardening as shown in Fig. 4.1 of this report. Allowable stresses
based on perfect plasticity and limit design theory are considered by ASME to be a floor below which a
boiler or pressure vessel constructed from any sufficiently ductile material will be safe. The actual strain-
hardening properties of specific materials will give them an increased margin above this floor.

Fig. 4.1 Elastic perfectly plastic stress-strain relationship used as the basis
for limit design theory

Limit load analysis is based on the theory of limit analysis that defines a lower bound to the limit load of
a component as the solution of a numerical model with the following properties:
1. The material model is elastic-perfectly plastic at a specified yield strength, .
2. The strain-displacement relations are those of small displacement theory.
3. Equilibrium is satisfied in the undeformed configuration.
In a solid bar with a rectangular cross section made from elastic-perfectly plastic material, limit design
theory predicts ‘collapse’ of the bar under either of the following loading conditions.
(a) Collapse occurs whenever the bar is subject to an axial tensile stress, , equal to the yield
strength, . When expressed as an equation, collapse occurs when = .
(b) Collapse occurs whenever the bar is subject to a bending stress, , equal to the yield
strength, , times a shape factor equal to 1.5. When expressed as an equation, collapse
occurs when = 1.5 .
A shape factor of 1.5 corresponds to a beam with a rectangular cross section that is loaded in bending so
that the ratio between the moment associated with a fully plastic cross section and the moment associated
with first yielding of the outer fiber of the beam equals 1.5. Thus, a beam with a rectangular cross section
can resist 50% additional moment before a fully plastic hinge forms compared to a fully elastic beam in
which the bending stress at the outer edge of the beam equals the yield strength, .

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When the primary stress in a bar with a rectangular cross section consists of a combination of bending
stress and axial stress, the limit load depends on the ratio between the axial and bending stresses. As
previously discussed for loading condition (b) above, when the average axial tensile stress, , is zero,
the limit load occurs when the bending stress, , equals 1.5 . However, as axial stress, , increases,
the limit load decreases because there is less material available to resist bending.

Equation {4.4} shows the relationship between limit load bending stress, , and axial stress, .
2
⁄ = 1.5 1 ⁄ for 0 ≤ ⁄ ≤ 1.0 {4.4}
This equation defines the plastic collapse stress limit envelope for an axial stress to yield strength ratio,
⁄ , between 0 and 1. It was derived by summing moments about the neutral axis of a solid bar with a
rectangular cross section and an elastic-plastic stress-strain curve subjected to combined axial and
bending stresses.

Figure 4.2 of this report shows how the plastic collapse stress limit envelope at the outer fiber of an elastic
perfectly plastic rectangular bar varies as the average axial stress across the bar increases. Note that the
bending stress, , and axial stress, , are normalized by the yield strength, , and the ratio of the axial
stress to the yield strength, ⁄ , is limited to a range of 0 to 1. Maximum allowable design stresses
specified in the ASME BPVC are well within this plastic collapse stress limit envelope as discussed in
Sect. 4.8 of this report.

The maximum allowable design stress values published in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section II,
Part D of the ASME BPVC are based on the following stress limits as discussed in Sect. 4.4 of this report.
≤ Stress limit {4.5}
+ ≤ 1.5 Stress limit {4.6}
Adequate safety against plastic collapse for pressure vessels constructed in accordance with rules
specified in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Divisions 1 and 2 is achieved by limiting design
stresses to 2/3 of these stress limits as stated in Equations {4.7} and {4.8}.
≤ 0.67 Design stress limit {4.7}
+ ≤ 1.0 Design stress limit {4.8}
In comparison, adequate safety against plastic collapse for boilers constructed in accordance with rules
specified in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section I is achieved by limiting the design membrane stress,
, to 2/3 to be consistent with the maximum stress theory. For boiler components in which bending
produces the maximum stress, the design bending stress, , is similarly limited to 2/3 .

Figure 4.3 of this report shows the relationship between design stress limits and the plastic collapse stress
limit specified in Section I of the ASME BPVC. The difference in stress values represents a design
margin against plastic collapse. Although the difference between design stress limits and the plastic
collapse stress limit is not constant, it is important to note that the design margin equals or exceeds 1.5 for
all stress combinations.

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 Fig. 4.2 Plastic collapse stress limit used as the basis for establishing
maximum allowable design stresses specified in the ASME BPVC

Figure 4.4 of this report shows the corresponding relationships between the design stress limits expressed
by Equations {4.7} and {4.8} and the plastic collapse stress limit specified in Section VIII, Divisions 1
and 2 of the ASME BPVC. The difference in stress values represents a design margin against plastic
collapse. Although the difference between design stress limits and the plastic collapse stress limit is not
constant, it is important to note that the design margin equals or exceeds 1.5 for all stress combinations.

4.7 STRESS RANGE FOR REPETITIVELY APPLIED LOADS

Rules in Paragraph 5.5.6(d) in the 2007 edition and Paragraph 4.1.6.3 in the 2021 edition of Section VIII,
Division 2 in the ASME BPVC limits the allowable primary plus secondary stress range, , to 3.0 times
the maximum allowable stress value in tension or 2.0 times the minimum specified yield strength, , of
the material as follows:

78
 Fig. 4.3 Comparison of design stress limit specified in the 2007 and 2021 editions
of Section I in the ASME BPVC to plastic collapse stress limit
= max�3 , 2 {4.1.6}

However, , shall be limited to 3 if either:

1. the room temperature ratio of the minimum specified yield strength from Annex 3-D to the
ultimate tensile strength from Annex 3-D exceeds 0.70; or,
2. the allowable stress from Annex 3-A is governed by time-dependent properties.
This requirement ensures the material has strain-hardening properties sufficient to prevent material failure
if the primary stress exceeds the yield strength of the material through the entire thickness. The cyclic
stress–strain curve of a material (i.e., strain amplitude versus stress amplitude) may be represented by an
equation provided in Annex 3-D – Strength Parameters in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII,
Division 2 in the ASME BPVC. The material constants for this equation, which are tabulated in
Annex 3-D, are temperature and material dependent.

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 Fig. 4.4 Comparison of design stress limit specified in the 2007 and 2021 editions of
Section VIII, Divisions 1 and 2 in the ASME BPVC to plastic collapse stress limit

A calculated elastic stress range equal to twice the yield strength, , is significant because it determines
the borderline between loads which, when repetitively applied, allow the component to ‘shakedown’ to
elastic action and loads which produce plastic action each time they are applied. Shakedown of a
component occurs if, after a few cycles of load application, ratcheting ceases. The subsequent structural
response is elastic, or elastic-plastic, and progressive incremental inelastic deformation is absent. Elastic
shakedown is the case in which the subsequent response is elastic. The following definition of
shakedown is provided in Part 5, Paragraph 5.12 in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 2
of the ASME BPVC.
Caused by cyclic loads or cyclic temperature distributions which produce plastic deformations in
some regions of the component when the loading or temperature distribution is applied, but upon
removal of the loading or temperature distribution, only elastic primary and secondary stresses

80
 are developed in the component, except in small areas associated with local stress (strain)
concentrations. These small areas shall exhibit a stable hysteresis loop, with no indication of
progressive deformation. Further loading and unloading, or applications and removals of the
temperature distribution shall produce only elastic primary and secondary stresses.
To illustrate this ‘shakedown’ phenomenon, consider the condition where the outer fiber of a beam which
is strained in tension to a strain value 1, somewhat beyond the yield strain, , as shown in Fig. 4.5(a) of
this report by the path OAB. The calculated elastic stress is = 1 = 1. In this illustration of a
secondary stress, it is assumed that the nature of the loading is such as to cycle the strain from zero to 1
and back to zero, rather than cycling the stress from zero to 1, and back to zero. When the beam is
returned to its original position, the outer fiber has a residual compressive stress of magnitude 1 .
On any subsequent loading, this residual compression must be removed before the stress goes into tension
and thus the elastic range has been increased by the quantity 1 . If 1 = 2 , the elastic range
becomes 2 , but if 1 > 2 , the fiber yields in compression, as shown by EF in Fig. 4.5(b) of this
report and all subsequent cycles produce plastic strain. Therefore, 2 is the maximum value of
calculated secondary elastic stress which will ‘shake down’ to purely elastic action.

Fig. 4.5 Stress-strain relationship beyond yield for cyclic loading

In addition, Part 5, Paragraph 5.5.7 in the 2007 and 2015 editions of Section VIII, Division 2 of the
ASME BPVC states:
To evaluate protection against ratcheting using elastic-plastic analysis, an assessment is
performed by application, removal and reapplication of the applied loadings. If protection
against ratcheting is satisfied, it may be assumed that progression of the stress-strain hysteresis
loop along the strain axis cannot be sustained with cycles and that the hysteresis loop will

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 stabilize. A separate check for plastic shakedown to alternating plasticity is not required. The
following assessment procedure can be used to evaluate protection against ratcheting using
elastic-plastic analysis.
An important point to note from the foregoing discussion of primary and secondary stresses is that 1.5
is the failure stress for primary bending, whereas for secondary bending 2 is merely the threshold
beyond which some plastic action occurs. Therefore, the allowable design stress for primary bending must
be reduced below 1.5 , whereas 2 is a safe design value for secondary bending because minor plastic
action during overloads is tolerable. The same type of analysis shows that 2 is also a safe design value
for secondary membrane tension. As described previously in Sect. 4.3 of this report, local membrane
stress produced by mechanical load has the characteristics of a secondary stress but has been arbitrarily
placed in the primary category. To avoid excessive distortion, it has been assigned an allowable stress
level of , which is 50% higher than the allowable general primary membrane stress of 2⁄3 but
precludes excessive yielding.

Section I and Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC do not consider the possibility of fatigue
failure. Therefore, Section I and Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC do not include rules for the
‘shakedown’ phenomenon. Text in Paragraph UG-23(c) of the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII,
Division 1 of the ASME BPVC states:
It is recognized that high localized discontinuity stresses may exist in vessels designed and
fabricated in accordance with these rules. Insofar as practical, design rules for details have been
written to limit such stresses to a safe level consistent with experience.
4.8 PLASTIC COLLAPSE

Plastic collapse is defined as the onset of gross plastic deformations. Plastic collapse corresponds to the
load at which overall structural instability occurs. The collapse load is defined as the maximum load limit
for a component made of elastic perfectly plastic material. The collapse load is derived from an elastic-
plastic analysis considering both the applied loading and deformation characteristics of the component
where the deformations of these components increase without bound at the collapse load.

4.8.1 Plastic Collapse Requirements in Section I and Section VIII, Division 1

Section I and Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC do not require a detailed stress analysis to
evaluate protection against plastic collapse but merely set the wall thickness necessary to keep the basic
hoop stress below the tabulated allowable stress. As discussed in Sect. 4.4 of this report, the primary
stress for boilers and pressure vessels constructed in accordance with rules specified in the 2007 and 2021
editions of Section I and Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC is limited to two-thirds of the yield
strength, 2⁄3 , or less. The primary stress is the maximum principal stress which may be either a
membrane stress or a bending stress, whichever is greater. Rules specified in the 2007 and 2021 editions
of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC also ensure that the primary membrane stress plus the
primary bending stress, + , does not exceed . Based on the principles of limit design theory
discussed in Sect. 4.6 of this report, these rules provide a minimum design margin against plastic collapse
equal to or greater than 1.5 for all primary membrane and bending stress combinations.

