Serial Verbal Learning

Experiment no.- 03 Experimenter: B.H.D

Date: 22.02.2024 Subject: N.V.

What is Learning?
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour, or behaviour potential, produced by
experience. It is the process of gaining knowledge, skills, and information. As behaviourism
emerged as a prominent school of thought in the early 1900s, learning became a primary area of
study in psychology. Learning is still a key idea in many branches of psychology, such as
developmental, cognitive, educational, and social psychology. Learning is an active process.
Even if you learn something relatively quickly, it is still a multi-step process. To learn, you must
encounter new information, pay attention to it, coordinate it with what you already know, store it
in your memory, and apply it.

The causes of learning are numerous and varied. Learning can result from vicarious as well as
from direct experiences. This means that behaviour can be learned by observing events as well as
participating in them. It must be noted that learning does not include temporary changes in
behaviour that stem from sources such as fatigue, drugs, or illness. An individual goes through
various changes that stem from maturation. However, these changes are not considered learning.

Learning is a dynamic process. Several experts have proposed various theories of learning. These
are:

Theories of learning

Behavioural Learning Theory. Behaviourists proposed that environmental stimuli and

consequences shape behaviour and are the primary reason for learning. The behavioural
learning theory proposes the concepts of classical and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning is an unconscious learning method that involves pairing an
automatic and conditioned response with a specific stimulus. It is the basis for many
learned fears, including stage fright, and also helps explain how we acquire aversions to
certain foods or beverages. The concept of classical conditioning was first discovered by
Ivan Pavlov in his famous Dog and Bell experiment, which he published in the year
1897. To help describe the learning process, classical conditioning—also called
Pavlovian conditioning at times—uses a few different words.

Unconditioned Stimulus: A trigger or stimulus that causes an instinctive reaction is

known as an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if you shudder in response to a cold
breeze, this is an example of an unconditioned stimulus causing an instinctive response.

Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus is considered neutral if it doesn't immediately cause a

reaction. For example, it wouldn't always cause a reaction if you heard a fan running but
didn't feel the breeze. It would then be considered a neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that was formerly neutral—that is, it didn't elicit a
response—but now elicits one is said to be conditioned. Dogs have the ability to elicit
terror in people who were previously indifferent to them until they were bitten, in which
case the dog becomes a conditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Response: When an unconditioned stimulus is present, an unconditioned

response is an instinctive or thoughtless reaction. Your mouth may moisten at the scent of
your favourite meal; this is an unconditioned response.

Conditioned Response: A learned response or a response that develops in a situation

where none previously existed is known as a conditioned response. Returning to the dog
bite scenario, the dread you feel following the bite is a conditioned response (Cherry,
2023).
The theories of operant or instrumental conditioning, which postulated that giving
behaviours either positive or negative consequences results in learning, were developed
as a result of research by Edward Lee Thorndike and B. F. Skinner. Thorndike typically
placed food in view outside of the enclosure and observed how the animal behaved. He
also recorded the time that elapsed before the animal escaped. He repeated this procedure
over and over again and noted the change in the animal’s behaviour and escape times
(Chance, 1999). Skinner, on the other hand, showed how positive reinforcement worked
by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever on the side, and as
the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock the lever. As soon as it did so a
food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever. The rats quickly learned to go
straight to the lever after being put in the box a few times. The consequence of receiving
food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action again and again
(McLeod, 2018). Their contributions, together, discovered that when behaviour has
positive consequences or positive reinforcers, the behaviour will occur more frequently.
When an activity has negative repercussions or negative reinforcers, the behaviour will
occur less frequently (Teater, 2019).

Social Learning Theory. The Social Learning Theory, as proposed by Albert Bandura
states that new patterns of behaviour can be acquired through either direct experience or
by observing the experiences of others. This means that most of the behaviours that
people display are learned, either deliberately or inadvertently, through the influence of
example. (Bandura & Walters, 1977).
Bandura proved this theory in the famous Bobo doll experiment (1961) that demonstrated
that children are able to learn through the observation of adult behaviour (Nolen, 2023).
Bandura’s experiment sought to examine whether children who witnessed aggressive
displays of behaviour by adults would demonstrate the same if given the opportunity. The
Bobo doll is an inflatable toy about five feet tall, designed to spring back upright when
knocked over.
Children were chosen as subjects for the study because they have less social
conditioning; they have also had less instruction and teaching of the rules of society than
adult subjects. According to the results, children exposed to the aggressive model were
 more likely to show imitative aggressive behaviour themselves (Shuttleworth, n.d.). The
experiment effectively demonstrated that children copy aggressive behaviours they see.
Children imitate aggression when they see it, regardless of gender. Verbal reinforcement
intensified imitation, and rewards for violent behaviour increased it even more. The
findings have implications for comprehending aggressiveness and guiding therapies since
they highlight the importance of social learning and the influence of modelling on
behaviour.

