MACMILLAN

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Pure Mathematics

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MACMILLAN
WORKOUT
SERIES

B. Haines
and
R. Haines

M
MACMILLAN
EDUCATION
© B. Haines and R. Haines 1986, 1991

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission

of this pUblication may be made without written permission.

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or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance
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First published 1986

Reprinted 1986, 1987, 1989
This edition 1991

Published by
MACMILLAN EDUCATION LTD
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Haines, B. (Betty)
Work out pure mathematics A-level.
1. Mathematics
I. Title II. Haines, R. (Roger) III. Haines, B. (Betty).
Work out pure mathematics A-level
510
ISBN 978-0-333-54385-6 ISBN 978-1-349-12136-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-12136-6

To our Parents
Acknowledgements vii
Examination Boards for A-Level vii
Introduction ix
How to Use tlie Book ix
Revision ix
The Examination x

1 Polynomials and Indices 1

2 Quadratic Functions 9
3 Progressions 20
4 Binomial Expansions 27
5 Partial Fractions 37
6 Inequalities 47
7 Plane Cartesian Coordinates 60
8 Trigonometric Functions and Formulae 75
9 Trigonometric Identities and Equations 92
10 Parametric Equations 103
11 Vectors 118
12 Functions 129
13 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 142
14 Differentiation - 1 151
15 Differentiation - 2 163
16 Integration - 1 177
17 Integration - 2 190
18 Applications of Integration 204
19 Complex Numbers 221
Index 244

v
 Acknowledgements
Over many years the questions set by the various examination boards have stimu-
lated and enhanced the teaching of mathematics throughout education. Everyone
involved in mathematics, both the teachers and the taught, owes a debt to the
boards for the ever-present challenge that new examination questions bring to
mathematics education.
Our thanks go to everyone who has helped with the preparation of this book,
especially to Nicholas, who, as word processor and checker, has made numerous
suggestions and corrections.
We would be greatly indebted to anyone notifying us of any errors.

The University of London Entrance and School Examinations Council accepts no responsi·
bility whatsoever for the accuracy or method in the answers given in this book to actual questions
set by the London Board.
Acknowledgement is made to the Southern Universities' Joint Board for School Examina·
tions for permission to use questions taken from their past papers but the Board is in no way
responsible for answers that may be provided and they are solely the responsibility of the
authors.
The Associated Examining Board, the University of Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations,
the Northern Ireland Schools Examination Council and the Scottish Examination Board wish to
point out that worked examples included in the text are entirely the responsibility of the
authors and have neither been provided nor approved by the Board.

Examination Boards for A-Level

Syllabuses and past examination papers can be obtained from:

The Associated Examining Board (AEB)

Stag Hill House Guildford Surrey GU2 5XJ

University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES)

Syndicate Buildings Hills Road Cambridge CBl 2EU

J oint Matriculation Board (JMB)

78 Park Road Altrincham Ches. WAl4 5QQ

University of London Schools Examinations Board (L)

University of London Publications Office 52 Gordon Square London WCIE 6EE

University of Oxford (OLE)

Delegacy of Local Examinations Ewert Place Summertown Oxford OX2 7BZ

Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board (O&C)

10 Trumpington Street Cambridge BC2 lQB

Scottish Examination Board (SEB)

Robert Gibson & Sons (Glasgow) Ltd 17 Fitzroy Place Glasgow G3 7SF
vii
 Southern Universities' Joint Board (SUJB)
Cotham Road Bristol BS6 6DD

Welsh Joint Education Committee (WJEC)

245 Western Avenue CardiffCF5 2YX

Northern Ireland Schools Examination Council (NISEC)

Examinations Office Beechill House Beechill Road Belfast BT8 4RS

viii
 This Work Out is not just another text book. It is based on the 'A' level Common
Core Mathematics syllabus and has been designed to help students to obtain the
best possible grades in their 'A' level examination. In addition it has been written
to provide a bridge for students, especially BTEC students, wishing to go into
higher education. Students entering higher education often find they are unfamiliar
with some' A' level topics and lack sufficient practice in topics which the lecturers
assume to be known.
Each chapter in the book starts with a brief list of formulae and is followed by
many 'A' level type questions, each with a complete solution. At the end of each
chapter more 'A' level questions are set as exercises with the important stages in
the working of each one being given to facilitate easy reference.

How to Use the Book

(a) By repeated use and practice, endeavour to become familiar with the frequently
used formulae listed in the fact sheets.
(b) Practice in answering examination questions is important. Open the book at a
definite topic, choose a question and cover up the solution until you have tried to
do it by yourself. If you get really stuck, your mind will be receptive when you
uncover the solution.
(c) When answering multiple-choice questions, work through your solution in the
same way as you would an ordinary question. If you are unable to answer the
question, substituting the suggested answers into the question can often help to
eliminate some solutions. Only guess an answer as a last resort, and not even then
if the marking scheme penalizes wrong answers.

Revision
(a) Your educational establishment should be able to supply you with a syllabus
and typical examination papers. Failing that, you should write to the secretary of
the board whose examination you plan to take. A list of addresses is given on
pages vii and viii.
(b) Use the book to revise topics you have already covered, before trying complete
papers.
(c) Frequent reference to the formula booklet in examinations wastes precious
time and increases the risk of losing your train of thought in the middle of a
solution, while, as often as not, the formula you seek is not listed. Familiarize
yourself with the contents of your formula sheet before the examination!
(d) Development of an examination technique is very important and may take
months to evolve. Well before the examination, may be before you finish the
syllabus, choose a convenient time and do a paper 'to time' under examination
conditions (quiet!). You may well be appalled at how badly you do. Go through
the paper again as soon as possible, referring to similar questions in this book. At

ix
 this time your mind will be receptive to ways of overcoming the difficulties you
have encountered. If you are able to do one paper 'to time' each fortnight for two
or three months you will develop a sixth sense which enables you to spot 'easy'
questions.
(e) Get into the habit of writing solutions tidily first time. So many students are
content with scruffy solutions during the months leading up to the examination.
Perhaps they expect a fairy to wave a wand and change their untidiness into a
perfect script on the day! Unfortunately there is a shortage of such fairies, so get
into the 'neat first time' habit.

The Examination
(a) Do the 'easy' questions at the start of the examination; this boosts your
confidence.
(b) If you get stuck on a question and cannot see an alternative approach, cut
your losses and go to another question. Examinations have been failed by good
candidates spending too long stuck on one or two questions.
(c) If you find you are running out of time then look for questions which give
'part-way' answers, usually after asking bookwork. Quite often the problem part
of the question is a straightforward application of the bookwork, is easy to do
and is rewarding in marks. Do it, even if you cannot do the bookwork.
(d) Never cross out. You may be crossing out marks.
(e) Never walk out of an examination. Re-read the questions right through; even if
you cannot do the first parts of the questions there will be some parts of some
questions you can try.
(f) Good luck!

x
 1 Polynomials and
Indices
Algebraic operations on polynomials and rational functions. Factors of poly-
nomials. The remainder theorem. The factor theorem. Positive and negative
rational indices.

1.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Long Division

If a polynomial f(x) is divided by a polynomial g(x), of a lower degree than f(x),

the remainder is a polynomial of a lower degree than g(x).
Example: If x 5 - 3x 2 + X - 2 (degree 5) is divided by x 2 + 2x - 5 (degree 2)
the remainder will be of a lower degree than x 2 + 2x - 5, that is ax + b (degree I,
or degree 0 if a = 0).

(b) Remainder Theorem

When a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x - a) the remainder is f(a).

f(x) = (x - a)g(x) + f(a).

(c ) Factor Theorem

• If f(a) = 0 then (x - a) is a factor of f(x).

• If f(a) = 0 and f'(a) = 0 then (x - a) is a repeated factor of f(x).

(d) Identities

If f(x) == g(x) then f(a) = g(a) for all a

and the coefficient of xn in f(x) = coefficient of xn in g(x) for all n.

(e) Indices

• am x an = am +n . • am Ian =am -n .
• a- m = l/a m . • aO = 1.
• am/n = flam. • (am r =amn = (an)m .
1
 (f) Surds

• Va x Vb = V(ab) .

• _1_ = Va.
Va a

1.2 Worked Examples

1.1
(a) If f(x) = 6x 2 - 7x - 3 find the values of f(O), f(2), f( -1).
(b) If f(x) = 2x 3 - 7x 2 + 4x - 3 prove that 7f(1) = 4f(2) .

• (a) f(O) = 6(0)2 - 7(0) - 3 = -3,

f(2) = 6(2)2 - 7(2) - 3 = 24 - 14 - 3 = 7,
f( -1) = 6( _1)2 - 7(-1) - 3 = 6 + 7 - 3 = 10.

(b) f(1) =2(1)3 _7(1)2 +4(1)-3=2-7+4-3=-4

7f(1)= -28.
f(2) =2(2)3 -7(2)2 +4(2)-3= 16-28+8-3=-7
4f(2) = - 28.
Hence 7f( 1) = 4f(2).

1.2 Find a and b if a(x + 3)2 + b(x - 2) + 1 == 3x 2 + 20x + 24.

• Substitute values for x.

When x = -3, -5b + 1 = 3(-3)2 + 20( -3) + 24
=-9
~ b = 2.
When x = 2, 25a + 1 = 3(2)2 + 20(2) + 24
= 76
~a = 3.

Alternatively, expand the left -hand side of this identity:

l.h.s. a(x + 3)2 + b(x - 2) + 1 == a(x 2 + 6x + 9) + bx - 2b + 1

== ax 2 + 6ax + 9a + bx - 2b + 1
== ax 2 + X (6a + b) + 9a - 2b + 1.
Ifax 2 + x(6a + b) + 9a - 2b + 1 == 3x 2 + 20x + 24 then the coefficients
of like terms may be equated.

That is, a = 3 6a + b = 20 9a - 2b + 1 = 24.

Solve the first two equations for a and b, and check in the third equation.

Hence a = 3, b = 2.
2
1.3 Given that (x + 1) and (x - 2) are factors of X4 - 3x 3 + ax 2 + bx + 4,

find the values of a and b.

• If (x + 1) and (x - 2) are factors of f(x) then f( -1) and f(2) are zero.
[(-1) = (_1)4 - 3(-1)3 +a(-1)2 + b(-l) + 4 = 0,
i.e. 8 + a - b = 0. (1)

f(2) = (2)4 - 3(2)3 + a(2)2 + b (2) + 4 = 0,

i.e. 4a + 2b - 4 = 0, (2)
i.e. 2a + b - 2 = 0. (3)

Adding equations 1 and 3:

3a + 6 = 0, l.e. a = -2.
Substitute into equation 1:
8 - 2 - b = 0, i.e. b = 6.

1.4 The polynomial x 3 + 2X2 + ax + b, where a, b are constants, leaves a remain-

der of 7 and 17 when divided by (x - 2) and (x + 3) respectively. Find the
values of a and b and the remainder when this polynomial is divided by (x - 4).

• Let g(x) = x 3 + 2X2 + ax + b,

g(2) = the remainder when g(x) is divided by (x - 2).
g(2) = 8 + 8 + 2a + b = 7,
i.e. 2a + b =-9 (1)
Similarly, g(-3) = -27 + 18 - 3a + b = 17,
i.e. -3a + b = 26 (2)
Subtracting equation 2 from equation 1:
5a=-35, a=-7.
Substituting into equation 1:
-14+b=-9, b=5.
Therefore g(x) = x 3 + 2X2
- 7x + 5,
g( 4) = 64 + 32 - 28 + 5 = 73.
The remainder when g(x) is divided by (x - 4) is 73.

1.5 Given that g(x) =ax 3 + x 2 + bx - 2, and g(2) is 6b - 2a + 2, then a : b is

A,3: 4; B,5 : 2; C,3 : 2; D,2 : 5; E,4: 5.

• If g(x) = ax 3 + x 2 + bx - 2 then g(2) = 8a + 4 + 2b - 2

=8a + 2b + 2.
Hence 6b - 2a + 2 = 8a + 2b + 2 =? 4b = lOa.
Hence alb = 4/10, a : b = 2 : 5. Answer D

1.6 Show that 17(1 - 1/17 2 )1/2 = ny'2 where n is an integer.

• Remember: ay'b =y'(a 2 b).

3
 17(1- 1~2)1/2= [(17)2(1- 1~2)Jl/2=(172_1)1/2=(288)1/2.
288 = 2 x 144 = 2 X 122 => (288)1/2 = 21/2 X 12,
hence 17(1 - 1/172 )1/2 = 12y12.

1.7 When a polynomial g(x) is divided by (x + 3) the remainder is 8, and when

g(x) is divided by (x - 2) the remainder is 3. Find the remainder when g(x)
is divided by (x - 2)(x + 3) .

• When a polynomial is divided by (x - 2) (x + 3) (by a quadratic), the

remainder is of the form ax + b (linear).

Let g(x) = (x - 2)(x + 3) f(x) + ax + b.

Then g(-3) = 0 + -3a + b = 8 => -3a + b = 8 (1)
g(2) = 0 + 2a + b = 3 => 2a + b = 3. (2)
Subtracting equation 1 from equation 2,
Sa = -5, a=-l.
Substituting in equation 2,
-2 + b =3, b = 5.
The remainder when g(x) is divided by (x - 2)(x + 3) is -x + 5.

1.8 Use the factor theorem to find a linear factor of P(x), where
P(x)=x 3 -3x 2 -10x+24.
Hence express P(x) as a product of three linear factors .

• H a factor of P(x) is of the form (x - a) then a must be a factor of 24. Try

the smallest factors first!

PO ) = 1 - 3 - 10 + 24 0 * (x - 1) is not a factor.
P( -1) = -1 - 3 + 10 + 24 0 * (x + 1) is not a factor.
P(2) = 8 - 12 - 20 + 24 = 0 (x - 2) is a factor.

At this stage either persevere with other possible factors or carry out a
division by (x - 2),
x2 - X - 12
x - 2 Jx3 - 3x 2 - lOx + 24
x3 - 2X2

x2 - lOx
x 2 + 2x
- 12x + 24
-12x+24.
x2 x - 12 has factors (x + 3)(x - 4) by inspection,
-

hence P(x) = (x - 2) (x 2 - X - 12)

= (x - 2)(x + 3)(x - 4).

4
1.9 Given that f(x) = 2X4 + ax 3 + bx 2 - 8x + c, find the real coefficients a, b
and c when the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) (x + 2) is a factor of f(x) and f'(x);
(b) when f(x) is divided by (x - 2) the remainder is 16.
Factorize f(x) completely .

• If (x + 2) is a factor of f(x) and f'(x) then (x + 2)2 is a factor of f(x).

f(-2) = 0 and f'(-2) = 0

f(x) = 2X4 +ax 3 + bx 2 - 8x + c, f'(x) = 8x 3 + 3ax 2 + 2bx - 8,
f ( - 2) = 32 - 8a + 4b + 16 + c = e- ~ 8a - 4b - c = 48. (1 )

f'(-2)=-64+12a-4b-8=0 ~ 12a-4b=72, (2)

f(2)=32+8a+4b-16+c=16 ~ 8a+4b+c=0. (3)
Adding equations 1 and 3: 16a = 48, a = 3.
Substitute into equation 2: 36 - 4b = 72, b= -9.
Substitute into equation 3: 24 - 36 + c = 0, c = 12.
Hence f(x) = 2X4 + 3x 3 - 9x 2 - 8x + 12 = (x + 2)2g(X).

2X2 - 5x + 3
x 2 + 4x + 4 )2x 4 + 3x 3 - 9x 2 - 8x + 12
2X4 + 8x 3 + 8x 2
-5x 3 - 17x 2 - 8x
-5x 3 - 20x 2 - 20x
3x 2 + 12x + 12
3x 2 + 12x + 12.
f(x) = (x + 2)2 (2x 2 - 5x + 3) = (x + 2)2 (x - 1)(2x - 3).

1.10 Simplify, without the use of tables or calculator,

'1'3 +'1'12 +'1'108 -'1'75
'1'6 - '1'96 + '1'150

• Remember that -lab =v'av'b and av' c + bv'c = (a + b)y'c.

'1'12 ='1'(4 x 3) = '1'4 x '1'3 = 2'1'3; '1'108 ='1'36 x '1'3 = 6y'3;
'1'75 = '1'25 x y'3 = 5'1'3; '1'96 = '1'16 x '1'6 = 4y'6;
'1'150 ='1'25 xy'6 = 5'1'6.

'1'3 +y'12 +'1'108 -'1'75 = '1'3 + 2'1'3 + 6'1'3 - 5'1'3

Hence
y'6 -'1'96 +'1'150 '1'6 - 4y'6 + 5'1'6
_ 4y'3 = ~
2'1'6 '1'2
='1'2.

5
 1.11 Find, without using tables or calculator, the value of x, given that
8X - 3

32 5 - X

• Notice that all the base numbers are powers of 2. Express each term as a
power of 2.

42X- 2 =(22 )2X--2 = 24X-4; 8X - 3 = (2 3 t - 3 = 2 3X - 9 ;

32 5 - x = (2 5 )5-X = 225-5x.

Hence =

Using the rules of indices, 2a /2b = 2a - b ,

i.e. 2(3x+7)-(4x-4) = 2(3x-9)-(25-5X) ,
i.e. 2- x +ll = 28x - 34 ~ -x + 11 = 8x - 34, x = 5.

1.3 Exercises
1.1 Given that (x + 3) is a factor of f(x) where f(x) == 2x 3 - ax + 12, find the
constant a. Express f(x) as a product of linear factors. (L)

1.2 Find the quotient and the remainder when the polynomial x 2 (x - I )(2x + 3)
is divided by the polynomial x 2 + 2.

1.3 If f(x) is a polynomial in x, show that when f(x) is divided by (x - a) the

remainder is f(a).
When x 3 + ax 2 + bx + c is divided by (x - 3) the remainder is 18 and when
divided by x 2 - 3x + 2 the remainder is 10. Find the values of a, band c.

1.4 Find, without using tables or calculator, the exact value of

(2+y'3)2 + (2-y'3)2
2-";3 2+";3

I.S The units digit in the answer to

123 4 - 421 5 + 932 3
is: A,2; B,7; C,3; D,8; E,9.

1.6 Given that 2X +1 - 5Y = 131, 2 X- 4 + 5Y - 2 = 13, find x andy.

1.7 Given that f(x) = 4X4 + 12x 3 - 5x 2 - 21x + 10, find by trial two integer
solutions of the equation f(x) = O. Hence facto rise f(x) and solve the equation
completely.

6
 1.8 If 2x - 1 is a factor of 2x 3 + bx 2 - 8x + 2, b is equal to:
A. 9: B, -5: (,1: D,3: E,7.

1.9 Find, without the use of tables or a calculator, the value of x, given that
2x+s 4X - 1
8x = 2 2X - 1 •

1.10 Using the remainder theorem, or otherwise, show that x - a - b - c is a

factor of
(x - a)(x - b)(x - c) - (b + eHe + a)(a + b).
Hence, or otherwise, solve the equation
(x - 2)(x + 3)(x + 1) - 4 = O.

1.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

1.1 (x + 3) is a factor so

f(-3)=0 => a=14 => f(x)=2x 3 -14x+12.

Trying integers gives f(2) = 0 and f(1) = O.

f(x) =2(x + 3)(x - 2)(x - 1).

1.2 x 2 (x - 1)(2x + 3) = 2X4 + x 3 - 3x 2 .

2X2 + X- 7
x2 + 2 )2x 4 + x3 - 3x 2
2X4 + 4x 2
x3 - 7x 2

x3 + 2x
- 7x 2 - 2x

- 7x 2 14
-

Remainder - 2x + 14
Quo~ient: 2X2 + x - 7: remainder: -2x + 14.

1.3 Let f(x) = (x - a) g(x) + r.

Put x = a, so f(a) = r.
f(3) = 27 + 9a + 3b + e = 18 (given). (1)
x 2 - 3x + 2 = (x - l)(x - 2).
Dividing (x - 1) and (x - 2) into x 3 + ax 2 + bx + e give remainders of 10.
1+ a+ b+e==10 (2)
and 8 + 4a + 2b + e = 10. (3)
Solving these equations gives a = -2, b = -1, c = 12.

7
 1.4 Put over common denominator: (2 -y3)(2 +y3) =4 - 3 = 1.
Expand numerator: (2 +y3)3 + (2 - y3)3 = 52.
1.5 3 4 =81, 15 =1, 23=8.
Units digit: 1 - 1 + 8 = 8. Answer D

1.6 Multiply second equation by 52 and add them:

2x+l +5 2 ·2 X- 4 =456 ~ 2 X - 4 (25 +5 2 )=456
~ 2X - 4 = 8 = 23 .

Hence (x - 4) =3 ~ x = 7.
Substitute into first equation:
2 8 -5 Y = 131, 5Y =I25, y = 3.
x=7,y=3.

1.7 Try integers. f(1) = 0, f(-2) = 0 so x = 1, x = -2 are solutions.

(x -- 1) (x + 2) =x 2 +x - 2.
Long division gives:
f(x) = (x 2 + X - 2)(4x 2 + 8x - 5).
4x 2 + 8x - 5 = 0 has solutions x = -t or x = - f.
Hence roots x = 1, -2, -t, --t.
1.8 Since (2x - 1) is a factor, f(-t) = o.
Substitution of x = -t gives b = 7. Answer E

1.9 Remember that 8x = 2 3X and 4 x - 1 = 2 2X - 2.

Equation simplifies to 2X +S- 3X = 22X-2-2X+l.
Equating indices gives x = 3.

1.10 [(x) = (x - a)(x - b)(x - c) - (b + c)(c + a)(a + b).

Putting x =a + b + c gives f(a + b + c) = 0
~ x - a - b - c is a factor.

Let a = 2, b = -3, c =-l.

Then x + 2 is a factor of (x - 2)(x + 3)(x + 1) - 4 = o.
Factorizing gives (x + 2) (x 2 - 5) = O.
x = -2 or ±Y5.

8
 2 Quadratic Functions
The general quadratic function in one variable including solution of quadratic
equations, sketching graphs and finding maxima and minima by completing the
square.

2.1 Fact Sheet

(a) The quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has two roots given by
x = -b ±y(b 2 - 4ac)
2a

(b) The discriminant b 2 - 4ac gives the nature of the roots.

• If b 2 - 4ac > 0, roots are real and distinct.

• If b 2 - 4ac = 0, roots are real and equal.
• If b 2 - 4ac < 0, roots are complex.
• If b 2 - 4ac ~ 0 and ac > 0, roots have the same sign.
• The quadratic function f(x) = ax 2 + bx + c > 0 for all real x if b 2 - 4ac < 0
and a> O.

(c) Roots

• If the roots ofax 2 + bx + c = 0 are 01. and {3, then:

b = -C .
0I.+{3=-- and 0I.{3
a a
• Given the roots of a quadratic equation, the equation is:
x2 - (sum of roots) x + product of roots = O.
• If coefficients a, band c are rational then the roots occur in conjugate
pairs d ± ye.

(d) Useful Identities

• 01..2 + {32 == (01.. + {3)2 - 201../J== (01.. - {3)2 + 201..{3.

• (01. - {3)2 == (01. + {3)2 - 401.p.
• 01..3 + {33 == (01.. + {3)(0I.. 2 - at3 + {32) == (01.. + {3)[(0I.. + {3)2 - 301..{3] .
• 01..3 - {33 == (01.. - {3)(o? + o:{3 + P2) == (01.. - {3) [(01.. - {3)2 + 301..{3] .

(e) Completing the square

• x2 + px requires (p/2)2 to complete the square .
• x2 + px + (p/2)2 = (x + p/2)2.

9
 • If f(x) =a(x + p)2 + q, and a > 0, then
f(x) has a least value of q, when x = -p (diagram below, left).
• If a < 0, f(x) has a greatest value of q, when x = -p (diagram below, right).
• The graph of y = f(x) has a line of symmetry at x = -p.

Line of
symmetry Line of
symmetry
(-p,q) I
I

2.2 Worked Examples

2.1 The sum of the roots of a quadratic equation is 9 and the product of the
roots is 4. The equation could be:
A, 9x 2 + 4x + 1 =0; B,4x2 + 9x + 1 = 0;
C, x 2 +9x-4=0; D, x 2 -9x+4=0;
E, x 2 - 4x + 9 = O.
• A quadratic equation can be written as
x 2 - (sum of roots) x + product of roots = 0,
i.e. x 2 - 9x + 4 = O. Answer D

2.2 Prove that the equation x(x - 2p) =q(x - p) has real roots for all real values
of p and q. If q = -3, find a non-zero value for p so that the roots are
rational.

• x(x - 2p) =q(x - p) '* x 2 - 2px = qx - pq

'* x 2 - x(2p + q) + pq = O.
Discriminant =(2p + q)2 -- 4pq,
=4p2 + 4pq + q2 - 4pq,
=4p2 + q2.
For all real values of p and q, 4p2 ~ 0 and q2 ~ O.
Hence the discriminant ~ 0 for all real p and q,
i.e. the equation has real roots.
If q = -3 the discriminant = 4p2 + 9.

For rational roots the discriminant must be a perfect square andp must be
rational.
Try 4p2 + 9 = 9, 4p 'l. + 9 = 16, 4p2 + 9 = 25, etc.
4p2 + 9 = 25 is the first of these expressions which will give a rational non-
zero value of p.
4p 2=16, p=2.

Hence the roots are rational when p =2 (or -2).

10
2.3 A quadratic equation with rational coefficients and one root 2 +";3 is:
A, x 2 + 4x - 1 = 0; B, x 2 - 4x + I = 0;
C, x 2 + X + 4 =0; D, x 2 - 4x -- 1 = 0;
E, x 2 + 4x + 1 = O.
• Roots of a quadratic equation with rational coefficients occur in conjugate
pairs a +";b, a - ";b where a and b are rational numbers.
Roots of required equation are 2 +";3 and 2 - ";3.
Sum of roots: (2 +";3) + (2 -";3) = 4.
Product of roots: (2 +.y3) (2 - ";3) = 4 - 3 = 1.
Required equation is x 2 - 4x + 1 = O. Answer B

2.4 By completing the square, or otherwise, find the range of the function f
given by
f(x) =x 2 - 6x + 10, xER.
Sketch the graph of f(x) .

• f(x) = x 2 -- 6x + 10.
x 2 - 6x requires + 9 to make a perfect square.
Hence f(x) = (x 2 - 6x + 9) + 1 = (x - 3)2 + 1,
. i.e. f(x) has a minimum value of 1 when x = 3.
Range of f(x) is f(x) ~ 1.
Graph of f(x) is a parabola with a line of symmetry at x = 3, and a mini-
mum turning point at (3, 1).

fIx)

15
Line of symmetry
I
I
I

o 2 3 4 5 6

2.5 The quadratic function f(x) takes the value 20 when x = 1 and x = 5 and
takes the value 14 when x = 2. Obtain f(x) in the form ax 2 + bx + c. Express
f(x) in the form a(x - p)2 + q and hence find the least possible value of f(x).
Draw a rough sketch of the graph of y = f(x) and state its relation to the
graph of y = ax 2 • The line through the origin and the point (2. 14) meets the
graph of y = f(x) again at the point P. Find the coordinates of P.

• H f(1) and f(5) are equal the line of symmetry is x = 1; 5 . i.e. x = 3.

11
 f(x) = a(x - 3)2 + q.
f(1) = 4a + q = 20. (1)

f(2) = a + q = 14. (2)

Equation 1 - equation 2:
3a = 6, a = 2, q = 12.
Therefore f(x) = 2(x - 3)2 + 12 = 2X2 - 12x + 30.
Since f(x) = 2(x - 3)2 + 12, f(x) has a least value of 12 when x = 3.
The graph y = f(x) is a translation of (132) of the graph y = 2X2 .

f(x)

50

40

30

20

10

L-----+-----+-----4------+~~x
o 2 4 6 8

The line through the origin and (2, 14) has a gradient of 124, i.e. 7.
The equation of the line is y = 7x.
When the line cuts the curve y = f(x) then f(x) = 7x,
i.e. 2X2 - 12x + 30 = 7x
2X2 -19x+30=0
(2x - 15)(x - 2) 0 =
=> x=2 or 7.5.
AtP, x = 7.5, y :: 7(7.5) = 52.5;
P (7.5,52.5).

2.6 If x is real, find the set of possible values of 2~ - 2

x +3
2x - 2
• Let =p.
x2 + 3

12
 Then 2x-2=p(X2+3)
=> PX 2 - 2x + 3p + 2 = o.
This is a quadratic equation in x and it is given that x is real. Therefore the
equation must have real roots
i.e. b2 - 4ac ~ 0
=> (_2)2 - 4p (3p + 2) ~ 0,
4 - 12p2 - 8p ~ O.
o ~ 12p2 + 8p - 4,
o~ 4 (3p2 + 2p - I),
o~ 4 (3p - l)(p + I).
If f(p) = (3p - 1) (p + 1) then we require f(p) ~ O.
The sketch of f(p) shows that f(p) ~ 0 when -1 ~ p ~ t.

f(p)

----~~----~~--~----~p

2x-2 2x-2 I
The set of possible values of 2 is - 1 ~ ~ -.
x +3 x +3
2 3

2.7 Given that px 2 + 2px - 5 <0 for all real values of x, determine the set of
possible values of p .

• Two conditions must be satisfied in this question:

(a) px 2 + 2px - 5 =0 has no real solutions.
(b) the graph of px 2 + 2px - 5 is entirely below the x-axis (i.e. has a maxi-
mum turning point).

(a) px 2 + 2px - 5 = 0 has no real roots when

b2 - < O.
4ac
=> 4p2 - 4(p)(-5) < 0
4p2 + 20p < 0
4p(p + 5) < O.
lff(p) = 4p(p + 5) <0 then -5 <p <0.
(b) px 2 + 2px - 5 has a maximum turning point when p < O.
Combining these two conditions gives -5 < p < O.

13
 2.8 Solve the equationy(4x - 7) +y(2x - 4) = I (wherey means positive root
only) .

• In any equation with square root tenns put one square root tenn on one
side of the equation and all other terms on the other, then square both
sides of the equation.

Ify(4x - 7) +y(2x - 4) = 1 then y(4x - 7) =1 - y(2x - 4).

Square both sides:
4x - 7 = (I -y(2x - 4»2
= 1 + 2x - 4 - 2y(2x - 4);
i.e. 2x - 4 = -2y(2x - 4),
x-2=-Y(2x-4).

Square both sides: x 2 - 4x + 4 = 2x - 4,

x 2 - 6x + 8 = 0,
(x - 2)(x - 4) = 0,
x =2 or 4.
Check both answers in the original equation:

x = 2: l.h.s. =yl +yO = 1 = r.h.s.

x = 4: l.h.s. =y9 +y4 = 5 =1= r.h.s.
Hence x = 2 is the only solution of the original equation.
Note: y(4x - 7) - y(2x - 4) = I would have led to the same values of
x, x = 2 or4.
In this case both x = 2 and x = 4 would be correct solutions - moral:
always check.

2.9
(a) Solve the simultaneous equations x 2 - y2 = 24 and x - y = 2.
(b) Ifx 2 + 2xy + 3y2 = 114 and x 2 - xy + y2 = 19 show that
5x 2 - 8xy + 3y2 = O.
Hence, or otherwise, find all possible pairs of values of x and y .
• (a) x 2 - y2 = 24 and x - y = 2.
i.e. (x - y)(x + y) = 24, (I)
x - y = 2. (2)

Substitute for (x - y) into equation 1:

2(x + y) =24,
x +y = 12. (3)

Solve equations 2 and 3 simultaneously:

Adding, 2x = 14, x = 7, y = 5.

14
 (b) x 2 + 2xy + 3y2 = 114 ( 1)
x 2 - xy+ y2=19. (2)

The required equation 5x 2 - 8xy + 3y2 = 0 has a constant term of zero.

So eliminate the constant terms between equations 1 and 2.

Equation 2 x 6: 6x 2 - 6xy + 6y2 = 114. (3)

Equation 3 - equation 1:
5x 2 - 8xy + 3y2 = 0.
Factorize:
(5x - 3y)(x - y) = 0, I.e. 5x = 3y or x = y.
Substitute for y into equation 2:
5x '
y= -
(i) 3 .

x 2 _ 5x 2 + 25x 2
= 19 19x 2 = 171,
39'
x = ±3,y = ±5.

(ii) y = x:

x = ±y'19, y = ±y'19.
Solutions are: (3,5);(-3, -S);(y'19, y'19);(-y'19, -y'19).

2.10 If 01 and {3 are the roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, form, without

2 {32
solving this equation, an equation whose roots are ~ and - .
{3 01

• For equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0,
-b
0l{3 = -.
C
0l+{3= - ,
a a
For required equation,
01 2 {32 01 3 + {33
sum of roots = - +- =
{3 01 0l{3
= (01 + (3)(0l2 - 0l{3 + (32)
0l{3
= ((X + (3) [((X + (3)2 - 30l{3]
0l{3

15
 =- ~(~ - ~)
c
a
Multiply numerator and denominator by a 3 :
-b(b 2 - 3ca)
sum of roots = ;
ca 2

a 2)
product of roots= (T (P2) c.
~ = ap = -;;

Required equation is
x2 + b(b 2 - 3ac)x +.£ = 0
ca 2 a

or

2.3 Exercises
2.1 If a and p are the roots of the equation x 2 - 3x - 2 = 0, find the quadratic
equations whose roots are

(a) L ~,
a p

2.2 The roots of the quadratic equation x 2 - px + q = 0 are a and p. Form, in

terms of p and q, the quadratic equation whose roots are ~ + pa 2 , p3 + pp2.