4.8.2 Plastic Collapse Requirements in Section VIII, Division 2

As discussed in Sect. 4.4.2 and 4.4.5 of this report, rules specified in Part 4, Paragraph 4.1.6.1 in the
2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 2 ensure that the maximum allowable primary
membrane stress, , does not exceed 2/3 and that the maximum allowable primary membrane stress

82
plus primary bending stress, + , does not exceed . These maximum allowable stress limits are
consistent with the plastic collapse stress limits discussed in Sect. 4.6 of this report.

Three alternative analysis methods are provided in Part 5, Paragraph 5.2 in the 2007 and 2021 editions of
Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC for evaluating protection against plastic collapse. Brief
descriptions of these analysis methods follow.
1. Elastic Stress Analysis Method – Stresses are computed using an elastic analysis, classified into
categories, and limited to allowable values that have been conservatively established such that a
plastic collapse will not occur.
2. Limit-Load Method – A calculation is performed to determine a lower bound to the limit load of
a component. The allowable load on the component is established by applying design factors to
the limit load such that the onset of gross plastic deformations (plastic collapse) will not occur.
3. Elastic-Plastic Stress Analysis Method – A collapse load is derived from an elastic-plastic
analysis considering both the applied loading and deformation characteristics of the component.
The allowable load on the component is established by applying design factors to the plastic
collapse load.
For components with complex geometries and loadings, the categorization of stresses requires significant
knowledge and judgment by the analyst. This is especially true for three-dimensional stress fields [6].

4.9 DESIGN-BY-RULE

The design approach used in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section I; Section VIII, Division 1; and
Section VIII, Division 2, Part 4 of the ASME BPVC is referred to as design-by-rule. The design-by-rule
approach has evolved from theory, experiment, and past successful experience.

Design-by-rule is not based on a detailed stress analysis. Instead, design-by-rule generally involves
calculation of average membrane stress across the thickness of the walls of the boiler or pressure vessel.
Application of design-by-rule involves determination of loads, selection of a design equation, and the
selection of an appropriate allowable design stress for the material [6].

4.9.1 Design-by-Rule Requirements in Section I

Rules specified in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section I of the ASME BPVC do not:
• require calculation of thermal stresses and do not provide allowable values for them.
• require the detailed calculation and classification of all stresses and the application of different
stress limits to different classes of stress.
• consider the possibility of fatigue failure [6].
Instead, rules in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section I of the ASME BPVC provide allowable stress
limits for ensuring that the maximum allowable primary membrane stress, , does not exceed 2/3 and
equations for minimum wall thickness based on the maximum stress theory as discussed in Sects. 4.4.1
and 4.5.1 of this report.

As previously discussed in Sect. 4.5.1 of this report, equations specified in the 2007 and 2021 editions of
Section I of the ASME BPVC for determining wall thickness are, by implication, consistent with the
maximum stress theory. For thin-walled cylindrical pressure components at locations that are remote
from any discontinuities, the hoop stress is twice the axial stress and the radial stress on the inside is
compressive and equal to the internal pressure, .

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Rules for openings and compensation are specified in Paragraphs PG-32 through PG-39 in the 2007 and
2021 editions of Section I of the ASME BPVC. These rules are based on the area replacement concept in
which the metal cut out by an opening must be replaced by reinforcement within a prescribed zone around
the opening. A detailed discussion of this concept is presented in WRC Bulletin 335 [11]. The reference
note for Paragraphs PG-32 through PG- 39 in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section I of the ASME
BPVC states:
The rules governing openings as given in this Code are based on the stress intensification created
by the existence of a hole in an otherwise symmetrical section. They are based on experience with
vessels designed with safety factors of 4 and 5 applied to the specified minimum tensile strength
of the shell material. External loadings such as those due to thermal expansion or to unsupported
weight of connecting piping have not been evaluated. These factors should be given attention in
unusual designs or under conditions of cyclic loading.
Rules specified in Paragraph PG-32 – Openings in Shells, Headers, and Heads in the 2007 edition of
Section I of the ASME BPVC was revised in the 2021 edition to state: Larger openings should be given
special attention and may be provided with compensation in any suitable manner that complies with the
intent of the Code rules. It is recommended that the compensation provided be distributed close to the
opening. (A provision of about two‐thirds of the required compensation within a distance of three-fourths
times the limit established in PG-36.2 on each side of the opening as measured from the center of the
opening is suggested.) Special consideration should be given to the fabrication details used and the
inspection employed on critical openings; compensation often may be advantageously obtained by use of
a thicker shell plate for a vessel course or inserted locally around the opening; welds may be ground to
concave contour and the inside corners of the opening rounded to a generous radius to reduce stress
concentrations. In extreme cases of large openings approaching full vessel diameter, openings of unusual
shape, etc., the requirements of PG-16.1 may be advisable.

4.9.2 Design-by-Rule Requirements in Section VIII, Division 1

Paragraph UG-23(c) in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC
provides rationale for design-by-rule requirements stating that:
It is recognized that high localized discontinuity stresses may exist in vessels designed and
fabricated in accordance with these rules. Insofar as practical, design rules for details have been
written to limit such stresses to a safe level, consistent with experience.
Rules specified in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC do not:
• require calculation of thermal stresses and do not provide allowable values for them.
• require the detailed calculation and classification of all stresses and the application of different
stress limits to different classes of stress.
• consider the possibility of fatigue failure [6].
Instead, rules in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC provide
allowable stress limits for ensuring that the maximum allowable primary membrane stress, , does not
exceed 2/3 y, the maximum primary membrane stress plus primary bending stress, + , does not
exceed and equations for minimum wall thickness based on the maximum stress theory as discussed in
Sect. 4.4.1 of this report.

As previously discussed in Sect. 4.5.1 of this report, equations specified in the 2007 and 2021 editions of
Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC for determining wall thickness are, by implication,
consistent with the maximum stress theory. For thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessels at locations that

84
are remote from any discontinuities, the hoop stress is twice the axial stress and the radial stress on the
inside is compressive and equal to the internal pressure.

Rules for openings and compensation are specified in Paragraphs UG-36 through UG-39 in the 2007 and
2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC. These rules are based on the area
replacement concept in which the metal cut out by an opening must be replaced by reinforcement within a
prescribed zone around the opening. A detailed discussion of this concept is presented in
WRC Bulletin 335 [11]. The reference note for Paragraphs UG-36 through UG-39 in the 2007 edition of
Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC states:
The rules governing openings as given in this Division are based on the stress intensification
created by the existence of a hole in an otherwise symmetrical section. External loadings such as
those due to the thermal expansion or unsupported weight of connecting piping have not been
evaluated. These factors should be given attention in unusual designs or under conditions of
cyclic loading.
Supplementary design formulas are specified in Mandatory Appendix 1 in the 2007 and 2021 editions of
Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC for:
• Rules for reinforcement of cones and conical reducers under external pressure.
• Alternative rules for reinforcement of openings under internal pressure.
• Alternative method for design of reinforcement for openings in cylindrical and conical shells
under internal pressure.
4.9.3 Design-by-Rule Requirements in Section VIII, Division 2

Rules for the design-by-rule methods are specified in Part 4 – Design by Rule Requirements in the 2007
and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC. Detailed design procedures are
provided for commonly used pressure vessel shapes under pressure loading and, within specified limits,
rules, or guidance for treatment of other loadings. Individual paragraphs in Part 4 in the 2021 edition of
Section VIII, Division 2 cover the following subjects.
4.1 – General Requirements
4.2 – Design Rules for Welded Joints
4.3 – Design Rules for Shells Under Internal Pressure
4.4 – Design of Shells Under External Pressure and Allowable Compressive Stresses
4.5 – Design Rules for Openings in Shells and Heads
4.6 – Design Rules for Flat Heads
4.7 – Design Rules for Spherically Dished Bolted Covers
4.8 – Design Rules for Quick-Actuating (Quick Opening) Closures
4.9 – Design Rules for Braced and Stayed Surfaces
4.10 – Design Rules for Ligaments
4.11 – Design Rules for Jacketed Vessels
4.12 – Design Rules for Noncircular Vessels
4.13 – Design Rules for Layered Vessels
4.14 – Evaluation of Vessels Outside of Tolerance
4.15 – Design Rules for Supports and Attachments
4.16 – Design Rules for Flanged Joints
4.17 – Design Rules for Clamped Connections

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 4.18 – Design Rules for Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
4.19 – Design Rules for Bellows Expansion Joints
4.20 – Design Rules for Flanged-and-Flued or Flanged-Only Expansion Joints
Although Part 4 is comprehensive, it does not provide rules to cover all loadings, geometries, and details.
When design rules are not provided for a pressure vessel or pressure vessel part, a stress analysis in
accordance with Part 5 – Design by Analysis Requirements must be performed considering all of the
loadings specified in the User’s Design Specification. The design procedures in Part 4 may be used if the
allowable stress at the design temperature is governed by time-independent or time-dependent properties
unless otherwise noted in a specific design procedure. When the pressure vessel is operating at a
temperature where the allowable stress is governed by time-dependent properties, the effects of joint
alignment and weld peaking in shells and heads must be considered.

As previously discussed in Sect. 4.5.2 of this report, beginning with the 2007 edition of Section VIII,
Division 2 of the ASME BPVC, the specified design-by-rule equations in Part 4 are based on a limit
analysis using the maximum shear stress theory.

Design rules for openings in shells and heads are specified in Part 4, Paragraph 4.5 in the 2007 and 2021
editions of Section VIII, Division 2. The rules in Paragraph 4.5 are applicable for the design of nozzles in
shells and heads subjected to internal pressure, external pressure, and external forces and moments from
supplemental loads as defined in Paragraph 4.1. Design procedures for the following types of nozzles and
other design rules for nozzles and opening are specified in Paragraphs 4.5.2 through 4.5.17:
• Dimensions and Shape of Nozzles
• Method of Nozzle Attachment
• Nozzle Neck Minimum Thickness Requirements
• Radial Nozzle in a Cylindrical Shell
• Hillside Nozzle in a Cylindrical Shell
• Nozzle in a Cylindrical Shell Oriented at an Angle from the Longitudinal Axis
• Radial Nozzle in a Conical Shell
• Nozzle in a Conical Shell
• Radial Nozzle in a Spherical Shell or Formed Head
• Hillside or Perpendicular Nozzle in a Formed Head
• Circular Nozzles in a Flat Head
• Spacing Requirements for Nozzles
• Strength of Nozzle Attachment Welds
• Local Stresses in Nozzles in Shells and Formed Heads from External Loads
• Inspection Openings
• Reinforcement of Openings Subject to Compressive Stress
The traditional ASME area replacement approach to designing openings in pressure vessels provides safe
designs because yield strength governs the design of openings for most materials. However, the area
replacement approach results in a conservative local primary stress and a bias towards over reinforcement
for certain nozzle geometries. From a safety viewpoint, excessive reinforcement can be detrimental to
fatigue life. To benefit from the increase in allowable stresses permitted in the 2007 and 2021 editions of
Section II in the ASME BPVC, rules in Part 4, Paragraph 4.5 explicitly limit local primary stresses at the
opening. The objectives of the rules in Part 4, Paragraph 4.5 are to:

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 1. provide a more accurate design.
2. consider a wider range of geometries.
3. provide direction for calculation of local primary membrane equivalent stresses and attachment
weld stresses.
These rules use a modified pressure area method to determine the magnitude of the discontinuity force
resisted locally. They also explicitly consider thick shells. Openings in flat heads are provided with a
separate set or rules that are based on beam on elastic foundation principles.

Configurations, including dimensions and shape, or loading conditions that do not satisfy the rules of
Paragraph 4.5 may be designed in accordance with Part 5.