Experiential Learning Theory. In keeping with our understanding of how individuals

learn, develop, and grow, experiential learning theory (ELT) offers both a multilinear
model of adult development and a holistic description of the learning process. The theory
is known as "Experiential Learning" (ELT) because it highlights the crucial role that
experience plays in the learning process, setting it apart from other theories of learning.
Therefore, the word "experiential" is used to set ELT apart from behavioural learning
theories, which reject the importance of subjective experience in the learning process, as
well as cognitive learning theories, which favour cognition over emotion (Kolb, 1984).

Learning Styles

Every individual responds best to a different style of learning, as stated by the 7 learning styles
theory proposed in Neil Fleming’s VARK model. His learning styles are broadly categorised into
VARK, which stands for - visual, auditory, reading and writing, and kinesthetic. Each learning
style an individual adapts adheres to their individualistic strengths and likely supports how
information is retained in their memory. They either involve a social aspect or focus on one of
the five different senses, i.e. the sense of smell, taste, sight, hearing, and touch to memorise the
information presented (Fleming, 1987).

The seven learning styles proposed in the theory are:

● Visual - retaining information through pictures and images.
● Kinaesthetic - using physical actions or methods to retain information.
● Aural - retaining information on hearing it.
 ● Social - retain information from social activities with other people.
● Solitary - retaining information by making notes, or reading the text by themselves.
● Verbal - information is retained better when written or in spoken words.
● Logical - use logic and structures to learn effectively.

Most people, however, benefit better from an integration of these modes of learning, rather than
solely relying on one particular learning style to aid in memory retention. The method through
which this information is presented and understood also plays a role in deciding which learning
technique will be most effective. Learning techniques are a collection of skills or actions that a
learner can engage in on their own to boost their ability to study, retain, and recall information.
There are numerous different techniques an individual can engage in to help their studying or
memory retention abilities, some of which include-

Flashcards. A common form of exercise to help build short-term memory is the use of
flashcards, as they help in quickly recalling short amounts of information. Flashcards can
be used to remember information like key concepts, small details, and definitions. They
can be made more effective by using colour codes, drawings, and images to facilitate
quick recall. Flashcards are often useful for refreshing key concepts before an exam or
presentation and can be used many times over.

Mind Maps. Mind maps are especially useful for mapping different systems and
processes and learning how a concept works in its context. They can be used to note
down information as you learn, so a concept can be understood in depth by trying to
reconstruct the mind map. The mind map method applies to many kinds of media and
environments, such as engineering, statistics, graphic design, and literature.

Regular Tests. Regularly testing knowledge in any subject can help with long-term
retention. It helps determine what further studying can be done to improve. Simple
knowledge tests and exercises can be found online for the particular field of interest.
Tests can also be created by using online generators to develop helpful and effective
tests.
Note-taking. It is useful to take notes when learning new information, techniques, or
skills. This can be especially helpful in creative industries where complicated techniques
are used in a very situational environment and it may be required to remember the
information for future tasks.

Audio and video. An alternative to using traditional methods of learning is to experiment

with audiobooks, tutorials, and voice recordings. Some people retain information better
using audio or visual memory rather than taking notes. The rise of social media and
online resources has meant that both basic and expert information on most topics is now
available for free in audiobooks or podcasts. Many video tutorials, online lectures, and
presentations are available for most industries and are usually freely accessible on the
Internet.

Rote Learning. Perceptions of cramming can vary as some people may find it to be a
challenging balance, while many others find it to be one of the most effective forms of
learning as the high pressure intensifies focus. It can be an efficient way to process new
ideas, provided that the individual’s health is also taken into consideration throughout the
process.

Positive reinforcement. The psychological effect of rewarding learning with small

incentives, such as sweets or hobby time, can sometimes be beneficial to people working
hard in long learning sessions. This helps absorb information with small, rewarded shifts
that can make an individual more willing to work on a consistent schedule. It may also
lead to improvement in or better focus during the learning period.