2.3 If the equation x 2 - qx + r = 0 has roots a + 2, p - 1, where a, p are the real

roots of the equation 2X2 - bx + c = 0, and a;;;" p, find q and r in terms of b and
c. In the case a =p, show that q2 =4r + 9.

2.4 The roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are a and p. Derive the results
b c
a+p=- -, ap=-·
a a
(You may assume the formula for the roots of a quadratic equation.)

2.5 The equations ax 2 + bx + C = 0 and bx 2 + ax + c = 0, where a =1= b, c =1= 0,

have a common root. Prove that a + b + c = O.

2.6 It is given that f(x) = (x - 1)2 - /leX + 3)(x + 2).

(a) Find the values of /l for which the equation f(x) = 0 has two equal roots.
(b) Show that when /l = 2, f(x) has a maximum value of 25.
(c) Given that the curve y = f(x) has a turning point when x = -t, find the value
of /l and sketch the curve for this value of /l.

16
 2.7 Solve the equation
y(3x - 2) - yOO - x) =2
(wherey denotes positive root only).

2.B Solve for a and b the simultaneous equations

a 2 + b 2 = ¥, ab = - 1--

2.9 Find a quadratic equation of the form

ax 2 + bx + e = 0,
-4+3yS
where a, band e are integers, having 4 as one root.

2.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

2.1 a + ~ = 3, a~ = -~2.

(a) ~ + ~ = 2 (a + ~) = _3 ;
a (3 a~

Equation: x 2 + 3x - 2 = O.
(b) a 2 ~ + a~2 = a{3(a + ~) = -6; (a 2 (3)(~2) = a 3 ~3 = -B.
Equation: x 2 + 6x - 8 = O.

2.2 a + ~ = p, a~= q.
Sum: a 3 + p a 2 + ~3 + P {32 = (a3 + ~3 ) + P (a 2 + f32 )
=p(p2 _ 3q) + p(p2 - 2q)
= 2p 3 - Spq.
Product: (a 3 + p a 2 ) (~3 + p{32 ) = a 3 ~3 + P a 2 ~2 ({3 + a) + p 2 a 2{32
=q3 + 2p2q2.
Equation: x 2 + (Spq - 2p 3)X + q3 + 2p2q2 = O.

2.3 2X2 - bx + e = 0:

x2 - qx + r =0
=* (a + 2) + (~ - l) =q
=* q=t+1.
(a + 2) ({3 - 1) =r
=* ~ - (a + ~) + 3{3 - 2 = r.
(3 = b - y(b 2 - Be) =* r = ~ + '2 _ 3y (b 2 - 8e) _ 2.
4 2 4 4
b
e
= -b b
2
If a = {3, then b 2 = 8e =* r = - + - - 2 + - - 2
2 4 16 4

17
 1 9
=? r = 4q2 4'

l.e.

2.4 ax 2 + bx + C = 0: a = -b + ~ - 4ac) , (3 = -b - y(b 2 - 4ac) .

2a 2a

a + (3 = ~lJ.~~~.jJb2 - 4ac) - b - _~/Jb2 - 4ac) = -b ;

2a a

a{3 = (~)2
2a
_ (b 2 - 4ac1
(2a)2
= 4a£
4a 2
=~ .
a

2.5 Let a be the common root.

aa 2 + ba + c = 0,
ba2 + aa + c = O.
Subtract: a 2(b - a) + a(a - b) = O.
a =1= b, so a = 0, or a = +1.
Since c =1= 0, a =1= O. Therefore a = 1, giving a + b + c = O.
2.6 f(x) = (x - 1)2 - J.J.(x + 3)(x + 2)
=x 2 (1 - J.J.) - x(2 + )J.J.) + 1 - 6J.J..
(a) f(x) = 0 has equal roots.
(2 + 5J.J.)2 - 40 - J.J.)( 1 - 6J.J.) = 0
=? J.J.2 + 48J.J. = 0, J.J. = 0 or -48.
(b) J.J. = 2, [(X)=_X2 -12x-ll
= -(x + 6)2 + 25.
f(x) has a maximum value of 25 when x = -6.

(c) f(x) has a turning point at x =Q + 5J.!-l .

20 - J.J.)
Given x =- t =? J.J. = -1,
f(x)=2x 2 +3x+7=2(x+t)2 +~7.

f(x)

15

5
(-%. 5~) Jl = -1

-+-----+-----+-----+~_x
-2 -1 o

2.7 y(3x -- 2) = 2 +y(10 - x).

Squaring both sides gives x-- 4 =yO 0 - x).
Squaring again yields x 2 - 7x + 6 = 0, x = 6 or 1.
Check When x = 6,y16 = 2 +Y4. When x = 1,VI =1= 2 +Y9.
Therefore x = 6.

18
2.8a 2 +2ab+b 2 =t,soa+b=±t.
Also, a2 - 2ab + b2 = ¥, so a - b = ± t.
a+b==t,a-b=t => a=t,b=-l.
a + b =- t, a - b =t => a = I, b = - t.
a+b=t,a-b=-t => a=-l,b=t.
a + b =- 1-, a - b =- t => a =- t, b = 1.

. - 4 + 3y' 5 - 4 - 3y'~ .
2.9 Roots are conjugate, 4 - and 4

Sum = -2, product = --H.

Equation: x 2 + 2x - -H
=0 => 16x 2 + 32x - 29 = O.

19
 3 Progressions
Arithmetic and geometric progressions and sums to n terms. Sum to infinity of a
geometric series. Use of L notation.

3.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Arithmetic Progression

• First term a, common difference d.

• nth term =a + (n - l)d.
• Sum of n terms = n(2a + (n - 1)d)/2
= n (first term + last term)/2.
• Three terms p, q and r are in arithmetic progression if p + r = 2q.
• The arithmetic mean of p and r is (p + r)/2.

(b) Geometric Progression

• First term a, common ratio r.

• nth term = arn - 1 .

a(r n -
• Sum ofn termsS
n
= aCI1-r
- rn)
=
r-1
1)
.

• Sum to infinity exists if Irl < 1 or -1 < r < 1:

a
S",,=--·
1- r
• Three terms x, y and z form a geometric progression if xz =y2 .
• The geometric mean of x and z is Y(xz).

(c) L Notation

n
• l:rO< means the sum of all terms of the form rOl from 10l to n Ol , where n is a
r =1
positive integer.
n n n n n n
• L ar2 =a L r2 , 'L,(ar2 + br + c) = aLr 2 + bl:r + c'L, 1.
r=1 r=1 r= 1 r= 1 r= 1 r=1

n
• 'L,l=n.
r= 1

20
 (d) Useful Results

n
• ~r=n(n + 1)/2.
r= 1

n
• ~r2
r=1
=n(n + 1) (2n + 1)/6.
n
• ~r3 = n 2 (n + 1)2/4.
r= 1

Note: The letter r is often replaced by i.

• Sum of an arithmetic series

n n
~[a + (i - l)d] = an + d~(i - 1).
i= 1 i=1

• Sum of a geometric series

n n
~ari-l = a ~ r i- 1 •
i= 1 i=1

• Change of limits
n a+n
~(r + a) = ~ r.
r=1 r=a +1

n n m-l
~f(r) = ~f(r) -- ~f(r).
r=m r=1 r=1

3.2 Worked Examples

3.1 The sum to infinity of the geometric series a + a 2 + a 3 + ... (a =1= 0) is 4a.
The common ratio is
A ,"3,
4. B,"3,
2. C, .L
4, D, .1..
4, E, t.
a
• Sum to infinity = - - .
I - r

But r = a ~ 4a = _a_ ~ 4a - 4a 2 = a
I-a
~ 4a 2 - 3a =0 ~ a (4a - 3) =0
~ a =0 ort.
But a =1= 0 ~ a = t. Answer C

3.2 An arithmetic progression has first term a and common difference d. Its fifth
term is 59 and the sum of its first 30 terms is four times the sum of its first
10 terms. Find the values of a and d.

21
 • Fifth term of an arithmetic progression: a + 4d = 59. (1)
Sum of first 30 terms = 30(2a + 29d)/2 = 30a + 435d.
Sum of first 10 terms = 1O(2a + 9d)/2 = lOa + 45d.
Hence 30a + 435d = 4(10a + 45d).
:. lOa = 255d ~ 2a = SId, (2)
From equations 1 and 2, a = 51 and d = 2.

3.3 The first three terms of a geometric progression are 6, t,-f-;.

State the common ratio and show that the sum to infinity is 6.75.
Find the least number of terms required to make the sum exceed 6.7499 .

.1.
• The common ratio is~, i.e. t ~ r = t.
6

Sum to infinity S
oc
= _a_
1-
= _6_
l.l
= 6.75.
r - 9

WhenSn >6.7499, 6.75[1-(i)n]>6.7499,

6.75 - 6.75 (i-)n > 6.7499,
0.0001> 6.75(t)n.
Multiply by 10 4 X 9n : 9n > 6.75 X 104 •
Take logs: n log 9> log (6.75 X 104 ),

n > 4.8293 ,
0.9542
n > 5.0611.
Hence the least number of terms required is 6.

3.4
(a) An arithmetic progression is such that the sum of the first n terms is 2n 2 for
all positive integral values of n. Find, by substituting two values of n or other-
wise, the first term and the common difference.
(b) The first term of a geometric progression is 20 and the sum to infinjty is 40.
Find the common ratio and the sum of the first 10 terms .

• (a) Sn = 2n 2 •
Sn =U 1 + U2 + U3 + ... where u 1 etc. are the terms of the series
S1=U1,S2=U1+ U 2 ~ U2=S2- S 1'
S1 = 2(1)2 = 2, i.e. first term = 2.
S2 = 2(2)2 ::; 8, i.e. second term = 6.
Common difference = U2 - U 1 = 4.

(b) Soc = _a_, i.e. 40 = ~ ~ r = t,

l-r l-r
. . 1
I.e. common ratlO ="2.
SlO = 40[1 - (t)10] = SUi.
Hence the sum of the first 10 terms = SUl·

22
3.5 Given that the sum of the first 2 terms of a geometric progression is 16 and
the sum to infinity is 18, find the possible values of the common ratio .

• If the first term is a and the common ratio is r then

S2 =a + ar =a (1 + r) = 16, (1)

a
Soo = - - = 18. (2)
1- r
From equation 2, a = 18(1 - r).
Substituting for a in equation 1,
18(1-r)(1 +r)= 16 ~ 9(1 -r 2 )=8,
9r2 = 1 ~ r = ± t-
Hence the common ratio is it.

3.6 By using an infinite geometric progression show that 0.6524., i.e.

0.65242424 ... is equal to ;~~5 .
• 0.65242424 ... = 0.65 + 0.0024 + 0.000024 + ...
0.65 + 24(10- 4 + 10- 6 + 10- 8 + ... ).
=
10- 4 + 10- 6 + ... is a GP with a = 10- 4 and r = 10- 2.
10- 4
Sum of GP = 2 = ~
(1 - 10- )

Hence 0.6524. = 1~~ + ~ = ;~~~.

n
3.7 Find. in terms of n, the value of ~ (r2 + 2r).
r= 1

n n n
• ~(r2 + Y) = ~ r2 + ~ 2'
r=1 ,=1 ,=1

=_n (n + 1) (2n + 1) + (2 + 22 + 2 3 + ... 2n)

6
= n (n + 1) (2n + 1) + 2 (2 n - 1)
6 (2 - 1)

= n (n + 1) (2n + 12 + 2 (2 n _ 1).
6

3.8
(a) The sum of the first n terms of a series is 1 - dd n . Obtain the values of the
first three terms of this series. What is the sum to infinity of this series?
(b) The rth term of a series is 2' + 3r - 2. Find a formula for the sum of the first
n terms.

then SI =1 - -t; U 1 -- 4·
3

S 2 -- 1 - .l.. - 15.
16 - 16, U 2 -..1...
- 16'

23
 Hence the first three terms of this series are
t, ft and /;;;.
This is a GP with first term t and common ratio t.
Sa> =(t)/O - t) = 1.
(This could also have been deduced from the limit of Sn as n ~ 00.)

(b) rth term u, = 2' + 3r - 2.

Ul =21 +3(1)-2, etc.
n n n n
Sn = ~(2' + 3r - 2) = ~2' + 3~r - 2~ 1.
r=l ,=1 r=l r=l

= 2 (2 n - 1) + 3n (n + 1) _ 2n
(2 - 1) 2

= 2n +1 _ 2 + 3n 2 _ !!.-
2 2

= 2n + 1 + (3n 2 -n -4).
2

Sum of first n terms = 2n + 1 + (3n - 4) (n + 1)

2

3.3 Exercises
3.1 The first term of an arithmetic progression is 17, and the sum of the first 16
terms is -16. Find the sixteenth term and the common difference of the progres-
sion.

3.2 Starting from first principles, prove that the sum of the first n terms of a
geometric progression whose first term is a and whose common ratio is r
*
(where r 1) is

The first and second terms of an infinite geometric progression are 16 and 8 res-
pectively. Show that the sum of all the terms after the nth term is 2S-n.

3.3 Write out in full the terms of the series

3

~(_l)i(;i~\) Xi.

3.4 By using an infinite geometric progression, show that 0.4234, i.e.

0.42343434 ... , is equal to~.

n
3.5 Evaluate ~(3r + 2)2.
,= 1
24
 3.6 The sum of the first twenty terms of an arithmetic series is 45 and the sum
of the first forty terms is 490. Find the first term and the common difference.

3.7 If p. q and r are three successive terms of a geometric progression show that
log p. log q and log r are three successive terms of an arithmetic progression.
(p. q. and rare> 0.)

3.8 The sum of the first n terms of a series is given by Sn = 16n - n 2 • Show that
the" terms are in arithmetic progression and find the tenth term.

3.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

3.1 a = 17; -16 = 16(17 + 16th term) ,

2
-2 = 17 + 16th term => 16th term = -19.
-19=17+15d => d=-1f-.

3.2 Sn =a + ar + ar2 + . . . + a,n - 1 ,

rSn = ar + ar2 + ... + a,n-1 + a,n .
Subtracting, Sn (1 - r) =a - a,n = a(1 - rn)

S = a(1 - rn) .
n 1- r

a=16r=.1
, 2, => Sn= 16[1-(i-)n] =32-32(.1)n
1 - .12 2 •

16
S.. =
=32. --1
1-"2
Sum of all the terms after nth term = Soo - Sn = 32 (i-)n ,
= 25 - n .

+ (_1)3 (~)X3
= -1 - x + tx 2 - i-x 3 .
. .
3.4 0.4234 = 100
42
+ 34 x 10 -4 + 34 x 10 -6 + ...
_ ~ + 34 X 10- 4
- 100 1 _ 10- 2
_ ~ ~_ 1048
- 100 + 9900 - 2475'

25
 n n n n
3.5 l:(3r+2)2 = ::::;(9r2 + 12r+4)=9l:r 2 + 12l:r+4n
r=l ' r=! r=] r=]

= 9n(n + 1) (2n + 1)/6 + 6n(n + 1) + 4n

= n [3 (n + 1) (2n + 1) + 12n + 12 + 8] /2
= n (6n 2 + 2In + 23)/2.

3.6 45 = 1O(2a + 19d) =? 9 = 4a + 38d, (1)

490 == 20(2a + 39d) =? 49 == 4a + 78d. (2)

Equation 2 - equation 1: 40 = 40d;
"'d-l - 12-
- ,a--4'

3.7 pr == q2 for three terms in GP.

Take logs: log p + log r = 2 log q.
But x, y and z are in AP if x + z = 2y.
Hence log p, log q and log r are successive terms of an AP.

3.8 Sn = 16n - n 2 . Sn-l = 16(n - 1) - (n - 1)2.

un = [I6n - n 2] - [16 (n - 1) - (n - 1)2] =- 2n + 17,
Un _ 1 = -- 2 (n - 1) + 17 =- 2n + 19;
Un - U n -! = -2 =? common difference is -2, i.e. the terms are in AP.
UIO = --20 + 17 = -3.

26
 4 Binomial Expansions
The USe of the binomial expansion of (1 + x)n ,when
(a) Jl is a positive integer.
(b) 11 is rational and Ix 1< 1.

4.1 Fact Sheet

(a) If 11 is a Positive Integer:

(I + x)" = I + llX + - - - -I -)
n (n
(1)(2)
x +..n (n-
2
~
(1)(2)(3)
. . ..... 2) x + ... + nx
-.... .....I) (n
~~ ---~
3 n- 1
+ x
n

= I + (~)x + (;)X2 + (;)X3 + ... + (~)xy + ... + (n ~ l)xn.~l +xn

where (~) = nCy = r(l~~-;)! = nJ:(;~\~~(,-~2~)~:-~~2~0~Jl·
(i) The expansion terminates automatically after n + 1 terms.
(ii) The binomial coefficien ts may be speedily determined by Pascal's triangle:

1
121
133 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1

(b) If 11 is NOT a Positive Integer

(I + x t = I + nx + - -----
n(n~l)
X
2
+-n(n-l)(n--2)
---- ---.. -- x 3 +... if I x 1< 1.
0)(2) (1)(2)(3)
This series is an infinite series. which can only be used when Ix 1< 1,
I.e. l<x<+1.

27
 (c) Particular Series:

(1 +X)-1 = I - X +X2 - x 3 + .. .
(1 - X)-1 = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + .. .
(I + x)- 2 = 1 - 2x + 3x 2 - 4x 3 + .. .
(1 - x)- 2 = 1 + 2x + 3x 2 + 4x 3 + .. .

4.2 Worked Examples

4.1 Find, and simplify the middle term in the expansion, in ascending powers of
x, of(3 - 5X)8 .

• The middle term of (a + bx)n is the term containing xn/2 (n even).

The middle term is the 5th term and contains (- 5X)4 .

Middle term is (!) (3)4 (-5x)4.

i.e. 8x7x6x5 x (3)4 X (_5)4 XX 4

1x2 x3 x4
i.e. 70 x 81 X 625x 4 ,
i.e. 3543 750X4.

4.2 Obtain the term independent of x in the expansion of (3x - 1/x 2 )1 5, leaving
the answer in terms of factorials.

1 )15 as
• Express ( 3x - x 2 (3X)IS ( 1 __
1 )15
3x 3
= (3)15 (X)IS (1 - t x- 3 )15.

The expansion of (I - tx -' ) ~ ~o; (~5)( - tr'r

IS

The required term of this series must contain (X)-IS ,

i.e. (x- 3 Y =X-IS, :. r = 5.

Therefore the term independent of x is 3 15 XiS (155 ) (_ ±) 5 x- 15 .

IS!
I.e. 3 15
1O! 5!
-3 10 15!
i.e. --~
10! 5!

4.3 Use the binomial expansion to find a quadratic approximation for

1
(1 + 2X)I/3 (9 - 4X)3/2

28
 where x is small enough for terms in x 3 and higher powers to be negligible.

• 1 = (1 + 2x)- 1/3
(1 + 2X)I/3
(_.l)(_~)
= 1 + (- -1-) (2x) + /1) (2)3 (2X)2 + ... higher powers of x.

=1- tx + tx 2 + ... if I 2x I < I, i.e. I x I < 1.

When the power is fractional or negative, remember to make the first term
in the bracket equal to 1.
1 = (1 - %X)-3/2
(9 - 4X)3/2 = 9 3 /2 (1 - %X)3/2 27

-.1.. (1 _~X)-3/2 =...l.. [1 + (-l..)(-~x) + (-1-) (-t - 1) (_%X)2 + ... ]

27 9 27 2 9 (1) (2)

-...l..(1
- 27 2
+ J'x + .!Q.2
27 X + ... ) if I%xl < 1, i.e. Ixl <t.
Hence

1 - ( I . l . X +.§..2+ ) (.1... ..L. ...!Q. 2 \

(1 + 2X)1/3 (9-4x)3/2- -3 9X ... - 27+S1 X +n9 X + ... )
~ ~ _-MX+~X2

Taking the smaller range of x, series is valid if I x I < t.

x
4.4 Given that f(x) = (1 _ x) (1 __ 2X)2 ' show that f(x) can be expressed as

----
1 --
2
(1 - x) (1 - 2x)

Hence, or otherwise, find the first three terms in the expansion of f(x) in
ascending powers of x. State the range of values of x for which the expansion
is valid.

I 2 + 1
• Let g(x) = (1 - 2x) (1 - 2X)2
(1 - x)

= (1 - 2X)2 - 2(1 - x)(1 - 2x) + (1 - x)

(1 - x)(1 - 2X)2

I - 4x + 4x 2 - 2 + 6x - 4x 2 + 1 - x
= -------------------~~------
(1 - x)(1 - 2X)2

x
= (1 - x)(l - 2X)2

Hence g(x) == [(x).

So f(x) == (1 - X)-l - 2(1 - 2X)-1 + (1 - 2X)-2.
By the binomial expansion,

29
 - (-1)(--2)
(1 -X) 1 = 1 + (l)(--x) + --
2
~-- (-x) + ...
(1 )(2)

=1+ x +X2 + X 3 + ... valid for -1 < x < 1.

(1 - 2x)-1 may be written down directly if x is replaced by 2x in the
expansion of (1 - X )-1.

2(1 - 2X)-1 = 2[ 1 + (2x) + (2X)2 + (2X)3 + ... ]

= 2 + 4x + 8x 2 + 16x 3 + ...
valid for -1 < 2x < 1, that is -t < x <to
(1 - 2x)-2 = 1 + (-2) (-2x) + (-2) (=~ ( __ 2X)2 + (-2) (-3) (-4) (_2x)3 + ...
(1) (2) (1) (2) (3)
= 1 + 4x + 12x 2 + 32x 3 + ... (valid - t < x< t).
Hence
f(x)=(1 +x+x 2 +x 3 + .. . )-(2+4x+8x 2 + 16x 3 + ... )

+ (1 + 4x + 12x2 + 32x 3 + ... )

= x + 5x 2 + 17x 3 + ....
This is valid when -1 < x < 1 AND -t < x <to
that is, when -t < x < t.
4.5 Find the expansion of (1 - x + 2X2 )1/2 up to and including the term in X4 .

• (1 - x + 2x 2)1/2 must be expressed in the form (1 + i)n ,

where z = -x + 2x 2.

By the binomial expansion:

[I + (-x + 2x 2)]1/2 = 1 + (i-)(-x + 2X2) + (t)(-t) (-x + 2x 2i

- (l)(2)
+ (t)(-t)(-t) (-x + 2x 2)3 + (t)(-t)(-t)(-t) (-x + 2x2t + ...
(l)(2)(3) (1)(2)(3)(4)
= 1 +t (-x + 2X2) - t(-x + 2x2i + /6 (-x + 2X 2 )3 - th (-x + 2x2)4 + ...

Now, (-x + 2X2)2 = x 2 - 4x 3 + 4X4

(-x + 2X 2 )3 = (_X)3 + 3(_X)2 (2x 2 ) + ... = _x 3 + 6x 4 + ...
(-x + 2X2)4 = (_X)4 + ... =X4 + ....
Therefore

(1 - x + 2x 2 )1/2
=1-tx+x2 -tcx 2 _4x 3 +4x4 ) +~ (_x 3 +6x4 + ...)-Th (x 4 + ...)+ ...
= 1 -tx +(1 -t)x2 +(t- /6)X 3 +(-t +i - th)x 4 + .. .
_1 1 7 2
- - 2X +""8"X + T67 X3 - 21
Tn X
4
+ ....

4.6 Find the exact value of ('1'7 + 2)4 + ('1'7 - 2)4 and hence find the value of
the integer n such that
n < ('1'7 + 2)4 < n + 1.

30
 • h/7 + 2)4 = (";7)4 + 4(";7)3 (2) + 6(";7)2 (4) + 4(";7)(8) + 16.
(";7 - 2)4 = (";7)4- 4(";7)3(2) + 6(";7)2(4) - 4(";7)(8) + 16.
So (";7 + 2)4 + (";7·- 2)4 = 2[(";7)4 + 6(";7)2(4) + 16].
(";7)2 = 7, (";7)4 = 49.
Hence (";7 + 2)4 + (";7 - 2)4 = 2[49 + 168 + 16] = 466.
Since 2 <";7 < 3, subtracting 2 from each part gives
0<";7 - 2 < 1 ~ 0 < (";7 - 2)4 < 1.
Hence (";7 + 2)4 lies between 46S and 466, i.e. n = 46S.

1 1 1
4.7 Ifx + - = f, expressx 3 + 3 and XS + -S in terms of f.
x x x

• Consider r
(x+ l =x 3+3(X)2 (l) +3(x) (l)2 +(lY
=x3 + 3x + ~ + _1_ .
x x3
Since the binomial coefficients are symmetrical, these terms may be paired as

(x + x
3 13 ) +3 (x + l).
Therefore (x + l) 3 = t3= (X3 + x13 j + 3t
~ x3+ _1_
x 3
= t3- 3t.
Similarly,

(x+ ~ y=XS +S (X)4 (l) + 1 O(X)3 (l ) 2 + 10 (X)2 (~y + S (x) (~r + (l) S

=X S + Sx 3 + lOx + 1.<2 + ~ +_1

X x3 XS

= (XS + x\-) +S (X3 + x~) + 10(X+ l)·

Therefore t S = (xs + ) ) + S (t3 - 3t) + lOt

~ XS + _1_ = tS _ Sf 3 + St.
XS

4.3 Exercises

4.1 Express";( 1 + x) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in

I-x
x3 . By substituting x =t, show that";S : : : : ia~~.
31
 4.2 Show that the exact value of (7 + 3yS)4 + (7 - 3yS)4 is an integer. Hence,
find two consecutive integers nand n + I such that n < (7 + 3yS)4 < n + 1.

t~~ Expand and simplify (x + 3~)' + (x - 3~ Y.

(b) Find the coefficient of x 3 in the expansion of (x + 3;) 4
(x - 3~-) 3 .

4.4 State the binomial expansion of (x + y)5 , giving the coefficients as integers.
Given that x + y =p and xy =q, express x 5 + y5 in terms of p and q.

4.5 Find the values of the constants a and n so that the expansions of

(I + 3x + 3~2 r a n d (1 +ax)n

agree as far as the term in x 2 • For these values of a and n, determine the difference
in the coefficients of the term in x 3 in the expansions.

4.6
(a) Find the expansion of (1 + 2x + 3x 2 )S in ascending powers of x up to and
including the term in x 3 •
(b) Calculate the coefficient of the term, independent of x, in the expansion of

( x 2 + _I )12 .
x

4.7 Verify that f(x) = 9 2 may be expressed as

(1 - x) (1 + 2x)
I 2 6
f(x) = + --+
I-x I + 2x (1 + 2X)2

Hence show that f(x) = 9 - 27x + 81x 2 , when x is sufficiently small to allow x 3
and higher powers of x to be neglected.

4.8 Given that 13x 3 I < I, write down the first four terms in the binomial
expansion of (1 + 3x 3 )1/3 in ascending powers of x. By putting x =0.2, estimate
":;2 to five decimal places.

4.9 Prove that, for Ixl< I, x)

J( --x
+- I
I
I +x +--
2
~ x2

By suitable choice of a value for x, prove that

v_IS"""
"'" ~
729·

32
 4.10 The numbers Co, C1, C2, ... , Cn are the binomial coefficients such that
(1 +x)n =Co +CIX +C2X2 +C3X3 + ... +cnx n .

Prove that
(a) Co + C2 + C4 + ... + C2n = 22n-l.
(b) Co + 2c 1 + 3C2 + ... + (n + 1) Cn = 2n + n2n- 1.

(c)

4.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

4.1 (1+X)I/2=1+tx_tx2 +"hx 3 +... for Ixl<l.
(1 - X)-1 = 1 + x + x2 + x 3 +... for Ix I < 1.

Hence
-\1(1 + x) _ .1. .u
- 1 + 2X + 8 X + 16X + ....
2 ll. 3
(1 - x)

When x --.!.
4, y'i -- 1 + ~8 + .ll..
-r 128 + ...ll...
1024 + ....
4
-- ll.!2
1024·
Hencey'5 ~ f(tm) =~.

4.2 (7 + 3y'5)4 = 74 + 4(7)3 (3y'5) + 6(7)2 (3y'5)2 + 4(7) (3y'5)3 + (3y'5)4

(7 - 3y'5)4 = 74 - 4(7)3 (3y'5) + 6(7)2 (3y'5)2 - 4(7) (3y'5)3 + (3y'5)4.
Hence
(7 + 3y'5)4 + (7 - 3y'5)4 = 2[7 4 + (6)(49)(45) + (81)(25)] = 35 312. (1)

Now 36 < 45 < 49 =* 6 < 3y'5 < 7 => -1 < (3y'5 - 7) < O.
Multiply by -1 (inequalities reverse):
0«7 - 3y'5) < 1 => 0 < (7 - 3y'5)4 < 1.
Hence (from equation 1)
35311 «7+3y'5)4 <35312 => n=35311.

4.3
(a) (x + 3~ Y= x5+ 5~3 + l~X + 2\~ + 81~3 + 24~X5 '

(
X _ _1 )5 =x 5 _ 5x 3 + lOx _ ~ + _5_ _ _ _ .
3x 3 9 27x 81x 3 243x 5

=> (x + _1 )5 + (x __3x1_)5 =2x s + 20x + 81x

3x
~.
9 3

(b) ( x + -1 )4 = X4 + 4x
-
2
+ -2 + -4- + -1- ,
3x 3 3 27x 2 81x 4

( X _ _1_)3 =x3 _ X + _1 _ _1_.

3x 3x 27x 3
Therefore coefficient of x 3 is t - t + t = - t.
33
 4.4 (x + ).)5 = X5 + 5x 4y + 10x 3y2 + 10x 2y3 + 5Xy 4 + y5.
So X5 +.1'5 = (X +y)5 - 5.\'y(.\'3 +y3) - 10x 2y2(X + y).
But X3 +)'3=(X+y)3 -3xy(x+y) =p3 -3qp

=> X5 + y5 = p5 _ 5 q (p3 _ 3pq) _ lOq2 p = p5 _ 5p 3q + 5pq2.

4.5 3X2)4 = I + 4 (3X2)

( 1 + 3x +.2 3x + 2 + 6 ( 3x + 3X2)2
2 + 4 (~X + 23X2)3 + ... ,
(1 +ax)1l = 1 +nax + n(n - 1) a2x2 + n(n - 1) (n - 2) a3x3 + ....
(1 )(2) (l )(2)(3)
Equating coefficients of x: 12 =na.
Equating coefficients of x 2 : 6 + (6)(9) = n (n - 1)a 2
2
Solving: a = 2, n = 6.
x 3 coefficients are respectively 162 and 160. Difference = 2.

4.6
(a) (1 + 2x + 3X 2 )5 = 1 + 5 (2x + 3x 2 ) + 10(2x + 3X 2 )2 + 1O(2x + 3X 2 )3 + ...
= 1 + lOx + 15x 2 + 40x 2 + 120x 3 + ... + 80x 3 + ...
= 1 + lOx + 55x 2 + 200x 3 + ....
(b)

The term independent of x has coefficient l2 CB = 12! = 495.

8! 4!

2 + __6_..,- = (1 + 2X)2 + 2(1 - x)(l + 2x) + 6(1 - x)

4.7 +--
1 -x 1 + 2x (l + 2X)2 (1 - x) (l + 2X)2

9
= -----~
(l - x) (1 + 2X)2

Now, = 1+ x + x2 + x 3 + ... (provided I x I < 1),

(1 - x)

=2(l-2x+4x2 -8x 3 + ... ) (provided I 2.\' I < 1),

(l + 2x)

and --~--= 6(1 - 4x + 12x2 - 32x 3 + ... ).

(l + 2X)2

Hence
f(x) = 9 - 27x + 81x 2 + higher powers of x (if 12xl < 1, i.e. Ixl <t).

5 9 .-
= 1 +x 3 - x 6 + -x (valid if I 3x 3 I < 1).
3

34
Put x
1
= 0.2 = -, (1 + ~)1/3 = (128)1/3 = (27)1/3 = ~ .J2.
5 125 125 53 5
But from the series,

(1+ _3_)1/3
125
= 1 + (0.2)3 _ (0.2)6 + ~
3
(0.2)9 _ ...

= 1 + 0.008 - 0.000064 + 0.000000853 - ...

= 1.0079369.

Thus.J2 = 1 (1.0079369) = 1.25992.

4

Work to two more places of accuracy than required.

4.9

(1 + x) 1/2 =1 +~x + (~) (- ~ ) ~2 +( ~) (- ~) ( ~) f +... ,

(1 - X) -1/2 =1 + (- ~) (- X) + (- ~ ) ( - ~) (-; )~ + (- ~ ) (- ~) ( -l) (-6X )3 + ....

So
(1 +X)I/2(l _X)-1/2 = (1 +~-~~ +i~ + ... )( 1+ ~ + 3~2 + 5;: + .. .).

x2 x3
=I+x+- + - + ... (if Ix I< I).
2 2
1
Try x = -. Then
9

(_~_~ X)1/2 = (10\ 1/2 = l Y5.

1 -x 8) 2
In the series +y5 = 1+ t + 1~2 + 1158 + ...
Hence y 5 ~ 1{1~.

4.10
(a) (1 + x)2n =
Co + clx + ... + C2nx2n.
Letx= 1, 2 2n =c o +c 1 + .. . +c 2n .
Le t x = - 1, 0 = Co - C 1 + . . . + C 2 n .
Add and divide by 2: 2 2n - 1 = Co + C2 + ... + c2n.