4.10 DESIGN-BY-ANALYSIS

Rules for the design-by-analysis methods are specified in Part 5 – Design by Analysis Requirements in
the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC. Detailed design procedures
utilizing the results from a stress analysis are provided to evaluate components for plastic collapse, local
failure, buckling, and cyclic loading. Supplemental requirements are provided for the analysis of bolts,
perforated plates, and layered vessels. Procedures are also provided for design using the results from an
experimental stress analysis, and for fracture mechanics evaluations. The design-by-analysis methods is
used to design Class 2 pressure vessels that are consistent with allowable stress values in Table 5A or
Table 5B in Section II, Part D of the ASME BPVC as discussed in Sect. 4.4.5 of this report.

The design-by-analysis requirements are organized based on protection against the failure modes listed
below. The component is evaluated for each applicable failure mode. If multiple assessment procedures
are provided for a failure mode, only one of these procedures must be satisfied to qualify the design of a
component.
• Paragraph 5.2 – Protection Against Plastic Collapse – these requirements apply to all components
where the thickness and configuration of the component is established using design-by-analysis
rules.
• Paragraph 5.3 – Protection Against Local Failure – these requirements apply to all components
where the thickness and configuration of the component is established using design-by-analysis
rules. It is not necessary to evaluate the local strain limit criterion if the component design is in
accordance with the component wall thickness and weld details of Part 4.
• Paragraph 5.4 – Protection Against Collapse from Buckling – these requirements apply to all
components where the thickness and configuration of the component is established using design-
by-analysis rules and the applied loads result in a compressive stress field.
• Paragraph 5.5 – Protection Against Failure from Cyclic Loading – these requirements apply to all
components where the thickness and configuration of the component is established using design-
by-analysis rules and the applied loads are cyclic. In addition, these requirements can also be used
to qualify a component for cyclic loading where the thickness and size of the component are
established using the design-by-rule requirements of Part 4.
The design-by-analysis procedures in Part 5 may only be used if the allowable stress at the design
temperature is governed by time-independent properties unless otherwise noted in a specific design
procedure. Supplemental requirements for stress classification in nozzle necks, bolts, perforated plates,
and layered vessels are specified in Part 5, Paragraphs 5.6 through 5.9, respectively.

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Requirements for experimental stress analysis are provided in Part 5, Paragraphs 5.10. This paragraph
references rules in Annex 5-F for experimental stress and fatigue analysis. Part 5, Paragraphs 5.11
provides requirements for fracture mechanics evaluations performed to determine the MDMT.

Beginning with the 2007 edition of Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC, the specified design-by-
analysis equations in Part 5 are based on a limit analysis using the distortion energy theory (also known as
the octahedral shear theory and the von Mises criterion) given by Equation {4.3} in Sect. 4.5.3 of this
report.

4.11 COMPARISON OF KEY DIFFERENCES IN ASME BPVC DESIGN RULES

A comparison of key differences and similarities in design criteria between the 2007 and 2021 editions of
the ASME BPVC is presented in Table 4.14 of this report.

Table 4.14 Design criteria comparison

Design Criteria Comparison

Strength Theory – Section I 2007 – rules are based on the maximum stress theory.
2021 – rules are based on the maximum stress theory
Strength Theory – Section VIII, 2007 – rules are based on the maximum stress theory.
Division 1 2021 – rules are based on the maximum stress theory
Strength Theory – Section VIII, 2007 – rules are based on the maximum shear stress theory (also known as
Division 2, Part 4 – Design by the Tresca yield criterion).
Rule 2021 – rules are based on the maximum shear stress theory (also known as
the Tresca yield criterion).
Strength Theory – Section VIII, 2007 – rules are based on the distortion energy theory (also known as the
Division 2, Part 5 – Design by octahedral shear theory and the Mises criterion).
Analysis 2021 – rules are based on the distortion energy theory (also known as the
octahedral shear theory and the Mises criterion).
Maximum allowable stress – 2007 – maximum allowable stress limit lesser of /3.5 or 2/3
Section I 2021 – maximum allowable stress limit lesser of /3.5 or 2/3
Maximum allowable stress – 2007 – maximum allowable stress limit lesser of /3.5 or 2/3
Section VIII, Division 1 2021 – maximum allowable stress limit lesser of /3.5 or 2/3
Maximum allowable stress – 2007 – maximum allowable stress limit lesser of /2.4 or 2/3
Section VIII, Division 2 2021 – maximum allowable stress limit lesser of /3.0 or 2/3 for Class 1
2021 – maximum allowable stress limit lesser of /2.4 or 2/3 for Class 2
Stress calculation and 2007 – equations are specified for minimum allowable wall thickness,
classification – Section I therefore, detailed calculation and classification of all stresses and the
application of different stress limits to different classes of stress are not
required.
2021 – equations are specified for minimum allowable wall thickness,
therefore, detailed calculation and classification of all stresses and the
application of different stress limits to different classes of stress are not
required.

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 Design Criteria Comparison
Stress calculation and 2007 – equations are specified for minimum allowable wall thickness,
classification – Section VIII, therefore, detailed calculation and classification of all stresses and the
Division 1 application of different stress limits to different classes of stress are not
required.
2021 – equations are specified for minimum allowable wall thickness,
therefore, detailed calculation and classification of all stresses and the
application of different stress limits to different classes of stress are not
required.
Stress calculation and 2007 –detailed calculation and classification of all stresses and the application
classification – Section VIII, of different stress limits to different classes of stress are required.
Division 2 2021 –detailed calculation and classification of all stresses and the application
of different stress limits to different classes of stress are required.
Calculation of thermal stress – 2007 – thermal stress calculations are not required, and allowable thermal
Section I stress values are not specified.
2021 – thermal stress calculations are not required, and allowable thermal
stress values are not specified.
Calculation of thermal stress – 2007 – thermal stress calculations are not required, and allowable thermal
Section VII, Division 1 stress values are not specified.
2021 – thermal stress calculations are not required, and allowable thermal
stress values are not specified.
Calculation of thermal stress – 2007 – thermal stress calculations are required, and allowable thermal stress
Section VII, Division 2 values are specified.
2021 – thermal stress calculations are required, and allowable thermal stress
values are specified.
Excessive elastic deformation 2007 – charts and tables are provided for determining shell thickness of
and elastic instability – Section I components under external pressure
2021 – charts and tables are provided for determining shell thickness of
components under external pressure
Excessive elastic deformation 2007 – charts and tables are provided for determining shell thickness of
and elastic instability – components under external pressure
Section VIII, Division 1 2021 – charts and tables are provided for determining shell thickness of
components under external pressure
Excessive elastic deformation 2007 – rules are provided for protection against collapse from buckling
and elastic instability – including three alternative types of buckling analyses.
Section VIII, Division 2 2021 – rules are provided for protection against collapse from buckling
including three alternative types of buckling analyses.
Excessive plastic deformation – 2007 – rules for protection against plastic collapse are not specifically
Section I provided, but the maximum allowable stress is limited to two-thirds of the
yield strength, 2/3 , or less.
2021 – rules for protection against plastic collapse are not specifically
provided, but the maximum allowable stress is limited to two-thirds of the
yield strength, 2/3 , or less.

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 Design Criteria Comparison
Excessive plastic deformation – 2007 – rules for protection against plastic collapse are not specifically
Section VIII, Division 1 provided, but the maximum allowable stress is limited to two-thirds of the
yield strength, 2/3 , or less. In addition, rules ensure that the primary
membrane stress plus the primary bending stress, Pm + Pb, does not exceed Sy.
2021 – rules for protection against plastic collapse are not specifically
provided, but the maximum allowable stress is limited to two-thirds of the
yield strength, 2/3 , or less. In addition, rules ensure that the primary
membrane stress plus the primary bending stress, Pm + Pb, does not exceed Sy.
Excessive plastic deformation – 2007 – three alternative analysis methods are provided in Part 5,
Section VIII, Division 2 Paragraph 5.2 for evaluating protection against plastic collapse.
(a) Elastic Stress Analysis Method
(b) Limit-Load Method
(c) Elastic-Plastic Stress Analysis Method
2021 – three alternative analysis methods are provided in Part 5,
Paragraph 5.2 for evaluating protection against plastic collapse.
(a) Elastic Stress Analysis Method
(b) Limit-Load Method
(c) Elastic-Plastic Stress Analysis Method
Brittle fracture – Section I 2007 – no fracture toughness requirements are provided.
2021 – no fracture toughness requirements are provided.
Brittle fracture – Section VIII, 2007 – fracture toughness requirements vary depending on the minimum
Division 1 specified yield strength, material type, and material thickness.
2021 – fracture toughness requirements vary depending on the minimum
specified yield strength, material type, and material thickness
Brittle fracture – Section VIII, 2007 – fracture toughness requirements are provided for five specific material
Division 2 (See Tables 4.1, 4.2, groups. Minimum Charpy V-notch impact energy and lateral expansion
and 4.3 of this report and requirements vary over a range from 20 to 61 ft-lb and 0.015 to 0.025 in.
Tables 3.6 in the 2007 and 2021 depending on material type, thickness, and yield strength.
editions of Section VIII, 2021 – fracture toughness requirements are provided for five specific material
Division 2) groups. Minimum Charpy V-notch impact energy and lateral expansion
requirements vary over a range from 20 to 61 ft-lb and 0.020 to 0.035 in.
depending on material type, thickness, and yield strength.
Fatigue – Section I 2007 – rules for prevention of fatigue failure are not specified.
2021 – rules for prevention of fatigue failure are not specified.
Fatigue – Section VIII, 2007 – rules for prevention of fatigue failure are not specified.
Division 1 2021 – rules for prevention of fatigue failure are not specified.
Fatigue – Section VIII, 2007 – rules for prevention of fatigue failure are specified.
Division 2 2021 – rules for prevention of fatigue failure are specified.
Openings and reinforcements – 2007 – rules for openings and reinforcements are based on the area
Section I replacement concept in which the metal cut out by an opening must be
replaced by reinforcement within a prescribed zone around the opening.
2021 – rules for openings and reinforcements are based on the area
replacement concept in which the metal cut out by an opening must be
replaced by reinforcement within a prescribed zone around the opening.

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 Design Criteria Comparison
Openings and reinforcements – 2007 – rules for openings and reinforcements are based on the area
Section VIII, Division 1 replacement concept in which the metal cut out by an opening must be
replaced by reinforcement within a prescribed zone around the opening and
include supplementary design formulas for openings and reinforcements.
2021 – rules for openings and reinforcements are based on the area
replacement concept in which the metal cut out by an opening must be
replaced by reinforcement within a prescribed zone around the opening and
include supplementary design formulas for openings and reinforcements.
Openings and reinforcements – 2007 – rules for openings and reinforcements are specified including
Section VIII, Division 2 supplementary design formulas for openings and reinforcements. These rules
use a modified pressure area method to determine the magnitude of the
discontinuity force resisted locally.
2021 – rules for openings and reinforcements are specified including
supplementary design formulas for openings and reinforcements. These rules
use a modified pressure area method to determine the magnitude of the
discontinuity force resisted locally.

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92
 5. FABRICATION

The term “fabrication” is not explicitly defined in the ASME BPVC, but it is generally understood to
mean all activities a manufacturer uses to process and assemble plates, pipes, tubes, and other material
products into a complete boiler or pressure vessel consistent with applicable rules in the ASME BPVC.
Fabrication activities often involve a broad range of manufacturing methods and processes such as
forming, machining, bolting, welding, brazing, and heat treating. These methods and processes tend to
change as construction technology evolves and improves over time.