Group study. Discussing challenging concepts with other learners can also be helpful.
Group study sessions highlight areas that were not previously identified, and allows each
individual to pool their resources while providing an opportunity to receive feedback.
Alternatively, simply studying with other people in silence may also help in staying
focused and productive.
 Exercises or problem-solving. Most textbooks, online tutorials, and manuals include lists
of exercises and examples to help test the learner’s understanding of the subject. The
level of comprehension can be assessed by working through the exercises. Using the
exercises productively can strategise learning and establish what other learning
techniques may be of help.

Error spotting. At times, errors may go unnoticed, particularly when instructional

materials lack visual support. After finishing a project or task, it's important to actively
seek opportunities for improvement. This approach aids in refining your work and
maintaining consistency. If pinpointing areas for improvement proves challenging,
consider sharing your work with a colleague and soliciting constructive feedback to
further refine your efforts.

Serial learning. The first studies on verbal memory using serial learning are attributed to
Hermann Ebbinghaus. The majority of research on serial learning employs a technique
known as serial anticipation, in which learners utilise a word that is presented one at a
time as a cue for the subsequent word. The third word is then cued by the second, and so
on.

Learning and Memory

There is a close relationship between the concepts of learning and memory. Learning is defined
as the acquisition of knowledge, whereas memory is the expression of this acquired knowledge.
(Learning and Memory, n.d.)

Neuroscientists and psychologists have worked hand in hand to develop the concept of memory
and divided it into two broad categories- declarative and non-declarative memory. Declarative or
explicit memory can be associated with learning in the way that it allows one to consciously
recall information they previously learned. (Learning and Memory (Section 4, Chapter 7)
Neuroscience Online: An Electronic Textbook for the Neurosciences | Department of
Neurobiology and Anatomy - the University of Texas Medical School at Houston, n.d.) . A
complex component of human cognition, memory comes in many forms and has different
purposes in the processing and storage of information. For a brief moment, sensory input is
stored in sensory memory, enabling us to see our surroundings. Working memory, sometimes
referred to as short-term memory, transiently manipulates and stores data for quick access. For
lengthy periods of time, long-term memory stores information like a large warehouse. In addition
to these processes, information fading or becoming unavailable with time is a normal part of
memory. Retrieving and reconstructing memories is known as memory reconstruction, and it can
be impacted by a number of circumstances that result in errors or distortions. People use
mnemonic devices, such acronyms or visual imagery, to improve encoding and retrieval
processes, which helps with memory retention and recall. All of these aspects of memory work
together to help us learn, adapt, and deal with the challenges of our environment.

Review of Literature

Hermann Ebbinghaus pioneered the initial examination of verbal memory through serial
learning. Many serial learning studies employ a technique called "serial anticipation," where
stimuli are presented in a sequence, with each serving as a cue for the next. Ebbinghaus
conducted his experiments with nonsense syllables, later leading to him conceptualising the
serial position curve and primacy and recency effects. (Serial Learning | Encyclopedia.com, n.d.)

Experiments with serial learning were also conducted on Rhesus monkeys. Two rhesus monkeys
were trained to learn lists in successive phases: A, A-B, A-B-C, and A-B-C-D, and so on. By
method of trial and error, the monkeys were able to learn and then recall the lists. (Swartz et al.,
2000)

Experiments conducted on infants and retroactive interference suggest that our memory keeps
updating. Retroactive interference fades away if a new cue is not encountered. However, the
window for updating decreases over time until the details of the original cue are forgotten or the
memory is reactivated later (Rossi-George & Rovee-Collier, 1999).
The concepts relating to the process of serial verbal learning date back to Ebbinghaus and his
various experiments with memory and recall. Serial learning is often used outside of
experimental setups as well- most notably among students with academic-related materials. The
simple task of remembering the names of presidents is an apt example of serial learning.

Serial Verbal Learning can be tested using lists, memory drums and even digital software.

The current apparatus being used to test the participant's serial learning is a memory drum. The
memory drum was invented in 1887 by G.E. Muller and Fredrich Schumann.

Limitations

Verbal learning and recall of verbally learned list items can be affected by several factors. Some
of these factors include:

Age: Riegal’s (1965) research on verbal processing speed revealed that elderly participants
needed more time than young adults to make associations between words. Meanwhile, studies
conducted with younger populations show that late adolescents perform better than early
adolescents. (Bhavana, 2021)

Cognitive impairment: A verbal serial list-learning test administered to Minor Cognitive

Impairment patients reveals impairment patterns in certain people. Little information is saved,
quickly forgotten, numerous and typical extra-list intrusion errors are produced, and recognition
foil responses are generous. (Libon et al., 2011)

Position of items: Kahana et al. (2009) investigated whether people could learn "spin" lists, in
which the starting position is randomly changed throughout multiple learning trials, to test the
theory that serial recall is primarily dependent on the encoding and retrieval of position-to-item
associations. It was discovered that participants' performance on serial learning was only
marginally worse under spin conditions and that this impairment is due to a significant number
of initiation errors along with an increase in inter-trial forgetting.
Primacy and Recency effects: When someone tries to memorise a random sequence of made-up
sounds (nonsense syllables), the sounds in the middle are the hardest to learn. Those at the
beginning are learned the fastest, followed by the ones at the end. (McCrary & Hunter, 1953)

Practice: Research conducted by Gerrish (1961) on 160 college students found that the
performance of participants improved with each trial administered to them.