(b) (1 + xt = Co + CIX + C2X2 + ... + cnxn. (1)

Differentiate:
n(1 +x)n-I =c 1 +2C2X+3c3X2 + .. . +ncnx n - I . (2)
Let x = 1 in equations I and 2 and add:
2 n + (n) 2n - 1 = Co + 2c 1 + 3c 2 + ... + (n + l)c n ·

(c) Integrate:
(1 + x)n+1 x2 x3 cnxn +1
= Cox + C I - +C2-·· + ... +......!..!c_ _ +K.
n+1 2 3 n+1
1
Let x = 0 ==? K =-- .
n+1

35
 Let x = -1 =} 0= - Co + ~
2

Hence Co - .£l + ~ + + ( __ l)nc n =

2 3 ... n+1 n+1

36
 5 Partial Fractions
Partial fractions, to include denominators such as
(ax + b) (ex + d) (ex + f), (ax + b) (ex + d)2 and (ax + b) (x 2 + e2 ).

5.1 Fact Sheet

If the degree of the numerator is equal to or higher than the degree of the denom-
inator, the numerator must be divided by the denominator until the remainder is
of lower degree than the denominator.

(a) Linear Factors

f(x) A B C
(ax + b) (ex + d) (ex + f)
- (ax + b)
+
(ex + d)
+
(ex + f)

(b) Repeated Factors

f(x) A B C
- + +
(ax + b) (ex + d)2 (ax + b) (ex + d) (ex + d)2

(c) Quadratic Factors

f(x) A Bx+C
- + 2
(ax + b) (x 2 + e2 ) (ax + b) (x + e2 )
To find the constants A, Band C. Put all the terms on the right-hand side over the
same denominator as the left-hand side. Equate the numerators. Equate the
coefficients of the powers of x and/or substitute well chosen values for x.
Partial fractions are frequently combined with the binomial series, differentia-
tion (page 151) or integration (page 177).

Particular binomial series:

(1 + X)-l =1 - x + x 2 - x 3 + X4 - ••• valid for -1 < x < 1~ ~x 1< 1,
(1 +X)-2 =1- 2x + 3x 2 - 4x 3 + ... valid for -1 <x < 1~ Ix I < l.

37
5.2 Worked Examples
3+x
5.1 Express in partial fractions, and hence, or otherwise,
(2 - x) (1 + 2x)
obtain the first three non-zero terms in the expansion of this expression in
ascending powers of x ..
State the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid .

• Look at the denominator-both factors are linear, need numerators A and

B.

f(x) = 3 +x A B
+
(2 -x) (1 +2x) 2-x I + 2x
= A(l +2x)+B(2 -x)
- (2- x) (1 + 2x)

Equating the numerators: 3+x==A(l +2x)+B(2-x).

Put x = 2: S == SA => A = 1.
Put x = - t: 2t = 21 B => B = 1.
3+x 1
Hencef(x)== ------------ == ---- + -----
(2 - x) (1 + 2x) 2- x 1 + 2x

1 +
2(1 - x/2) 1 + 2x
== t (1 - X/2)-1 + (1 + 2X)-I.

By the binomial expansion:

t
1 (1 - X/2)-1 = (1 + x/2 + (X/2)2 + (X/2)3 + ... )
(valid for -1 < x/2 < 1 => -2 < x < 2),
(1 + 2X)-1 = 1 - 2x + (2xP - (2X)3 + ...
(valid for -1 < 2x < 1 => -t < x < t).
Adding gives:
f (x) =t + x / 4 + X 2 /8 + X 3 / 16 + 1 2x + 4x 2 - 8x 3 + . . .
<-

== 3/2 -- 7x/4 + 33x 2 /8 to the first three terms.

Validity is given when both conditions are valid-the smaller interval is

taken.

Series is valid for - t < x < 1·

5 . 2 E xpress X3 + 2X2 - X + 3.In partIa

. 1 f rac t'Ions.
(x+ 2) (x - 3)

• Compare the orders of the numerator and denominator. Since the numera-
tor is of order 3 and the denominator of order 2 a long division must be
carried out first:
x+3
x 2 - X - 6 }x 3 + 2X2 - X + 3
x 3 - x 2 - 6x
3x 2 + Sx + 3
3x 2 - 3x - 18
8x + 21.
38
 .,,,3+"),,2_'·+3
_., ., =X +3+ 8x+)1
-
(x+2)(x--3) (x+2)(x-3)

8x + 21 = -A- +
Let - -B-
(x + 2) (x - 3) x+2 x-3

=A(x-3)+B(x+2)
(x + 2) (x - 3)

Equating the numerators:

8x + 21 ==A(x - 3) +B(x + 2).
Putx=3: 45=B(5), B=9.
Put x = - 2: 5 = A ( - 5), A = - 1.
x 3 + 2X2 - X + 3
Therefore --.- - - - - - - - == x + 3 - -1- + -9- .
(x + 2) (x - 3) x +2 x - 3

5.3 Express x 3 - 3x 2 - 18x + 40 as the product of three linear factors.

9x - 72 .
Hence express 3 2 - In the form of
x - 3x - 18x + 40
~ + ~- + -~ ,where a, b, c, A, B, C are numbers to be determined.
x-a x-b x-c

• find the first factor by the factor theorem.

Let f(x) = x 3 - 3x 2 18x + 40.

Trying the factors of 40 as values of x:
f(1) = 1 - 3 - 18 + 40 =i= 0 =? (x - 1) is not a factor of f(x).
f(2) = 8 - 12 - 36 + 40 = 0 =? (x - 2) is a factor of f(x).
f(x) = (x - 2) (x 2 - x - 20)
= (x - 2) (x - 5) (x + 4).

Hencex 3 3x 2 - 18x + 40 = (x - 2) (x - 5) (x + 4).

-
9x --72 _ ABC
= ---- +--- + - -
(x - 2) (x - 5) (x + 4) x - 2 x - 5 x +4

= A{x - 5) (x + 4) + B(x - 2)(x + 4) + C(x - 2) (x - 5)

(x - 2) (x - 5) (x + 4)

Equating the numerators:

9x - 72 ==A(x - 5) (x + 4) + B(x - 2)(x + 4) +C(x - 2) (x - 5).
Put x = 2: 18 - 72 = A(-3)(6), -54 = -18A; A = 3.
Put x = -4: -36 - 72 = C(-6)(-9), -108 = 54C; C = -2.
Put x = 5: 45 - 72 = B(3)(9), -27 = '27B; B = -1.
9x - 72 3 1 2
Hence
x 3 -3x 2 .. 18x+40 x-2 x-5 x+4

4X2 - 7x + 3 . . If·
5 .4 E xpress f(x) = - 2 In partIa ractIOns.
(2 -x)(l +x )

Expand f(x) in ascending powers of x as far as, and including, the term in x 3 .
F or what values of x is this expansion valid?

39
 • Look at the denominator: one factor is linear and needs a numerator A,
one is quadratic and needs a numerator Bx + C.

f 4x 2 - 7x + 3 == ~ + Bx + C
(x) = (2 _ x) (1 + x 2 ) 2- x 1+x2
= A(1 +x 2 ) + (Bx + C) (2 -x)
- (2 - x) (1 + x 2 )
Equating the numerators:
4x 2 - 7x + 3 == A (1 + x 2 ) + (Bx + C) (2 - x).
Putx=2: 16-14+3=A(1+4) => 5A=5,A=l.
Putx = 0: 3 =A(1) + C(2) => C= 1.
Put x = 1: 4 - 7 + 3 = A (1 + 1) + (B + C) ( 1)
0= 2A + B + C => B = -3.

Alternatively, compare coefficients of x 2 : 4 =A - B => B = -3.

1 1 - 3x
Hence [(x) == -(2---x-) + (1 + x2)

1 1
2 - x - 2(1 - x/2) =2
1 (
1-
X
2
)-1 = 2 (1 + ~ + ~2 + ~3 + .. .)
1

(valid -2 < x < 2),

(valid -1 < x < 1).

f(x) = -1 ( 1 + -X + -x 2 + -x 3 . .. ) + (1 - 3x) (1 - x 2 + X4 - •.. )

2 2 4 8

+ -X + -x + -x + 1 - 3x - x 2 + 3x 3
= -1
2 3
•••
2 4 8 16
_2 II ~ 2 ~ 3
- 2 - 4 X -!Ix + 16X . • . .

The series is valid when -2 < x < 2 and - 1 < x < 1.

Taking the smaller range, -1 < x < 1.

5 .5 E xpan d 16x2 + 8x . ascen d·mg powers 0 [ x, up to an·d·mc 1u d-

m
(1 + x) (l + 3x) (1 + 5x)
ing the term in x 3 •

• All factors of the denominator are linear - need numerators A, Band C.

16x 2 + 8x A B C
[(x) = (1 + x) (1 + 3x) (1 + 5x) - (1 + x) + (1 + 3x) + (1 + 5x)

_ A(l + 3x) (1 + 5x) + B(1 + x) (l + 5x) + C(l + x) (1 + 3x)

(l + x) (1 + 3x) (1 + 5x)
Equating the numerators:
16x 2 + 8x ==A(1 + 3x) (1 + 5x) + BO + x) (1 + 5x) + C(1 + x) (1 + 3x).
Put x = -1 : 16 - 8 = A ( - 2) (- 4) => A = l.
Putx=--t: ~-t=Bd·)(-t),-8=-4B => B=2.
Putx=-t: J.&._~=C(-!)(t),-24=8C
2S 5
=> C=-3.

40
 f(x) = _1_ + 2 3
1+x (1 + 3x) (1 + 5x)
= (l + X)-l + 2(1 + 3X)-1 - 3(1 + 5X)-1
= (l_X+X2 -X 3 ... )+2[1-3x+(3x)2 ···(3X)3 . .. J
-3[1-(5x)+(5x? -(5x)3 ... J
= 1 - x + X2 - X3 ... + 2 .- 6x + 18x 2 - 54x 3 ...
. .. -3+ 15x--75x 2 + 375x 3 ....
f(x) = 8x - 56x 2 + 320x 3 + ....

5.6 Express the function --.-2~-2 as the sum of three partial fractions.
(l +x) (l - 2x)
Hence, or otherwise, find the first three terms in the expansion of the
function in ascending powers of x.

• Notice that one of the factors is a repeated factor => there must be three
fractions, denominators (1 + x), (1 - 2x) and (1 - 2x)2 .

Let 9x _ A +~__ + C
(1 +x) (1 - 2x)2 (1 + x) (1.- 2x) (1 - 2X)2
_ A(1 - 2X)2 +B(1 +x) (1 - 2x) + C(l +x)
= (1 + x) (1 - 2X)2 .
Equating the numerators:
9x =A(1 - 2x)2 + B(1 + x) (1 - 2x) + C(1 + x).
Put x = -1: -9 =A(3)2 => A =-l.
Putx=t: t=C(t) => C=3.
Put x = 0: O=A+B+C => B=-2.

9x 2
Hence
(1 + x) (1 - 2x)2 (1 + x) (1 - 2x)

3 = 3(1 - 2X)-2
(l - 2X)2
=3[1-2(-2x)+3(-2x)2 -4(-2x)3 + ... J
= 3 + 12x + 36x 2 + 96x 3 + ....
1 = (l+X)-l
(l +x)
= 1 - x + x2 - x 3 + ....
2 = 2(1 - 2X)-1
(l - 2x)
= 2[1 + 2x + (2X)2 + (2X)3 + ... J
= 2 + 4x + 8x 2 + 16x 3 + ....

Hence ___ 9x_ = (3 + 12x + 36x 2 + 96x 3 )

(1 + x) (l - 2X)2
- (1 - x + x 2 - x 3 )
- (2 + 4x + 8x 2 + 16x 3 ) + ...
= 9x + 27x 2 + 8Ix 3 + ....

41
 4
5.7 Write 3 + - - - as a single fraction. Hence express
x-2 x+3
3x 2 - 7 . B C
f(x) = ------~- 111 the form A +--- + - -
+ X - 6)
(x 2 x - 2 x+3
stating the values of the constants A, Band C.
Sketch the graph of f(x), paying particular attention to the values of f(x).
neat x = 2,.x = -3 and when Ix Iis large .

• As a single fraction:
I
3+----
4 = ~(x - 2) (x + 3) + l(x + 3) - 4(x - 2)
x-2 x+3 (x - 2) (x + 3)