The ASME BPVC places limitations on certain fabrication activities, specifically those involving welding
and brazing practices related to boiler and pressure vessel construction, to holders of a valid Certificate of
Authorization. As discussed in Sect. 1.3 of this report, no organization may assume responsibility for
Code construction without having first received from the ASME a Certificate of Authorization to use the
Certification Mark and Designators. In addition, any Manufacturer holding or applying for a Certificate of
Authorization must demonstrate a Quality Control System that meets the requirements of
ASME CA-1 [2].

5.1 REQUIREMENTS FOR METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

Requirements in Part PG – General Requirements for All Methods of Construction in the 2007 and 2021
editions of Section I of the ASME BPVC apply to power boilers and high pressure, high‐temperature
water boilers and liquid phase thermal fluid heaters and to parts and appurtenances thereto and shall be
used in conjunction with the specific requirements in the applicable Parts of this Section that pertain to
the methods of construction used.

Changes in construction technology now make it practical to construct pressure vessels from thinner and
thinner materials. Consequently, cold forming is now performed more than in the past. Forming is
generally allowed by any process that does not unduly impair the mechanical properties of the material. It
is left to the manufacturer to use judgement in selecting processes that are appropriate for the material.
However, manufacturing operations that involve forming can cause impaired service performance,
especially in austenitic materials and for components in the creep range. Heat treatment after forming is
sometimes required to restore material properties and minimize the threat of premature failure due to
recrystallization during the time of operation [12].

5.1.1 Requirements for Methods of Construction in Section I

Requirements for methods of construction are specified in Paragraphs PG-1 through PG-113 in the 2007
and 2021 editions of Section I of the ASME BPVC.

5.1.1.1 Prefabricated or Preformed Pressure Parts

Rules in Paragraph PG-11 – Prefabricated or Preformed Pressure Parts Furnished Without a Certification
Mark in Section I in the 2007 edition of the ASME BPVC were revised in the 2021 edition to clarifies
requirements for standard pressure parts without a Certification Mark including:
1. cast, forged, rolled, or die-formed nonstandard pressure parts
2. cast, forged, rolled, or die-formed standard pressure parts, either welded or nonwelded, that
comply with an ASME product standard

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 3. cast, forged, rolled, or die-formed standard pressure parts, either welded or nonwelded, that
comply with a standard other than an ASME product standard
5.1.1.2 Additional Rules for Boiler Fabrication

Rules for fabrication of boilers are specified in Paragraphs PG-75 through PG-82 in the 2007 and 2021
editions of Section I of the ASME BPVC. These rules cover general requirements, cutting plates and
other stock, plate identification, repairs of defects in materials, tube holes and ends, permissible out-of-
roundness of cylindrical shells, tolerances for formed heads, and holes for stays.

Requirements in Paragraph PG-75 – General in Section I in the 2007 edition of the ASME BPVC were
expanded in the 2021 edition to state:
Unless otherwise required to verify compliance with specific parts of this Section, visual
examination shall be performed to verify compliance with applicable requirements for
dimensions, joint preparation, and alignment prior to welding or joining, and finished weld
conditions.
At the option of the Manufacturer, visual examination may be performed in accordance with Section V,
Article 9 – Visual Examination.

5.1.2 Requirements for Methods of Construction in Section VIII, Division 1

Rules for fabrication of pressure vessels are specified in Paragraphs UG-75 through UG-85 in the 2007
and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC. These rules cover:
• cutting plates and other stock
• material identification
• repairs of defects in materials
• forming pressure parts
• permissible out-of-roundness of cylindrical, conical, and spherical shells
• tolerances for formed heads
• lugs and fitting attachments
• holes for screw stays
• Charpy impact tests (See Table 4.1 of this report)
• heat treatment
5.1.2.1 Rule for Forming Pressure Parts

Paragraph UG-79 – Forming Pressure Parts in the 2021 edition of Section VIII, Division 1 specifies
additional rules that are not specified in the 2007 edition of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC.
Paragraph UG-79(a) states:
Limits are provided on cold working of all carbon and low alloy steels, nonferrous alloys, high
alloy steels, and ferritic steels with tensile properties enhanced by heat treatment [see UCS 79(d),
UNF-79(a), UHA-44(a), and UHT-79(a)]. Forming strains or extreme fiber elongation shall be
determined by the equations in Table UG-79-1.
Table UG-79-1 – Equations for Calculating Forming Strains specifies forming strain equations for
cylinders formed from plate, for double curvature (e.g., heads), and tube and pipe bends. When the
calculated forming strains exceed the maximum prescribed allowable strains specified in Paragraphs

94
UCS-79(d), UHA-44(a), UNF-79(a), and UHT-79(a), as applicable, and the design temperatures exceed
specified limits, postfabrication heat treatment is required.

5.1.2.2 Rule for Permissible Out-Of-Roundness of Cylindrical, Conical, and Spherical Shells

Rule changes to Paragraph UG-80 – Permissible Out-of-Roundness of Cylindrical, Conical, and Spherical
Shells in the 2021 edition of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC involved:
1. deletion of Paragraph UG-80(b)(10) and (b)(11) in the 2007 edition that applied to pressure vessel
that operate under external pressure.
2. addition of Paragraph UG-80(c) to the 2021 edition that apply to pressure vessel that operate
under internal or external pressure.
Paragraph UG-80(c) states that vessels and components fabricated of pipe or tube under internal or
external pressure may have permissible variations in diameter (measured outside) in accordance with
those permitted under the specification covering its manufacture.

5.1.3 Requirements for Methods of Construction in Section VIII, Division 2

Rules for forming shell sections and heads are specified in Part 6 – Fabrication Requirements,
Paragraph 6.1.2 in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC. These
rule cover forming of carbon and low alloy steels, high alloy steel parts, nonferrous material parts, lugs
and fitting attachments, and spin-holes. Equations for determining extreme fiber elongation are specified
in Table 6.1 – Equations for Calculating Forming Strains. Table 6.2 – Post Fabrication Strain Limits and
Required Heat Treatment for High Alloy Materials in the 2007 edition was reorganized into Tables 6.2.A
and 6.2.B in the 2021 edition as follows.
Tables 6.2.A Post-Cold-Forming Strain Limits and Heat-Treatment Requirements for P-No. 15E
Materials
Tables 6.2.B Post-Fabrication Strain Limits and Required Heat Treatment for High Alloy Materials
Post-fabrication strain limits and required heat treatment for nonferrous materials are specified in
Table 6.3 – Post Fabrication Strain Limits and Required Heat Treatment for Nonferrous Materials.

5.2 TOLERANCES

The ASME BPVC does not fully address tolerances and the owner or user is responsible for including
fabrication tolerances in the design basis for a boiler or pressure vessel as explained below.

Paragraph PG-16.6 in the 2021 edition of Section I of the ASME BPVC states that the Code does not
fully address tolerances. When dimensions, sizes, or other parameters are not specified with tolerances,
the values of these parameters shall be considered nominal, and allowable tolerances or local variances
should be considered acceptable when based on engineering judgment and standard practices as
determined by the designer. In addition, Paragraph PG-16.7 states that the dimensional symbols used in
the design formulas throughout this Code do not include any allowance for corrosion, erosion, and
forming, except where noted. Additional thickness should be provided where these allowances are
applicable. Paragraphs PG-16.6 and PG-16.7 were not include in the 2007 edition of Section I of the
ASME BPVC.

Paragraph U-5 – Tolerances in the 2021 edition of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC states
that the Code does not fully address tolerances. When dimensions, sizes, or other parameters are not
specified with tolerances, the values of these parameters are considered nominal, and allowable tolerances

95
or local variances may be considered acceptable when based on engineering judgment and standard
practices as determined by the designer. Section VIII, Division 1 in the 2007 edition of the ASME BPVC
did not include Paragraph U-5 – Tolerances.

Paragraph 1.5 – Tolerances in the 2021 edition of Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC states that
the Code does not fully address tolerances. When dimensions, sizes, or other parameters are not specified
with tolerances, the values of these parameters are considered nominal, and allowable tolerances or local
variances may be considered acceptable when based on engineering judgment and standard practices as
determined by the designer. Section VIII, Division 2 in the 2007 edition of the ASME BPVC did not
include Paragraph 1.5 – Tolerances.

5.2.1 Formed Head Tolerances

Tolerance requirements for formed heads are provided in Section I; Section VIII, Division 1; and Section
VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC.

5.2.1.1 Tolerance for Formed Heads in Section I

Paragraph PG-81 – Tolerance for Formed Heads in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section I of the ASME
BPVC state that when heads are made to an approximate ellipsoidal shape, the inner surface of such heads
must lie outside and not inside of a true ellipse drawn with the major axis equal to the inside diameter of
the head and one‐half the minor axis equal to the depth of the head. The maximum variation from this true
ellipse shall not exceed 0.0125 times the inside diameter of the head.

5.2.1.2 Tolerance for Formed Heads in Section VIII, Division 1

Shape deviation requirements for formed heads specified in Paragraph UG-81 – Tolerance for Formed
Heads in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC are the same. These
requirements apply to inner surfaces of torispherical, toriconical, hemispherical, and ellipsoidal heads.

5.2.1.3 Tolerance for Formed Heads in Section VIII, Division 2

Paragraph 4.3.2 – Shell Tolerances in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the
ASME BPVC specifies rules for shells of completed vessels and for formed heads. Paragraph 4.3.2.3 in
the 2007 and 2021 editions states that shells that do not meet the tolerance requirements of this paragraph
may be evaluated using Paragraph 4.14 – Evaluation of Vessels Outside of Tolerance.

Paragraph 4.4.4.1 – Permissible Out-of-Roundness of Cylindrical and Conical Shells in the 2007 and
2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC states that a shell of a completed vessel
subject to external pressure shall meet the following requirements at any cross section.
(a) The out-of-roundness requirements in 4.3.2.1 shall be satisfied.
(b) The maximum plus or minus deviation from a true circle, e, measured from a segmental circular
template having the design inside or outside radius (depending on where the measurements are
taken) and a chord length should not exceed the following value.
5.2.2 Alignment Tolerances

Alignment tolerances are generally intended to ensure complete weld penetration on the inside surfaces of
adjoining components [8]. As discussed in Sect. 5.2 of this report, when dimensions, sizes, or other
parameters are not specified with tolerances, the values of these parameters shall be considered nominal,

96
and allowable tolerances or local variances should be considered acceptable when based on engineering
judgment and standard practices as determined by the designer.

5.2.2.1 Alignment Tolerances in Section I

Table PW-33 – Alignment Tolerance of Sections to be Butt Welded in Paragraph PW-33 – Alignment
Tolerance, Shells and Vessels (Including Pipe or Tube Used as a Shell) in the 2007 and 2021 editions of
Section I of the ASME BPVC specifies alignment tolerance for sections to be butt welded. The alignment
tolerance provided in Table PW-33 are the same in 2007 and 2021 editions.

5.2.2.2 Alignment Tolerances in Section VIII, Division 1

Paragraph UW-33 – Alignment Tolerance in the 2007 and 2021editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the
ASME BPVC specify rules for alignment tolerances for edges to be butt welded. The maximum allowable
offsets in welded joints are specified in Table UW-33. Alignment tolerance values provided in
Table UW-33 are the same in 2007 and 2021 editions.

5.2.2.3 Alignment Tolerances in Section VIII, Division 2

Rules for alignment tolerances for edges to be butt welded are specified in Part 6, Paragraph 6.1.6 –
Alignment Tolerances for Edges to be Butt Welded in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII,
Division 2 of the ASME BPVC. Paragraph 6.1.6.3 – Peaking of Welds in Shells and Heads for Internal
Pressure was revised in the 2021 edition to state: If the vessel is operating at a temperature where the
allowable stress is governed by time-dependent properties, see 4.1.1.3, or if a fatigue analysis is required,
see 4.1.1.4, then the peaking height, , at Category A weld joints shall be measured by either an inside
or outside template, as appropriate (See Figure 6.1). As an alternative, the peaking angle may be
determined using the procedure described in Part 8 of API 579-1/ASME FFS-1 [9]. This rule change
applies to vessel that operate at a temperature where the allowable stress is governed by time-dependent
properties.