Method

Aim: To study the processes involved in the memorization of nonsense syllables by the method
of serial learning

Plan: To conduct the test on the subject using the memory drum apparatus

Materials:

The materials needed for this experiment are:

1. Memory drum apparatus

2. Stimulus material

(List of 10 non-sense syllables has to be in CVC formation consonant-vowel-

consonant - XEP, BUJ, SIQ, JOR, WUF, PAH, KEC, NOL, ZIK, TAQ)

3. Stopwatch

4. Screen

[Stimulus material -]
This list of ten nonsense syllables needs to be entered vertically on the memory drum.

Subject Details:

Name: N.V.

Age: 18
Sex: Male

Education: Undergraduate Student

Design:

The subject will be shown the above List of 10 Non-Sense Syllables ONE BY ONE each Syllable
for 2 sec. Only the S will be required to RECALL the syllables in the same order with 20 second's
time. Then the Second Trial will start and the subject will again be shown the entire list one by one,
each syllable for 2 sec, and the 'S' will be given 20 sec. time for Serial Recall. The process
(TRIALS) will be repeated till the 'S' recalls the entire list of Non-sense Syllables ERRORLESSLY
in TWO CONSECUTIVE TRIALS.

Instructions:
“I shall show you some meaningless words one by one through the window of this (pointing
towards the apparatus) Instrument called Memory Drum placed before you. When the List is over
you would be asked to RECALL all the words and tell the spelling of each of those words serially
within the given time. Any change in the order of (Stimulus) Words or Spelling Mistake will be
treated as an ERROR. You are, therefore, warned to Recall and Reproduce the Words correctly in
the same Order in which those are presented to you. The TRIALS will be repeated till you Recall
and Reproduce the Entire List in the Serial Order correctly. Before presenting the Meaningless
Words, I shall give you a 'Ready Signal' each time, hearing which you would be attentive and
concentrate towards the window of the Memory Drum. The Recall time will also be indicated
through signals of 'Start' and stop".”

Procedure:
The subject will be shown the above List of 10 Non-Sense Syllables ONE BY ONE each Syllable for
2 seconds only. Subject will then be required to RECALL the syllables in the same order with 20
second's time. Then the Second Trial will start and the subject will again be shown the entire list one
by one, each syllable for 2 seconds, and the subject' will be given 20 seconds time for Serial Recall.
The process (TRIALS) will be repeated till the subject recalls the entire list of Non-sense Syllables
ERRORLESSLY in TWO CONSECUTIVE TRIALS.

Controls/Precautions:

1. Standardization: Make sure that the SVLT is administered and scored using a manual memory
drum in accordance with approved standardized protocols. Any modifications to the standard
protocol may have an impact on the test's validity and reliability.

2. Establishing a peaceful, distraction-free testing environment will help test takers focus as
much as possible.

3. Calibration: To guarantee the manual memory drum operates accurately and consistently,
calibrate and maintain it on a regular basis.

Analysis:

Examine the participant's performance on the manual memory drum in order to evaluate many
elements, such as:

• Word Recall: The number of words remembered right away following each presentation.

• Word Recall in the Short Term: The quantity of words remembered after a brief interval.

• Long-Term Recall: The quantity of words retained during a protracted period of time.
• Recognition: The capacity of the participant to pick out words from the first list amidst
distractions.

Results and Discussions

The serial verbal learning was assessed by presenting the nonsense syllables to the subject via a
memory drum. The responses and results of the subject are shown below.

Table 1 - Responses of the subject

Trial no. Errors Time taken

1 3 20

2 1 20

3 0 20

4 0 20

As can be seen from table 1 the was able to remember all the nonsense syllables correctly as well
as their order in 4 trials. The subject was able to remember the syllables accurately by
associating their sound with already existing words. They used mental imagery to remember the
order of the syllables

Conclusion
The subject was able to successfully remember the syllables and their order by employing
techniques that suited them.
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