= 3x + 3x - 18 + x
2
~~~~. ~~~~----
+ 3 - 4x + 8
(x - 2) (x + 3)

= ----3x 27 -.
(x - 2) (x + 3)

3x 2 -- 7 3x 2 - 7
Hence f(x) = =-----
(x 2 + X - 6) (x - 2) (x + 3)

4
= 3+
(x - 2) (x + 3)
A = 3, B = 1, C = -4.
Stages in curve sketching:
(a) Look at denominator. When this is zero the function is undef'med and
there is an asymptote.
(b) Put numerator = O. This gives points of intersection on the x-axis.
(c) Let Ix I~ 00.
(d) Find the point(s) of intersection with the y-axis.

f(x)
I
I
7 I
I
6
I
I
I
5 I
I
4 I
I
--- - - -- -+------- 3 ____1.. __
I
--~------

2
I
I
I
I
I
~--r--+--1---~~--+--1-+~--+--1--~--+--1~-X
-6 5 6 7
-1

-2

-3

-4

42
 (a) f(x) is not defined when x = 2 and 3. Two asymptotes.
When x = 2.1, f(x) ~ 12.2, which is large and positive.
When x = -3.1, f(x) ~ 42.8, which is large and positive.

(b) 3x 2 - 7 = 0, x = ±Y(7/3).
(c) As Ixl~oo f(x)~3.Tryihgalargevalueoflxlshowsthatf(x)<3
when x ~ 00 and f(x) > 3 when x ~ - 00;

(d) When x = 0, y =i.

5 - 5x
5.8 Given that g(x) = , express g(x) in partial fractions. Hence
(1 + x 2 ) (3 -- x)
or otherwise, show that the expansion of g(x) as a series in ascending powers
of x, up to and including the term in X4 is
t - ~x - ~X2 + ~X3 + i!~X4.

• Notice that one of the factors of the denominator is a quadratic. Put the
numerator as Ax + B.

Let 5 - 5x == Ax + B + C
(1+x2)(3-x) l+x2 3-x

= (Ax + B)(3 - x) + CO + x 2 )
- (l + x 2 ) (3 - x)
Equating the numerators: 5 - 5x == (Ax + B) (3 - x) + C( 1 + x 2 ).
Put x = 3: 5 - 15 = C(l + 9), => C = -1.
Put x = 0: 5 = B(3) + C => B = 2.
Put x = 1: 0 = (A + B)(2) + C(2) => A = -1.
5 - 5x 2- x 1
Hence
(1 +x2)(3 -x)
= 1 +x 2 3-x

2-~ =(2-x)(l +X 2 )-1 =(2-x)(l-x 2 +X4 . .. )

I+x
= 2 -- x - 2X2 + x 3 + 2X4 ....

= 1 -.1. (1 /3)-1
3-x 3(1 - x/3) - 3 - X

=t (l + x /3 + x 2 /9 + x 3 /27 + X4 /81 + ... )

=t + x/9 + x 2 /27 + x 3 /81 + x 4 /243 + ... .
Hence
g(x) = 2 - x - 2X2 + x 3 + 2X4 - t - x/9 - x 2 /27 - x 3 /81 - x 4 /'243 -- ...
-- .2.
3 -
.!2
9x -
~X2
27
+ .§2.x3
81
+ 485
243 X4 + • • . .

5.3 Exercises
1
5.1 Express in partial fractions. Hence find the first three terms
(1 - x) (1 + 2x)
of the expansion of 1 in ascending powers of x.
(l - x) (l + 2x)
Find the coefficient of xn and state the range of values of x for which the ex-
pansion is valid.

43
 5.2 Given that f(x) == 7 --, express f(x) in partial fractions.
(3x - 1) (x + 2)
Sketch the curve y == f(x). showing the asymptotes and the points of inter-
section of the curve with the axes.

36 - 2x
5.3 Express ~-----. in partial fractions.
(2x + 1) (9 +x 2 )

5.4 Given that f(x) == 2X2 + X - 43 ,express f(x) in partial fractions and hence
(x+3)(x - 4)
find the first three terms when f(x) is expanded in a series of ascending powers of
x, stating the set of values for which the expansion is valid.

5.5 Given that g(x) == 2 3 , express g(x) in partial fractions and

(1 + x) (1 + 2x)
hence find the first three terms in the series when g(x) is expanded in a series of
ascending powers of 1., stating the set of values for which the expansion is valid.
x

1
. E xpress - -
56 - -111. . IfractIOns.
partIa .
r(r + 1)
n
Hence or otherwise find Sn == ~ __l~_ and deduce the value of Sn as n
LJ
r=1
r(r + 1)
tends to infinity.

1
5.7 Express 2 in partial fractions.
r - 1
n
Determine ~ --~- and hence ded lice the sum to infinity.
LJ r2 - 1
r=2

5.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

1 2
5.1 --- + -~~-,
(1 - x)(l + 2x) 3(1 - x) 3(1 + 2x)

- 1- =-to - X)-l ={(1 + x + x 2 + ... + xn ... ) (if Ixl < 1),

3(1 -x)

2
=1-(1+ 2X)-1 =i[l - 2x + 4x 2 - •.• + (-1)n(2xt + ... J (if Ixl<~).
3 (l + 2x)

Hence
f(x) == t[ 1 + x + x 2 + ... + xn + ... + 2 - 4x + 8x 2 - . • . + 2(-2x)n ... J
== t {3 - 3x + 9x 2 + ... + [1 - (_2)n+l J xn + ... }.
== 1- x + 3x 2 + ... .
Coefficient of xn = t [1 - (- 2)n+l ] (valid if -t < x < t).
44
 731
5.2 = ---
(3x - 1) (x. + 2) (3x - 1) (x + 2)

fIx)

x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 2 3
-1

-2

-3

-4 7
fIx) = (3x _ l)(x + 2)
-5

36 - 2x A Bx + C 4 2x
5.3 (2x + 1) (9 +X2) = -2x-+-l + 9 +x 2 = 2x + 1 9 +x 2

5.4 f(x) = 2X2 + X - 43 =2 + 3x - 19

(x + 3) (x - 4) (x + 3) (x - 4)

=2+_4_ _ __
x+3 x-4
Now
4
x+3 (if I~I < 1) ;
(if I~ 1<1) .

= 43 _ ~ x + 283 x2 + ... (for -3 <x < 3).

12 144 1728

5.5 g(x) = --6 _ _ 3 + _1_2_.

1+x (1 + X)2 1 + 2x

To obtain series in ascending powers of (!) ,express _1_ in the foml

l+x
1 ( 1 + x1
X
)-1 and then use the binomial.
45
 Valid for Ii I < 1 => Ix I > 1 => x < -lor x > 1.
Valid Not valid Valid
I I
-1 1

-3
(l + X)2
= -=~2
x
(1 + 1 )-2 = -3 (1 _1 + 2. _ ~ + ... )
X x2 X xi x3

12
1 + 2x
=g
2x
(1 + J_ )-1 = §. (1 __1 + _~ _ _
2x
1 + __
x
1 ...) (for 1_1 1< 1) .
2x 4x 2 8x 3 16x 4 2x

Hence g(x) = 23 - _154 + SIs + ...

2x 4x 8x

1
5.6
r(r + 1) r r +1
n n n+l
S =~1___1_
n L..J r r+l
r=l
=~~-~~=+-n!1
r=l r=2

1
As n ~ 00, -- ~ 0, so Soo = 1.
n+1

46
 6 Inequalities
The manipulation of simple algebraic inequalities. The function Ix I. The solution
of inequalities reducible to the form f(x) > 0, where f(x) can then be expressed in
factors: sketches of the graphs of y = f(x) in these cases.

6.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Notation: Inequalities

• If a and b are numbers, represented by points on the x-axis, and a > b,

then a is to the right of b.
• Thus 6 > 3 and -6 >--9. b < a
• If a ~ b then a is greater than b or equal to b. 1

(b) Modulus
• Ix I may be regarded as the distance from the origin to the point on the
x-axis .
• 121=2,1-31=3, Ixl=5 => x=50r--5.
Ixl<5 => -5<x<5.
• I f(x) 1= f(x) if f(x) is positive and-f(x) if f(x) is negative.
• If f(x) = x 2 - 4 then f(3) = 5, I f(3)1 = 5,
f(1) = -3, If(1)1 = 3.

(c) Properties of Inequalities

• Any quantity may be added to or subtracted from both sides of an in-

equality:
If a > b then a +e > b +e and a - e > b - e.
• Both sides of an inequality may be multiplied or divided by any positive
quantity:
If c> 0 and a>b then ac > be and -a >-. b
c e
• If both sides of an inequality are multiplied or divided by a negative quantity
then the inequality is reversed:
If d < 0 and a>b then ad < bd and --a <-.b
d d
(Play safe- never multiply or divide by a negative number.)
• If inequalities are of the same kind they may be added together:
If a > b a n d e > d then a + e > b + d.
• Never subtract inequalities.
(Example: 5> 2 and 4> 0 but 5 - 4 ::1> 2 - 0.)
6.2 Worked Examples
6.1
(a) Sketch the graphs of (i) Y = 2 Ix - 31, (ii) Y = Ix 2 - 41.
(b) Find, in' each case, the set of real values of x for which
(i) 2 (x - 1) ~ x + 2, (li) 2 I x -11 ~ I x + 21.

• (a)

y
y = Ix2 -41

y = 21x - 31

--+-~--~--~~--~-x
-1 0 2 3 4 -3 -2 -1 0 2 3

(b) (i) SketchYt =2(x-l)andY2 =x+2andfindtherangeofvaluesfor

which Y 1 ~ Y 2·
From the sketch it can be seen that there is just one range.

,t
6

--~~--~~~~L--1--~--~---1,---4--~x
2 3 4 5 6

Finding the point of intersection of the lines:

Y = 2x - 2 and Y = x + 2,
~ 2x-2=x+2
x=4
2(x - 1) ~ x + 2 for all x ~ 4.

(ii) From the sketch of Yl = 21x - 11 and Y2 = Ix + 21 it can be seen

that the graphs intersect twice.
Point A is given by Yl = 2(x - 1) and Y2 = X + 2.
Solving gives x = 4 (from part (i)) ~ Yt ~ Y2 when x ~ 4.
Point B is given by Yl = -2(x - 1) and Y2 = X + 2.

48
 v

10

V2 ~ I x + 2 I
6

------~----~~~--+_--~--~--_+--_+--_4----~------~- x
-4 -3 -2 -1 o 2 3 4 5

Finding the point of intersection of these lines:

--2x + 2 = x + 2
=? X = 0,
Yl ~Y2 when x ~ O.
Hence 2 I x - I I ~ I x + 2 I when x ~ 0 or x ~ 4.
Alternatively, square both sides of the given inequality:
4(x- 1)2 ~ (x + 2)2
4x 2 - 8x + 4 ~ x 2 + 4x + 4
3x 2 - 12x ~O
3x (x - 4) ~ O.
This gives x ~ 0 or x ~ 4.

It is only permissible to square both sides of the inequality because

each side is positive, or zero, for all x.

6.2 In one diagram sketch the three lines

x + Y - 4 = 0, 2y - 3x - 3 = 0, 3x - y + 6 = O.
Indicate, by shading in your diagram, the region in which the following three
inequalities are all satisfied, marking this region A:
x + y - 4 < 0, 2y - 3x - 3 > 0, 3x - y + 6 < O.

• To find the required region substitute the coordinates of any point not on
a line into the corresponding inequality. If the inequality is satisfied all
points on the same side of the line as the chosen point will also satisfy the
inequality. Lightly shade the other side of the line, i.e. the area which is
not wanted. The origin is a useful point to try. See the figure on p. 50.

x + y - 4 < 0 is satisfied by (0, 0) so shade the region which does not con-
tain (0, 0).
2y - 3x - 3> 0 is not satisfied by (0, 0) so shade the region containing
(0,0).
3x - y + 6 < 0 is not satisfied by (0, 0) so shade the region containing
(0,0).
The region which satisfies all the inequalities is unshaded, and is marked
A.

49
 y

--~----+---~~~~--~----~~~--~-x
-6 -4

-2-
2 4'-
x+y-4=O ~
~
~

-4

-6

6.3 Prove that for all real X, a< I ~ t.

X2 + lax + 27

I
Sketch the curve y = 2 a
x + I x + 27

• The implications of a < 2 I ~ tare

x + lax + 27
(i) x 2 + lax + 27 is always positive, and
(ii) x 2 + lax + 27 ~ 2 for all real x.
These conditions are both satisfied if x 2 + lax + 27 ~ 2 for all real x.
Let f(x) = x 2 + lOx + 27
=(x + 5)2 + 2.
Since (x + 5)2 ~ a for all real x, f(x) ~ 2 for all real x.

Thus a < 2 I ~ t for all real x.

x + lOx + 27
When x = -5, f(x) = 2, => y = t (maximum point).

f(x)

-15 -10 -5 o 5

50
6.4
(a) Show that the arithmetic mean of two positive real numbers is greater than, or
equal to, their geometric mean. Hence show that when w, x, y, z are real
w4 + X4 + y4 + Z4 ~ 4wxyz.

(b) Find the solution set of the inequality

8
- <x+ 2 (x E fR,x *0).
x

.h
• ( a ) The ant ' mean
metlc 0 f w an dx 'IS w + x ; t h e geometrIC
. mean i Ii
2
y'(wx), where y' means the positive square root.

In inequality questions it is often worth considering a bracket squared,

for example (w - X)2 .

(w - X)2 ~ 0, for all real w, x,

~ w2 + x 2 - 2wx ~ O.
Add 4wx to each side:
w2 +x 2 +2wx~4wx.
~ (W+X)2 ~4wx.
Since wand x are both positive, take square roots
w+x
w +x ~ 2y'(wx) or ~y'(wx)
2
for all real positive values of x.
From this, w4 +X4 ~2y'(W4X4)=2w2X2 =2(WX)2
y4 + z4 ~ 2y'(y4 Z4) = 2y2 Z2 = 2(YZ)2.
Hence w4 + X4 + y4 + Z4 ~ 2[(WX)2 + (yZ)2].
But (WX)2 + (yZ)2 ~ 2y'(W 2x 2y2Z2) = 2wxyz.
Hence w 4 + X4 + y4 + Z4 ~ 4wxyz.

(b) ~ < x + 2.
x
Do not multiply by x, since x may be negative.
Multiply by x 2 8x < x 2 (x + 2)
o < x 3 + 2X2 -
8x
0< x(x + 4)(x - 2).
From the sketch it can be seen that
x>2 or -4<x<O.

~--~---+--~---#----~X
-6

51
 6.5 ThesetSis {(x,Y): 5x+y~ 13andx 2 +y2 ~ 13,(x,y)E fAx fA}.
Show clearly on a sketch the region in which the points representing the
members of S must lie. If (x, kx) E S for at least one value of x, find the set
of possible values of k.
• 5x + y = 13 is a straight line.
x 2 + y2 = 13 is a circle centre (0, 0).

~~----~------~-------+~~--~~_x
o

-2

The points representing the members of S lie in the unshaded segment and
include the perimeter. If A and B are the points of intersection of the line
and the circle then
5x + y = 13 (1)

and x 2 + y2 = 13 (2)
atA and B.
From equation 1, y = 13 - 5x.
In equation 2, x 2 + (13 - 5X)2 = 13
26x 2 - BOx + 156 = 0
26 (x - 2) (x - 3) = 0
Le.x=20r3.
From equation 1, x =2 ~ y =3 A (2,3)
x =3 ~ y =-2 B (3, -2).

All points (x, kx) lie on the line y = kx, so k is the gradient of the line
joining the origin to any point of S.
If at least one point on the line y = kx lies in S, then y = kx must be
between OA and OB.
Line OA has gradient t, OB has gradient - t.
Set of possible values of k is - t ~ k ~ t.

6.6
(a) For what values of x is x 3 - 2X2 > 5x - 6?
(b) Find the set of real values of x for which ~ (x::::-12 > 2.
(x - 2)

52
• (a) If x 3 - 2X2 > 5x -- 6 then x 3 -- 2X2 - 5x + 6 > O.
Let f(x) = x 3 -- 2X2 - 5x + 6.
Use the factor theorem to find the factors of f(x).
Values of x to try are the factors of 6, (±I, ±2, ±3, ±6).
1'(1) = 1 - 2 - 5 + 6 = 0 so (x - 1) is a factor of f(x)
1'(2) = 8 - 8 ~ 10 + 6 = - 4 so (x - 2) is not a factor.
1'(3)=27-18-15+6=0 so(x-3)isafactor.
1'( -2) = - 8 - 8 + 10 + 6 = 0 so (x + 2) is a factor.
f(x) = (x - 1) (x -- 3) (x + 2).

Check that the coefficient of x 3 is correct, since the linear factors may
be multiplied by a constant.

If f(x) > 0, (x- 1) (x - 3) (x + 2) > o.

From the sketch or by considering the number line,
x 3 - 2X2 > 5x - 6 when -2 <x < I or x> 3.

-2 -1 0 2 3
1 I
f(x) 1

x - 1 - - + +
x-3 - - - +
x+2 - + + +

f(x) -- + +

(b) If x(x - 3) >2 then x(x - 3) _ 2 >0

x-2 x-2
x(x-3)-2(x-2) >0
x-2
x 2 - 3x - 2x + 4 >0
x-2
(x-4)(x-l)
>0.
x-2

F or a fraction to be positive either all the factors must be positive or an

even number of factors negative for given values of x.
o 234
1 I

x-4 - - - +
x- 1 - + + +
x-2 - - + +

f(x) - + - +

True if x> 4 or if 1 < x < 2.

The inequality must not be multiplied by (x -- 2) since for some values
of x, x - 2 is negative.
An alternative method is to multiply by (x - 2)2, which is never
negative for real values of x.

53
 x(x- 3) (x ·2) > 2(x - 2)2
~ x(x 3) (x - 2) - 2(x 2)2 > 0
(x - 2) (x 2 .- 3x - 2x + 4) > 0
(x-2)(x 2 -5x+4»0
(x- 2)(x - I)(x ·4) > O.
Use the same number line as for the first method.

6.7
(a) If y = X4 - 73x 2 + 888 and Iy I :os;;; 312, find the set of possible real values of x.
Sketch the function f(x) = X4 - 73x 2 + 888.
(b) Solve the inequality ~I_ > _1_ .
x-4 3-x

• (a) y = X4 - 73x 2 + 888 and -312 :os;;; y :os;;; 312.

m Substitute y = 312 into the equation
X4 - 73x 2 + 888 = 312
~ X4 - 73x 2 + 576 = O.
This is a quadratic equation in x 2 :
(x 2 - 9) (x 2 - 64) = 0 ~ x = ±3, x = ±8.
(ii) Substitute y = -312 into the equation
X4 - 73x 2 + 888 = - 312
~ X4 - 73x 2 + 1200 = 0
=> x = ±5, X = ±y'(48) = ± 4y'3.
The function f(x) = X4 - 73x 2 + 888 is an even quartic function so must
be symmetrical about the line x = o.
Ifl y I :os;;; 312 then -8 :os;;; x :os;;; -4y'3 or -5 :os;;; x :os;;; -3 or 3 :os;;; x ~ 5 or
4y'3~x:OS;;;8.

---- ------- ~ y; 312

~--~----~~------~------r_+_--~----+_~x

-10 o 10

-500

(b) 1 1 1
~->-­ - -->0
x-4 3-x x-4 3-x

=> (3-x)-(x-4) >0

(x - 4)(3 -x)

7-2x >0.
(x - 4) (3 -- x)

54
 3.0 3.5 4.0

7- 2x + +

x-4 +

3- x +

f(x) + +

Considering the number line,

_1_ >_1_ when 3 <x < 3.5 or 4<x.

x - 4 3 ..-x

6.3 Exercises
6.1 Find the sets of values of x for which
(a) i 3x - 51 < 6;
(b) (3x - l)(x + 3) > 0;
(c) Ix 2 -9i<8.

6.2 Find the sets of values of x for which

(a) Ix - 31>2 Ix+ 11,
(b) _x_ <2.
x+2

6.3 In one diagram sketch the graphs 2x + 3y = 8, 2x - 5y = -8. Find the range
of possible values for x, given that x and y satisfy the inequalities 2x + 3y ~ 8,
5y - 2x > 8.

1
6.4 Prove that for all real x, 0 < ~ -4 .
x 2 - 5x +9 11

1
Sketch the curve y = x2 _ 5x + 9

6.5 For what values of x is f(x) =x3 - 12x 2 + 39x - 28 < O?

Sketch the graph of f(x)

6.6 Find the set of values of x for which f(x) > +where f(x) = x (x - 2) .
Sketch the graph of f(x).
(x + 3)

55
 6.7
(a) Show that, for all real values of x and y, X 2 + y2 ~ 2xy.
(b) Hence show that, if a, b, c and d are real,

x 2 - 2x +I
6.8 Prove that, for all real x, 0 ~ 2 ~ 10.
x + 4x + 5

2 - 2x +1
Sketch the curve y = xx 2 4
+ x +5

6.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

6.1
(a) 13x - 5 1< 6
=* 3x - 5 < 6 or 5 - 3x <6
=* x <:!f or x > - t.
Thus -t < x < :!f.
(b) (3x - l)(x + 3) > O.
From the sketch, f(x) = (3x - 1) (x + 3), f(x) >0 when x < -3 or x > t.
y

(c) 1x 2 -91 < 8 =* x 2 - 9 < 8 or 9 - x 2 < 8.

These give respectively x 2 < 17 or x 2 > 1.
Thus - y' 17 < x < -1 or 1 < x <y'17.

6.2
(a) 1x - 31 > 2 1 x + 1 I.
Squaring, x 2 - 6x + 9 > 4x 2 + 8x + 4
=* 0> (3x - 1) (x + 5) .
-5 .1.
3

3x - 1
x+5 +
Using the number line:
1x - 31 > 21 x + 1 1when - 5 < x < t.
56
(b) _x_ <2.
x+2
Multiply both sides by (x + 2)2 :
x(x + 2) < 2(x + 2)2 '* 0 < ex + 2) ex + 4).

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1

Sox >-2orx <-4.

6.3 2x + 3y ~ 8. Multiply by 5: lOx + 15y ~ 40.

2x - 5y < -8. Multiply by 3: 6x - 15y < -24.
Add: 16x < 16
'*x<l.

Required region

-4 -3 -2

1
6.4 Let y =
2
'* yx 2 - 5xy + 9y - 1 = O. (1)
x - 5x + 9
x is real, so 25y2 ~ 4y (9y - 1) ==? 0 ~ y (lly - 4).
Th us 0 ~ y ~ J4J •

If y = 0, equation 1 gives -1 = 0, which is unacceptable, hence y > O.

If y
_
= _5
J4J , equation] gives (2x - 5)2 = 0
~ X-"2.

Hence 0 < ]
x 2 _ 5x + 9 ""'"
~..!..
JJ•

57
 y

0.6

0.4
(~. i~)

o 2 3 4 x

6.5 f(x) = x 3 - 12x2 + 39x - 28.

Factor theorem gives (x - 1) as a factor => f(x) = (x - 1) (x - 7) (x - 4).
From the sketch, f(x) < 0 when x < 1 or 4 < x < 7.

10

o x

6.6 x(x-2) >t.Multiplyby2(x+3)2:

(x + 3)
2x(x - 2) (x + 3) > (x + 3)2.
=> (x + 3)(2x + 1) (x - 3) > O.

Using the number line:

.!.
-3 -2 3
x+3 - + + +
2x + 1 - - + +
x-3 - - - +
(x + 3) (2x + 1) (x - 3) - + - +

x(x _--=-12 >t when -3 <x <- t or x>3.

(x + 3)

58
 f(x)

-3 -2
I
I
I

6.7
(a) (x - y)2 ~ 0 for all real x and y,
=> x2 + y2 _ 2xy ~ 0 => x2 + y2 ~ 2xy.
(b) From part (a):

(~)4+(~)4= [(:y]2+ [(:)2J2~2(::)

Similarly, (~r + (~r ~ 2 (::) .
(~r + (~) ~ 2(~) (~) = 2,
r+( r +( r
But 2

hence ( ~ r +(% ~ ~ ~ 4.
x 2 - 2x + I
6.8 Let y =~--~--- .
x2 + 4x + 5
Thenx 2 (y - 1) +x(4y + 2) + (Sy - 1) = O.
2)2
(1)
x is real, so (4y + ~ 4(y - 1) (Sy - 1)
=> 0 ~ y (y - 10), so 0 ~ y ~ 10.
When y = 0, equation 1 gives _x 2 + 2x - 1 = 0
=> x = 1 (twice).
When y = 10, equation 1 gives 9x 2 + 42x + 49 = 0
=> x = - t (twice).
As i x I ~ 00, y ~ 1.
y

10

-3 -2 -1 o 2 x

59
 7 Plane Cartesian
Coordinates
Understanding the relationship between a graph and the associated algebraic
relation.
Ability to sketch curves such as Y = kxn for integral and simple rational n,
X2 y2
ax + by + C = 0, 2 + 2 = 1.
a b
Finding the equations of straight lines and circles.
Points of intersection, distance and angle formulae.
Simple transformations y =af(x), y = f(x) + a, y = f(x - a), y = f(ax).
The relation of a graph to its symmetries.

7.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Lines
v

---------------r~~~--~H-----x

........I - - - - - - X 1 - X 2----11--

• Length QP=y'[(Xl -X2)2 +(Yl -Y2)2].

• Gradient of QP = Yl - Y2 = m
Xl - X2
= tan e.
• Equation of a straight line
(i) Y = mx + c [gradient m, y-intercept c] .
(ii) Y - Yl = m(x - Xl) [gradient m, through point (Xl,)-'l)]'
OO.) ---
( 111 Y = 1
X +-
[x-intercept a, y-intercept b] .
a b
60
 (iv) Y - YI = YI - Y2 [through (Xl, YI) and (X2, Y2)]'
X-Xl Xl -X2
(v) ax + by + C = 0 [general equation] .
• Distance of a point (h, k) from a line ax + by + c = 0 is
+ bk + c I + ah + bk + c
Iah
v(a + b2 2)
or
- v(a 2 + b 2 )'
• Angle between two lines with gradients mI and m2 is~, where

tan ~ = m I - m2 .
1 + m l m2
• Lines are perpendicular if m I m 2 =-1.
• Lines are parallel if m I = m2'

(b) Circles

(i) (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = r2 [centre (h, k), radius r].

(ii) X2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 [centre (-g, -f), radiusv(g2 + j2 - c)].

(c) Ellipses

X2 y2
+ -- =1 [semi-axes a, b) .
a2 b2

(d) y = kx n , k positive [k negative reflects in the x-axis.]

(i) n is an even integer> 1.

y

----------~~~----------___ x
o

(ii) n is an odd integer> 1.

y

----------~~~------------ x

61
 (iii) 11 = 1, where p is a positive even integer.
p

L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~x

We take y = kXl/2, for example, to mean only the positive square root so the
graph does not have a branch below the x-axis.

(iv) n = 1, where q is a positive odd integer.

q

------------~----------------x

(v) n is a negative even integer.

y

.. x
o

(vi) n is a negative odd integer.

---------------o-r--------------~x

62
(e) Transfonnations

(i) y =af(x) is a one-way stretch, or scaling, parallel to the y-axis, factor a.

v
v=af(x),a>l

v = f(x)

v=af(x),O<a<l

v = af(x), a < 0

(ii) y = f(x) + a is a translation (aO) .

v=f(x)+a

V = f(x)

y =f (x) - 8

--------~----~~~~--~---------X

(iii) y = f(x - a) is a translation of (~).

-b 0 a

a >O,b >0

63
 (iv) J' = f(ax) is a one-way stretch, or scaling, parallel to the x-axis, factor I.
a

------------~~~~~~~~--------------.-x

... Stretch
~---
Stretch

7.2 Worked Examples

7.1 Express 5x 2 ~ 20x + 16 in the form a (x ~ b)2 + c. Show how the graph of
y = 5x 2 ~ 20x + 16 may be obtained from the graph of y = x 2 by appro-
priate translations and one-way stretches. List these transformations clearly
in the order of application .

• 5x 2 ~ 20x + 16 = 5 (x 2 ~ 4x + ¥-).
Completing the square with x 2 ~ 4x,
x 2 ~ 4x + 4 = (x ~ 2)2.
Thus
x 2 ~ 4x + ~6 = x 2 ~ 4x + 4 ~ t = (x ~ 2)2 ~ t.
Hence
5x 2 ~20x+16=5 [(X~2)2 ~t]
= 5 (x ~ 2)2 ~ 4.
y = 5x ~ 20x + 16 may be obtained from y =x 2 by:
2

(a) Translation (~), i.e. 2 units in the direction of the x-axis.

(b) One-way stretch, or scaling, of factor 5 parallel to the y-axis.
(c) Translation (~~), i.e. - 4 units in the direction of the y-axis.

v v

v = (x - 2)2

--~--+-~~L-~---+-- ___ x --+----+-----L----=~"""'-_1------._x

-4 -2 o 2 4 -4 -2 o 2 4

64
 y y
y = 5(x - 2)2
y = 5 Ix - 2)2 - 4

10

--~--+---~~~--~--w-x --~--r---+-4.+-+-~----~x
-4 -2 o 2 4 -4 -2

7.2 The circle with equation x 2 + y2 + 8x + 6y - 56 = 0 has radius

A,S; B,9; C,.y56; D,.y103; E,.y156.

• The equation of a circle is (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 =,2, where (a, b) is the

centre and, is the radius.
x 2 + y2 + 8x + 6y - 56 = 0 ~ x 2 + 8x + y2 + 6y = 56.
x 2 + 8x requires (f)2 = 16 to complete the square,
y2 + 6y requires (~)2 = 9 to complete the square.
Add 16 + 9 to each side of the equation of the circle:
x 2 +8x+ 16+y2 +6y+9=56+ 16+9=81
~ (x + 4)2 + (y + 3)2 = 81 ~ centre (-4, -3), radius 9.
Answer B

7.3 If the points (h, k), (1, 3) and (-2, 7) are collinear, then the relationship
connecting hand k could be:
A, 3h + 4k = 5; B,3k-4h=5; C,3k+4h=13;
D,3h-4k=13; E,3k+4h=-13.

• If the points P (h, k), A (1, 3) and B (- 2, 7) are collinear, then PA has the
same gradient as AB.
Gradient of PA is £-=~ , gradient of AB is 7 - 3 = _
. h- 1 -2 - 1 3
i.
k-3
Thus -- = - -4 ~ 3(k-3)=-4(h-1)
h- 1 3

3k - 9 =- 4h + 4 ~ 3k + 4h = 13. Answer C

7.4 The circle which passes through the origin and the points (25, 0) and (16, 1:2)
has the equation
A, (x - 10)2 + (y - 6)2 = 16, B, x 2 + y2 - 20x + 12y = 0;
C, x 2 + y2 - 25x - 12y = 0; D, (x - 25)2 + y2 = 625;
E, x 2 + y2 - 25x = O.
• The general equation of a circle is x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = O.
Since the circle passes through (0, 0) then c = O.
Since the circle passes through (25, 0) then
625 + 50g = 0 =} g = _ ~s.
If the circle passes through (16, 12) then
256 + 144 + 32g + 24f= 0 ~ 400 - 400 + 24f= 0, sof= O.
Hence equation of the circle is x 2 + y2 - 25x = O.
Answer E

65
 7.5 Find the centre and radius of the circle
x 2 + y2 - 6x - lOy + 9 = O.
Find the points of intersection of the line y = 2x + 4 and the given circle,
and prove that the length of the chord cut off is 45. Show that the circle
which has the same centre as the given circle and which touches the given
line passes through the point (1,4).
What is the equation of the tangent to the second circle at (1, 4)?

• x 2 + y2 - 6x - lOy + 9 = 0 ~ x 2 - 6x + y2 - lOy =-9

=> (x - 3)2 + (y - 5)2 = -9 + 9 + 25 = 25 == S 1 •
Circle: centre (3, 5), radius 5.
Wheny = 2x + 4 intersectsx 2 + y2 - 6x - lOy + 9 = 0,
x 2 + (2x + 4)2 - 6x - 10(2x + 4) + 9 = 0
=> x 2 + 4x 2 + 16x + 16 - 6x - 20x - 40 + 9 = 0
=> 5x 2 - lOx - 15 = 0 => 5(x + l)(x - 3) = 0,
so x = -lor x = 3.

S1

---I---+--==--..,..-=----'------I~ X

o 5
y = 2x + 4

y + 2x - 6 = 0

Substituting for x into y = 2x + 4 gives intersection points (-1, 2) and

(3, 10).
Lengthofchord= y[(3--1)2 +00--2)2] =45.
Any circle with centre (3, 5) and radius, has equation:
(x - 3)2 + (y - 5)2 =,2.
Distance of (3, 5) from the line y = 2x + 4 is

(2)(3) - 5 +~ I =Y5.
1 y(2 2 + 12)
Hence the equation of the circle which touches the line y = 2x + 4 is
(x -- 3)2 + (y - 5)2 = 5 == S2

66
 Wheny =4, x2 6x + 9 + 1 =5
=> x 2 - 6x + 5 = 0
=> (x - 5)(x - 1)= 0,
so x = 5 or x = 1.
Hence the circle S2 passes through (1, 4). 5_ 4
The gradient of the radius of S2 which passes through (1, 4) is - -
3- 1
= 2"'
therefore the gradient of the tangent at (1,4) is - 2.
The equation of the tangent is
y - 4 = --2 (x - 1) => y + 2x "" 6 = o.

7.6 Sketch on the same diagram the curves whose equations are x 2 + y2 = 25
and x 2 + 4y = O. (Do not calculate the coordinates of the points of inter-
section.) Shade in your diagram the regions of the plane for which
(x 2 + y2 - 25) (x 2 + 4y) < O.
• x 2 + y2 = 25 is the equation of a circle centre (0, 0) radius 5.
x2 + 4y = 0 is the equation of a parabola y = - 2• tx
x 2 + y2 - 25 < 0 for points inside the circle (shaded horizontally in the
left-hand diagram).
x 2 + 4y < 0 for points below the parabola (shaded vertically in the same
diagram).
(x 2 + y2 _ 25) (x 2 + 4y) < 0 when one factor is positive and one is nega~
tive (shaded horizontally in the right-hand diagram).
(Boundaries are not included.)
y

\.
\ ,

I\. I

\. I

i
i i
! I I
! ! 1 :

7.7 A function g(x) of period 21T is defined by

1T
g(x) = x 2 for O~x~-,
2
1T2
"2 < X
1T
g(x) = - for ~1T.
4
67
 Given also that g(x) = g( -x) for all x, sketch the graph of g(x) for
-211' ~ x ~ 211'. (L)

• g(x) =x 2 for 0 ~ x ~ ! gives figure (a).

2
2
g(x) =~ for! < x ~ 11' gives figure (b).
. 4 2
Combining these two gives figure (c).
g(x) = g(-x) extends the graph to figure (d).
g(x) has a period of 211', so this part of the curve is one period. Extending
it to -211" ~ X ~ 211' gives figure (e).

g(x) g(x) g(x)

-
4 4 4

..-;.---+-___ x ~--+_--~~x ~--1_---+~x

o rr
o rr
rr o rr rr
2 2 2
(a) (b) (e)

g(x)

-+------~--~~~--_+------~-x

-rr
rr o rr rr
2 2
(d)

g(x)

~~----~-----+----~-----3~~---r----~------~----~~_X
3rr rr rr 3rr
-rr o rr
2 2 2 2
(e)

7.8 The curve whose equation is y = x 2 undergoes, in succession, the following

transformations:
(a) A translation of magnitude 3 units in the direction of the negative x-axis.
(b) A scaling parallel to the y-axis by a factor of 2.

68
 ( c) A translation of magnitude 3 units in the direction of the y-axis.
Give the equation of the resulting curve and sketch this curve. (Your
sketch should show the coordinates of at least three points on the curve.)
Another curve undergoes, in succession, the transformations (a), (b), (c) as
a'b ove, an d t h e equatIon
. 0 f th i'
e resu . y
tmg curve IS = 5x + 12
-----
x+2
Determine the equation of the curve before the three transformations
were effected.
. h t h e equatIon
Sk etch t h e curve WIt 5x + 12
. y = --.-
x+2

• .y =x 2 => Y = (x + 3)2 after translation (-g) .

y =(x + 3)2 => Y = 2(x + 3)2 after scaling factor of 2.
y = 2(x + 3)2 => Y = 2(x + 3)2 + 3 after translation (~) .

(0,21)

(-3,3)
~----+----r--~----+----r--~----+---'-X
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 o

y = 5x + 12 has to undergo transformations (C)-l, (b)-l and (a)-l in

x+2
succession in order to find the equation before the transformations (a),
(b) and (c):

y=
5x + 12 => y=
5x + 12 -3
= 2x + 6 under (C)-l
x+2 x+2 x+2

y=
2x + 6 => v =1 (2X + 6) -
x+3
----0 under (b)-l
x+2 ~ 2 x+2 x+2
(x - 3) + 3
y=--
x+3 => y= = -x- . under (a)-l
x+2 (x - 3) + 2 x-I

See diagram on next page.

69
 y

5x + 12
y=--
x+2

--~------~----~-L-------+------~r-------+-~-X
-6 o 2 4

7.9 The vertex A of a square ABCD is at the point (4, -3). The diagonal BD has
equation x - 7y + 75 = 0, and the vertex D is nearer to the origin than B.
Calculate
(a) the coordinates of the centre of the square and of B, C and D,
(b) the length of AB,
(c) the equation of the circle which touches the sides of the square.

____-'~~-----;a1~r---------~;7~-:X~-7Y+75=0
D

--~---------+--------~~~~~-+--------~~ __ X
-20 20

A (4,-3)

• (a) Line BD is x - 7y + 75 = 0 => y = -tx + ~5 . (1)

Gradient of BD is-t.
The diagonals of a square are perpendicular, so AC has a gradient of -7.
Equation of AC isy - (-3) = -7(x - 4),
=> y + 3 = - 7x + 28 or 7x + y = 25 (2)
AC and BD intersect atthe centre of the square.
Solving equations 1 and 2 simultaneously,
x - 7(25 - 7x) + 75 = 0 => 50x = 100, x = 2, y = 11.
Therefore the centre of the square E is the point (2, 11).

70
 A is (4, -3), E is (2, 11). Therefore EA =(
2). Since the diagonals
-14
of a square are equal and bisect perpendicularly at E,

EB = (14)2 ' EC= (-2)

14 '
ED = (-14)
-2 .
Thus B is (2 + 14, 11 + 2), Cis (2 - 2, 11 + 14), Dis (2 - 14, 11 - 2).
=* B(l6,13), C(O, 25), D(-12,9).
(D is nearer to 0 than B .)
(b) The length of AB is y[(16 - 4)2 + (13 + 3)2] = 20 units.
(c) If a circle touches all the sides of the square, the centre is at E (2, 11)
and the diameter is 20 units, so the radius is 10 units.

The equation of the circle is

(x - 2)2 + (y - 11)2 = 10 2
=* x 2 + y2 - 4x - 22y + 25 = O.

7.3 Exercises
7.1 The equation of the line through the points (1, -2) and (-5, 6) is
A, 4x - 3y = -1; B,4x + 3y = -2; C, 3x + 4y = -5;
D, 3x - 4y = 11; E, none of these.

7.'). The locus of the points equidistant from the centres of the circles whose
equations are
x 2 + y2 - 2x + 4y - 5 = 0
and x 2 + y2 - lOx - 8y + 2 = 0 has equation
A, 8x + l2y - 7 = 0; B, 6x + 2y + 3 = 0; C,4x + 6y - 5 = 0;
D, 2x + 3y - 9 =0; E, none of these.

7.3 The centre of the circle 3x 2 + 3y2 - 15x - 6y + 2 = 0 is the point

A, (15, 6); B, (7.5, 3); C, (-5, -2)-; D, (-15, -6); E, (2.5, 1).

7.4 A and B are the points (2, 4) and (4, 10) respectively. Find
(a) the equation of AB,
(b) the equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB,
(c) the equations of circles through A which touch both of the coordinate axes,
(d) the perpendicular distance of the centres of the circles from the perpendicular
bisector of AB,
(e) the point other than A at which the line AB intersects the smaller circle.

7.5 The curve whose equation is y = x 3 undergoes in succession the following

transformations:
(a) a translation of magnitude 2 parallel to the y-axis,
(b) a scaling parallel to the x-axis of factor 2,

71
 (c) a scaling parallel to the y-axis of factor 3,
(d) a translation of -2 parallel to the y-axis.
Give the equation and sketch of the resulting curve, and the coordinates of
three points on the curve.

7.6 Find the equation of the circle having the line joining the points (2, 1) and
(4, 7) as diameter. Find the equations of the tangents from the point (3, 0) to
this circle.

7.7 The coordinates of the vertices of the triangle ABC are A(2, 0), B(8, -3),
C(5, 6). Show that the triangle is isosceles and find the midpoint D of BC. Find
the equation of the circumcircle of triangle ACD. Find the angle ABD (a construc-
tion will not be accepted).

7.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

7.1 (1,-2) does not satisfy A, but does satisfy B, C and D.
(-5,6) satisfies B, but not CorD Answer B

7.2 Centres of circles are C 1 (1, -2) and C2 (5, 4). P (x, y) is equidistant from
C 1 and C2 if (PC l )2 = (PC 2 )2.
=> (x - 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = (x - 5)2 + (y - 4)2
=> 8x+12y=36 => 2x+3y=9. AnswerD

7.3 x 2 + y2 - 5x - 2y + t = 0 has centre (t, t). AnswerE

7.4
y-4 x-2
(a) 4 _ 10 - 2 _ 4 => Y = 3x - 2.
(b) Midpoint of AB is (3, 7), perpendicular bisector has gradient - t, so equation
is
y - 7 = - t (x - 3) => 3y = -x + 24.

20

o 10 20

72
(c) If circle has centre (h, k), in order to touch both axes h = ±k and
radius = 1h I. Equation has form (x - h)2 + (y ± h)2 = h 2 .
To go through (2, 4), circle lies in first quadrant, so h = +k and
(2-h)2+(4-h)2=h2 => h=10 or h=2.
Circles are (x - 10)2 + (y-- 10)2 = 100
and (x - 2)2 + (y -- 2)2 = 4.
Cd) Centres are (10, 10) and (2, 2).
Perpendicular distance of (10, 10) from x + 3y - 24 = 0 is
10 + (3)(10) - 241= ~ .
1 y(l2+3 2 ) ylO
Perpendicular distance of (2, 2) from x + 3y -- 24 = 0 is

2 + (3)(2) - 241= -~.

1 y(l2+3 2 ) ylO
(e) AB hasequationy=3x-2,smallercirclehasequation (x - 2)2 + (y - 2)2 =4.
Substituting gives
(x - 2)2 + (3x - 4)2 = 4 => x = 2 or x = -t.
Required point is (1-, t).

7.S y =x 3
YA =x 3 + 2.

)lB = (~) 3 + 2.
Ye = 3[(~)3 + 2J .

Yo = 3[(1) 3 + 2J - 2 => 8y = 3x 3 + 32.

Three points (0, 4), (2, 7), (- 2, 1).

-----+----~----~----+-----r-----~~ x
-4 4 6

-10

73
 7.6 Centre of circle is (3, 4),
radius = y(1 + 9) =y(10) => (x - 3)2 + (y - 4)2 = 10.
Line through (3, 0) is y = m (x - 3).
To be a tangent, perpendicular distance from (3, 4) = y(1 0).
m(3)-4-3m =±_/(10) => IOm 2 =6 => m=±-/(t).
y(m2+12) v v
Equations of tangents are y = ±y(t) (x - 3).

Y=v'~(x-3)

----~----~~--~------------~x
o

7.7 AB = y(36 + 9), BC=y(9 + 81), CA = y(9 + 36).

AB = CA => isosceles triangle.

o 10 x

8 (8,-3)

Midpoint D of BC is (¥, t).

Since LADC is a right angle, AC must be a diameter of the circumcircle through
A, D and C,
=> centre is d', 3), radius is 1'y(45),
equation (x - iY + (y - 3)2 = ~,
=> x 2 + y2 - 7x - 6y + 10= O.

cos LABD = y(90) => LABD = 45°.

2y(45)
74
8 Trigonometric Functions
and Formulae
Definition of the six trigonometric functions for any angle; their periodic proper-
ties and symmetries.
Use of the sine and cosine formulae.
The angle between a line and a plane, between two planes and between two skew
lines, using trigonometric methods.
Circular measure.

8.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Degrees and Radians

• 1 radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc

equal in length to the radius.
180
• I radian = degrees.
1f

(b) Sine, Cosine and Tangent of Any Angle

y

• sin e = projection of OP onto OY p

length of OP

• cos e = projection of OP onto OX

length of OP
sin e
• tan e= cos e
Projection on
x

OX

75
 • In the second quadrant:
sin fJ = sin(l80 - fJ), 90 C

cos fJ = - cos(l80 - fJ), s+ s+

tan fJ = - tan(l80 - fJ). c+
c-
• In the third quadrant:
sin fJ = - sin(fJ - 180), T- T+
1800 0"
cos fJ = - cos(O - 180), s- s-
tan fJ = tan(fJ - 180). c- c+
• In the fourth quadrant: T+ T-