5.3 WELDING AND BRAZING PROCESSES

Welding was first allowed by the ASME BPVC in 1918, four years after the first edition was published.
When initially introduced, welding was only allowed when stresses were carried by other members and
safety did not depend on the strength of the weld. Section IX of the ASME BPVC, which specifies rules
for welding and brazing, was added to the ASME BPVC in 1941. The rules in Section IX have changed
significantly since 1941 and now include rules for welding, brazing, and fusing procedures; welders;
brazers; and welding, brazing, and fusing operators.

Section IX is a Reference Codes with rules that apply to boilers and pressure vessels constructed in
accordance with rules specified in Section I; Section VIII, Division 1; and Section VIII, Division 2 of the
ASME BPVC. However, these Construction Codes may impose additional requirements or exceptions to
those specified in Section IX. The scope of Section IX is discussed in Section 2.6 of this report.

An important quality aspect of welding and brazing is the need for control of the joining process to
produce sound joints and safe construction. The methodology used by ASME to achieve this objective is
to permit joining only by qualified welders, brazers, and fusing operators authorized through the
performance qualification process using qualified procedures. These qualified procedures are known as
procedure specifications. The principal goal of procedure specification and performance qualification is to
assure that the properties of the joint are at least the equivalent of the base materials being joined.

97
In general, once a procedure specification is qualified, it remains a qualified procedure indefinitely.
However, the qualification of any new procedure specification must be in accordance with the current
edition of the ASME BPVC. Performance qualification must be demonstrated on a consistent basis
because a person’s qualification expires if the person does not apply the procedure specification within a
six-month period. The opportunity also exists to revoke a person’s qualifications at any time when there is
specific reason to question the person’s ability to make joints that meet the procedure specification. These
conditions have remained in place since before the 2007 edition of the ASME BPVC was published.

5.3.1 Base Metal Groupings

Base metals permitted for boiler and pressure vessel construction are grouped by material and assigned
P-Numbers. For example, carbon manganese or low carbon steel base metals are assigned to P-No. 1.
Table QW/QB-422 in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section IX of the ASME BPVC provides a cross
reference between P-Number and ferrous and nonferrous materials. provides a cross reference between
P-Number and ferrous and nonferrous materials.

P‐Numbers are assigned to base metals for the purpose of reducing the number of welding and brazing
procedure qualifications required. P‐Numbers are alphanumeric designations: accordingly, each
P-Number must be considered a separate P‐Number (e.g., base metals assigned P‐No. 5A are considered a
separate P-Number from those assigned P‐No. 5B or P‐No. 5C). Table 5.1 of this report shows the
P-Number designations used in the ASME BPVC for various alloy systems.

Table 5.1 P-Number designations used in the ASME BPVC for various alloy systems

Base Metal Welding Brazing

Steel and steel alloys P-No. 1 through P-No. 15F P-No. 101 through P-No. 103
Aluminum and aluminum-base alloys P-No. 21 through P-No. 26 P-No. 104 and P-No. 105
Copper and copper-base alloys P-No. 31 through P-No. 35 P-No. 107 and P-No. 108
Nickel and nickel-base alloys P-No. 41 through P-No. 49 P-No. 110 through P-No. 112
Titanium and titanium-base alloys P-No. 51 through P-No. 53 P-No. 115
Zirconium and zirconium-base alloys P-No. 61 and P-No. 62 P-No. 117

Paragraph PG-5.6 in Section I of the 2021 edition of the ASME BPVC specifies rules that permit use of
P-No. 15E, Group 1 materials for boiler construction. Section I in the 2007 edition of the ASME BPVC
did not include Paragraph PG-5.6.

5.3.2 Welding and Brazing Methods

Rules for welding and brazing in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section IX of the ASME BPVC cover the
welding and brazing methods identified in Tables 5.2 and 5.3 of this report, respectively.

Table 5.2 Welding methods permitted in Section IX of the ASME BPVC

Welding Method 2007 Edition 2021 Edition

Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW) Yes Yes
Shielded Metal‐Arc Welding (SMAW) Yes Yes
Submerged‐Arc Welding (SAW) Yes Yes

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 Welding Method 2007 Edition 2021 Edition
Gas Metal‐Arc Welding (GMAW and FCAW) Yes Yes
Gas Tungsten‐Arc Welding (GTAW) Yes Yes
Plasma‐Arc Welding (PAW) Yes Yes
Electroslag Welding (ESW) Yes Yes
Electrogas Welding (EGW) Yes Yes
Electron Beam Welding (EBW) Yes Yes
Stud Welding Yes Yes
Inertia and Continuous Drive Friction Welding Yes Yes
Resistance Welding Yes Yes
Laser Beam Welding (LBW) Yes Yes
Low-Power Density Laser Beam Welding No Yes
(LLBW)
Flash Welding Yes Yes
Diffusion Welding (DFW) No Yes
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) No Yes

Table 5.3 Brazing methods permitted in Section IX of the ASME BPVC

Brazing Method 2007 Edition 2021 Edition

Torch Brazing (TB) Yes Yes
Furnace Brazing (FB) Yes Yes
Induction Brazing (IB) Yes Yes
Resistance Brazing (RB) Yes Yes
Dip Brazing — Salt or Flux Bath (DB) Yes Yes
Dip Brazing — Molten Metal Bath (DB) Yes Yes

5.3.3 Rules in Section IX for Procedure Specification

General requirements in Section IX, Paragraph QG-101 – Procedure Specification in the 2021 edition of
the ASME BPVC state that a Procedure Specification is a written document that provides direction to the
person applying the material joining process. Details for preparation and qualification of Procedure
Specifications are provided in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section IX of the ASME BPVC for welding
processes (WPS) and brazing processes (BPS), and in the 2021 editions of Section IX of the ASME
BPVC for fusing (FPS) processes. According to rules specified in Section IX of the ASME BPVC, a
WPS, BPS, or FPS used by an organization having responsibility for operational control of material
joining processes must have been qualified by that organization or must be a standard Procedure
Specification acceptable under the rules for the joining process to be used.

The Procedure Specification addresses the conditions (including ranges, if any) under which the material
joining process must be performed. These conditions are referred to as “variables.” When a Procedure
Specification is prepared by the organization, it must address, as a minimum, the specific essential and
nonessential variables that are applicable to the material joining process to be used in production. When

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toughness qualification of the material joining procedure is required, the applicable supplementary
essential variables must also be addressed in the Procedure Specification.

Rules for welding procedure qualification are specified in Part QW, Article II in the 2007 and 2021
editions of Section IX of the ASME BPVC. Rules for brazing procedure qualification are specified in
Part QB, Article XII in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section IX of the ASME BPVC. Rules for plastic
fusing procedure qualification are only specified in Part QF, Article XXII in the 2021 edition of
Section IX of the ASME BPVC.

5.3.4 Rules in Section IX for Procedure Qualification Record (PQR)

General requirements in Section IX, Paragraph QG-102 – Procedure Qualification Record in the 2021
edition of the ASME BPVC state that a procedure qualification record (PQR) documents what occurred
during the production of a procedure qualification test coupon and the results of testing that coupon. As a
minimum, the record must document the essential variables for each process used to produce the test
coupon, the ranges of variables qualified, and the results of the required testing and nondestructive
examinations. The organization must certify a PQR by a signature or other means as described in the
organization’s Quality Control System and must make the PQR accessible to the Authorized Inspector.

Rules that govern PQR are specified in Paragraph QW-200.2 for welding and QB-200.2 for brazing in the
2007 and 2021 editions of Section IX of the ASME BPVC. Rules that govern PQR for plastic fusing are
specified in Paragraph QF-201.5 for in the 2021 edition of Section IX of the ASME BPVC.

5.3.5 Rules in Section IX for Performance Qualification

General requirements in Section IX, Paragraph QG-103 – Performance Qualification in the 2021 edition
of the ASME BPVC state that the purpose of qualifying the person who will use a joining process is to
demonstrate that person’s ability to produce a sound joint when using a PS.

Rules for welding performance qualification are specified in Part QW, Article III in the 2007 and 2021
editions of Section IX of the ASME BPVC. Rules for brazing performance qualification are specified in
Part QB, Article XIII in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section IX of the ASME BPVC. Rules for plastic
fusing performance qualification are only specified in Part QF, Article XXIII in the 2021 edition of
Section IX of the ASME BPVC.

5.3.6 Rules in Section IX for Performance Qualification Record

General requirements in Section IX, Paragraph QG-104 – Performance Qualification Record in the 2021
edition of the ASME BPVC state that the performance qualification record documents what occurred
during the production of a test coupon by a person using one or more joining processes following an
organization’s PS. As a minimum, the record shall document:
(a) the essential variables for each process used to produce the test coupon.
(b) the ranges of variables qualified as required by the applicable part (see QW-301.4, QB-301.4, and
QF-301.4).
(c) the results of the required testing and nondestructive examinations.
(d) the identification of the procedure specification(s) followed during the test.
Rules for Welder/Welding Operator Performance Qualification (WPQ) are specified in Paragraph
QW-301.4 in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section IX of the ASME BPVC. Rules for Brazer or Brazing
Operator Performance Qualification (BPQ) are specified in Paragraph QB-301.4 in the 2007 and 2021

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editions of Section IX of the ASME BPVC. Rules for Fusing Operator Performance Qualification Record
(FPQ) are specified in Paragraph QF-301.4 in the 2021 edition of Section IX of the ASME BPVC.

5.3.7 Rules in Section IX Welding, Brazing, and Fusing Data

Welding, brazing, and fusing data articles include the variables grouped into categories such as joints,
base materials and filler materials, positions, preheat and postweld heat treatment, gas, electrical
characteristics, and technique. These variables are referenced from other articles as they apply to each
process.

Welding data include essential, supplementary essential, or nonessential variables. Brazing data include
essential and nonessential variables. Fusing data include the fusing variables grouped as joints, pipe
material, position, thermal conditions, equipment, and technique.

Rules for welding data are specified in Part QW, Article IV in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section IX
of the ASME BPVC. Rules for brazing data are specified in Part QB, Article XIV in the 2007 and 2021
editions of Section IX of the ASME BPVC. Rules for fusing data are only specified in Part QF,
Article XXIV in the 2021 edition of Section IX of the ASME BPVC.

5.4 HEAT TREATMENT OF WELDMENTS

Heat treatment can affect the strength and toughness of a welded joint, its corrosion resistance, and the
level of residual stress. Heat treatment requirements, which are material dependent, are categorized as
preheating and postweld heat treatment (PWHT).

5.4.1 Preheating Requirements

Preheating requirements for welding are specified in Article IV – Welding Data Paragraph QW-406 in the
2007 and 2021 editions of the ASME BPVC. The minimum temperature for welding shall be specified in
the WPS. Preheat temperature is defined as the minimum temperature in the weld joint preparation
immediately prior to the welding; or in the case of multiple pass welds, the minimum temperature in the
section of the previously deposited weld metal, immediately prior to welding.

5.4.1.1 Preheating Requirements in Section I

Preheating and interpass temperatures requirements are provided in Paragraph PW-38 – Preheating and
Interpass Temperatures in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section I of the ASME BPVC. According to
these requirements, the WPS for the material being welded shall specify the minimum preheating and
maximum interpass requirements in accordance with the rules of this Section and Section IX.

Paragraph PW-38 in the 2007 edition of Section I of the ASME BPVC was revised in its entirety in the
2021 edition to adds recommended preheat temperatures in Table PW 38-1 – Recommended Preheat
Temperatures for Welding of Pressure Parts and Attachments and rules for P-No. 1 materials. These rules
for preheating of P-No. 1 materials only apply when mandated by PW-39 – Requirements for Postweld
Heat Treatment for exemption of postweld heat treatment. These preheating requirements in
Paragraph PW-38 includes seven additional paragraphs of requirements that are not included 2007 edition
of Section I.

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5.4.1.2 Preheating Requirements in Section VIII, Division 1

Nonmandatory Appendix R – Preheating in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the
ASME BPVC states that preheating may be employed during welding to assist in completion of the
welded joint. The need for and temperature of preheat are dependent on various factors such as the
chemical analysis, degree of restraint of the parts being joined, elevated physical properties, and heavy
thicknesses. Mandatory rules for preheating are, therefore, not given in this Division except as required in
the footnotes that provide for exemptions to postweld heat treatment in Tables UCS-56 and UHA-32.
Some practices used for preheating are given in Nonmandatory Appendix R as a general guide for the
materials listed by P-Numbers in Section IX.

5.4.1.3 Preheating Requirements in Section VIII, Division 2

Requirements for preheating of welds are provided in Paragraph 6.4.1 in the in the 2007 and 2021
editions of Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC. Guidelines for preheating are provided in
Table 6.7 – Minimum Preheat Temperatures for Welding for the materials listed by P-Numbers in
Section IX. It is cautioned that the preheating parameters shown in this table do not necessarily ensure
satisfactory completion of the welded joint, and requirements for individual materials for the P-Number
listing may have preheating requirements that are more restrictive.

5.4.2 Postweld Heat Treatment Requirements

Satisfactory qualification of the welding procedure must be performed before applying the detailed
requirements and exemptions for postweld heat treatment specified in Section I; Section VIII, Division 1;
and Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC.

5.4.2.1 Postweld Heat Treatment Requirements in Section I

Requirements for postweld heat treatment are specified in Paragraph PW-39 – Requirements for Postweld
Heat Treatment in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section I of the ASME BPVC. According to
requirements specified in Paragraph PW-39.1, all welded pressure parts of power boilers must be given a
postweld heat treatment at a minimum hold temperature not less than that specified in Table PW-39.1 in
the 2007 edition or Tables PW-39-1 through PW-39-14 in the 2021 edition. These tables in the 2021
edition apply to P-Numbers 1, 3, 4, 5A, 5B, 15E, 6, 7, 10H, 31, 43, 45, and 51 materials. Postweld heat
treatment requirements in Paragraph PW-39 includes additional requirements that are not included in the
2007 edition of Section I.

Table PW-39.1 in the 2021 editions of Section I of the ASME BPVC provides alternative postweld heat
treatment requirements for carbon and low alloy steels. Rules in Table PW-39-5 prescribe mandatory
requirements for postweld heat treatment of pressure parts and attachments fabricated using P-No. 15E
Group No. 1. Requirements in Table PW-39-5 were initiated for consistency with Section IX
requirements that incorporates new Creep-Strength Enhanced Ferritic (CSEF) alloys into the ASME
BPVC.

5.4.2.2 Postweld Heat Treatment Requirements in Section VIII, Division 1

Requirements for postweld heat treatment are specified in Paragraph UW-40 – Repair of Defects in the
2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC. According to rules specified in
Paragraph UW-40(a), minimum postweld heat treatment normal holding temperatures are specified in
Table UCS-56 in the 2007 edition for P-Numbers 1, 3, 4, 5A, 5B, 5C, 9A, 9B, 10A, 10B, and 10F

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materials and Tables UCS-56-1 through UCS-56-11 in the 2021 edition for P-Numbers 1, 3, 4, 5A, 5B,
5C, 9A, 9B, 10A, 10C, and 15E materials.

Postweld heat treatment requirements for ferritic steels with properties enhanced by heat treatment are
specified in Paragraph UHT-56 – Postweld Heat Treatment in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII,
Division 1 of the ASME BPVC. According to requirements specified in Paragraph UHT-56(a), postweld
heat treatment temperature ranges are specified in Table UHT-56. This table specifies postweld heat
treatment temperature ranges for P-Numbers 1, 6, 11A, and 11B materials.

Postweld heat treatment requirements for high alloy steels are specified in Paragraph UHA-32 –
Requirements for Postweld Heat Treatment in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of
the ASME BPVC. According to requirements specified in Paragraph UHA-32(a), minimum postweld
heat treatment normal hold temperatures are specified in Table UHA-32 in the 2007 edition and
Tables UHA-32-1 through UHA-32-7 in the 2021 edition. Table UHA-32 specify minimum postweld
heat treatment normal hold temperatures for P-Numbers 6, 7, 8, 10H, 10I, and 10K materials.
Tables UHA-32-1 through UHA-32-7 specify minimum postweld heat treatment normal hold
temperatures for P-Numbers 6, 7, 8, 10H, 10I, 10K, and 45 materials.

Postweld heat treatment of nonferrous materials is normally neither necessary nor desirable. However,
postweld heat treatment requirements for those nonferrous materials identified in Paragraph UNF-56
Postweld Heat Treatment in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC
are specified in Paragraph UNF-56(c), (d), and (e).

5.4.2.3 Postweld Heat Treatment Requirements in Section VIII, Division 2

Requirements for postweld heat treatment are provided in Paragraph 6.4.2 in the 2007 and 2021 editions
of Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC. In the 2007 edition, minimum postweld heat treatment
holding temperatures are specified in Tables 6.8 through 6.15 for P-Numbers 1, 3, 4, 5A, 5B, 5C, 6, 7, 8,
9A, 9B, 10A, 10B, 10E, 10F, 10G, 10H, 10I, and 10K materials. Table 6.16 provides alternative postweld
heat treatment requirement for carbon and low alloy steels. In the 2021 edition, minimum postweld heat
treatment holding temperatures are specified in Tables 6.8 through 6.15 for P-Numbers 1, 3, 4, 5A, 5B,
5C, 15E, 6, 7, 8, 9A, 9B, 10A, 10B, 10C, 10E, 10F, 10G, 10H, 10I, 10K, and 45 materials. Table 6.16
provides alternative postweld heat treatment requirement for carbon and low alloy steels.

Postweld heat treatment requirements for quenched and tempered high strength steel materials listed in
Table 3-A.2, are covered in Part 6, Paragraph 6.6.6 in Section VIII, Division 2 of the 2007 and 2021
editions of the ASME BPVC. Vessels or parts of vessels constructed of quenched and tempered steels
shall be postweld heat treated when required in Table 6.17 – Postweld Heat Treatment Requirements for
Quenched and Tempered Materials in Table 3-A.2 – Quenched and Tempered High Strength Steels. This
table specifies postweld heat-treatment temperatures ranges for these materials.

Although postweld heat treatment of nonferrous materials is normally not necessary or desirable,
postweld heat treatment requirements for specified nonferrous materials are covered in Part 6,
Paragraph 6.4.6 in Section VIII, Division 2 of the 2007 and 2021 editions of the ASME BPVC. Except
for exemptions specified in Paragraph 6.4.6, postweld heat treatment shall not be performed except by
agreement between the purchaser and the Manufacturer.

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5.5 COLD STRETCHING

Cold stretching is a pressure vessel construction method that involves fabrication of a pressure vessel
from ductile material, and then subjecting the pressure vessel to a hydrostatic pressure that causes the
material to plastically deform (i.e., stretch). Plastic deformation of a ductile material increases its yield
strength and hardness [13], thus reducing the required wall thickness of the pressure vessel. Austenitic
stainless steels are excellent materials for cold stretching applications because they exhibit considerable
work-hardening properties while still maintaining many other desirable qualities. For most austenitic
stainless steels, the strain corresponding to the tensile strength is 30% or more.

Cold stretching in the United States was introduced as Code Case 2596 on January 29, 2008 and was later
incorporated into the 2013 edition of Section VIII Division 1 of the ASME BPVC. The inquiry reply in
Code Case 2596 states:
It is the opinion of the Committee that cold-stretched austenitic stainless steel vessels may be
designed and fabricated under the rules of Section VIII, Division 1, provided the following
additional requirements are met.
These additional requirements are codified in Mandatory Appendix 44 – Cold Stretching of Austenitic
Stainless Steel Pressure Vessels in the 2021 edition of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC. The
cold stretching method as defined in Code Case 2596 and codified in Mandatory Appendix 44 involves
the following sequential activities.
1. Design the austenitic stainless steel pressure vessel based on a maximum allowable stress, for
the material determined as follows:
= (specified yield strength + 29 ksi) / 1.5
2. Construct the pressure vessel in accordance with rules specified in Section VIII, Division 1.
3. Pressurize the completed pressure vessel to a cold-stretching pressure, , between 1.5 and 1.6
times the design pressure, .
4. Mark the nameplate with “CS” under the Certification Mark indicating the vessel was constructed
using cold-stretching methods. In addition, the Manufacturer shall indicate in the Remarks
section of the Manufacturer’s Data Report: “This vessel has been constructed using cold-
stretching processes in accordance with Mandatory Appendix 44.”
Subjecting an austenitic stainless steel pressure vessel to an internal pressure between 1.5 and 1.6 is
sufficient to cause a permanent change in the diameter of the pressure vessel due to plastic deformation of
the material. The amount of plastic deformation the pressure vessel exhibits is a function of the actual
yield strength of the material and the material’s non-linear stress-strain relationship.

5.5.1 Summary of Cold Stretching Requirements in Section VIII, Division 1

Mandatory Appendix 44 in the 2021 edition of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC specifies
requirements for design, construct, and stamping of cold-stretched austenitic stainless steel pressure
vessels in addition to those provided in Section VIII, Division 1. However, rules in Paragraph 44-4
restrict design and fabrication of cold-stretched pressure vessels to those austenitic stainless steels listed
in Table 5.4 of this report.

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 Table 5.4 Materials permitted for construction of cold-stretched austenitic
stainless-steel pressure vessels

Material Allowable Design

SA-240/SA-240M Stress, , in Tension, Yield Strength, Tensile Strength, Elongation,
Stainless Steel† ksi (MPa)‡ ksi (MPa), min. ksi (MPa), min. %, min.

Type 304 39.3 (270) 30 (205) 75 (515) 40

Type 304L 36.0 (247) 25 (170) 70 (485) 40
Type 304N 42.7 (293) 35 (240) 80 (550) 30
Type 304LN 39.3 (270) 30 (205) 75 (515) 40
Type 316 39.3 (270) 30 (205) 75 (515) 40
Type 316L 36.0 (247) 25 (170) 70 (485) 40
Type 316N 42.7 (293) 35 (240) 80 (550) 30
Type 316LN 39.3 (270) 30 (205) 75 (515) 40
†SA-240/SA-240M, Specification for Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip
for Pressure Vessels and for General Applications
‡The allowable design stress equals the sum of the yield strength plus 29 ksi divided by 1.5.

For reference, Table 5.4 of this report also includes allowable design stresses based on rules specified in
Mandatory Appendix 44 and the minimum yield strength, tensile strength, and elongation values specified
in SA-240/SA-240M for these materials.