sin fJ = - sin(360 - fJ),
cos fJ = cos(360 - fJ), 270<

tan fJ = - tan(360 - fJ).

(c) Cosecant, Secant and Cotangent

1
• cosec fJ =- -.
sin fJ

• sec fJ = - - .
cos fJ
1 cos fJ
• cot fJ =- -
tan fJ sin fJ

(d) Pythagorean Identities

• cos 2 fJ + sin 2 fJ = 1.
• 1 + tan 2 fJ = sec 2 fJ.
• cot 2 fJ + 1 = cosec 2 fJ.

(e) Sine and Cosine Formulae

• Sine
_a_ = _b_ = _c_ = 2R where R is the radius of the circumcircle.
sin A sin B sin C
• Cosine
a 2 =b 2 +c 2 -2(b)(c)cosA or cos A = b2 + c 2 _ a2
.
2 (b)(c)
In the special case when angle A is a right angle, sin A = 1, cos A = 0, and they
become a= _b_ = _c_.
sinB sin C '

(f) Circular Measure

• Length of an arc = rfJ, and area of a sector = 1- ,2 fJ, where fJ is measured in

radians.

76
(g) Graphs of the Six Trigonometric Functions

• sin () Period 360 0 or 27T radians.

sin () = sin [l80n o + (-I t ()].

--+---~~---4----~----~----~----~--~~~o

• cos () Period 360 0 or 27T radians.

cos (J = cos(360n O ± ()).

--~-----+----~----+---~~--~----~-----r~O

• tan () Period 1800 or To radians.

tan 8 =tan( 180n o + 8).

I
I
--~---'~---4--~~----~--~~----~1
I
----~--.-o
311"
2
I
I
I
I
I
-2

-3

77
 • cosec e Behaves as sin e.

Ii
I 31T I 1T 0 1T 31T
-- 211" -11" 1T 21T
2 2 2 2
1
-1 I

-2

-3

• sec e Behaves as cos e.

0
31T 1T 0 ?!: 31T
- 21T -1T - 1T 21T
2 2 2 2I
I I I
-1
I
I
I
-2- I
I
I
I
-3 I
I
I

78
• cotan () Behaves as tan () .

I 0 I
- 211 11 211
i I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I -2 I
I I
I I
I
I -3

(h) Skew Lines

• Lines which are not parallel but do not intersect are called skew lines. Examples:
(i) Edges AB and A 'n' of the cube shown.

0'

A' fC-----7--~

r---I--JC

A "-----..I

(ii) Edges VA and CB of the pyramid shown.

/-----\---4 C

79
8.2 Worked Examples
8.1 ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 4 cm. The radius, in cm, of the circle
passing through A, Band C is
A
A, 4; B,2; C,2v'3; D,4/v'3; E,v'3/2.

• Let 0 be the centre of the circle, the point where the perpendicular bi-
sectors of the sides intersect.
OB bisects LABC ~ LOBC = 30°.
Let N be the mid-point of BC
BN= 2 cm, LONB =90°.
In triangle OBN,

BN = cos 30° i.e. 2 = v'3 ~ OB = ~ . Answer D

OB 'OB 2 v'3

Alternatively: by the sine rule 2R = _._a_, R = 2

smA sin 60°

8.2 With the usual notation in a triangle XYZ, x = 7, y = 4, Z = 5. Without using

tables, find cos X as a fraction in its lowest terms and prove that
sin Y= 8v'6 .
y 35
1
1 • Using the cosine rule for triangle XYZ,
1
v'241
I X = y2 + Z2 - x 2 = 16 + 25 - 49 = _.l..
1 cos 2yz (2) (4) (5) 5·
_L _ --'---_ _~
1 X 4 z If cos X = - t and sin X 2 + cos2 X = 1
then

sin2 X= 1-(1·)2 = 24 ~ sinX= v'24 = 3v'6

25 5 5
(positive value only since 0° < X < 180°).
Using the sine rule for triangle XYZ,
sin Y 6) = 8v'6
sinX
~Sln
. Y
= ysinX = (4)(2V .
y x x (7)(5) 35

8.3 In triangle ABC, angle A = i.

(a) Prove that sin C = t(v'3 cos B + sin B).
(b) Given that c = 3b, where the usual notation applies, find, by using the sine
rule or otherwise, the size of angle B .

• (a) A + B + C = 7f (angle sum of a triangle).

~ C=7f-(A+B), sinC=sin [7f-(A+B)] =sin(A+B)
~ sin C = sin A cos B + cos A sin B = sin !!. cos B + cos ~ sin B
3 3

80
 8 sin C = ~3 cos B + ~ sin B = I (y'3 cos B + sin B). (1)

· ru Ie, -
(b) By t h e sme sin-B sin-
=- C. c sin B
. C = ---
, I.e. SIn
b c b
But c = 3b, therefore sin C = 3 sin B. (2)
a
Combining equations I and 2,
3 sin B =t (y'3 cos B + sin B),
5 sin B =y'3 cos B.
Divide by 5 cos B; tan B = y'3 => B = 0.333 radians.
c b A 5

8.4 The length of an edge of a regular tetrahedron ABCD is 3a. Show that the
perpendicular distance of the vertex from the opposite face is ay'6.
A point P lies on the edge AB and 01 is the acute angle which DP makes
with the plane ABC. Prove that as P moves on the edge AB the greatest and
least values of 01 are 70.5° and 54.7° approximately .

• o

Let N be the foot of the perpendicular from D to face ABC and M the mid-
point of AB.
ABC is an equilateral triangle => CMA = 90°.
By the theorem of Pythagoras, for triangle CMA, CM 2 + AM2 = AC 2 ,
c . C'M2 -- 9a2 - 4
I.e.
27a 2 ,
9a 2 -_ -4-

=> CM = 3y'3 a =DM (symmetry).

2

In triangle AMN NM
, AM
= tan 30°
'
NM = (_1_)
y'3
(3a) = ...j3a .
2 2
A 8
2
From triangle DNM, D~ + NM2 =DM2 ,
DN2 = 27a 2 _ 3a 2 = 24a 2 ,
4 4 4
DN=ay'6.
The perpendicular distance of the vertex from the opposite face is ay'6.

Let P be distance x from M.

3a 2
Then, from triangle PMN. PN 2 =NM2 + PM 2 = 4 + x 2 .

The angle 01 between DP and plane ABC is angle DPN,

81
 cot Ot
PN = __
=_
y'C1a2 +X 2)
4_ ... _ _ .
DN ay'6
3a
Maximum value of cot Ot is given by the maximum value of x,
2
Minimum value of cot Ot is given by the minimum value of x, O.

For min. Ot, cot Ot = y'~~~2 /4) = -Ji ' = Ot 54.7°.

y'(3a 2 /4)
For max. Ot, cot Ot = _/
ay 6
= 1
2y'2 ' Ot = 70.5 °.

8.5 ABC is a plane triangle with AB = 4 cm, AC = 5 cm and angle ACB = 30°.
Find, by calculation, the two possible lengths of BC, each correct to 3 sig-
nificant figures, and the corresponding values of angle ABC, correct to the
nearest tenth of a degree .

4cm
3D" - - - --_
c 5cm A

Using the cosine rule for triangle ABC,

BA 2 = BC 2 + AC 2 - 2 (BC)(AC) cos C,
16 = BC 2 + 25 - 2(BC)(5) cos 30°,
=> BC 2 - 8.66 BC + 9 = 0

=> BC = 8.66 ±y'(75 - 36) = 8.66 ±y'39

2 2
=> BC=7.450r1.21cm.
sin LABC sin LBCA
Using the sine rule for triangle ABC, =
AC AB

=> sin LABC = 5 sin 30° = 0.625

4
LABC = 38.7° or 141.3°.
WhenBC= 7.45 cm, LABC= 38.7°; whenBC= 1.21 cm, LABC= 141.3°.

8.6 A cubical packing case of edge I m has base ABCD resting on the horizontal
ground, with edges AA', BB', CC' and DD' vertical. In order to slide the case
along one edge, the case is rotated about edge AB through an angle e where
0° < e < 45°.
(a) Find, in tenns of e, the heights of C and C' above the ground.
(b) Show that the diagonal BD of the base of the packing case is inclined to
the horizontal at an angle l/J, where sin l/J = sin 8
y'2

82
 (c) Show that the diagonal AC' of the case is inclined to the horizontal at
sin f) + cos f)
an angle rp, where sin rp = - - - - -
y3

• D'

>T------7 B'

A B

Since all faces are squares of side 1 m, each diagonal of a face is of

length y'2 m (theorem of Pythagoras).
(a) Let the points Nand M be points on the ground vertically below
C and C', LCBN= f)0, CB = 1 m.
From triangle CNB, CN =CB sin f) = sin f).
From triangle CC'X, C'X = CC' cos f) = cos f).
But C'M = C'X + XM = C'X + CN= cos f) + sin f).
Therefore C and C' are sin f) m and (sin f) + cos f) m above the ground
respectively.

(b) D is distance sin f) above the ground, DB = y2 m.

C'
sin f) .
From triangle DBL, ~~ = sin 1/1 ~ y2 =8111 1/1.
y'3 sin 0 + cos 0
(c) The diagonals oqhe packing case are each of length
y(l2 + 12 + 12) = y3 m.
C'M sin f) + cos f)
A M
From triangle C'MA, sin rp = C'A = y3

8.7 ABCD is one face of a cube and AA', BB', CC' and DD' are edges, each of
length 2a. The midpoint of AB is X, and the midpoint of DD' is Y. Calculate
(a) the lengths B'X, B'Y, XY,
(b) sin LXYB',
(c) the area of triangle XYB'.

A'
~------,...
D'
• (a) In triangle BB' X, RB' = 2a, BX =a, LB' BX = 90 0 •
By the theorem of Pythagoras, B'X 2 = BX 2 + BB'2
'\..,-_ _+----"1 C'
B'X 2 = Sa 2 , B'X =YSa.
---- Similarly, DX = YSa.
In triangle XDY, XD = ySa, DY =a, LXDY = 90 0 •
By the theorem of Pythagoras, XY2 = XD 2 + Dy 2
"-
"- , Xy 2 = 6a 2 , XY =Y6a.
C In triangleA'B'D', A'D' =A'B' = 2a, LA'B'D' = 4S o .

83
 B'A'
- - = cos 45 = - I
0
B'D' = 2- /2a.
B'D' V2 =?
v
In triangle B'D'Y, B'D' = 2V2a, D'Y = a, LB'D'Y = 90 0 •
By the theorem of Pythagoras, B'y 2 = B'D'2 + D'y 2
B'y 2 = 9a 2 , B'y = 3a.
B'X =V5a, B'Y = 3a, XY =V6a.

(b) By the cosine rule for triangle B'XY,

, Xy 2 + B'Y2 - B'X 2 lOa _ 5
cos LXYB = 2(Xy) (B'y) = 6V 6a- 3V6'

But sin LXYB' = vO - cos 2 LXYB') == vO- ~),

sin LXYB' = V;~.

(c) Area of triangle XYB' = -t (B'y) (Xy) sin LXYB'

= -t (3a) (V6a)V~~
_ V 29
---a.
2
2

8.8 For each of the following expressions state whether or not it is periodic, and,
if it is periodic, give the period:
(a) sin x, x*' 0; (b) sin 2 x; (c) I cos x I.
x

• (a) sin x is not periodic.

x

r-------~------~------~~----~ __ x

(b) sin 2 x is periodic, period 1r.

--~~---r--~~----r---~~---+----~~~x
-7r o 7r 27r

84
 (c) I COS X I is periodic, period 1T.

---+----~----~--~~--~----~----~--~x
1T 1T 31T
2 2 2

8.9 ABCD is one face of a cube and AA', BB', CC' and DD' are edges. The point
E divides AA' internally in the ratio 2 : 3. Find
(a) the angle between CE and C'D',
(b) the angle between the planes BCE and ABC.

• (a) Lines CE and C'D' are skew. The angle between them is the same as
that between CE and any line parallel to C'D', such as CD.

0' C'
~----------------~

A' B'

F
~
3a / ~

/ ~
'-..
/ '-..
/ '-..
'-..
/
/
E
C
2a

5a B

Let the length of each edge be Sa (since AA' has to be divided intern-
E
ally in the ratio 2 : 3).
The length of the diagonal of a face is SY2a.
In triangle EAC, EA = 2a, AC = Sy2a, LEAC = 90°.
HenceEC 2 = (2a)2 +(Sy2a)2 = S4a 2 , EC=Y(S4)a.
Sa
In triangle ECD, LEDC= 90°, => cos C= y(S4)a '
o 5a
Therefore the angle between CE and C'D' is 47.1°.

(b) The angle between planes BCE and ABC is LEBA.

tanEBA = -EA = --
2a
LEBA = 21.8°.
AB Sa'
Therefore the angle between the planes BCE and ABC is 21.8°.

85
 8.10 A chord PQ of a circle centre 0 divides the circle into two segments whose
areas are in the ratio 1 : 2. If the obtuse angle POQ is ex, show that
3ex = 211" + 3 sin ex.
Use a graphical method to find ex.

• Area of segment = area of sector OPQ - area of triangle OPQ

=-tr2 ex - tr2 sin ex.
Area of segment =t area of circle =t1l"r2.
Therefore -tr2 ex - -tr2 sin ex =t1l"r2 .
Multiplying by 6/r 2 gives
3ex - 3 sin ex = 211" or 3ex = 211" + 3 sin ex.
From the graphs of y =3 sin ex and y = 3ex - 211",
ex = 2.61 radians.

y
y=3a-271"
2

L-------+-------+-------1---------------~a
2.4 2.5 _ 2.6 2.7

8.3 Exercises
8.1 The dimensions of triangle ABC are AB =7 cm, BC = 4 cm and LA CB = 120°.
Length b is given by:
A, b 2 = 65 - 56 cos 120°; B, b 2 + 4b + 33 = 0; C, b 2 - 4b + 33 = 0;
=
0, b 2 65 + 56 cos 60°; E, b 2 + 4b - 33 = O.

8.2 0 is the centre of a circle and OP and OQ are radii. If OP =3 and PQ =5

then the value of sin LPOQ is
A 3
, "5; B
, i.
5'
C 2.
, 18' 0,
~.
18 ' E, none of these.

8.3 The period of tan (38 + 30°), (J E R, is-:

A, 120°; B,1800; C,600; 0,90°; E,5400.

8.4 The four graphs shown are all drawn to the same scale. Graph (i) has equa-
tion y = sin xo. State the values of the numbers a and h.
Give the equations of the graphs (ii), (iii) and (iv).

86
 v

o IL-----.---+--;.-+----+--+-~- x (i) 0 ~_+___t-+---+-+--+-----"f______t__- x (i i)

2a

2b

v v

o ~-.-~____\:~--+--'-+-.--+-+__I- x (i ii) 0 f-----f-,-__t-+---+----'\--+------1-+-- x (iv)

h b

8.5 ABCD is the square base of side 2a, of a pyramid with vertex V. If
VA = VB = VC = VD = 3a find
(a) the vertical height of the pyramid,
(b) the angle between VA and the horizontal plane,
(c) the angle plane VAB makes with the horizontal plane,
(d) the angle between planes VAB and VAC,
(e) the angle between VA and BC.

8.6 With the usual notation for triangle ABC prove that
b 2 + c2 _ a
2
cosA = ...-.-
2bc

(assume that the triangle is acute-angled).

If two circles of radii 5 cm and 7 cm, centres C 1 and C 2 respectively, intersect at
A and B, and C 1 C 2 = 10 cm, calculate
(a) LAC 1 C2 ;

(b) area of triangle A C 1 C 2 ;

(c) area common to both circles.
Give all answers to one decimal place.

8.7 In triangle ABC, AB = 5 cm, BC = 6 em, LACB = 410. Show that there are
two possible triangles, A 1 BC and A 2 Be. Find the length of A 1 A 2 •

8.8 ABCD is a rectangle with AB = 7 cm, BC .=: 5 cm. AA', BB', CC' and DD' are
perpendicular to ABCD, AA' = BB' = 4 cm, CC' = DD' = 6 cm. A'B'C'D' are all on
the same side of A BCD. If M is the midpoint of AB and N is the midpoint of B'C',
find LD'MN and the area of triangle D'MN.

87
 8.9 In the diagram, the chord CD cuts the circle, radius r, centre 0, into two
segments. CD subtends an angle () at the centre of the circle where 0 < () < 'fr.
Write down an expression for the perimeter P of the minor segment. If the perim-
eter P is half of the circumference of the circle, show that 2 sin f!.- =('fr - ().
2
Use a graphical method to find the value of () .

8.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

8.1 Use the cosine rule: 49 =b 2 + 16 - 8b cos 120°.
b 2 + 4b - 33 = O. Answer E

9 + 9 - 25 _ 7.
8.2 OQ = 3, cos ()( = - -18- - - - 18'
sin 2 ()(= 1 - cos 2 ()(= 1 _ 49 _ 275.
324 - 324'
. 5- /11
=> sm ()( = _v_ . Answer D
18

8.3 Period of tan (n(}) =1 (period of tan ())

n
Period of tan (3() + 30°) = 1 (180°) = 60°. Answer C
3

8.4 a = 180, b = -1.

(ii) 2 sin xO; (iii) sin tx (notice 1t cycles in 360°);
(iv) sin (x - 45°).

8.5
v

~-~-+-~---~c

A M 8

(a) AC =BD = 2y2a, height VN =y(9a 2 - 2a 2 ) =aY7.

(b) Angle VAN: cos LVAN= AN/VA = y2
,LVAN= 61.9°.
3
(c) M is the midpoint of AB. Angle between VAB and the horizontal is LVMN.
tan LVMN = VN/NM =y7; LVMN = 69.3°.
-t
(d) Angle between VAB and VAC is (angle between VAB and VAD)
=t (LBXD) where X is the foot of the perpendicular from B to VA.
88
 BX = 2a sin L VAB = 2a y8 = 4y'2a.
3 3
From triangle BXN, sin LBXN = BN/BX = t. LBXN = 48.6°.
(e) Angle between VA and BC = angle between VA and AD.
Angle VAD = 70.5°.

8.6 By the theorem of Pythagoras:

Triangle BAD: BD2 = c 2 - c 2 cos 2 A.
Triangle BCD: BD2 = a 2 - (b - c cos A)2 .
Equating gives a 2 = b 2 + c 2 - 2bc cos A.

c a

A ccosA 0 (b - c cos A) c

( a) Cosine rule: cos LAC,C2 = 25 + 100 - 49 LAC C = 40.5°.

100 ' '2

(b) Area of triangle AC, C2 = -t (5)(10) sin (40.5)° = 16.2 cm 2 .

(c) Sine rule: sin LAC2C, =
5

Circle centre C, : area sector AC1B = rr(5)2 LAC,B

360 = 1767 2
. cm.

Circle centre C2 : area sector AC2 B = rr(7)2 L~~~B = 23.69 cm 2 .

Area common to both circles = sum of sectors - area AC,BC2 = 8.9 cm 2 •

89
 8.7 By cosine rule, BA 2 =BC 2 + AC 2 2 (BCHAC ) cos C.
~ AC2 -9.057(AC)+ 11 =0,AC=7.61 or 1.45,A 1 C= 1.45,A 2 C=7.61,
AIA2 =6.16 cm.

8 6

8.8 From right-angled triangles, B'C' = y29, C'N = -ry29, D'N = 7.5.
1-
PN = 5, PM = y 74 = 4.301, MN = 6.595, MD = 6.1 03, MD' = 8.559.

D'

C'

4 6

+ MD'2 - D'N 2
, ,
By cos rule, triangle MND ,cos LD MN = NM22(NM)(MD) ,- LD'M.V = 57.6°.

Area of triangle D'MN = -r(MD')(MN) sin LNMD' = 23.8 cm 2 •

90
8.9 From the diagram (see Q. 8.9) chord CD = (2r) sin f, minor arc CD = r().
2
Perimeter of minor segment = (2r)~ sin f'! + r() = 1Tr.

=> 2 sin f = 1T - ().

2
From the graphs of y = 2 sin f and y = 1T - (), () = 1.66 radians.
2

'-f----- Y = 7T - e
2

1-

L-----_4------~_4--------_4~--~_e

o 2

91
9 Trigonometric Identities
and Equations
Knowledge and use of the formulae for sin (A ± B), cos (A ± B), tan (A ± B),
sin A ± sin B etc. Identities such as sin 2 A + cos 2 A == 1. Expression of
a cos () + b sin () in the form r cos (() ± a).
General solution of simple trigonometric equations, including graphical interpre-
tation.

9.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Pythagorean Identities

• sin 2 A + cos 2 A == 1.
• tan 2 A + 1 == sec 2 A.
• cot 2 A + 1 == cosec 2 A.

(b) Compound Angle Formulae

• Addition
sin(A ± B) == sin A cos B ± cos A sin B,
cos(A ± B) == cos A cos B =+= sin A sin B,
tan (A ± B) == tan A ± tan B
1 =+= tan A tan B
• Factor
. A+ sm. B== 2'sm (A- 2+ -B) cos (A. -2 B) '
sm

. A- sm. B== 2 cos (A-2-

sm + B) sm. (A -2 B) '
A+B) cos (A -2 B) '
cosA + cosB == 2 cos (-2-

· (A +
cos A- cos B== - 2 sm 2 B) sm. (A- 2- -B) .
• Product
sin A cos B == [sin(A + B) + sin(A - B)] /2,
cos A sin B == [sin(A + B) - sin(A - B)] /2,
cos A cos B == [cos(A + B) + cos (A - B)] /2,
sin A sin B == [cos(A - B) - cos(A + B)] /2,
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 (c) Multiple Angle

• sin 2A == 2 sin A cos A.

• cos 2A == cos 2 A - sin 2 A
== 2 cos 2 A - I == I - 2 sin 2 A.
• tan 2A == 2 tan A
I - tan 2 A

• cos 2 A == I + cos 2A
2

• .
SIn
2 A =
- I - cos 2A .
2
• sin 3 A == 3 sin A - 4 sin 3 A.
• cos 3 A == 4 cos 3 A - 3 cos A.

(d) (r, 0') Formula

• If a and b are positive, a cos 0 ± b sin 0 == r cos (0 + 0'1 )

b sin 0 ± a cos 0 == r sin (0 ± 0'2)'
• r2 =a 2 + b 2 , tan 0'1 = !!.-a' tan 0'2 = !!:.
b
(r positive, 0'1 and 0'2 acute).

(e) 't' Formulae

x 2t I - t2 2t
• If t = tan - , then sin x == - - 2 . cos X == - - 2 ' tan x ==
2 I+t ' I+t I - t2

(f) Hints for Solutions

(i) When in doubt, or if more than two trigonometric functions are present,
change all of the functions into sines and cosines.
(ii) Compare left-hand side and right-hand side. If the angles are all the same, e.g.
all 0, use the basic identities from Chapter 8 and the Pythagorean identities.
If the angles are different, use the compound angle formulae.
(iii) In identity questions, start with the more complicated side, and work on one
side at a time.

9.2 Worked Examples

9.1 If 2 sin 0 - 3 cos () is expressed in the form r cos (0 - 0'), where r> 0 and
o ~ 0' ~ 21T, then 0' lies between
A, 0 and 1T/2; B, 1T/2 and 1T; C, 1T and 31T/2; D, 31T/2 and 21T.

• 2 sin 0 - 3 cos () ==r cos (0 - 0')

== r cos 0 cos 0' + r sin 0 sin 0'.

93
 Equating coefficients of sin O. 2 == r sin Ol.
Equating coefficients of cos O. -3 == r cos Ol.
Since r > O. sin Ol> 0 and cos Ol < 0, Ol must lie in the second quadrant.
Answer B

9.2 Given that 5 cos 0 - 12 sin 0 = 13 cos (0 + 67.4°), which of the following
equations has/have solutions for 0 E fA?
(a) 5 cos 0 -- 12 sin 0 = 6; (b) 5 cos 0 - 12 sin 0 = -10;
( c) 5 cos 0 - 12 sin 0 = 17 ; (d) 5 cos 0 - 12 sin 0 = -13.
A, (a) only; B, (a) and (b) only; C, (c) only;
D, (a), (b) and (d) only; E, (b), (c) and (d) only .

• Since f(O) = 5 cos 0 - 12 sin 0 = 13 cos (0 + 67.4), then f(O) has a maxi-
mum value of 13 and a minimum value of -13 => -13 ~ f(O) ~ 13.
Equations a, band d satisfy this condition. Answer D

9.3
(a) Prove that cos 30 + sin 30 =(cos 0 - sin 0) (1 + 2 sin 20).
(b) If 2a cos 2x + b sin 2x + 2c = 0, where a =1= 0 and a =1= C, find an equation for
tan x.
State the sum and product of the roots of this equation, tan x I and tan x 2,
and hence deduce that tan (x I + X2) =-b .
2a

• (a) To prove
cos 30 + sin 30 =(cos 0 - sin 0) (1 + 2 sin 20):
cos 30 = 4 cos 3 0 - 3 cos 0, sin 30 = 3 sin 0 - 4 sin 3 O.
l.h.s.: cos 30 + sin 30
= 4 cos 3 0 - 3 cos 0 + 3 sin 0- 4 sin 3 0
= 4(cos 3 0 - sin 3 0) - 3(cos 0 - sin 0)
= 4(cos 0 - sin 0) (cos 2 0 + cos 0 sin 0 + sin 2 0) - 3(cos 0 - sin 0)
= (cos 0 - sin 0)(4 + 4 cos 0 sin 0 - 3),
=> cos 30 + sin 30 = (cos 0 - sin 0) (1 + 2 sin 20).

(b) Given: 2a cos 2x + b sin 2x + 2c = O.

1- t2 2t
cos 2x = an d sm. 2x = -~-. h
were t = tan x.
1 + t2 1 + t2 '

Substituting: 2a (1 - t 2 ) + 2b~ + 2c = O.
1 + t2 1 + t2
Multiply by (1 + t 2 ): 2a - 2at 2 + 2bt + 2c + 2ct 2 = 0
t 2 (2c - 2a) + 2bt + (2a + 2c) = 0
t 2 (c - a) + bt + (a + c) = O.

Sum of roots: tan Xl + tan X2 = --b

--
(c - a)

Product of roots: tan Xl tanx2 = (a + c)

(c - a)

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 b
tan (Xl +X2)= tanxl + tanx 2 = (c-a)
1 - tan x 1 tan x 2 1_ a +c
c-a

=--------.
-b b
(c - a) - (a + c) 2a

9.4 Given that sin (A - B) =1= 0, prove that

A B= SIn. (A-2+-B)
sin + sin
sin(A - B)
cosec (A -2 B) .
Use this result to find cosec ISo in surd form.

A B = sm. (A 2+ B)
• To prove sin + sin
sin(A - B)
cosec (A 2- B) :
The product on the r.h.s. suggests the use of the factor formula for the
numerator on the l.h.s.

. A+ sm. B= 2·sm (A +2 B) cos (A~B)

sm (factor formula);

sin(A - B) = 2 sin (A ; B) cos (A; B) (double angle formula).

sin A + sin B
= 2 sin (~) (A ;B)
cos

2 sin (A ;B) cos tA ; B)

Therefore
sin (A - B)

= sin (~)
(A; B)
sin

= sin (A; B) cosec (A; B).

If A - B = ISO then A - B = 30°.

2
Choose values for A and B which satisfy this condition.
Let A = 60°, B = 30°, A + B = 90°.
sin 60° + sin 30° = sin 4So cosec ISO
Then
sin 30°
y3 1
-+-
2 2 _ 1
cosec ISO
y2
2
y2 (y3 + 1) = cosec ISO
~ cosec ISO = y6 + Y2.

95
 9.5 Find, without using tables or a calculator, the value of

( sin
51T
- cos 51T )2
12 12

( sin 51T - cos 51T )2 = sm. 2 -51T sm -511' cos -511' + cos 2 511'
- 2'
• 12
-
12 12 12 12 12
51T 51T) . 51T
= ( sin
2
12 + cos 2 12 - sm (5

= 1- 1-
_J..
- 2'

. . sin 28 sin 38 sin 48

9.6 Fmd expreSSIOns for - - , - - and in terms of cos 8.
sin 8 sin 8 sin 8

• sin 28 = 2 sin 8 cos 8. (1)

sin 38 = 3 sin 8 - 4 sin 3 8 = sin 8 (3 - 4 sin 2 8)
= sin 8 {3 - 4(1 - cos 2 8)}
= sin 8 (4 cos 2 8 - 1). (2)
sin 48 = 2 sin 28 cos 28 = 4 sin 8 cos 8 (2 cos 2 8 - 1). (3)
sin 28
From 1, - - = 2 cos 8.
sin 8
From 2, sin 30 = 4 cos 2 8 - 1.
sin 8
From 3 sin 48 = 4 cos 8 (2 cos 2 0 - 1) = 8 cos 3 e - 4 cos e.
, sin e

9.7 Find the angles between -180° and 180° which satisfy the equations
(a) 3 sin 2 e - 2 cos 2 8 = 1,
(b) 3 sin 8 - 2 cos 0 = 1.

• (a) 3 sin 2 8 - 2 cos 2 0 = 1.

Using the identity sin 2 e + cos 2 e = 1,
cos 2 e = 1 - sin 2 e.
Substituting: 3 sin2 e - 2 + 2 sin 2 8 = 1,
5sin2 8=3 ~ sinO=±v't·
When sin 8 = v't. 0 = (50.8° or 180° - 50.8°) + 360no.
When sin 8 = -v't. 0 = (-50.8° or -180° + 50.8°) + 360no.
Therefore e = -129.2°, -50.8°, 50.8°,129.2°.

(b) There are two standard methods for this question,

(i) 't' substitution, (ii) (R, a).

2( 1 - (2 e
(i) 't' substitution: sin e = - - , cos e = 2 ' where t = tan
1 + (2 1+( 2
6t
Substituting:
1+ t2
6( - 2 + 2t2 = 1 + (2
t 2 + 6t - 3 = O.

96
 Solving: t = 0.4641 or - 6.4641.

When tan ~ = 0.4641, ~ = 24.9° + 180no, f} = 49.8° + 360no.

2 2

When tan %= ~6.4641, %= -81.2° + 180no, f} = - 162.4° + 360no.

Therefore f} = -162.4° and 49.8° in the range -180° to 180°.

(ii) Let 3 sin f} - 2 cos f} == R sin (f) - Q')

== R sin
f} cos Q' - R cos f} sin Q'.

Comparing terms in sin f}, 3 = R cos Q'.

Comparing terms in cos f}, 2 = R sin Q'.
· ..
BY d IVlSlon, tan Q' = "3,
2. .. Q' = 33 .7° .
R2 =3 2 +22 => R=y'13;
Therefore y'13 sin (f) - 33.7°) = 1
1
sin (f) - 33.7°) = y'13 = 0.2774.
f} - 33.7° = (16.1° or163.9°) + 360n°.
Therefore f} = (49.8° or197.6°) + 360no.
Therefore f} = -162.4° and 49.8° in the range -180° to 180°.

9.8 Solve the equations

(a) 3 sin x - 2 sin 4x + 3 sin 7x = 0 for 0° :os;;;; x ~ 180°.
(b) 3 sin 2x = 2 tan x for -180° ~ x ~ 180°.
(c) 8 sin 3 x - 6 sin x = 1 for 0° < x < 360°.

• (a) 3 sin x - 2 sin 4x + 3 sin 7x = O.

Since the first and third terms have the same coefficients, combine
them and use the factor formula:

3 (sin x + sin 7x) = 6 sin 4x cos 3x;

sUbstituting: 6 sin 4x cos 3x - 2 sin 4x = 0
2 sin 4x(3 cos 3x - I) = 0
=> sin 4x = 0 or 3 cos 3x = 1, cos 3x = t.
When sin 4x = 0, 4x = 180no, x = 45no (n is an integer).
When cos 3x = t, 3x = 360no ± 70.5°, x = 120no ± 23.5°.
For 0° ~ x ~ 180°, x = 0°,23.5°,45°,90°,96.5°,135°, 143.5°, 180°.

(b) 3 sin 2x = 2 tan x.

Use 't' substitution:
sin 2x = 2t where t = tan x.
1+ t2
Substituting: 1 :~2 = 2t => 6t = 2t + 2t 3 => 2t 3 - 4t =0
2t(t2 - 2) = 0 => t = 0, y'2 or -y'2.
When tan x = 0, x = 180n°.
When tan x = y'2, x = 54.7° + 180no.
When tan x = - y'2, x = -54.7° + 180no.
For -180° ~ x ~ 180°,
x = -180°, -125.3°, -54.7°, 0°, 54.7°,125.3°,180°.

97
 ( c) 8 sin J x - 6 sin x = I.
sin 3x =3 sin x - 4 sin 3 x=>8 sin 3 x - 6 sin x = - 2 sin 3x.
Substituting into the equation: -2 sin 3x = 1, sin 3x = -- t.
When sin 3x = --to
3x = - 30° + 360no or 210° + 360no
=> x = - 10° + 120no or 70° + 120no.
In the interval, 0° < x < 360°, x = 70°, 110°, 190°, 230°, 310°, 350°.

9.9
(a) Find the general solution, in degrees, of the equation
sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x = sin x sin 2x.
(b) Find the general solution, in radians, of the equation
sin 2(J + cos 2(J = sin (J - cos (J + I .

• (a) By the factor formula,

sin x + sin 3x = 2 sin 2x cos x.
Equation becomes
2 sin 2x cos x + sin 2x - sin x sin 2x = O.
=> sin 2x (2 cos x - sin x + 1) = O.
Either sin 2x = 0, or 2 cos x - sin x + 1 = O.
When sin 2x = 0, 2x = 180no, so x = 90no.
When 2 cos x - sin x + I = 0, then use either 'I-substitutions' or compound
angles.
2 cos x - sin x = r cos(x + a), where r =y'(2 2 + 12 ), and tan a = 0.5,

Js
so a = 26.6°.
y'5 cos (x + 26.6°) = -I => cos (x + 26.6°) = -
=> x + 26.6° =360no ± 116.6°,
x = 360no + 90° or 360no - 143.1°.
x = 360no + 90° is included in the earlier solution x = 90no.
Hence general solution: x = 90no or 360no - 143.1° (n is any integer).

(b) sin 2(J + cos 28 =sin (J - cos (J +1

Hint: It would be convenient to get rid of the +1 on the r.h.s.

Either change cos 2(J to 1 - 2 sin 2 (J
or change cos 2() to cos 2 (J - sin 2 (J and 1 to cos 2 (J + sin 2 (J.

=> 2 sin (J cos () + 1 - 2 sin 2 (J = sin (J - cos (J + 1

(or 2 sin (J cos (J + cos 2 (J - sin 2 (J = sin (J - cos (J + cos 2 (J + sin2 (J),
giving 2 sin (J cos (J - 2 sin 2 (J + cos (J - sin (J = 0
=> 2 sin (J (cos (J - sin (J) + (cos (J -- sin (J) = 0
=> (cos (J - sin (J) (2 sin (J + 1) = O.
Either
2 sin (J + 1= ° => sin (J = -0.5 => (J = mr + (_l)n (- ~).
or cos (J - sin (J =0 => tan (J =1 => (J = mr + ~.

*.
4
General solution: (J =mr + (_l)n+l (~) or (4n + 1)

98
 9.10 Obtain the general solution of the equation
sin eO = cos 0/
for e in terms of (x .

• cos (X0 = sin (90° - (X0) or sin(90° + (X0).

Therefore, sin eO = sin (90°- (X0) or sin (90° + (X0).
=> e = 360n + (90- (X) or 360n + (90 + (X) where n is any integer.
=> e = (4n + 1) 90 ± (x.

9.3 Exercises
9.1 The solution of the equation 3 sin x = -.y3 cos x, where . 1T ~ x ~ i ' is
A, -1T; B, - -1T2 C,- -
1T
D, !!.-6 E, !!.-3
6

x
9.2 Show that cosec x + cot x = cot 2'
Deduce the exact values of tan 15° and tan 67i-° in rational surd form.

9.3 Given that 0° ~ e ~ 360°, express 4 sin e - 3 cos e in the form r sinCe + (X),
where r is positive and -180° ~ (X ~ 180°. Hence write down the greatest and
least values of this expression and state the corresponding values of e to the
nearest 0.1 0.

9.4
(a) Prove that (i) sin 3x = xsin (~ + x)
4 sin sin (~ x) ,
-

(ii) tan 3x = tan xtan (~+ x) tan (~ - x) .

.
(b) Prove the formulae sm e = -1 2(
+ (2
1 - (2
and cos e = 1+[2 where t = tan
e..,
Hence or otherwise prove that tan A = cosec 2A - cot 2A.

9.S Given that 3 cos x + 2 sec x + 5 = 0, find, without using tables or calculator.
all the possible values of sin x and of tan 2 X.

( sin SA )
9.6 Prove that. 2
- (cos SA )
----- 2
= 8 cos 2A(4 cos 2 .<.A-
..,
1).
smA cosA

9.7 Prove that sin 3A = 3 sin A - 4 sin 3 A. Given that sin 3x = sin 2 x. find three
possible values for sin x.
Hence find all of the solutions of the equation sin 3x = sin 2 x for
90° ~ x ~ 270°. Using the same axes, sketch the graphs of the functions sin 3.\"
and sin2 x for 90° ~ x ~ 270°. Find the subset of values of x for which
sin 3x
< sin 2 x.
99
 9.8 Given that acos x - b sin x == 2 cos (~ + x) , find the constants aand b.
Write down the general solution of the equationy'6 cos x -y'2 sinx = 2, giving
your answer in radians. (L)

9.9 Solve the equations

(a) cos 3x + 2 cos x = 0, for 0° ~ x ~ 360°;
(b) 4 cos x = cosec x, for -7r ~ X ~ 7r.

9.10 Find the general solutions, in degrees, of

(a) sin 3x - sin x = 1- cos 2x,
(b) 4 cot 2x = tan x.

9.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

9.1 3 sin x = - y'3 cos x; dividing through by 3 cos x gives
-I 7r
tan x = - => x =- Answer C
y'3 6

. x . I + t2 - t2
9.2 Usmg t = tan - gIves cosec x = - - cot x =I
2 2t ' 2t
I + t2 I - t2 x
so cosec x + cot x = - - + ~-- = cot -.
2t 2t t 2
Put x = 30°: cosec 30° + cot 30° = cot 15°. But cosec 30° = 2,

cot 30° =y'3 => tan 15° = -2 +~3 = (2 +~~~g -y'3) = 2 -y'3.
Put x = 135°: cosec 135° + cot 135° = cot 67.5°.
But cosec 135° =y'2, cot 135° = -1 => tan 67.5° = y' 1 =y'2 + 1.
2- 1

9.3 4 sin e - 3 cos e = r sinCe + 0') = r sin e cos 0' + r cos e sin 0'.
sin e terms give 4 = r cos 0', (1)
cos e terms give -3 = r sin 0'. (2)
From 1, cos 0' is positive, and, from 2, sin 0' is negative, so 0' lies in the fourth
quadrant.
tan 0' = -0.75, 0' = -36.9°.
r2 =4 2 +(_3)2 => r=5
=> 4 sin e - 3 cos e = 5 sinCe - 36.9°).
Maximum value = 5,
when sinCe - 36.9°) = 1 => e - 36.9° = 90° => e = 126.9°.
Minimum value = -5 when sinCe - 36.9t = -1 => e = 306.9°.

~~; (il 4 sin xsin G+ x) sin (~ - x) ~ 2 sin x(cos 2x - cos ~~)

= 2 sin x(1 - 2 sin 2 x + 0.5)
= 3 sin x - 4 sin 3 x = sin 3x.
(ii) Similarly, 4 cos x cos (~ + x) cos (~ - x) = cos 3x.

100
 4 sin x sin (~ + x) sin (~ - x)
sin 3x
Hence = cos3x
4 cos x cos (~ + x) cos (~ - x)

Hence result.
(b) sin () = 2 sin ~ cos ~, cos () = cos 2 () -
2
sin 2 ()
2'
c
From sketch, tan !i = t => AB = 1, Be = t
2
. () t ()
= =
A 8
SIn -
2 vO + t 2)'
cos -
2
hence results.
cosec 2A -- cot 2A = ---
sin 2A tan 2A
+t2 1 - t2
= 1 2t 2t
where t = tan A
=t
=> cosec 2A - cot 2A = tan A.

9.5 3 cos x + 2 sec x + S = 0 => 3 cos 2 X + 2 + S cos x =0

=> (3 cosx + 2) (cosx + 1) = 0
=> cos x = - t or -1.

sin2 x = 1 - cos2 X => sin x = ± S or O.

3
v
tan2 x or O. =t
( cos SA) 2 = (Si~ SA _ cos SA) (sin SA + cos SA)
cosA SIn A cosA sin A cos A

sin SA cos A - cos SA sin A sin SA cos A + cos SA sin A

= ------------
sin A cosA sin A cosA
= 4 sin 4A sin 6A = 8 sin 2A cos 2A (3 sin 2A - 4 sin 3 2A)
sin 2A sin 2A sin 2 2A
= 8 cos 2A(3 - 4 sin 2 2A) = 8 cos 2A(4 cos 2 2A - 1).

9.7 sin 3A = sin 2A cos A + cos 2A sin A

= 2 sin A cos 2 A + sin A - 2 sin 3 A
= 3 sin A - 4 sin 3 A.
sin 3x = sin 2 x=>3 sin x - 4 sin 3 x = sin 2 x
=> sin x (4 sin 2 x + sin x - 3) = O.

sin x = 0 or 0.7S or-1.

sin x = 0 => x = 180n°.
sin x = 0.7S => x = 48.6° + 360no or 131.4° + 360no.
sin x = -1 => x = 270° + 360n°.
In the range 90° ~ x ~ 270°, x = 131.4°, 180°,270°.

101
 sin 3x < sin 2 x when 90° < x < 131.4° or 180° < x < 270°.

9.8 acosx--bsinx=2cos(~+x) =y3cosx-sinx ~ a=Y3,b=1.

y6 cosx -y2 sin x = 2 ~ 2y2 cos (~+x) = 2

~ -1T + x = 2n1T ± -
1T
6 4
~ x = 2n-rr _ 1T ± 1T
6 4

9.9
(a) cos 3x = 4 cos 3 X - 3 cosx,
so cos 3x + 2 cos x = 0 becomes
cosx(4 cos 2 x-I) = O.
cosx = 0 ~ x = 90° + 180no.
cosx = 0.5 ~ x = 360no ± 60°.
cosx =-0.5 ~ x = 360n° ± 120°.
In the interval 0° .:;;;; x .:;;;; 360°, solutions are
60°, 90°, 120°, 240°, 270°, 300°.
(b) cosec x = -.I- ,
smx
so 4 cos x = cosec x ~ 4 cos x sin x = 1
2 sin 2x =1 2x = n7r + ( _l)n -7r ~ x=n~ +(-l)n~.
6 2' 12
In the interval ~7r .:;;;; X .:;;;; 7r, solutions are

x = - -11 7r -
7 7r - 1
- 7r -
5 7r.
12' 12' 12 ' 12

9.10
(a) sin 3x - sin x = 2 cos 2x sin x.
so equation becomes cos 2x C4 sin x-I) = O.
cos 2x = 0 ~ x = 45° + 90no;
sin x = 0.25 ~ x = C-l)n (14.5°) + 180no.
So general solution is
x = 45° + 90n° or C_l)n (14.5°) + 180no.
(b) 4 cot 2x = tan x ~ 4 = tan x tan 2x.
Put t = tan x, then tan 2x = ~2' and equation becomes
I - t
4-4t 2 =2t 2 ~ t=±y(-!).
When tan x =yd-), x = 39.2° + 180no.
When tan x = -yCt), x = -39.2° + 180no.
General solution isx = 180no ± 39.2°.
102
 10 Parametric Equations
Expressions of the coordinates (or position vector) of a point on a curve in terms
of a parameter.
Loci with simple equations in Cartesian and parametric forms.

10.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Parametric Form

Definition: When the equation of a curve y = f(x) is expressed as x = x (t), y = y (t),

these are the parametric equations of the curve. The independent variable t is the
parameter.

(b) Gradient in Parametric Form

If x = x (t), y = y (t); then the gradient dy = dy -;- dx

dx dt dt
dy dt
dt dx

(c) Circle

• x 2 + y2 = r2 =? x = r cos t, Y = r sin t .
• (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r2 =? x = a + r cos t, y =b + r sin t.

(d) Parabola

• y2 = 4ax =? x = at 2 ,y = 2at.

(e) Ellipse

x2 y2
• - +- =1 =? X = a cos t, y = b sin t.
a2 b2

(f) Rectangular Hyperbola

c
x = ct, Y = - .
t

103
10.2 Worked Examples
10.1 A curve is given parametrically by x = t 2 , Y = t 3 . Find the equation of the
tangent at the point with parameter t. If the tangent at P (p2, p3) meets the
curve again at R find the coordinates of R and the equation of the normal
atR.

• If x ~~ = 2t'
= t 2 , then dt y = t 3 ,then dy = 3t 2 .
dt

But dy = (dY ) ( dt) ~ dy = 3t 2 =~. (1)

dx dt dx dx 2t 2
Therefore the equation of the tangent at (t2, t 3 ) is

2y - 2t 3 = 3tx - 3t 3 2y = 3tx - t 3 .

When the tangent at P, 2y = 3px - p3 , meets the curve at R

then x = r2 , y = r3 =? 2r3 = 3pr2 _ p3 ,

i.e. 2r3 - 3pr2 + p3 = O.

Two roots of this equation are r =p (twice - because of the tangent
atP).
Hence

i.e. at the point R, r = -p/2 =? R is the point ( -p2 --~

p3)
4' S .

The parameter of R is r = -p .
2

Therefore at R dy = ~ = -3p
dx 2 4

The gradient of the normal at R is ~ = 4

-3p/4 3p

The equation of the normal at R is y - ( - PS3) = 3: (x _ ~2) .

i.e. 24py = 32x - Sp2 - 3p4.

104
lO.2 A curve is given parametrically by the equations

(t =F 0).

(a) Find the Cartesian equation of the curve.

(b) Show that x ~ 1 for all t.
(c) Find the equation of the tangent at the point P with parameter p.

• (a) x = !2 (t2 + 1.-)

f'
y = !2 (t2 _ !_)
f·

Adding gives x + y = t 2 , subtracting gives x - y = t2 •

Multiplying: (x + y) (x - y) = 1.
Cartesian equation is x 2- y2 = 1.
(b) From (a), x 2 = 1 + y2 and x > 0 from the parametric equation,
i.e. x 2 ~ 1 ~ x ~ 1 for all t.

o I!i---+----------l_ x
" 1

(c) From the Cartesian equation, 2x = 2y ~,

dy
dx
= x =
Y
(t2 + 1) . ;- (t2 _ 1) _tt4-+
t2 t2 -
1
1.

Equation of the tangent is

y _ !2 (t2 _ 1)
t2
= (t4 + 1)
(t4 - 1)
[x - !2 (t2 + l)] .[2

t 2 (t4 - l)y - t(t4 - 1)2 = t 2 (t4 + l)x - t(t4 + 1)2.

i.e. (t4 - l)y = (t4 + l)x - 2t 2 .

At P, t =P => tangent is (p4 - l)y = (p4 + l)x - 2p2.

105
 10.3 Show that the equation of the tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point
P (ap2 , 2ap) is py = x + ap2 .
If the chord PQ passes through the point Sea, 0), prove that the tangents
at P and Q intersect at right angles on a fixed straight line .
• At a general point on the parabola with parameter t,

=>
dx
- = 2at y = 2at, => dy = 2a.
dt ' dt
y

T
~~~ __ ~~ __________ ~X