Design rules specified in Paragraph 44-5 in Mandatory Appendix 44 in the 2021 edition of Section VIII,
Division 1 of the ASME BPVC state that the wall thickness of a cold stretched pressure vessel is
calculated according to the applicable rules of Section VIII, Division 1 before cold stretching using the
applicable allowable design stress value shown in Table 5.4 of this report. Other restrictions on the
design and fabrication of cold stretched pressure vessels include:
• vessel wall ≤ 1.2 in.
• design calculations are based on the nominal diameter – no allowance is necessary for the
possible increase in diameter due to cold stretching
• MDMT ≥ -320°F
• maximum design temperature ≤ 120°F
• rules are limited to single diameter cylindrical shells with dished heads or spherical shells – flat
heads are not permitted
• rules are only applicable for internal pressure
• minimum specified ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of weld filler metal must not be less than the
minimum specified UTS for the base metals of the weld joint
• radiographic examination must be performed before cold stretching
Rules to assure adequate toughness include:
• impact testing of base materials is not required
• welding procedure qualification must include impact tests of weld metal and heat affected zone at
MDMT in the cold stretched condition at 1.5 time the allowable design stress,

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 • welding procedure qualification is exempted from impact testing for MDMT of -55°F and
warmer
Fabrication process rules that cover welding and examination, cold-stretching operation, and cold-
stretching procedure record are provided in Mandatory Appendix 44, Paragraph 44-6 in the 2021 edition
of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC.

5.5.2 Cold Stretching Technology

Cold stretching is permitted because it takes advantage of the strain hardening characteristics, toughness,
and ductility of austenitic stainless steels. Points A through E in Fig. 5.1 of this report show an idealized
stress-strain curve for Type 304L stainless steel that conforms to applicable minimum yield strength,
tensile strength, and elongation requirements specified in material specification SA-240/SA-240M.

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Tensile Strength: 70 ksi (485 MPa), min.
Elongation: 40%, min. E
70

60
D
C
50
1.6 P: 57.6 ksi (395) MPa)
Stress, ksi

1.5 P: 54 ksi (371 MPa)

40
F
G I
30

B
20
Allowable Design Stress:
36 ksi (247 MPa)
10
Yield Strength:
A H J 25 ksi (170 MPa), min.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Strain, %

Fig. 5.1 Idealized stress-strain relationship for Type 304L stainless steel

According to rules specified in Mandatory Appendix 44, Paragraph 44-5 in the 2021 edition of
Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC, the allowable design stress for SA-240, Type 304L
stainless steel is 36 ksi (i.e., [(25 + 29) / 1.5]). This value, which exceeds the minimum specified yield
strength indicated by Point B, corresponds to Point F in Fig. 5.1 of this report. The required wall
thickness of a pressure vessel is determined using this allowable design stress, S, and the design
pressure, .

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Following construction, the pressure vessel is subjected to a cold-stretching pressure, , which must be
between 1.5 and 1.6 . These limits correspond to Points C and D, respectively, in Fig. 5.1 of this
report. The tensile stress resulting from a cold-stretching pressure equal to 1.5 is 54 ksi. The tensile
stress resulting from a cold-stretching pressure equal to 1.6 is 57.6 ksi.

As the pressure is vented following completion of the cold-stretching operation, the tensile stress in the
wall decreases linearly from Point C or D to atmospheric pressure along the path shown by Lines CGH
and DIJ, respectively, in Fig. 5.1 of this report. The slope of these paths is governed by the modulus of
elasticity of the material.

After the pressure vessel is placed in service and subjected to the design pressure, , the tensile stresses in
the wall exhibit linearly elastic stress-strain behavior as shown by Line GH or IJ in Fig. 5.1 of this report.
The specific path depends on the magnitude of the cold-stretching pressure, Pc. In the cold-stretching
method, the minimum design margin against plastic collapse is at least 1.5 (i.e., ratio of stress at point C,
54 ksi, versus stress at point G, 36 ksi) which is consistent with the limit design theory principles
discussed in Sect. 4.6 of this report.

The cold-stretched base materials listed in Table 44-4-1 need not be impact tested when used in vessels
constructed in accordance with this Mandatory Appendix 44. Adequate fracture toughness of cold-
stretched pressure vessels is provided by:
• limiting the wall thickness of cold-stretched pressure vessels to 1.2 in.
• including impact testing in the welding procedure qualification. When the MDMT is colder
than -55°F (-48°C), the WPQ shall include impact tests of welds and heat-affected zones (HAZs).
• limiting construction of cold-stretched pressure vessels to specific SA-240/SA-240M stainless
steels (these stainless steels exhibit lateral expansion greater than 0.015 in. at -320°F.).
• requiring a minimum design metal temperature, no colder than -320°F.
• limiting the design temperature to 120°F or less.
5.6 QUALITY CONTROL

The ASME BPVC requires any Manufacturer or Assembler holding or applying for a Certificate of
Authorization to use the Certification Mark to have, and demonstrate, a quality control system to establish
that all Code requirements, including material, design, fabrication, examination (by the Manufacturer),
inspection of boilers, pressure vessels, and associated parts (by the Authorized Inspector), pressure
testing, and certification will be met. The Authorized Inspector is responsible for verifying that the
Manufacturer has a valid Certificate of Authorization and is working to a quality control system.

Section I; Section VIII, Division 1; and Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC provide guidance
and requirements for the scope and content of the quality control system. It is important to note that the
quality control system may contain information of proprietary nature relating to the Manufacturer’s
processes. Therefore, the ASME BPVC does not require any distribution of this information, except for
the Authorized Inspector or an ASME designee.

5.6.1 Quality Control System Requirements in Section I

Quality control system requirements are provided in Paragraph PG-105.4 in the 2007 and 2021 editions of
Section I of the ASME BPVC. Paragraph PG-105.4 in the 2007 state that the quality control system shall
be in accordance with the requirements of A-300. Whereas Paragraph PG-105.4 in the 2021 edition state:

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 Any Manufacturer or Assembler holding or applying for a Certificate of Authorization shall
demonstrate a quality program that meets the requirements of ASME CA-1 and establishes that
all Code requirements including material, design, fabrication, examination (by the
Manufacturer), and inspection for boilers and boiler parts (by the Authorized Inspector) will be
met. The quality control system shall be in accordance with the requirements of A-301 and A-302.
Publication ASME CA-1 [2], which was issued in 2020, specifies requirements for accreditation and
certification of organizations supplying products or services that are intended to conform to the
requirements of ASME standards listed in Table 1 – ASME Certification Programs. Table 1 in ASME
CA-1 assigns the ASME Certification Designator “S – Power Boilers” to Section I of the ASME BPVC.
Publication ASME CA-1 was initially issued in 2013.

Quality control system requirements are provided in Nonmandatory Appendix A – Explanation of the
Code Containing Matter Not Mandatory Unless Specifically Referred to in the Rules of the Code,
Paragraphs A-301 – General and A-302 – Outline of Features to be Included in the Written Description of
the Quality Control System in the 2021 editions of Section I of the ASME BPVC.

5.6.2 Quality Control System Requirements in Section VIII, Division 1

Quality control system requirements are provided in Paragraph UG-117(e) – Quality Control System in
the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC. This paragraph in the 2021
edition of Section VIII, Division 1 states that any Manufacturer holding or applying for a Certificate of
Authorization shall demonstrate a quality control program that meets the requirements of ASME CA-1
and establishes that all Code requirements, including material, design, fabrication, examination (by the
Manufacturer), inspection of vessel and vessel parts (by the Authorized Inspector or Certified Individual,
as applicable), pressure testing, and certification, will be met. The Quality Control System shall be in
accordance with the requirements of Mandatory Appendix 10 – Quality Control System. Rules specified
in Paragraph UG-91(a)(2) state that all Inspectors shall have been qualified in accordance with ASME
QAI-1, Qualifications for Authorized Inspection.

Publication ASME CA-1 [2] specifies requirements for accreditation and certification of organizations
supplying products or services that are intended to conform to the requirements of ASME standards listed
in Table 1 – ASME Certification Programs. Table 1 in ASME CA-1 assigns the ASME Certification
Designator “U – Pressure Vessel, Division 1” to Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC.
Publication ASME CA-1 was initially issued in 2013.

An outline of features to be included in the written description of the quality control system is provided in
Mandatory Appendix 10, Paragraph 10-2 – Outline of Features to be Included in the Written Description
of the Quality Control System. The features to be included in the written description of the quality control
system are described in Paragraphs 10-3 through 10-17. Additional quality control system requirements
specified in the 2021 edition of Section VIII, Division 1 of the ASME BPVC follow.

Paragraph UG-11(e)(2) states that the Certificate Holder’s quality control system must provide for the
following activities associated with subcontracting of welding operations, and these provisions must be
acceptable to the Manufacturer’s Authorized Inspection Agency:
(a) the welding processes permitted by this Section that are permitted to be subcontracted
(b) welding operations
(c) Authorized Inspection activities
(d) placement of the Certificate Holder’s marking in accordance with UG-11(d)(8)

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Paragraph UG-11(e)(7) states that the Certificate Holder and the subcontractor shall describe in their
quality control systems the operational control of procedure and personnel qualifications of the
subcontracted welding operations.

Paragraph UG-11(e)(9) states that the Certificate Holder shall describe in their Quality Control Systems
the operational control for maintaining traceability of materials received from the subcontractor.

5.6.3 Quality Control System Requirements in Section VIII, Division 2

Quality control system requirements are provided in Part 2 – Responsibilities and Duties, Paragraph 2.3.6
in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC. Both paragraphs state that
the Manufacturer shall have and maintain a Quality Control System in accordance with Annex 2-E –
Quality Control System. According to requirements provided in Annex 2-E, the Manufacturer shall have
and maintain a quality control system that establishes that all Code requirements, including material,
design, fabrication, examination (by the Manufacturer), and inspection of vessels and vessel parts (by the
Inspector), will be met. An outline of features to be addressed in a written description of the quality
control system is provided in Paragraph 2-E.2. Some of these features of a quality control system, which
are equally applicable to both shop and field work, follow.
• The information associated with 2.3 – Manufacturer’s Responsibilities and Annex 7-A –
Responsibilities and Duties for Inspection and Examination Activities.
• The complexity of the work includes factors such as design simplicity versus complexity, the
types of materials and welding procedures used, the thickness of materials, the types of
nondestructive examinations applied, and whether heat treatments are applied.
• The size and complexity of the Manufacturer’s organization includes factors such as the
number of employees, the experience level of employees, the number of vessels produced,
and whether the factors defining the complexity of the work cover a wide or narrow range.
Guidelines for the features to be included in the written description of the quality control system are
described in Annex 2-E, Paragraphs 2-E.3 through 2-E.16 in the 2021 edition of Section VIII, Division 2
of the ASME BPVC. Guidelines in Paragraphs 2-E.10 – Nondestructive Examination states that the
quality control system should include provisions for identifying nondestructive examination procedures
the Manufacturer or Assembler will apply to conform to the requirements of this Division.

Rules specified in Annex 2-G – Obtaining and Using Certification Mark Stamps in the 2021 edition of
Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC state that any Manufacturer holding or applying for a
Certificate of Authorization shall demonstrate a quality control system that meets the requirements of
ASME CA-1 and Annex 2-E.

Publication ASME CA-1 [2] specifies requirements for accreditation and certification of organizations
supplying products or services that are intended to conform to the requirements of ASME standards listed
in Table 1 – ASME Certification Programs. Table 1 in ASME CA-1 assigns the ASME Certification
Designator “U2 – Pressure Vessel, Division 2” to Section VIII, Division 2 of the ASME BPVC.
Publication ASME CA-1 was initially issued in 2013.