But

The equation of the tangent at (at 2 , 2at) is

y - 2at =l (x - at2 ) => ty = x + at2 .

t

At P, t ;= p, tangent is py = x+ap2. (1)

At Q, t =q, tangent is qy =x+aq2. (2)
At the point of intersection equations I and 2 are satisfied simultaneously.
Equation I - equation 2 gives py - qy = ap2 - aq2 .
y(p-q)=a(p-q)(p+q) => y=a(p+q) (p =1= q).

Substitute into equation I: ap(p + q) = x + ap2, so that x =apq.

Tangents atP and Q intersect at T [apq, a(p + q)].
Since the chord passes through S, then the gradient of PS is equal to the
gradient of SQ;
2ap
i.e.
ap2 -a
= aq22aq-a =>
p
p2 -1
= q2 q_ 1

=> p(q2 _ 1)= q(p2 - 1) => pq2 _ qp2 =P _ q

=> pq(q - p) = p - q.
Since p =1= q, divide by (q - p), => pq = -1.
But the tangents at P and Q have gradients land.! , respectively.
p q

The product of the gradients = _1_ = -1.

pq
Hence the tangents intersect at right angles.
The coordinates of T become [-a, a(p + q)].
Hence T lies on the line x = -a for all values of p and q.
106
10.4 The line ty =x
- 2t2 meets the curve y = 2/x at the points A (Xl, Yl) and
B(X2, Y2)' Form a quadratic equation in Y with roots Yl and Y2 and hence
find the coordinates of the midpoint M of AB in terms of t.
Find the x, Y equation of the locus of M.
Calculate
(a) the values of t for which A and B are real, distinct points.
(b) the value of t for which A and B are coincident.
Sketch the curve xy = 2, the line ty = x - 2t 2 using the value of t
obtained in (b), and the locus of M.

• ty =x - 2t 2 , (1)

y = 2/x, hence xy = 2. (2)

The coordinates of A and B satisfy both of these equations.
From equation I, x = ty + 2t 2 . In equation 2, y (ty + 2t 2 ) = 2,
i.e. ty2 + 2t 2y - 2 = 0. (3)
Yz
e
Roots of this equation are Yl and where Yl + Y2 = -2t.

Midpoint M of AB is XI ~ X2) , (Yl ; Yz») .

Therefore at M, y = -to
Substituting into equation I : t2 = x - 2t2, x = t 2 .
Hence M has coordinates (t2 , -t).
Parametric equation of locus of M is x = t 2 , Y = -to
Cartesian equation is x = y2 .

(a) For A and B to be real distinct points, equation 3 must have real
distinct roots, i.e. discriminant is positive,
i.e. 4t4 + 8t > 0,
4t(t3 + 2) > 0,
i.e. t>O or t«_2)1/3 = _ (2)1/3.

- (2)'/3 0

4t +

+ +

4t (t 3 + 2) + +

(b) When A and B are coincident, chord AB becomes a tangent and equa-
tion 3 has equal roots, i.e. discriminant = 0,
=? 4t 4 + 8t = 0, t = °or (_2)1/3.

When t = 0, equation I becomes x = 0, which is the y-axis. This is

not a tangent for real finite values of y.
Therefore the line is a tangent when t = (_2)1/3 = _2 1/ 3 .
Equation of tangent is x + 2 1 / 3 Y = 2 5 / 3 .

107
 v

v = 2/x

Locus of M

__
,,
--r---~--~---+--~~--+---~--~~~----r---~-- x
\ 5 6

' ......
--T--- I
Locus of M

10.5 In each case eliminate the parameter t from the two equations to give an
equation in x and y:

(a) 2t
x= - - - y=
I + t3 ' 1 + t3 '

(b) x = 3 + 2 sec t, y = 4 - 5 tan t;

(c) x = 4 sin2 t cos t, y = 4 sin t cos 2 t;
e t + e- t
(d) x= y=---
2 2

2t 2t 2
• (a) x = y=
1 + t3 ' 1 + t3 .

Since x and y have a large common factor, find ~ or y .

y x

l' = t. Substitute into the x equation:

x
x (1 + ;:) 2: =

Multiply by x 2 : x 3 + y3 = 2xy.
(b) x = 3 + 2 sec t; y = 4 - 5 tan t.

Use the basic trigonometric identity sec 2 t = 1 + tan 2 t.

sect= .x-3
-- tant= - -
4-y
2 ' 5 '
(x - 3 )2 =1+ (4 _ y)2
4 25
=> 25(x - 3)2 - 4(4 _ y)2 = 100.
108
 (c) x 4 sin 2 t cos t,
= (1)
Y = 4 sin t cos 2 t, (2)

x sin t
x - - = tan t.
y cos t

v x2 y2
From the sketch, sin 2 t = 2 2' cos 2 t = ----;;--"---------;;-
2
x +y x + y2
From equations 1 and 2, x 2 + y2 = 16 sin2 t cos 2 t(sin 2 t + cos 2 t)
= 16 sin2 t cos 2 t
16x 2 y2=
(x2 + y2)2 '
~ (x 2 + y2)3 = 16x2 y2 .

(d) x= (1)

y= (2)
2
Add equations 1 and 2: x + y = e t .
Subtract 2 from 1: x - y = e- t .
Multiply: (x + y)(x - y) = (e t ) (e- t ) =1
~ x _ y2 = 1.
2

10.6 Prove that the equation of the normal at the point (ct, ~) on the rectan-
gular hyperbola xy = c2 is t 2 x - Y - ct 3 + ..£ = O.
t

The normal at a point P on the hyperbola xy = c 2 meets the x-axis at A, and

the tangent at P meets the y-axis at B. Show that the locus of the midpoint
of AB as P varies is 2c 2 xy = c4 _ y4 .

• Using the parametric equation of the hyperbola,

x = ct dx = C' c
y=-
'dt ' t '

Gradient of the normal = _ dx = t2 .

dy
Equation of the normal at P is

y - ~ = t 2 (x - ct) ~ t 2 x - Y - ct3 + ~ = O.
t t

A t A, y = 0, x = f2
1 r. t
\e 3 - tc) = e(t4t 3- 1)

Equation of the tangent at P is

y - -
e
= - -12 (x - et) ~ x + t 2Y = 2et.
t t

AtB,x=O,y= ~c ~ B (0, 2te).

109
 y

------~~--~----------~r_-- .. x

Midpoint of AB is M, (C(t4 3- 1) ,
2t t
E).
Parametric equations of the locus of Mare
C(t4 - 1)
X == -----'----:---;;-~ (1)
2t 3
C
y== - . (2)
t

From equation 2, t == .£.

y
Substitute into equation I: 2x
y
c: c( c:
==
y
Hence the locus of M is 2c 2 xy == c4 _ y4 .

10.7 Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola y2 == 4ax at the point
P (ap2 , 2ap). If the tangents at P and Q, with parameters p and q respectively,
intersect at T, find the locus of T, -given that PQ is of constant length I.

------~~+-------~------------~ x

110
 • Parametric equations of the parabola x =at2, y = 2at:
dx
dt
= 2at dy = 2a
'dt" :=(:)(~) t

Equation of the tangent is

y - 2at = l (x - at2 ) => ty = x + at2 .

t

Tangent at P is py = x + ap2 . (1)

Tangent at Q is qy = x + aq2 . (2)
Solve simultaneously to find the coordinates of T.
Subtracting equation 2 from equation 1 gives
y(p _ q) =a(p2 _ q2) (p =i=q)
y = a(p + q).
Substitute into equation I: ap(p + q) = x + ap2
x =apq.
T has parametric equations x =apq, y=a(p+q).

(Length of PQ)2 =(ap2 _ aq2)2 + (2ap _ 2aq)2.

/2 =a2(p2 _ q2)2 + 4a2(p _ q)2
=a 2 (p_q?[(p+q)2 +4].
But (p - q)2 = (p + q)2 - 4pq.
Therefore /2 =a2 rep + q)2 _ 4pq] [(p + q)2 + 4]. (3)

From the parametric equations of T, pq = ~, (p + q) = E.

a a

Substitute into equation 3: /2 a

= 2 (~: _ :x) (~: + 4) .
Multiply by a2 : a2 / 2 = (y2 - 4ax) (y2 + 4a 2 ).
Hence the locus of Tis a2 / 2 = (y2 - 4ax) (y2 + 4a 2 ).

10.3 Exercises
10.1
(a) Find the CartesIan equatIOn of the curve with parametric equations
x = 3 cos t - 2, y = 5 - 2 sin t.

Sketch the curve for 0 ~ t ~ "2.

7r

(b) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve given parametrically by

x =aU + cos t), y =a(1 - sin t), at the point where t = ~.

10.2 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve given parametrically by
x = 3t 2 , Y = 4t. Find the point of intersection T of the tangents at points P and
Q with parameters p and q respectively. If PQ subtends a right angle at the origin
find the locus of T in Cartesian form.

10.3 Find the equation of the normal to the rectangular hyperbola at P (c p, ~).

111
 If the normal meets the rectangular hyperbola again at Q (c q , ~) find q. Write
down the equation of the circle on PQ as diameter. If this circle intersects the
rectangular hyperbola again at R, find the parameter of R.

( (2
10.4 A curve is given parametrically by x = -1 -+ 3
t
' y-
- 1 + t3 .

Find (a) the Cartesian equation of the curve,

(b) the equation of the tangent when t = 3.

10.5 In each case eliminate the parameter t from the two equations to give an
equation in x and y:
(a) x=2t+3, y=t 2 +5t+3.
(b) x = 4t 2 + 3t + 1, y = t 2 •
(c) x = 3 + sin 2 t, y = 4 - 2 cos 2 t.
(d) x = 2 + sec2 t, y = 3 + 2 tan 2 t.
t 2t2
(e) x = 3 t 2 _ 4' Y = 3 t 2 - 4 .
Sketch the graphs of (a) and (d).

10.6 The tangents at P (a cos t, b sin t) and Q (a cos z, b sin z) to the ellipse
2 2
X + Y2 = 1 intersect at point T. Find the coordinates of T.
a2 b
7r x 2 y2
If z =t + 2 prove that the locus of Tis a2 + b2 = 2.

10.7 A curve is given parametrically by the eq ua tions

x =2 l (t+ l) t'
y l
= 2·(t _ l)
t
(t =1= 0).

(a) Find the Cartesian equation of the curve.

(b) Find the equation of the normal to the curve at the point P with parameter p.
(c) Find the parameter of point R, where the normal intersects the curve again.

10.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

10.1 (See diagram at the top of the next page).
( a) cos t = x + 2 sin t = 5 - y .
3' 2
Equation 4(x + 2)2 + 9(5 - y)2 = 36.
Ellipse, centre (-2, 5), major axis length 6, minor axis length 4.
(b) dx =a(1 _ sin t) dy = -a cos t =} dy = -cos (
dt ' dt dx 1 - sin t
When t = !!.
4'
x y22 )' y = (1 _y2)
=a (?!:. +
4 2
dy = -1
' dx
a
V:' - 1
Tangent: y - a(1 - y2)
2 y2 - 1 [x - a(~4+ y:.)]
= -1
2
112
 or y (y 2 - 1) = - x + a (~ - 2+ 2y 2) .
y

_ _(-2,7)
~_ _ _ 7

I
/ "
,.-
t=-
31T
2
"-

6
,\
I
(·-5,5)
t= 11
f \
•
(-2,5)
5
\
(1,5)
t =0

'" ....-------
(-2,3)

t =~ 2
2

~-4---4---+---+---L---+-- ___ x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0

10.2 dy = 2 , tangent 3ty = 2x + 6t 2 .

dx 3t

Locus of T ----I
I
I
!
----~----~~~--------------------~x

T
(3pq, 2(p + q)) I --.::::::::~...::::~ (3q2, 4q)
I
1 Q
1
1
1
I

At P, 3py = 2x + 6p2. At Q, 3qy = 2x + 6q2.

At T, x = 3pq, y = 2(p + q).
Gradient OP= -±-,
3p
gradient OQ = ~
3q
=> 16 = -9pq.

At T, x = - !§ , i.e. locus of T is the line x =_ 16

3 3

113
 10.3 Normal at P, y = p2 X - Cp3 +~.
p
y

(c q, :) satisfies equation of normal, ~ q = ~; .

Circle on PQ as diameter (x - cp) (x - cq) + ~ -~) (y - ~) = O.

Passes through (cr,~) => (r - p)(r - q) + (~- ~) (~- ~) = O.

~ (r-p)(r-q)(r2 pq+l) =0.
r =1= p, r =1= q ~ r2 pq + 1 = O.
-1
Butpq= - ~ r=±p, r=l=p ~ r=-p.
p2

10.4
(a) y= t. Substitute in the x-equation:
x
x (1 + y:)
x /
=E
x
Multiply by x 2 : x 3 + y3 = xy.
dx 1 - 2t3 dy _ t(2 - t 3 ) dy = t(2 - t3 )
(b)
dt - (1 + t 3 )2 ' dt - (1 + t 3 )2 ' dx (1 - 2t 3 )

dy _ 1S.
When t = 3, x = fg, y =!s, dx
- 53'-

Tangent isy -!s =H(x - fg) or 53y =75x + 9.

10.5
( ) t- x - 3 _ (x - 3)2 + 5 (x - 3) + 3
a --2-'y- 4 2

4y =x 2 + 4x - 9. (See the diagram at the top of the next page.)

(b) x - 4y =3t + 1 ~ (x - 4y - 1)2 =9t2 = 9y.
(c) x - 3 =sin2 t, y ~4 =-cos2 t ~ 2(x - 3) - (y - 4) =2
~ 2x - y = 4.
Line segment: 3 ~ x ~ 4, 2~y ~ 4.
114
 v

--~---r----+---~---,Hr----r-~X
4

(-2. -¥) -4

(d) sec2 t =x - 2, 2 tan 2 t =Y - 3, => 2(x - 2) = y - 3 + 2

=> 2x-y=3.
Half line: x ~ 3, y ~ 3.

10

I
I
I
x
0 I 5 10
I

-5

(e) ~ = 2t, y: = 4t2 , but t 2 = ---±y_ => 3y2 - 2y ::: l6x2 •

X x 3y - 2

t Q'IS x cos z + y sin

· x cos t + Y sin t=I,a
10 .6 T angen t at P IS b z = 1.
a b a
Intersection when these are solved simultaneously:
_ a(sin z - sin t) _ b(cos t - cos z)
x - sin(z _ t) ,y - sin(z - t) .

If z =t + i, x =a(cos t - sin t), y = b(cos t + sin t).

2 2
x2 + Y2 = (cos t - sin t)2 + (cos t + sin t)2 = 2.
a b

115
 ____-+__~--------+_--------~~~~_x

Locus of T
-by2

10.7
(a) Add: x + y = t. Subtract: x - y = l. Multiply: x 2 - y2 = 1.
t

------4---~----4_--~--~~----~~x
-1 0 3

-1

-2

Y = p2 _ 1 x = p2 +1 dy _ p2 + 1
At P, 2p 2p dx - p2 - 1

Normal is 2p(p2 + l)y - (p2 - 1) (p2 + 1) = _2p(p2 - l)x + p4 - 1

=> 2p(p2 + l)y + 2p(p2 - l)x = 2p4 - 2.
r2 + 1 r2 -
Meets the curve again at R ( ~' 2r ;
1)
2p(p2 + 1) (r2 - 1) + 2p(p2 - 1)(r2 + 1) = 2r(2p4 - 2)
=> p3 r2 + rO _ p4) - P = 0

116
This is a quadratic in r. One root is p.
-1 -1
Product of roots is - 2- , second root is --3 .
P P
1
Parameter of R is - 3 .
P

117
 11 Vectors
Vectors in two and three dimensions. Algebraic operations of addition and multi-
plication by scalars and their geometrical significance. The scalar product and its
use for calculating the angle between two coplanar lines. Position vectors: the
vector equation of a line in the form r = a + tb and r = ta + (1 - t) b.

11.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Algebra

• A vector a has magnitude or modulus I a I = a and direction a (where a is a

um't vec tor) : a = aa~ or a~ = -a .
a
• If X is any positive scalar then Xa has magnitude Xa and direction a. If X is
negative then Xa has magnitude I Xla and 'direction -a, i.e. in the opposite
direction.

(b) Position Vectors

If 0 is an origin then OA is the position vector of A relative to O. The usual

notation is OA = a, OB = b etc.

(c) Displacement Vectors

If OA = a and DB = b then AB is the displacement vector from A to B, and is

given by AB = b - a.

qB-b-'
B

(d) Ratio Theorem

• If DA = a and OB = b, then the position vector of the point P which divides

na+mb
AB in the ratio m: n is OP= p = - - -
m+n

118
 • If m and n are both positive, PI lies between A and B. If m is positive and
n is negative, P2 lies on AB produced. If m is negative and n is positive, P 3
lies on BA produced.

A B

(e) Equations of Lines

If a line is drawn through a point A, parallel to the vector b, the position vector of
any point P on the line is given by r = a + tb, where t is a parameter.

From the ratio theorem, putting

m = 1 - t and
n = t, the position
m+n m+n
vector of any point on the line AB is given by r =ta + (1 - t)b.

r = ta + (1 - t) b
o

(f) Cartesian Components

i, j and k are unit vectors in the positive directions of the x, y and z axes, and are
called base vectors. A point P with coordinates (x, y, z) has a position vector

r =xi + yj + zk or r =( ~ )or occasionally (x, y, z) (see Worked Example 8).

(g) Magnitude or Modulus

The magnitude or modulus of the vector r = xi + yj + zk is y'(x 2 + y2 + Z2).

119
 (h) Scalar Product

The scalar product of the vectors a and b is written a . b and defined

a . b = I a I I b I cos e = ab cos e where e is the angle between a and b.
(i) If a and b are parallel then a • b = abo
(ii) If a = b then a • b = a • a = a 2 .
(iii) If a and b are perpendicular then a • b = O.
(iv) If a and b are given in Cartesian form, a = al i + a2j + a3 k, b = b l i + b 2 j + b 3 k,
then a • b = a] b l + a2 b 2 + a3 b 3 .
(v) If the angle between the vectors a and b is e then

(i) Projection

The projection of a on b is the resolved component (or resolute) of the vector a in

the direction of b and equals a • b = a cos e.

ON is the projection of
a on b

11.2 Worked Examples

11.1 Find a unit vector which is perpendicular to the vector 4i + 4j - 7k, and
to the vector 3i - 2j + k.

• Let a vector which is perpendicular to the given two vectors be pi + qj + rk.

Then
C~) -( n= 0 and (-D· G)~ o.
=> 4p + 4q - 7r =0 (1)
and
3p - 2q + r = O. (2)
Solving equations I and 2 simultaneously,
4p + 4q - 7r =0
6p - 4q + 2r = O.
Adding: lOp - 5r = 0 => r = 2p.

120
 Substituting into equation 2:
3p - 2q + 2p =0 => q = 1-p.
Any value of p may now be chosen.
Taking p = 2, we have 2i + 5j + 4k is a vector perpendicular to the two
given vectors.
Thus the required unit vector is
2i + 5j + 4k = 2i + 5j + 4k
y'(2 2 + 52 + 4 2 ) . y'(45)

11.2 Find the unit vector a parallel to the vector a = 3i - 2j + k. Determine the
length of the resolved part of the vector b = 3i + j + 2k in the direction of a.

a=
• ~=
a
3i-2i+k
y'(3 2 + 22 + 12)
= __ 1 __ (3i-2'+k)
y'(14) J .
b • a= length of resolved part of b in the direction of a

=(D .V/14) (-D

1 9
= y'(14) (9 - 2 + 2) = y'(14)
. 9
=> resolved part of b has magnitude y'
(14)

11.3 a =( 'i)
- 11
is a unit vector. Which of the following could be the value of p?

(i) - 141 ; (ii) fi; (iii) ~~; (iv) - fi.

A, (i) only; B, (i) and (iv) only; C, (iii) only;
D, (ii) and (iv) only; E, none of these .

• The magnitude of a isy'[( 121)2 + p2 + (- !r)2]

= y'( lil + p2 + Nd.
But a is a unit vector so the magnitude of a is 1.
Therefore 1 = ~ + p2 .
P2 _- ~
121,
P -_ -+~
11' Answer D

11.4 Which of the following values of x and y make the vecton; ( ~) and ( ~)
perpendicular?
= -2, Y = -1;
(i) x (ii) x = 0, y = 1-; (iii) x = -6, Y = 2.
A, (i) only; B, (ii) only; C, (i) and (iii) only;
D, (i), (ii) and (iii); E, (ii) and (iii) only.

0) .(D
• If the vectors are perpendicular then their scalar product is zero.

= 3x + 4y + 10 = 0

121
 Test the values given in (i), (ii) and (iii):
(i) 3x + 4y + 10 = -6 - 4 + 10 = 0; (i) is correct.
(ii) 3x + 4y + 10 = 0 + 10+ 10= 20; (ii) is incorrect.
(iii) 3x + 4y + 10 = -18 + 8 + 10 = 0; (iii) is correct.
Answer C

11.5 ABCD is a trape;ium where AB is parallel to DC. If AB represents ( ~) and

DC represents (': ), which of the following must be true?

(i) r = 3; (ii) p : r = 2 : 3; (iii) 2p + 5q + 3r = 0; (iv) 2p + 5q + 3r = 1.

A, (i) only; B, (ii) only; C, (iii) only;
D, (ii) and (iv) only; E, none of these.

-. -2
• If AB IS parallel to DC, - = -5 = -3 =? p: r =2 : 3.
p q r
Answer B

11.6 The non-zero vectors p, q and r are such that p + q and p - q are respectively
perpendicular to p + rand p - r. Prove that p is perpendicular to q + r.
If the ratios of the magnitudes of the vectors p, q, r are respectively
1 : 2 : 3, find the angle () (0 ~ () ~ 1T) between the vectors q and r.

• If p + q is perpendicular to p + r,
(p + q) • (p + r) =0
~ p2 + q . P + P • r + q • r = O. (1)
Similarly,
p2 _ q • p _ p • r + q • r = O. (2)
Subtract equation 2 from equation 1:
2(q . p + P • r) =0 =? p. (q + r) = 0
=? P is perpendicular to q + r.
Adding equations 1 and 2 gives:
2(p2 + q • r) =0 (3)

If P : q : r = 1 : 2 : 3 then let p = k, q = 2k and r = 3k.

Equation 3 gives k 2 + (2k)(3k) cos () = O.
Thus cos () = - i,
8 = 1.74 radians.
Hence the angle between q and r is 1. 74 radians.

11.7 In triangle ABC, E lies on BC with BE/EC =!, F lies on CA with CF/FA =t,
and G lies on AB produced, with GB/GA = -to The position vectors of A, B
and C relative to an origin 0 are a, band c respectively. Determine the
position vectors of E, F and G in terms of a, band c and deduce that E, F
and G lie on a straight line.
2 - 2- - .l-
• IfBE/EC="3thenBE=sBC,EC=sBC.
Position vector of E, e = tb + tc (by the ratio theorem).

122
 A

G
3 - 3- - 4-
CF/FA = 4, so CF = "7CA, FA = "7CA.
Position vector of F, f = ~c + -tao
GB/GA =.t, soBG/GA = --t ~ BG = -BA, GA = 2BA.
Position vector of G, g = 2b - a .
. 1acement vector F'E = e - f ="53b + sC
DISP 2 - "7c4 3
- "7a
=--ta+-tb-tsc
= --tea - -fb + tc).
. - 3 2
DIsplacement vector EG = g - e = 2b - a - sb - sc
= -a+ s7b -sc 2

= -(a - -fb + tc).

Therefore FE = -tEG.
Hence E, F, G lie on a straight line.

11.8 The lines 11 and 12 are given in the parametric forms:

rl=al+ t l b l' where al = (3, 2, 1), b 1 = (1, 2, 2);
r2 = a2 + t2 b 2 , where a2 = (2,3,2), b2 = (2, 1, -2).
Show that 11 and 12 are perpendicular.
Find the values of tl and t2 if the vector r2 - rl is perpendicular to each
of the given lines.
Hence find the length of the common perpendicular of 11 and 12 .

• rl = al + t 1b 1 represents line 11 , with direction b 1 .

Similarly, direction of 12 is given by b 2 .
b 1 • b 2 = (1,2,2)· (2, 1, -2) = (1)(2) + (2)(1) + (2)(-2) = o.
I,

Hence b 1 is perpendicular to b 2 , and so II is perpendicular to 12 •

If r 2 - rl is perpendicular to II then (r2 - rl ) • b 1 = 0
~ r2· b 1 = rl • b 1
~ (a2 + t2 b 2 ) • b 1 = (al + tl b 1 ) • b 1

123
 ~ a2' b 1 + t 2b 2 . b 1 = a l • b 1 + t 1 b 1 • b l .
But b 2 • b l = 0 ~ b l ' (a2 - al) = t1 bi
~ (1,2,2)'(-1,1,1)=tl (12+22+22)
-1+2+2=9t 1 =} t 1 =t.
Similarly, (r2 - r 1 ) • b 2 = O.
~ r 2 • b2 = r I • b2
~ (a2 + t2 b 2 ) • b 2 = (a1 + tl bd • b 2
~ a2' b 2 + t 2 b 2 • b 2 = a 1 • b 2 + t I b l • b 2 ·
Butb l • b 2 =0 ~ b 2 ' (al -a2)=t2b~.
~ (2,1, -2)' (1, -1, -1) = t2 (2 2 + 12 + (_2)2).
9t 2 = 2 - 1 + 2 = 3 ~ t2 = t.
Point M on II is given by
r1 = (3, 2,1) + t(1, 2, 2) = t(10, 8, 5).
Point N on 12 is given by
r2 = (2,3,2) + t(2, 1, -2) = t(8, 10,4),
and displacement vector r2 - r1 = t (-2, 2, -1).
Magnitude of displacement vector
Ir2 -r11=y{(-t)2 + (t)2 +C-t)2} = 1.
Hence the length of the common perpendicular is 1.

11.9 The point A (1, 4, 3) has position vector a relative to the origin 0, and the
point B (2, I, 3) has position vector b. The line II is given by
r = a + 5(2i - j + k); the line 12 is given by r = b + t(3i + j + 2k). Show that
the lines 11 and 12 intersect and state the coordinates of the common point.
Prove that AB is perpendicular to 12 ,

• Two lines intersect if there exist values of 5 and t which will give the same
position vector r for lines II and 12 ,

For a point on line 11, r1 = (! ~ ;s).

3 +5

For a point on line 12 , r2 = (i ::t).

3 + 2t
Ifrl = r2, 1 + 25 = 2 + 3t; (1)
4 - 5 = I + t; (2)
3 + 5 = 3 + 2t. (3)
All three equations must be satisfied if the lines are to intersect.
Solving equations 2 and 3 by adding:
7 = 4 + 3t ~ t = 1.
Substitute into equation 3: 3 + s = 3 + 2, ~ 5 = 2.
Check in equation 1: l.h.s., 1 + 25 = 5; r.h.s., 2 + 3t = 5.
Therefore rl = r2 when s = 2 and t = 1.

G) -(~) ~ (-D
The lines II and 12 intersect at (5,2,5).

Displacement vector AB ~b - a=
124
 AB is perpendicular to 12 if AB is perpendicular to 3i + j + 2k, i.e. if the
scalar product is zero.
Scalar product = (1 )(3) - (3)(1) + (0)(2) = O.
Hence AB is perpendicular to 12 ,

11.10
(a) Use the scalar product to find the angle (to the nearest degree) between
3i - j + 2k and 2i + j - k.
(b) The three vectors 3i - j + 2k, i + aj - 2k and i + bj + ck are mutually
perpendicular; find a, band c .

• (a) Scalar product u • v = uv cos (J, where (J is the angle between u and v.
(3i - j + 2k) • (2i + j - k) = 6 - I - 2 = 3.
u = magnitude ofu = V(3 2 + 12 + 22):::: V14.
v=magnitudeofv=v(22 + 12 + l2)=V6.
U'v 3
Therefore cos (J = - - = => (J = 71 0 •
uv V(14V6

(b) If u and v are perpendicular, U • v = O.

(3i - j + 2k) • (i + aj - 2k) = O.
=> 3-a-4=0 => a=-l.

(3i - j + 2k) • (i + bj + ck) :::: 0 => 3 - b + 2c = 0, (1)

(i + aj - 2k) . (i + bj + ck) = 0 => 1 + ab - 2c = O. (2)
Put a = -1 into equation 2 and solve giving
a=-1,b=2,c=-t.

11.3 Exercises
11.1 If i, j and k are mutually perpendicular vectors, and
A = i + 2j + 3k, B = 3i + k, C=-2i+3j,
Calculate I A + 2B - CI and B • (A - C). Find a vector oflength 2V26 perpen-
dicular to A and B.

11.2 Given that A and B have position vectors

a:::: i + 2j + 3k and b:::: -2i + 5j - k
respectively, determine AB, IAB I and the direction ratios of the line AB.

11. 3 The resolved part of the f oree (-E) N in the direction of ( - ~}s 14 N.
Find the value of a.

125
 11.4 The non-zero vectors p, q and r have equal magnitude k and make angles 7r/3
with each other. Prove that the vectors p + q - r, p - q + r and-p + q + rare
mutually perpendicular and have magnitude ky'2.
OP, OQ and OR are three concurrent edges of a parallelepiped, given respec-
tively by the vectors p, q and r. Interpret the above result in terms of the parallel-
epiped.

11.5 The lines II and 12 are given by

and

respectively. Show that the lines II and 12 are skew and find the acute angle
between them.

11.6 Use a vector method to show that the medians of a triangle intersect at the
point of trisection of the medians nearer the base.

11.7 PQRS is a quadrilateral. The midpoints of PQ, QR, RS and SP are A, B, C

and D respectively. Prove using vectors that ABCD is a parallelogram.

11.8 A, Band C have position vectors a, band c respectively. P divides AB in the

ratio I : 3; Q divides BC in the ratio 3 : 2. Write down the position vectors of P
and Q.
If AQ and CP intersect at R, find the position vector of R.
If BR and AC intersect at S find the ratio AS : SC.

11.9 AB is the diameter of a circle centre 0 and P is any point on the circum-
ference. Use vectors to show that LAPB = 90°.

11.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

11.1 IA+2B-CI= 19i-j+5kl=y'(81 + 1 +25)=y'107.
B . (A - C) = (3i + k) • (3i - j + 3k) = 9 + 3 = 12.
Let D = ei + fj + gk be perpendicular to A and B.
Then A . D =0 '* e + 2f + 3g = 0,
B • D = 0 '* 3e + g = O.
To be 2y'26 units long, y'Ce 2 + j2 + g2) = 2y'26.
Solve to get e = ±2, f = ±8, g = +6, so D = ±(2i + 8j - 6k).

11.2 AB = b - a = -3i + 3j - 4k,

lAB I =y'(9 + 9 + 16)
=y'34.
Direction ratios are -3 : 3 : -4.

126
 F'd
11.3 Resolved part of F = -d- .

F· d:C~)- (-D:4a - 6a -120: -14a,

I dl = -yI(4 + 1 + 4) = 3.
-14a
=> Resolved part ofF = -3- = 14 N => a = -3.

11.4 P • q = q • r =r •P = k 2 /2.
(p + q - r) • (p - q + r) = p2 - q2 - y2 + 2q . r
=k 2 _ k 2 - k 2 + k 2 = O.
Since neither p + q - r nor p - q + r are zero vectors they must be perpendicular.
Similarly for the other pairs.
(p + q - r) • (p + q - r) = p2 + q2 + ,2 + 2p • q - 2p • r - 2q • r
=2k2 •
Hence (p + q - r)2 = 2k2 => Length of p + q - r = k-yl2.

G P
--r--_--------:=='''' F
/1
1/
P / I
/ I /
"" / I /
"/ I /
I' /
/ ';-~,
/ / I
/ / I
/ / I
Q I 1/
q ~~-L---t
.---..,- I
--~
o p p

Similarly for the other two vectors.

p + q - r is the diagonal RB. Similarly, the other two vectors are the diagonals
QE and PG. Hence the diagonals RB, QE and PG ofthe parallelopiped are mutually
perpendicular and of equal length k -yl2.

11.5 Suppose that II and 12 intersect. Then sand t can be found so that rl = r2.
=> 3 + 5s = - 3 + t (1)
1-2s=5 (2)
4 + 3s = 2 + 2t. (3)

n
From equations 1 and 2, s = -2 and t = -4.
These values do not satisfy equation 3. Hence the lines are skew.

-~ )and (
Directions oflines are (

By scalar products, ( - ~ ) -( ~): y(25 + 4 + 9)y( 1 + 4) cos 9.

=> 11 = -yI(190) cos () => () = 37.10.

127
 11.6 If A. Band C have position vectors a, band c and if D q.nd E are the mid-
points of BC and AC then

c
OE = e = -ra + -re, OD = d = -t b + -te.
Any point on AD has position vector

r = sd + (1 - s)a =~ (b + e) + (1 - s)a.
2
B
Similarly, any point on BE has position vector
t
r=- (a+e)+(l-t)b.
2

· . -t
A t mtersectlon =1 - s an d -t = -s => s=t=t.
2 2 2
Intersection G given by OG = g = tea + b + c).
By symmetry this also lies on the median from C.
g = td + ta, => G is the point of trisection of AD nearer to D.

Q 11.7 Let P, Q, Rand S have position vectors p, q, rand s respectively.

Then OA = a = -rp + -rq,
R OB=b=tq+-tr.
p
AB = b - a = -tCr - p). Similarly,DC = -t(r - p).
Thus AB =DC, i.e. AB and DC are equal and parallel
=> ABCD is a parallelogram.
s
11.8 OP = p = ta + tb, OQ = q = b + te. t
Since R lies on AQ, OR = r = Xq + (1 - X)a
=(1 - X)a+tXb+tXc.
8 Similarly, since R lies on PC, OR = r = ~p + (1 - ~)c
=
t~a + t~b + (1 - Jl)c.
Equating and solving, A. = 151 and ~ = 181 •
n
So OR = r = (6a + 2b + 3e).
A 2 Since S lies on BR, OS = s = tr + (1 - t)b
c = fr fa + (1 - {I t)b + fr tc.
But S lies on AC,
=> scalar multiple of b = 0 => t = Ii.
Hence s = ta +tc, and AS : SC = I : 2.

11.9 AP = r - a, BP =BO + OP = a + r,
AP . BP =,2 - a2 • But 1 rl = 1 al = radius of circle
=> Ap· BP = 0 => LAPB = 90°.

AI'--_~- __-..,B

128
 12 Functions
The inverse of a one-one function. Composition of functions. Graphical illustra-
tion of a function and its inverse. Graphical solution of equations.
The approximations sin x;:::; x, tan x;:::; x, cos x;:::; I - x 2 /2 (x is small and meas-
ured in radians).

12.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Notation

(i) f: x ~ y is the function which maps x onto y (also x ~ y).

(ii) f(x) is the image of x under function f=> f(x) = y.
(iii) f- 1 is the inverse function of f.
(iv) f· g is the function mapping x onto f(x)· g(x).
(v) fg or fog is the composite function f(g(x)) or f operating on the result
ofg.
(vi) f 0 f is often written f2.
(vii) f + g is the function mapping x onto f(x) + g(x).
(viii) f' is the derived function of f.

(b) Definitions

• Domain. The values of x for which the function is defined. The most
common of these is fR, the set of real numbers {x : x E IR}.
• Range. The values of f(x) arising from the domain.

(c) Limits of a Domain or Range

• If a function has discontinuities or is not defined for some values of x then

this can be shown by inequalities.
Example 1: f : x ~ log x has a domain {x : x > O}.
Example 2: Iff(x)=x, {x: 0~x~2}
= 2x, {x: 2 < x ~ 4 },
then the first part of the domain includes x = 2, but the second does not. If
x = 2 is included in both parts the function will have two different values at
that point. Since functions can only be single-valued this is not acceptable.
The same function can be written
f :x ~ x [0, 2]
f :x ~ 2x (2, 4] .

129
 [ ] imply that the limit points are included.
( ) imply that the limit points are not included.
Graphically, included limit points are represented bye, excluded limit
points by o.

fIx)

~------+-------+-- __ x
o 2 4

• A function and its inverse can be recognized graphically since the reflection
of f(x) in the line y = x gives f- 1 (x).
• If the inverse is to be a function its domain may have to be restricted. For
example the inverse function of cos x is cos- 1 x with
domain {x : -1 ~x ~ I}.

•
\

/\ , /
y = cos- 1 X ,
, /
/4-- y =x
/

"2" /
/
/
/
y = cosx

--~---r-~~~---f~-~'-~~-r--~x
-3 -1 / 0
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/

(d) Graphical Solutions of Equations

If an equation y = f(x) is complicated, split f(x) into g(x) + hex) where g and h
are easily sketched. Then the solutions of f(x) = 0 are given by the points of inter-
section of the graphs y =g(x) and y = -hex).
For example, if y = 2 sin x - x then y = 0 when y = 2 sin x and y = + x inter-
sect.

130
 2 -

----r----r--------~~--------~--~----
-7r
X3'
___ X

x, • X 2 and x 3 are the roots of

2 sin x - x = 0

-2

(e) Odd and Even Functions

• Definition:
If f( -x) = f(x) then f(x) is an even function.
If f( -x) = -[(x) then f(x) is an odd function.
• Properties:
Even functions are symmetrical about the line x = O.
Odd functions have half-turn rotational symmetry about O.
A function containing only even powers of x (including xo) is an even
function, but one containing only odd functions is not necessarily odd.
• Examples:

Even: Odd:
fIx) = tan x

0.5

31T ir 1T
-7r
4 2 2
I
I
I
I
I
I

131
 Neither even nor odd:

------~------~----~--~x
o

12.2 Worked Examples

12.1 If f : x ~ 2x - 3 and g : x ~ 3x 2 + 2x are functions from IR to IR, then
(g' 0 f) maps x onto
A, 12x + 1; B, 12x + 4; C, 12x - 16;
D,16; E, none of these .

• g' : x ~ 6x + 2,
g' 0 f: x ~ 6(2x - 3) + 2 = 12x - 16. Answer C

12.2 The functions f and g are defined by f(x) = x 2 , g(x) = x + 1 and each have
domain the positive real numbers IR+. Express the following in terms of f
and g:
(i) x - 2; (ii) x + 2;
(iii) x + 1;
2 (iv) (x + 1)2;
(v) (x - 2)4 .

• f(x)=x2, g(x)=x+l, g-l(X)=X-l.

(i) x - 2 = g-l (g-l (x)) or g-2 ; (ii) x + 2 = g(g(x») or g2 ;

(iii) x 2 + 1 = g(f(x») or gf; (iv) (x + 1)2 = f(g(x») or fg;
(v) (x - 2)4 = ff g-l g-l (x) or f2 g-2.

12.3 The functions g(x) and hex) are defined by

g(x)=y(9-x 2 ) Ixl~3;

If go h exists give the domain and range of hex) and g 0 h .

• go h =.y[9 - (2 + X2 )2] requires that 9 - (2 + X 2 )2 ;;;.: 0

'* 9;;;;;;' (2 + X2 )2 so x 2 ~ 1, i.e. Ix I ~ 1.
For go h to exist, the domain of hex) is I x I ~ 1, and the range of hex) is
2 ~h(x) ~ 3.
The domain of g 0 h is Ix I ~ 1, the range of g 0 h is 0 ~ g 0 h ~ .y 5.

132
12.4 A function with domain and range [0, 5] is defined by
f(x) =x + 3 if x E [0,2],
=5-x ifxE(2,5].
Sketch the graphs of f, f- 1 and f 0 f and state clearly the ranges of each
function and the points on the graphs of any discontinuity.

• f(x) =x + 3
=5-x
if x E [0,2],
if x E (2, 5].

f(x)

o 2 5

Domain [0, 2] gives range [3, 5].

Domain (2, 5] gives range (3, 0].
Range of f(x) is [0, 5] with discontinuity at x = 2.
f- 1 (x) =5 - x if x E [0,3),
=x - 3 if x E [3, 5].

f- 1 (x)

'----.__-+--__ x
o 3 5

Range of f- 1 (x) is [0, 5] with discontinuity at x = 3.

Approach f of with care, especially at discontinuities.
Range of f becomes the domain for the second function.
Domain [0, 2] -+ range [3, 5] ; domain [3, 5] -+ range [2,0].
Domain (2,3) -+ range (3, 2); domain (3, 2) -+ range (2, 3).
Domain [3, 5] -+ range [2,0]; domain [2, 0] -+ range [5, 3].
fof=5-(x+3)=2-x ifx E [0,2]
= 5 - (5 - x) = x if x E (2, 3)
= (5 - x) + 3 = 8 - x if x E [3,5].
Range of f 0 f is [0, 5], with discontinuities at (2, 0) and (3, 5).

133
 tot

/"'-
5
4
3
2

x
0 1 2 3 4 5

12.5 State the largest possible real domains and ranges of the functions f and g
defined by
g(x) = cos x.
Find the composite function gf and state its domain and range.
Can fg be formed? Give reasons for your answer .

• f(x) = v'(4 - 9x 2 ) has domain {x : - ~x ~ t t},

range 0 ~ f(x) ~ 2.
g(x) = cos x has domain {x : x E IR}, range -1 ~ g(x) ~ 1.
gf = cos (v'(4 - 9x 2 )) has domain {x : - ~x ~ t t}'
range cos 2 ~ gf ~ cos 0 = 1.
fg =v'(4 - 9 cos2 x), if it exists. However it is not defined for I cos x I >
t => it is not defined for the full range of g(x).
Therefore fg can only be formed for domain {x : I cos x I ~ t}.

12.6 For each of the following functions state, without proof, if it is: (i) even or
odd or neither; and (ii) bounded or not bounded:
= x 2 x+ 2'
2
(a) f 1 (x)= cos x - cos3 x, (b) f 2 (x) (c) f 3 (x) =x cos x,
(d) f4 (x) =v'(x + x 4 ).

• (a) cos x and cos3 x are both even functions and bounded.
Therefore f1 (x) is even and bounded.

(b) x 2 and x 2 + 2 are both even, therefore the quotient is even. x 2 and
x 2 + 2 are both unbounded but the quotient is bounded (see sketch).
Therefore f2 (x) is even and bounded.

~----+----r---+--~~--~---+----~--~~X
-4 -3 -2 -1 o 2 3 4

134
 (c) x is odd, cos x is even, therefore the product is odd. cos x is bounded
but x is unbounded, therefore the product is unbounded.
Therefore f3 (x) is odd and unbounded.

(d) This square root function is neither odd nor even. x + X4 is unbound-
ed, so f4 (x) is unbounded.
Therefore f4 (x) is neither even nor odd and is unbounded.

12.7 f(x) = - y(9 - 25x 2 ) (0 ~ x ~ t), wherey denotes the positive square
root. Find an expression for f- 1 (x) and write down the domail1 and range
for f- 1 (x). Sketch f(x) and f- 1 (x) on the same axes .

• Draw a flowchart for f(x) if in doubt.

I square ~ x 2 ; I multiply by 25 l~ 25x2 ;

x

I subtract from 9 1-+ 9 - 25x 2 ; Isquare root ry(9 - 25x2);

I multiply by -1 r- y(9 - 25x2 ).

For the inverse,

x I divide by ~ - x; I square I~ x 2 ;

subtract from 9 r 9 - x 2 ; I divide by 25 r (9 ~5X2) ;

I square root r )(9 ;t 2

) .

f- 1 (x) = t y(9 - x 2 ). Domain {-3 ~ x ~ O}, range {O ~ f- 1 (x) ~t}.

Notice the reflection in line y =x.

2
/
/
/
/

f- 1 (x)

-3 -2 -1 a
I
2
I
3
.. x

-1

f(x)
-2

-3

135
 12.8 Prove that when 8 is sufficiently small,
8 ~ sin 8 ~ tan 8.
When viewed from a stationary boat lying in the path of a ship of breadth
20 m the port and starboard lights subtend an angle of 36'. Find the distance
of the lights from the observation point. After 2 min the angle has increased
to 10 12'. Calculate the speed of the ship in km h- 1 .

• o

From the figure: area of triangle OAB = trl sin O. (AI)

Area of sector OAB =trl 0.· (A2)
Area of triangle OAD =trl tan O. (A3)
When 0 is acute, Al ~ A2 ~ A3
~ sin 0 ~ 0 ~ tan O.
As 0 ~ 0, Al ~ A2 ~ A3,
i.e. for small 0, 0 ~ sin 0 ~ tan O.

t P

20m NI-----+~_--- +----:::::;. B1

~ S

Let N be the midpoint of PS, Bl and Bl the two positions of the boat
relative to the ship.

:~ = tan 18' ~(~d) C;o)

so 10= -
11'
NBI ~ NBI = 6000 .
600 ' 11'

Two minutes later PN = tan 36' ~(36) (~\

NBl 60 180)'

so 10=~.NB2 ~ NB l =3000.
300 11'

Distance travelled by ship in two minutes is

6000 - 3000
NBI - NB2 = m, = 955 m = 0.955 km.
11'

Speed is30 x 0.955 = 28.6 km h- 1 .

136
12.3 Exercises
12.1 The functions f and h each have domain the positive real numbers and are
defined by
f(x) = 2/x, hex) = x + 1.
Express in terms of f and h the functions (a) _2_ , (b) 3 + x .
x+2 1 +x
Give the domain and range of each of the functions.

12.2 The functions f and g are defined by f(x) = cos x, g(x) =.y(l - 9x 2 ). Find
the composite function fg and state its domain and range. Can gf be formed? Give
reasons for your answer.

12.3 Which of the following drawings is most likely to show the graph of the
function f : x -+ log (x 2 + l)?

f(x) f(x)

--~~--+---7L-----i_ X

A B

f(x) f(x)

---~~~--~X ---~~--~x ,-----JL----__ X

o o
c D

12.4 A function with domain [0,4] is defined by

f(x)=x+3 ifxE [0, 1]

= -4 - 1 if x E (1 , 4] .
x
Sketch the graphs of f, f- 1 , f 0 f, showing clearly the point of the graphs at any
discontinuity.

137
 12.5 Sketch the graphs of the functions and their inverses on the same axes:
(a) f(x) = x 2 - 2 {O ~ x ~ 3};
(b) f(x) =e 1 - x {O ~ x ~ 3};
(c) f(x) = sin (x/2) {O ~ x ~ 1}.

12.6 Which of the following statements is true for the functions defined by
f(x) = x - l, x> I
x
2
g(x) = - - , x> I?
I-x
A, f is increasing, g is decreasing;
B, f is increasing, g is increasing;
C, f is decreasing, g is decreasing;
D, f is decreasing, g is increasing;
E, none of these.

12.7 The sun is approximately 150 million km from an earthbound observer who
estimates that its diameter subtends an angle of 0.5 0 • Estimate .ts diameter and
hence the volume of the sun.

1
12.8 Plot on the same axes the graphs y = 2 + x 2 and y = -.
x
Hence estimate the value of the real root of the equation x 3 + 2x - 1 = O.

12.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

12.1 (a) f(x) = ~,h(x)=x+ 1,h2 =x+2 ~ -2- =fh2 •
x X +2 '
domain (0, 00), range (0, 1).
3+x 2
(b) _.- = 1 + - -
l+x x+1
= 1 +. (fh) = hfh,' domain (0'00)
"
range (1 3)
.

12.2f(x)=cosx,g(x)=y'O-9x2 ) ~ fg=cos [y'(1-9x 2 )].

Domain of f(x) is x E IR, domain of g(x) is - ~ x ~t t,
~ domain of fg(x) is -t
~ x ~t.
Range of fg(x) is cos (1) ~ fg ~ 1.
gf(x) = y'0 - 9 cos2 x) defined for I cos x I ~ t thus gf(x) exists only if th~
domain of f(x) is restricted to
cos- 1 (t) ~ x ~ cos- 1 (-t).

12.3 f : x -+ log (x 2 + 1) is defined for all values of x.

This excludes answers A, Band E.

138
['(x) = (X 2 ;~) In 10' when x = 0, ['(x) = o.
GraphC

12.4 fIx)
4

x
0 2 3 4

4
rl(x) = - - [0,3)
x+l

=x - 3 [3,4]

f- 1 (x)

~--~--~----~---+~~x
o 2 3 4

[(x) = 1 when x = 2. The domain of f 0 f will have discontinuities at x =1

and x = 2.
tot
4

~~~--~----+----+~_x

o 2 3 4

139
 I-x
- -4- -1=
f o f- [0, 1]
x+3 x+3

4 5x - 4
- - - -1= (1,2)
4 4-x
--1
x
4 4
=--1+3=-+2 [2,4]
x x

12.5
(a) [(x) =x 2 - 2, [-1 (x) =V(x + 2);

~~--~--++----+---~----~~x
8

(b) [(x)=e 1- X , r-1(x)= I-lnx; (c) f(x) = sin (;} r-l(X) = 2 sin- 1 x.

1.0
3

f- 1 (x) ; 2sin- 1 x
2

x
0.5
f(x); e'

f(x) = sin ~
x
0 2 3

--~--------r--------+-~x
0 0.5 1.0

12.6 [(x) =x - l,
x
x> 1.; ['(x) =1+ -i-x '
g(x) = 1: x' x> 1; g'(x) = (1 _2 X)2

f'(x) and g'(x) are both positive for x > 1. Answer B

140
12.7 Angle TOS = 0.25°,ST= 150 x 106 x tan (0.25°) ~ 0.655 x 10 6 km.
Diameter is approx. 1.31 x 106 km.
Volume = 1-1Tr3 = 1.2 x 10 18 km 3 .

Observer

12.8 From the graph, x = 0.45 or 0.46.

v
3.0

1
y =- -
x

2.5 -

2-L.----

L--------+--------~~L-----4_---------- ___ x
o 0.2 0.4 0.6

141
 13 Exponential and
Logarithmic Functions
The exponential and logarithmic functions and their simple properties. t? =eX Ina.

13.1 Fact Sheet

a, band c are positive throughout this fact sheet.

(a) Exponential Functions

• Definition: aX is an exponential function.

• Properties:
(i) aX > 0 for all x E IR;
(ii) aX = 1 when x = 0;
(iii) aX -+ 0 as x -+ - 00 (a > 1);
(iv) aX -+ 00 as x -+ 00 (a> 1).

fIx)

~~:::::::=--_L _________ )(
o

• eX (where e ~ 2.718 ) is the exponential function.

It satisfies properties (i) to (iv), and:
(v) ~ (eX) = eX.
dx

(b) Logarithms

• Definition: If b =a C , then 10& b = c. (a =1= 1)

142
 • Properties:
(i) loga be = loga b + loga c;
(ii) loga ~ = loga b - loga c;
c
(iii) loga (b = c loga b;
C )

(iv) loga log c -b;

b = __
logc a
1
(v) loga b =I
ogb a
• Common logarithms are logarithms to base 10.
10glO a is sometimes written log a, or 19 a.

fix)

~~~------------------'-x

• Natural or Naperian logarithms are logarithms to base e, written loge a or

Ina.
=
aX eX In a.
(c) Series
= 1 + x + -x +x- + - xn
2 3 X4
eX + ... +-+
2! 3! 4! n!
x2 x3 X4 xn
e- x =I - x+-
2!
- - + - - ... + (_1)n -
3! 4! n! ...
+

x2 x3 X4 xn
In (1 + x) = x - - + - - - + ... + (_1)n-l - + (-I<x~l)
2 3 4 n

In (1 - x) = -x - x 2 - -x 3
- (-I~x<I).
2 3

13.2 Worked Examples

13.1 The graph of y =10g3 X is the image of the graph of y = 3x under a reflection
in
A, the x-axis; B, the y-axis; C, the liney =x;
D, the line y = -x; E, none of these.

• 3 x is the inverse function of log3 x.

Hence reflection is in the line y = x. Answer C

143
 y

/'
/' x

/'
/
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'

13.2 Given that log 2 = a, log 3 = b, log 5 = c, then log 750 can be expressed in
terms of a, band c as
A, a + b + c; B, a + 3b + c; C, 2a + 2b + 2c;
D, a + b + 3c; E, none of these .

• 750 = (5) (5) (5) (3) (2) = 53 (3) (2),

so log 750 = 3 log 5 + log 3 + log 2 = 3c + b + a. Answer D

13.3 Prove that 10gb a = - -

loga b
By using the substitution y = logx 4, or otherwise, solve the equation
4 10g16 x - 1 = logx 4 .

• If c = 10gb a then a =be.

Taking logarithms to base a, loga a = c loga b.
1
But loga a = 1 1 = c loga b or c = ---
loga b
Hence log b a = ---
loga b
4 10g16 X - 1 = logx 4.
1
10g16 X = = - -1- -
logx 16 (2 logx 4).
4
Substituting in the equation, - 1 = logx 4.
2 logx 4
Let logx 4 = y, then --±-
2y
- 1 = y.
Multiplying by y, y2 + Y _ 2 = 0,

(y + 2) (y - 1) =0 =} y = 1 or -2.
If logx 4 = 1 then x = 4.
Iflogx4=-2then4=x-2 =} x=±0.5.
Log x is only defined for positive values of x.
Therefore x = 4 or 0.5.

144
13.4 Write down the first 4 terms in the expansion of eX. Obtain the first 4 terms
in the expansion of (x 2 + x)e x . Deduce that (x 2 + x)(eX - 1) is always
positive when x is positive.

• x2 x + positive terms.
3
e = 1+x + ~ +~
2 3!

(x 2 + x)e = (x 2 + x) ( 1 + x + X2
~ x 3 + ...)
+~
2 3!

=x + 2 x 2 + 3x 3
+ -2X4 + posItIve
.. terms.
2 3
(x 2 + x) (eX - 1) = (x 2 + x) eX - (x 2 + x)
3x 3 2X4
=x 2 + + + positive terms.
2 3
All the terms are positive.
Therefore (x 2 + x) (eX - 1) is always positive, provided x is positive.

13.5 The graph illustrates the law y = ax b . The value of b is nearest to

A, -0.5; B,2; C,1.2; D,4; E,16.

10 910 V

0.8

L---t----r---t----r----+---""'~-- 10910 x

• y = ax b. Take logarithms to base 10.

10glO Y = 10glO ax b = 10glo a + b 10glO x
or Y=A + bX,
where Y= 10glO y,A =lOglO a,bis the gradient of the line, andX= 10glO x.
From the diagram, the gradient of the line is -=0.6 = -0.5.
1.2
Answer A

13.6 Find the first three non-zero terms in the expansion of In [(1 + 3x) (1 - 2x)]
in a series of ascending powers of x.

• In [(1 + 3x) (1 - 2x)] = In (1 + 3x) + In (1 - 2x).

In (1 + 3x) = (3x) _ (3X)2 + (3X)3
2 3

145
 9x 2 27x3
= 3x - T + -3- - .... (1)

In (1 - 2x) = (-2x) _ (_2X)2 + (-2X)3

2 3
4x2 8x 3 (2)
=-2x- - --
2 3
Adding expansions 1 and 2,
13x2 19x 3
In [(1 + 3x) (1 - 2x)] = x - -2- + -3- + ....

13.7 Find the first two non-zero terms in the expansion in ascending powers of
x, of e2x - e- 2x . Given that x is so small that its fourth and higher powers
may be neglected, find the numerical values of the constants a, band c in the
approximate formula
(x> 0).

• e2x = 1 + (2x) + (2X)2 + (2X)3 + (2X)4 + ...

2! 3! 4!

e-2x = 1 + (-2 ) + (-2X)2 + (-2X)3 + (-2X)4

x 2! 3! 4! + ...

Subtracting e2x _ e- 2x =2 ( 2x + 8~3 + .. .)

8x 3
=4x+ - + ....
3

loge (e 2X - e- 2X ) ~ 108e (4X + 8~3) = loge [4X (1 + 2~2) ]

= loge 4x + loge (1 + 2~2).
But loge 4x = loSe X + loge 4,

and loge ( 1 + 2~2) = 2~2 + higher powers of x 2 •

Thus 2X2 +' ...

Ioge ( e2x - e-2X) = I08e x + Ioge 4 + 3

a = loge 4, b = 0, c =1.

13.8 When x is so small that x 3 and higher powers of x can be ignored, find the

values of aand b such that In (I1++ bxa~) = eX _ e2x .

• In (I + ax) =In (1 + ax) - In (1 + bx)
1 +bx

= (ax - a2;2) _ (bX _ b2;2) + higher powers of x

2
= x(a - b) + ~ (b 2 - a2 ) + ....
2
146
 eX - e2x = [1 + x + ;!2J - [ 1+ (2x) + (2;)2 ]
+ higher powers of x.

=-x-

If In ( 1 + ax) = eX _ e2x
1 + bx '
then a-b=-l (1)

and b2 - a2 = -3. (2)

Factorizing equation 2 and using equation 1 gives a + b = -3.

Adding to equation 1 gives a = - 2, b = -1.

13.9 Draw the graph of y = loge ( 3 +

3-x
x) for -2.5 ~ x~ 2.5.
Use your graph to estimate the root of the equation
4 - 3x =log (3 + x) to one decimal place.
2 e 3--x
•
x -2.5 -1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5
3+x
-- 0.091 0.333 0.714 1.4 3 11

e
3-x

loge -+x)
- -2.40 -1.10 -0.34 0.34 1.10 2.40
3-x

y=4_ 3x
2

~ ________ ______+-____
~ ~~~ __
~~ ____ ~-+ ____ ~~ __'-x
-3 -2 2

y~ 10ge ( 3- + x) -2
3-x

-4

From the graph, x = 1.8.

147
13.3 Exercises
13.1 Find the values of a and b, such that
a = 3b and log3 a + log3 b = 2.

13.2 Given that In 2 =a, In 3 = b and In 5 = c, express in terms of a, band c:

(a) In 7.5; (b) In 125; (d) 10g3 2 ; (e) v'30.
logs 3

13.3 Solve, for real x, the equation 10g3 (x + 8) = 2 - 10g3 X.

13.4 Given that 2 (lg y) + 3 (lg x) = 4, express y in terms of x in a form not in-
volving logarithms (lg == 10glo ).

13.5 A relation of the form y = ab x - 3 is known to exist between two variables

x and y. By drawing a suitable linear graph, or otherwise, use the following table
of approximate values of x and y to estimate the values of a and b:

x 2 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
y 3 11 18 30 48 76

13.6 For each of the functions f, g, and h defined below determine whether it is
(a) odd, (b) even, (c) neither. Give reasons for your answers.
2e x . 1+x
f(x) = g(x) = In - -' h(x) = cos 3x + sin 3x.
1 + e2x ' 1 - x'

e2X + 1
13.7 Expand 1 _ 3x as a series of ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 3
and give the set of values of x for which the expansion is valid.

13.8 Obtain an approximate value for the positive root of the equation
(x + 1) (2 - x) = 5 In (1 + x), (a) by drawing the graphs ofy = (x + 1) (2 - x) and
y = 5 In (1 + x) for values of x between x = 0 and x = 2, and (b) by expressing
In (1 + x) as a series of ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 2 •

13.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

13.1log3 a + 10g3 b = 2 ~ 10g3 ab = 2 ~ ab = 32 = 9.
But a = 3b, so a 2 = 27 ~ a = ±3v'3, b = ±v'3.
But only logs of positive numbers are defined,
a = 3v'3, b =v'3.

148
13.2 (5)(3)
(a) In (7.5) = In -'1- = In 5 + In 3 - In 2 = c + b - a.
(b) In (125) = In (53) = 3 In 5 = 3c.
2 '1
(c) log2 e2 = 2 log2 e = - = -=- .
In 2 a
(d) log3 2 = In 2 = ~: logs 3 = In 3 = ~.
In 3 b In 5 c
=> log3:2 = alb = ac
logs 3 blc b2 '
(e) y30 =y(2 x 3 x 5).
In y30 = -t In 30 = -tea + b + c) => y30 = e(a + b + c)/2.

13.3 log3(x + 8) + log3x = 2 => log3x (x + 8) = 2

=> x (x + 8) = 32 = 9 => x = -9 or x = 1.
But x must be positive, so x = 1.
13.4 19 Y + 3 19 x = 4 = 19 (104 ).
Then 19 (y2 x 3 ) = 19 (104 ) => y2 x 3 = 104 => y2 = 104 x- 3.
Y must be positive, so y = 1OOX- 3 / 2 .

13.5 y + 3 = ab X => log (y + 3) = x log b + log a.

Plotting Y = log (y + 3) against x gives a straight line.
From the graph, gradient = 0.38 = log b, => b ~ 2.4.
Y-intercept = 0 = log a => a = 1.
log (y + 3)

I
________________ ...J
~-------4 ~

~------+_------~------~----~x
o 2 4 6
13.6
f(x) = 2 ,f(-x) = 2 _ = f(x). Therefore f(x) is even.
+ eX
e- x eX + e X
g(x) = In (1 + x) -In (1 - x), g(-x) = In (1 - x) -In (1 + x) = -g(x).
Therefore g(x) is odd.
hex) = cos 3x + sin 3x, h( --x) = cos 3x - sin 3x.
Therefore hex) is neither even nor odd.

e2x+ 1
13.7 f(x) = ---.
1 - 3x
e2x+ 1 = e
(e 2X ) = e[l + (2x) + (2X)2 + (2X)3 + ... ]
2! 3!
= e ( 1 + 2x + 2X2 + 3
4x 3 +.. . ) (valid for all x).

149
 (1 - 3x)- i ::: 1 + 3x + 9x 2 + 27x 3 + ... (valid for Ixl <i-).
( 157)
f(x) ::: e 1 + 5x + l7x 2 + -3- x 3 + ... (valid for Ixl<i-).

13.8
(a) From the graph, x :=:::: 0.6.

v=5In(1+x)

V=(x+l)(2-x)

----~------~~------_r--------~-- .. x

- 1

(b) (x + 1) (2 - x)::: 5 (~- x; + higher powers of x) (-1 <x ~ 1).