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110
 6. INSPECTIONS, TESTS, AND EXAMINATIONS

The ASME BPVC provides requirements for inspections, tests, and examinations including
nondestructive examinations of boilers and pressure vessels during and after fabrication but before being
placed in service. The terms inspection, examination, and nondestructive examination are defined as
follows.
Inspection: the observation of any operation performed on materials and/or components to determine
its acceptability in accordance with given criteria.
Examination: the process of determining the condition of an area of interest by nondestructive means
against established acceptance or rejection criteria.
Nondestructive Examination (NDE): the development and application of technical methods to
examine materials and/or components in ways that do not impair future usefulness and
serviceability in order to detect, locate, measure, interpret, and evaluate flaws.
6.1 GENERAL INSPECTION, TEST, AND EXAMINATION REQUIREMENTS

General requirements for inspections, tests, and examinations are provided in Paragraphs PG-90 through
PG-99 in Section I, Paragraphs UG-90 through UG-103 in Section VIII, Division 1, and Part 7 and
Annex 7-A in Section VIII, Division 2 in the 2007 and 2021 editions of the ASME BPVC. These general
requirements define Manufacturer responsibilities and Inspector duties where the terms Manufacturer,
Inspector, and User are defined as follows.
Manufacturer: the organization responsible for construction of a boiler, pressure vessel, vessel
component, or part or the organization responsible for the manufacture of pressure relief devices
in accordance with the rules of the ASME BPVC and who holds an ASME Certificate of
Authorization to apply the Certification Mark to such an item.
Inspector: an Authorized Inspector regularly employed by an ASME accredited Authorized
Inspection Agency (AIA) or by a company that manufacturers pressure vessels exclusively for its
own use and not for resale that is defined as a User-Manufacturer. This is the only instance in
which an Inspector may be in the employ of the Manufacturer.
User: the organization that purchases the finished pressure vessel for its own use or as an agent for
the owner. The user’s designated agent may be either a design agency specifically engaged by the
user, the Manufacturer of a system for a specific service which includes a pressure vessel as a part
and which is purchased by the user, or an organization which offers pressure vessels for sale or
lease for specific services. User responsibilities are discussed in Sects. 4.2.2 and 4.2.3 of this
report.
Manufacturer responsibilities include, but are not limited to, the following.
• examination of all materials before fabrication to make certain they have the required thickness,
to detect defects, to make certain the materials are permitted by the ASME BPVC, and that
traceability to the material identification has been maintained. (See Sect. 3.1 of this report.)
• documentation of impact tests when such tests are required. (See Sect. 4.1.3 of this report.)
• examination of the shell and head sections to confirm they have been properly formed to the
specified shapes within the permissible tolerances. (See Sect. 5.2 of this report.)
• qualification of the welding and brazing procedures before they are used in fabrication. (See
Sect. 5.3.4 of this report.)
• qualification of welders and welding operators and brazers before using the welders or brazers in
production work. (See Sect. 5.3.5 of this report.)

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 • examination of all parts prior to joining to make certain they have been properly fitted for
welding or brazing and that the surfaces to be joined have been cleaned and the alignment
tolerances are maintained.
• provision for training, experience, qualification, and certification of NDE personnel.
• examination of parts as fabrication progresses, for material marking, that defects are not evident,
and that dimensional geometries are maintained.
• provision of controls to assure that all required heat treatments are performed. (See Sect. 5.4 of
this report.)
• provision of records of nondestructive testing examinations. (See Sect. 6.3 of this report.)
• making the required hydrostatic or pneumatic test and having the required inspections performed
during such test. (See Sect. 7.1 of this report.)
• providing for retention of radiographs, ultrasonic test reports, NDE records, Manufacturer’s Data
Reports, and other required documentation.
Inspector duties include, but are not limited to, the following.
• verifying that the Manufacturer has a valid Certificate of Authorization and is working to a
Quality Control System (See Sect. 5.6 of this report.).
• verifying that the applicable design calculations are available.
• verifying that materials used in the construction comply with the requirements.
• verifying that all welding and brazing procedures are qualified.
• verifying that all welders, welding operators, brazers, and brazing operators are qualified.
• verifying that the heat treatments, including PWHT, are performed.
• verifying that material imperfections repaired by welding are acceptably repaired.
• verifying that weld defects are acceptably repaired.
• verifying that required NDE, impact tests, and other tests are performed and that the results are
acceptable.
• making a visual inspection to confirm that there are no material or dimensional defects.
• making a visual inspection to confirm that the material identification numbers are properly
transferred.
• performing internal and external inspections and witnessing the hydrostatic or pneumatic test.
• verifying that the required marking is provided and that the required nameplate is attached.
• signing the Certificate of Inspection on the Manufacturer’s Data Report.
Guidance to the responsibilities of the user and designated agent are provided in Nonmandatory
Appendix NN in Section VIII, Division 1 in the 2021 edition of the ASME BPVC as discussed in
Sect. 4.2.2 this report. User responsibilities are provided in Part 2 – Responsibilities and Duties,
Paragraph 2.2 in Section VIII, Division 2 in the 2021 edition of the ASME BPVC as discussed in
Sect. 4.2.3 this report.

6.2 NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION (NDE) REQUIREMENTS

Nondestructive examination is an indispensable inspection method for assuring sound construction by

identifying critical flaws in materials and welds. Section V of the ASME BPVC provides requirements
and methods for NDE, which are Code requirements to the extent they are specifically referenced and
required by other ASME BPVC Sections. However, some Construction Codes in the ASME BPVC only

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reference certain requirements and methods for NDE provided in Section V. Descriptions of NDE
methods and respective abbreviations used in Section I; Section VIII, Division 1; and Section VIII,
Division 2 of the ASME BPVC follow.
ET — Electromagnetic (Eddy Current): Eddy current testing is a nondestructive method of
locating discontinuities in a product. Signals can be produced by discontinuities located either on
the external or internal surface of the tube or by discontinuities totally contained within the walls.
Since the density of eddy currents decreases nearly exponentially as the distance from the
external surface increases, the response to deep-seated defects decreases.
RT — Radiography: a method of detecting imperfections in materials by passing X-ray or nuclear
radiation through the material and presenting their image on a recording medium.
UT — Ultrasonics: a method for detecting imperfections in materials by passing ultrasonic
vibrations (frequencies normally 1 MHz to 5 MHz) through the material.
MT — Magnetic Particle: a method of detecting cracks and similar imperfections at or near the
surface in iron and the magnetic alloys of steel. It consists of properly magnetizing the material
and applying finely divided magnetic particles that form patterns indicating the imperfections.
PT — Liquid Penetrant: a method of nondestructive examination that provides for the detection
of imperfections open to the surface in ferrous and nonferrous materials that are nonporous.
VT — Visual: a nondestructive examination method used to evaluate an item by observation,
such as, the correct assembly, surface conditions, or cleanliness of materials, parts, and
components used in the fabrication and construction of ASME Code boilers, pressure vessels, and
related hardware.
These NDE methods are categorized as either surface examinations or volumetric examinations. Surface
NDE is a method capable of detecting imperfections located on or just beneath the surface of a
component. Surface examination methods include ET, PT, MT, and VT. Volumetric NDE is a method
capable of detecting imperfections located anywhere within the examined volume. Volumetric
examination methods include RT and UT. Discussions of underlying NDE technologies for these methods
are presented in Sect. 6.3 of this report.

6.2.1 General NDE Requirements in Section I

Rules for circumferential and longitudinal butt-welded joints in boilers that are fabricated by welding and
require volumetric examination are specified in Paragraph PW-11 – Requirements for Boilers Fabricated
by Welding in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section I of the ASME BPVC. These rules state that all
circumferential and longitudinal butt-welded joints must be examined throughout their entire length
unless specifically exempted by rules that depend on the service conditions, nominal pipe size, or material
thickness. The following statement in Paragraph PW-11 in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section I of the
ASME BPVC establishes the basis for these exemptions.
Experience has demonstrated that welded butt joints not requiring volumetric examination by
these rules have given safe and reliable service even if they contain imperfections that may be
disclosed upon further examination. Any examination and acceptance standards beyond the
requirements of this Section are beyond the scope of this Code and shall be a matter of agreement
between the Manufacturer and the User.
Rules specified in Paragraph PW-11 further define which volumetric examination method (RT or UT) or
combination of methods (RT and UT) must be used to examine particular types of circumferential and
longitudinal butt-welded joints as discussed in Sects. 6.2.1.1 and 6.2.1.2 of this report.

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Inspection and tests requirements specified in Paragraph PW-93 – Examination and Repair of Flat Plate in
Corner Joints in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section I of the ASME BPVC require examinations after
welding by either the magnetic particle (MT) or liquid penetrant (PT) method. Methods and acceptance
criteria for magnetic particle and liquid penetrant examination must be in accordance with Paragraph
A-260 or A-270 in Nonmandatory Appendix A – Explanation of the Code Containing Matter Not
Mandatory Unless Specifically Referred to in the Rules of the Code Paragraph, respectively.

Rules for visual and liquid penetrant examinations (VT and PT) of bimetallic tubes when the clad strength
is included are specified in Paragraph PW-44 in the 2021 edition of Section I of the ASME BPVC as
discussed in Sects. 6.2.1.4 and 6.2.1.5, respectively, of this report. Corresponding rules for bimetallic
tubes are not included in Paragraph PW-44 in the 2007 edition of Section I of the ASME BPVC.

Qualification requirements for NDE personnel that perform radiographic or ultrasonic examinations are
provided in Paragraph PW-50 – Radiographic Examination in the 2007 and 2021 editions of Section I of
the ASME BPVC.

Paragraphs PW-50.1, 50.2, and 50.3 in the 2007 edition states:

PW-50.1 The Manufacturer shall be responsible for assuring that nondestructive examination
(NDE) personnel have been qualified and certified in accordance with their employer’s written
practice prior to performing or evaluating radiographic or ultrasonic examinations required by
this Section. SNT-TC-1A or CP-189 (2001 editions) shall be used as a guideline for employers to
establish their written practice. National or international Central Certification Programs, such
as the ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP), may be used to fulfill the examination and
demonstration requirements of the employer’s written practice. Provisions for training,
experience, qualification, and certification of NDE personnel shall be described in the
Manufacturer’s quality control system (See PG-105.4).
PW-50.2 NDE personnel shall be qualified by examination. Qualification of NDE Level III
personnel certified prior to the 2004 Edition of Section I may be based on demonstrated ability,
achievement, education, and experience. Such qualification shall be specifically addressed in the
written practice. When NDE personnel have been certified in accordance with a written practice
based on an edition of SNT-TC-1A or CP-189 earlier than that referenced in A-360, their
certification shall be valid until their next scheduled recertification.
PW-50.3 Recertification shall be in accordance with the employer’s written practice based on the
edition of SNT-TC-1A or CP-189 referenced in A-360. Recertification may be based on evidence
of continued satisfactory performance or by reexamination(s) deemed necessary by the employer.
Paragraphs PW-50.1, 50.2, and 50.3 in the 2021 edition states:
The Manufacturer shall be responsible for assuring that nondestructive examination (NDE)
personnel have been qualified and certified in accordance with their employer’s written practice
prior to performing or evaluating radiographic or ultrasonic examinations required by this
Section. SNT‐TC‐1A or CP‐189 (2006 editions) shall be used as a guideline for employers to
establish their written practice. If the techniques of computed radiography (CR), digital
radiography (DR), phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT), or ultrasonic time-of-flight
diffraction (TOFD) are used, the training, experience, and examination requirements in
Section V, Article 1, Mandatory Appendix II shall also be included in the employer's written
practice for each technique as applicable. National or international Central Certification
Programs may be used to fulfill the examination and demonstration requirements of the
employer’s written practice. Provisions for training, experience, qualification, and certification

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