Neglecting the higher powers of x: 2 + x _ x 2 ::: 5x _ 5;2.
3x 2 - 8x + 4 ::: 0 =? x::: t or 2.
But the log series is not valid for x::: 2. Therefore x ::: t.

150
 14 Differentiation 1
The idea of a limit and a derivative defined as a limit. The gradient of a tangent as
the limit of the gradient of a chord.
Differentiation of standard functions. Differentiation ofsum, product and quotient
of functions, and of a composition of functions.

14.1 Fact Sheet

If y = f(x) then dy = f'(x) = lim f(x + 8x) - f(x)

dx ox->O 8x
or f'(a) = lim f(a) - feb)
b->a a- b

(a) Product

d dv du
- (uv) = u - + v -.
dx dx dx

(b) Quotient

du dv
v - -u-
:x (~) = dx
v2
dx

(c) Composite Function (Function of a Function)

If y = feu) and u = g(x) then : = (:~) (:~).

This is known as the chain rule.

151
 (d) Standard Results

y = f(x) dy = f'(x)
dx

x In a
sin x cos x
cos x -sin x
tan x sec2 x
cosec x -cosec X cot x
sec x sec x tan x
cot x -cosec2 x
1
yO - x 2 )
-1
cos- 1 X

14.2 Worked Examples

14.1 Define the derivative f'(a) of a given function f at x = a.
Find from first principles:
(a) f'(a) when f(x) =~ (x =1= 0);
x
(b) h'(a) when hex) = x 3 ;
(c) g'(a) when g(x) = 2x Ix 1+ 1.

• f'(a) = lim [f(a) - f(b)].

b-+a a- b

(a) f(x) = ~; f(a) _ feb) = ~ _ ~ = 3 (b - a) .

x a b ab
f(a) - feb) _ 3 (b - a) _ -3
- --,
a- b ab (a - b) ab

, = hm. (-3)
f (a) - = -3
b-+a ab
-2 .
a

(b) hex) = x 3 ;h(a) - h(b) =a 3 - b3 = (a - b) (a 2 + ab + b 2 ).

Therefore h'(a) = lim [(a - b) (a 2 + ab + b 2 )]

b-+a a- b
= lim (a 2 + ab + b 2 ) = 3a 2 •
b-->a

152
 (c) g(x) = 2x Ixl + 1.
Consider in two parts: (i) x ~ 0 => g(x) = 2X2 + 1 ;
(ii) x < 0 => g(x) = --2x 2 + 1.
(i) g(X) = 2X2 + 1.
g(a)-g(b) = (2a 2 +1)-(2b 2 +1)=2(a-b)(a+b).
g(a) - g(b) = 2(a - b) (a + b) = 2(a + b).
a-b a-b
g'(a) = lim [2(a + b)] = 4a.
b-a

(ii) g(x) = -2x 2 + 1.

g(a) - g(b) = (-2a 2 + 1) - (-2b 2 + 1) = -2(a - b) (a + b).

g(a) - g(b) = -2(a - b) (a + b) = -2(a + b).

a-b a-b
g'(a) = lim [-2(a + b)] = -4a.
b-a

So fora ~ 0, g'(a) = 4a, fora < 0, g'(a) = -4a.

Combining these for all a, g'(a) = 41 a I.

14.2 By considering the limit of the gradient of the chord PQ of a parabola

y2 = 4ax, find the gradient of the tangent at P in terms of the parameter at P .

• The parametric equation of a parabola is x =at2 , y = 2at.

At P, t = p; at Q, t =q.

I
I
I
I 2a (p - q)
I
I
________ ~_J N
a(p2 _ q2)

x
o
~

Gradient of chord PQ is: 2ap - 2aq

ap2 _ aq2

= __ 2a----'("---p_-_q.o....:.)_ __2_
a(p - q) (p + q) p+q

Gradient of the tangent at P is: lim (_2_) = -2 =-

1
q-+p p +q 2p p

153
 14.3 Differentiate with respect to x:
(a) x 3 In (3x); (b) sin4 3x .

• (a) A product uv with u = x 3 ,so : = 3x2 ;

V =In (3x) (a composite function), so :~ = 3~ :x (3x) = :x = ~.

Thus
~ [X 3 In(3X)]=(x 3 )(l)+[In(3X)] (3X2)=X2 [1+31n(3x)).
dx x

(b) sin4 3x is a composite function.

Let y = sin4 3x and 3x = u.
Theny = sin4 u, so dy =(4 sin 3 u) (cos u).
du
From u = 3x, du = 3, hence dy = dy du = (12 sin 3 3x)(cos 3x),
dx . dx dudx

14.4 Differentiate
(a) In (1 + x)x
1-
1/2, (b) In tan 2 (4x + 1T).

• With logarithmic functions it is sometimes easier to use the theory of

logarithms to simplify the logarithm before differentiation.

(a) In (1 +
x) 1/2
I-x
=t In (I + x)
I-x
=t [In (1 + x) - In (1 - x)) .

~d· [In 0
dx
+x)-InO-x)]} =1- (_1_ - ~)
l+x I-x

=t[O(1-x)+(1 +x)] = _~
+ x) (l - x) I - x 2 •

(b) In [tan2 (4x + 1T)) = 2 In [tan (4x + 1T))

~ [2In tan (4x + 1T)) = 2 ~ [In tan (4x + 1T)).
dx dx
y = tan (4x + 1T) is a composite function.
Let u = 4x + 7r then du = 4 y = tan u dy = sec 2 u
, dx' , du

dy = (sec2 u) (4) =4 sec2 (4x + 1T).

dx

..! {In [tan 2 (4x + 7r))} = 2 [4 sec 2 (4x + 1T)) = 8 sec2 (4x + 1T)
dx tan (4x + 1T) tan (4x + 1T)
8
= -----------------
sin (4x + 1T) cos (4x + 1T)
16
= ---------
sin (8x + 21T)
16
sin 8x
154
 dy
14.5 Given that y = cos- 1 x, prove that - = _/ -1 2) .
dx v(1-x

• With any inverse trigonometric function, change the original equation to

x =f(y) and f'md dx . By the chain rule dy = 1 -:- dx .
dy dx dy

dx . dy 1
y = cos- 1 X => x = cos y, - = -sm y, so - = - -.- .
dy dx smy
But sin y = y(1 -- cos2 y) = y(1 - x 2 ).
dy _ -1
Hence dx - y(l _ x 2 )·

14.6 Differentiate with respect to x:

(a) (2x - 3)3 (x + 4)3/2. (b) (3x 2 + 5)4
, (2x - 3)3

• (a) This is a product y = UV, where U = (2x - 3)3, V = (x + 4)3/2.

Using the chain rule,

du = 6 (2x _ 3)2 and

dx
By the product rule,

~ [(2x - 3)3 (x + 4)3/2 ]

dx
=(2x - 3)3 (t) (x + 4)1/2 + 6(2x - 3)2 (x + 4)3/2.

Take out the common factor t (2x - 3)2 (x + 4 )1/2 :

dy =t (2x - 3)2 (x + 4)1/2 [(2x - 3) + 4 (x + 4)]

dx
= t (2x - 3)2 (x + 4)1/2 (2x - 3 + 4x + 16)
= t (2x - 3)2 (x + 4)1/2 (6x + 13).

(b) This is a quotient

. y = ~v where

u = (3x 2 + 5)4, V = (2x - 3)3.

: =4 (3x 2 + 5)3 ! (3x 2 + 5) =4 (3x 2 + 5)3 (6x) = 24x (3x 2 + 5)3,

dv = 3 (2x - 3)2 ~ (2x - 3) = 3 (2x - 3)2 (2) = 6 (2x - 3)2.

dx dx
Using the quotient rule,
du dv
v --u-
dy = dx dx
dx v2
dy _ (2x - 3? 24x (3x 2 + 5)3 - (3x 2 + 5)4 6 (2x - 3?
dx - (2x - 3)6

155
 The common factor in the numerator is 6 (2x - 3)2 (3x 2 + 5)3 ;

dy = 6 e2x - 3)2 e3x2 + 5)3 [4x e2x - 3) - (3x 2 + 5)]

dx (2x - 3)6

= 6 (3x 2 + 5)3 (5x 2 - 12x - 5)

(2x - 3)4

14.7
t
(a) Differentiate 2x - tan x + tan 3 x, expressing your answer in terms of
tan x.
(b) Given thaty =ae- mx cospx, prove that

d 2 y + 2m dy + (m 2 + p2 )y = O.
dx 2 dx
(c) Given that y = In (1 + 2x) - 2x + 2x 2 , show that

for all x> --t .

• (a) Let y ::: 2x - tan x + t tan 3 x.

.dy =2 _ sec2 x + t tan 2 x sec2 x

dx
= 2 - 1 - tan 2 x + tan 2 x (1 + tan 2 x)
= 1 + tan4 x.

(b) y = ae- mx cos px.

Method 1:

dy = a (_me- mX cos px - pe- mx sin px)

dx
=-my - ape- mx sin px. (1)

Differentiating again: .

d2 y = -m dy _ ap (_me- mX sin px + pe- mx cos px). (2)

dx 2 dx

But, from (1), ap e- mx sin px = -my - :

So equation 2 may be written:

~; = - m : - m 2y - m ~: _ p2 y;

d 2 Y + 2m dy + (m 2 + p2)y = O.
dx 2 dx

Method 2:
Multiply by emx to give emx y = a cos px.
Differentiating with respect to x, once:

emx : + memXy = -ap sin px,

156
 and again:

emx d 2 y + me mx dy + memx dy + m2 emx y = _ap2 cos px.

dx 2 dx dx
Dividing hy emx and writing _ap2 e- mx cos x = _p2 Y gives
d2 y + 2m dy + (m 2 + p2 )y = O.
dx 2 dx

(c) y = In (I + 2x) - 2x + 2X2 .

dy_ = 2
- 2 + 4x
dx I + 2x
8x 2
=--
1+ 2x

For all x> --t, x2 ~ 0, hence dy ~ O.

I + 2x dx

14.8 Show, by considering ['(x), that the function

f(x)=x 3 -6x 2 +13x-3
is strictly increasing.
Find the gradient of the inverse function f- 1 (x) when x = 5 .

• f(x) =x 3 - 6x 2 + 13x -- 3.

f'(x)=3x 2 -12x+ 13
= 3 (x 2 _ 4x + 1;)
= 3 [(x - 2)2 +1-].
The minimum value of f'(x) is 1 when x = 2.
Therefore the gradient of the curve y = f(x) is always positive, and the
function is strictly increasing.

f(x)

o 2 4 6

157
 Since f- 1 (x) is difficult to compute, use the property of a function, namely
that the graph of the inverse function f- 1 (x) is the result of reflecting the
graph of f(x) in the liney =x.

The gradient of the inverse function at x = 5 is

1/(gradient of f(x) when f(x) = 5).
When f(x) = 5 then x3 - 6x 2 + 13x - 3 = 5.
=> x3 - 6x 2 + 13x - 8 = O.
By the factor theorem, one root is x = 1.
Since f(x) is strictly increasing this is the only (real) root.
Thus f(1) = 5, ['(1) = 4 and the gradient of f- 1 (x) when x = 5 is t.

14.9 Given that the function f defined by

f(x) =3 + x - x2 if x E (- 00, 1)
=x 2 + ax + b if x E [1,00).
is continuous and has a continuous derivative for all values of x, show that
a = -3 and b = 5.
Find the stationary points of f and sketch the graphs of f and its derivative
f' in one diagram .

• For f(x) =3 + x - x2 , x E (~oo, 1),

f(x)~3+ 1-1 as x ~ 1.
Forf(x) = x 2 + ax + b, x E [1,00)
=1+a + b f(x) when x = 1.
For a continuous function 3 = 1 + a + b,
=> a + b = 2. (1)
For f'(x) = 1 - 2x, x E (- 00, 1),
f' (x) ~ 1 - 2 as x ~ 1.

fIx)
fIx) = x2 - 3x +5

f' (x) = 1- 2x

-f' (x) = 2x - 3

~--------~~----+-~--~+-------~~-x
-4 4

-2

158
 Forf'(x)=2x+a, xE[I,oo),
f' (x) = 2 + a when x = l.
For a continuous derivative, -1 = 2 + a, so a = -3.
Substituting into equation 1 gives b = 5.
For f(x) = 3 + x - x 2 , x E (- 00,1), f'(x) = 1 - 2x and
f"(x) = -2.
t
f'(x) =0 when x ~ and f"d·) is negative. Hence
f(x) has a maximum point at x =t, f(t) = (¥).
For f(x) = x 2 - 3x + 5, x E [1,00), f'(x) = 2x - 3 and
f"(x) = 2.
f'(x) = 0 when x = 1- and f"(1-) is positive. Hence
f(x) has a minimum point at x = -t, n!) =~.

14.3 Exercises
14.1 Given that f(x) = ~ , f'(x) equals
x
-2
A,-;
6 C, - -1',
4
E, none of these.
B'3; D'-3;
x x x x

14.2 Given that f(x) =(2x + 1)3, f'(2) equals

A,50; B,75; C,625/8; D,150; E, none of these.

14.3 Differentiate with respect to x:

(a) loge [tan3 (4x + 5)] (0 < 4x + 5 < 'fr12);
x3
(b) (2x + 1);
(c) e3x sin 2x.

14.4
(a) Differentiate (x - 2)3 e- 5x with respect to x.
(b) If y =cos 2x + 2 sin x, where 0 ~ x ~ 'fr, find the values of x for which dy = O.
dx
Sketch the graph of y against x for O·~ x ~ 'fr.

1 - 3x2) 1/2
14.5 If y =( 2 . ,find the values of A and B which satisfy
2 + 5x
dy = ( Ax + Bx )
dx Y 1 - 3x 2 2 + 5x 2 .

14.6
(a) Evaluate lim (cos 4x - cos 2X) .
x-+O cos 3x - cos x
(b) Assuming that lim sin x = 1, evaluate the limits:
x-+O x
(i) lim (1 - ~os 2X) , (ii) lim (2Xcos- 'fr) .
x-+O x x -+7r/2 X

159
 14.7 The function f defined by
f(x) =ax 2 + 8x + 2 if x E ( - 00, 1)
=b (2x - 3)2 ifxE[l,oo)
is continuous and has a continuous derivative for all values of x. Find the values
of the constants a and b. Find the stationary points and sketch the graphs of f and
f' in the neighbourhood of x = 1.

14.8 Find the gradient of the chord PQ of the curve x = at 3 , y = at 2 , where P and
Q have parameters p and q respectively. Use the gradient of the chord to find the
gradient of the tangent at Q.

14.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

14.1 f(x) = ~= 2x- 2
X
, _3- 4
~ f (x) = -4x = -3 . Answer D
X

14.2 f(x) = (2x + 1)3, f'(x) = 3 (2) (2x + 1)2,

~ f'(2)=6(4+ lP = 150. Answer D

14.3
(a) loge [tan3 (4x + 5)] = 310ge [tan (4x + 5)].

dy = [3 sec2 (4x + 5)] (4) = _ _1_2_ _ __

dx tan (4x + 5) sin (4x + 5) cos (4x + 5)
24
=-----
sin (8x + 10)
x -
(b) Quotient rule for y = - -
3

(2x + 1)
dy _ (2x + 1) (3x 2 ) - (x 3 ) (2) _ x 2 (4x + 3)
dx - (2x + 1)2 - (2x+ 1)2 .

(c) Product rule for y = e3x sin 2x:

dy = (e3x) (2 cos 2x) + (3e3X ) (sin 2x)

dx
=e3x (2 cos 2x + 3 sin 2x).

14.4
(a) Product rule for y = (x - 2)3 e- sx :

dy = (x _ 2)3 (_Se- SX ) + (e- SX ) [3(x _ 2)2]

dx
= e- sx (x - 2)2 (13 -- Sx).

(b) If y = cos 2x + 2 sin x, then dy = -2 sin 2x + 2 cos x;

dx
dy = 0 when -4 sin x cos x + 2 cos x = O.
dx
• 1T 1T 51T
cos X = 0 or sm x = O. 5 ~ x = - - or - .
6' 2 6
160
 v
2.0

v = cos 2x + 2 sin x
1.5

1.0

0.5

~--~---+----+----r--~----+--- __ x
o 1T 1T 1T
-
51T
1T
6 3 2 3 6

14.5 Take logs to base e before differentiating:

j( 1- 3X2)
In y = In J
\2 + Sx 2
=> In y = t In (1 - 3x 2 ) - t In (2 + Sx 2 ).

1 dy _ -6x lOx
y dx - 2 (1 - 3x 2 ) 2 (2 + Sx 2 )"

dy _
dx - Y
(-3X
(1 - 3x 2 ) - (2
sx)
+ Sx 2 ) .

Hence A = -3, B = -S.

14.6
cos 4x - cos 2x
(a) = -2 sin 3x sin x sin 3x
cos 3x - cos x -2 sin 2x sin x sin 2x
·
Smce 1·1m - ax =a
sin - =>
x-> 0 X

1 - cos 2x
(b) (i)
x2

lim 2 (sin X)2 = 2.

x->O x

(ii) Let y =~ - x, then cos x = sin y and 2x - 7r = -2y

2

=> ·
11m (2X - 7r) -- (-2y)
1·1 m --
x->1T/2 cos X y->O sin y

= lim -2
y->O
(~)
SIn y

= -2.

161
 14.7 f(x) {=ax2 +8X+,,2 . f'(x) {=2ax+8 xE(_oo,l)
= b (2x - 3)~ =4b (2x - 3) x E [1,00).
f and [' must be continuous at x = 1,
=* a+l0=b (1) and 2a+8=-4b (2).
From equations 1 and 2, a =-8 and b = 2.
When ['(x) = 2ax + 8 = -16x + 8, stationary point is at x = t, f(x) = 4.
When f'(x) = 4b (2x - 3) = 8 (2x - 3), stationary point is at x = t, f(x) = O.

fIx) f' (x)

4 f(x) = _ax 2 + ax + 2 o ~-~~-----1I-----lt....---+---1_ X

2 -4
f(x) = 2 (2 x - 3)2

~--~----+----~~---+~_x -8
o 2

14.8 P(ap 3 ,ap2) and Q(aq 3, aq2).

GradientPQ = a(p2 - q2) = P+q .
a (p3 _ q3) p2 + pq + q2
2
Gradient of tangent at Q is lim p +q
p-+ q p2 + pq + q2 3q

162
 15 Differentiation-2
Differentiation of simple functions defined implicitly or parametrically.
Application of differentiation to gradients, tangents and normals, maxima and
minima (and points of inflexion), curve sketching, connected rates of change,
small increments and approximations.

15.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Implicit Functions

.-! (f(y)) = (f'(y))

dx
(ddxY)where f'(y) = ~
dy
(f(y)).

(b) Parametric Functions

dy
d
Ifx = x(t) andy =yet) then --.l::' = - = ~.
dt
dx dx x
dt
h . dx d' dy
were x = di an y = dt

(c) Tangents and Normals at (xo ,Yo)

If t = m when evaluat~d at (xo, Yo) then:

(i) the tangent at (xo, Yo) may be written-as

y - Yo = m ex - xo),

(ii) the normal at (xo, Yo) may be written as

-1
y - Yo = (x - xo)·
m

(d) Maxima and Minima

Stationary
"
points occur when. dx
dy = O.
163
 At such points, if

(i) d
2
;, < a the point is a maximum,
dx
(ii) -d2y-
2 > a t h e pomt
. .1S a mm1mum,
..
dx
(iii) d2 ;, = a the point can be maximum, minimum or a point of inflexion.
dx

(e) Points of Inflexion

2
If d Y = a at x = xo, and there is a change of sign of d2; as x passes through Xo ,
dx 2 dx
then it is a point of inflexion. This is independent of the value of dy at x = Xo.
dx

I nflexion and stationary point

I nflexion but not a stationary point

(f) Rates of Change

f'(x) or dy represents the rate of increase of a function f(x) or y with respect

dx
to x.
The rate of decrease of f(x) or y is - f'(x) or __ dy
dx
164
 (g) Connected Rates of Change

If y = y(x) and the rate of change of x with respect to t is dx then the rate of
dt

change of y with respect to t is : given by ~~ = (:) (~:).

(h) Small Increments

If y = f(x) then .§.[ ~ ['(x) => oy ~ f'(x) ox.

ox

(i) Velocity and Acceleration

If x =xU) then velocity v = dx =x,

dt
acceleration a = dv = d2 X = X = v dv =
dt dt2 dx

15.2 Worked Examples

15.1 Show that the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve y2 = 4ax at
the point P (at 2 , 2at) are ty = x + at2 and y + tx = 2at + at3 .

• At the point P, x = at2 ,y = 2at.

Differentiating, dx = 2at, dy = 2a.
dt dt

But => dy = 2a
dx 2at t

Therefore the gradient of the tangent is l and the gradient of the normal
t
is -to
Equation of the tangent at (at 2 , 2at) is

y - 2at =x- at2

=> ty =x + at2 •
t
Equation of the normal at (at 2 , 2at) is
y - 2at = -t(x - at2 ) => y + tx = 2at + at3 .

15.2 The radius of a sphere is decreasing at 3 cm S-I. Obtain the rate of decrease
of the surface area of the sphere when the radius is 18 cm. Leave your answer
in terms of 11" •

• Given that the rate of decrease of the radius is 3 cm S-1 then dr = -3.
dt

165
 Surface area of a sphere A = 41rr 2 , dA = 81Tr.
dr
The rate of increase of the surface area is dA .
dt

dAdt = (dA)
dr
(dr) =(81rr) (-3) =-241rr.
dt
Therefore the rate of decrease of the surface area is 241rr.
When r = 18, the rate of decrease of surface area is 4321r cm 2 S·-I.

15.3
cos x + sin x show that d2.; = 2y dy
(a) Given that y = ~~-­
cos x - sin x dx dx

(b) Find dy when (i) y = In (1 + X 3 )2,

dx
(ii) x =sin3 0, y = cos 20.
cos x + sin x
• (a) y =
cos x - sin x
Use the quotient rule.
dy = (cos x - sin x) ( -sin x + cos x) - (cos x + sin x) (-sin x - cos x)
dx (cos x - sin X)2

= ( COS x - sin X)2 + (cos X + sin X)2

= 1 + y2.
(cos X - sin X)2
Differentiate implicitly:

Remember: d~2) = (2y) (:).

~.; = ~ (1) + ~ (y2).

Hence ~2
dx 2
d
= (2y) (ddx~)
(b) (i) y = In (1 + X 3 )2 = 2 In (1 + x 3 ).
Use the chain rule:

dy
dx
=(2) (_1_)
1+ x3
(3x 2 ) = 6x 2
I + x3 •

(ii) Parametric differentiation:

dy = ( dY ) ( dO ) .
dx dO dx

x = sin3 0 dx = 3 sin2 0 cos O' y

, dO '
= cos 20 , dy
dO
= - 2 sin 20 ..

=> dy = -2 sin 20 = -4 sin 0 cos 0 = -4 cosec 0

dx 3 sin2 0 cos 0 3 sin 2 0 cos 0 3

166
15.4 A body starts from 0 and moves in a straight line. Its distance from 0 after
t seconds is s metres, where s = 4te- t2 /3 . Find the velocity of the body and
determine when it first comes instantaneously to rest. Find the acceleration
of the body at this time. Show that it subsequently moves towards 0 with-
out ever reaching it. Give numerical answers to three significant figures .

• Given that s = 4te- t2 /3 (1)

velocity of the body v = ds = 4e- t2 / 3 + 4t (_ ite- t2 / 3 )
dt
=1-e- t2 /3 (3 - 2t 2 ). (2)
When v = 0, e- t '/3 = 0 or 3 - 2t 2 = O.
e- t2 /3 =1= 0 for finite t, therefore 2t 2 = 3, t =vt = 1.22
(taking the positive value only for time).
Acceleration of the body a = dv.
dt
dv = 1-e-t2/3 (-4t) + (3 _ 2t2 ) 1- (- ite- t2 /3)
dt

When t = vt, a = tV1-e- 1/ 2 (3 - 9) = -.If vte- 1/ 2 = -3.96.

Therefore the body is instantaneously at rest after 1.22 seconds.
The acceleration at this time is -3.96 m S-2 .
The velocity now becomes negative and the particle moves towards 0, and
continues in that direction since v remains negative (from equation 2). But
(from equation 1) s is always positive.
Therefore after t = 1.22 the body moves towards 0 but never reaches it.

15.5 Find the set of real values of x which satisfy (x 2 - 4) (x - 2) > O.

Find the coordinates of the maximum point, the minimum point and the
point of inflexion of the curve y = x 3 - 2X2 - 4x + 8.
Sketch this curve showing its intersections with the axes. Find also the set
of real values of x which satisfy (x 2 - 4) (x + 2) ~ O. (L)

• Lety = (x 2 - 4)(x - 2) = (x + 2) (x - 2)2,

*
(x- 2)2 > 0 for x 2, (x + 2) > 0 for x> -2.
Hence (x 2 - 4) (x - 2) > 0 for x > -2, x =1=2.
y = x 3 - 2X2 - 4x + 8 = (x 2 - 4) (x - 2) = (x + 2) (x - 2)2,

~~ = 3x 2 - 4x - 4 = (3x + 2) (x - 2),

dy = 0 when x = 2 or - t.
dx
-d Y2 = 6x - 4 => d2 Y
2
- = 0 when x ='3.
2
dx dx 2
When x = 2, d 2 .; = 8 (positive) => there is a minimum point at (2, 0).
dx
When x = - 1, ~:; = -8 (negative) => there is a maximum point at
( 2 256 )
-'3,2T .
When x = 1.3 , dy =1= 0 d2 Y = 0 => . fexton
In l' . t at (2'3,
pam 128)
27 •
dx 'dx 2 '

167
 v

(-l2;n 10
v= (x + 2) (x - 2)2

~--------t-------+-------~------~----.~~~------~ .. x
-3

If y = (X 2 - 4)(x + 2) = (x - 2) (x + 2)2,
(X + 2)2 ~ 0 for all x, (x - 2) ~ 0 for x ~ 2,
=> (x 2 - 4)(x + 2) ~ 0 for x ~ 2.

v
5
v = (x 2 - 4) (x + 2)

--~----~~~-----r-------r-------+-------.~------~-"x
-3 -1 o 3

-10

15.6 Find the coordinates of the maximum point T and the minimum point B of
x3
the curve y = 3" - 2X2 + 3x.
Find also the point of inflexion I and show that T, I and B are collinear.
Calculate to the nearest 0.10 the acute angle between TIB and the normal to
the curve at /. (L)

x3
• Y= "3 - 2X2 + 3x.
dy = x 2 _ 4x +3 => dy =0 when x =3 or 1.
dx dx
d2 y
dx 2 = 2x - 4.

168
 When x
d2 y
= 3, ~ is positive, a minimum point.
2dx
d2 y
When x = 1, is negative, a maximum point.
dx 2
When x = 2, d 2 ;, = 0 and dy *- O. Hence an inflexion point.
dx dx
Thus T has coordinates (1,1), B (3, 0) and I (2, t).
Gradient of TIis (t
-1)/(2 - 1) = -to
Gradient of IB is (0 - t )/(3 - 2) = - t.
Therefore T, I and B are collinear.
At I, dy = -1, therefore gradient of normal = 1.
dx
From the sketch: LINB = 45°.
Since the gradient of TIB is - t, LIBN = tan- 1 t = 33.7°.
Hence LNIT = 78.7° (exterior angle of triangle INB).

15.7 Given that y = In (1 + cos X)2, prove that d 2 ;, + 2e- y/2 = O.

dx
What can be said about any stationary values of y?
Sketch the curve y = In (1 + cos X)2 for -27r ~ x ~ 27r.

• y = In (1 = 2 In (1 + cos x).
+ cos X)2
Using the chain rule, dy = 2 ( 1 ) (-sin x).
dx 1 + cos x
Using the quotient rule with u = -2 sin x, v = 1 + cos x,
du dv .
= - 2 cos x -
, dx
= -SIn x
'
dx
(1 + cos x) (-2 cos x) + (2 sin x) (-sin x)
(1 + cos X)2

-2 cosx - 2 -2
= =
(1 + cos X)2 1 + cos x
But 1 + cos x = eY/ 2 ,
therefore -
d 2y
= -2e-y / 2 =>
d2 y + 2e-y / 2
- = O.
dx 2 ' d x2
Since e-y / 2 d 2 ;, < 0 for all finite
is positive for all finite values of y,
dx
values of y. Hence any stationary values of yare maximum values.

169
 Sketch:
(a) In (1 + cos X)2 is not defined when cos x = -1
=> asymptotes are x = ±1T.

(b) dy = 0 when sin x = 0, but 1 + cosx =1= 0

dx
=> dy = 0 when x = -21T, 0, 21T.
dx
(c) In (1 + cos X)2 is an even function.

15.8 Find the stationary points of the function given by f(x) = (x + 1) (x + 4) .

x
Sketch the graph of f(x) and find the domain and range of f(x).

• f(x) = (x + 1) (x + 4) = x 2 + 5x + 4
x x
By the quotient rule,
['(x) = x (2x + 5) - (x 2 + 5x + 4)
x2

f'(x) = 0 when x 2 - 4 = 0 => x = ±2.

Hence stationary points are at (2, 9) and (-2, 1).
Sketch:
(a) f(x) is not defined when x = 0 => asymptote is x = o.
(b) f(x) = 0 when x = -lor -4.
(c) f(x) = x2 +5x+4 =x+5+ i.
x x
When I x I is large, f(x) ~ x + 5 (asymptote).

170
 y

20

15
(x + 1) (x + 4)
y=
4 10
(2,9)

5
(-2,1)
----4-------~--------~~--~~r_------_+--------+_--~x

o 5 10

(d) When x is small, f(x) -+ ±.

x
The domain of f(x) is x E JR, x =1= O.
The range of f(x) is f(x)::S;;;; I or f(x) ~ 9.

15.3 Exercises
15.1 Show that e-xcos x has turning values when x = (n + *)11' when n is an
integer. Distinguish between maxima and minima.
Sketch the curve y =e-x cos x for 0 ::s;;;; x ::s;;;; 211'.

15.2
(a) A curve is given parametrically by x =t2 - 2t, y =t 2 + 2t. Find dy and d2 y
dx dx 2
in terms of t and hence find the coordinates of the stationary point on the
curve, determining its nature.
Sketch the curve for -2 ::s;;;; t ::s;;;; 2.
(b) If y = sin2 x cos3 x, find the values of x lying between -11'/2 and 11' for which
dy = O.
dx
Sketch the curve y = sin2 x cos3 x.

15.3 Given thaty = e- 4X cos 3x,

(a) express d2 ; in the form Ae- 4X [sin (3x + a)], giving the values of A and
dx
tan a.
d2 y dy
(b) Prove that - 2 + 8 - + 2Sy = o.
dx dx
171
 15.4 A point moves along the x-axis so that, at time t, its displacement from the
origin is given by x = A sin wt, where A and ware constants. Prove that if, at time
t, the velocity is v and the acceleration is a, then (a) v2 = w 2 (A 2 - x 2 ),
2rr
(b) a = _w2 x, and (c) the particle oscillates with period
w

15.5
(a) (i) Find any stationary points and points of inflexion of y = In x
x
(ii) Sketch the graph of y = In x , for x > 0, indicating clearly any of the
x
points found in (i).
(b) Find the gradient of the curve x 3 + 3x2 y + y3 + 5 = 0 at the point (2, -1).
Write down the equations of the tangent and normal at this point.

4x - 5
15.6 Find the stationary points of the function f where f(x) = -- ----
(x - 1) (x + 1)
and determine the nature of each point.
Sketch the graph of f and give the equations of the asymptotes.
Give the domain and range of f.

15.7 A solid cylinder, of height h and base radius r, has a fixed volume V. Find
the ratio r : h if the surface area of the cylinder is a minimum.

15.8 The equation of a curve is given parametrically by x = 2(8 - sin 8),

y = 2 (1 - cos 8). Show that dy = cot !i .
dx 2
At A, () = ~, and at B, () = ~rr. Find the equations of the tangents at A and B.

15.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

15.1 y' = e-x
(-cos x - sin x); y' = 0 when cos x + sin x = 0
~tan x = -1 ~ x = (n + t) rr.
y" = e-x (cos x + sin x + sin x - cos x) = 2e- x sin x.
When n is even, sin (n + t)rr > 0 ~ y has a minimum value.
When n is odd, sin (n +t)rr < 0 ~ y has a maximum value.

y = e- X cos x
0.5

~--~~~~~~-x
o 11 11 311 211
2 2

172
15.2
(a) dx = 2t - 2, dy :: 2t + 2 ~ dy=~
dt dt ' dx t - 1

d 2 y2 _
dx - dx dx -
d
(dY ) _ [ddt (dY)J(dt)-
dx dx-
(t-l)-(t+ 1)
(t - 1)2 2(t - 1)

-1
= (t - 1)3 .

dy = 0 when t = -1 and then d 2 y =

dx ' d x2 8
Hence the point (3, -1) is a minimum.

v
8

---.."..--1----+---1---=--+--___ x

(b) y' = (2 sin x cos x) cos 3 X+ sin 2 x (-3 cos2 x sin x)

= cos2 x sin x (2 cos2 x - 3 sin 2 x).
y' = 0 when cos x = 0 ~ x = ± -; . x=0 ~
rr or sm x = 0 or rr;
2
or tan x = ±y't ~ x = -0.68, 0.68, or 2.46 radians.

0.25

-~---~~----~~---~-----x

173
 15.3
(a) y/ = e- 4X (-3 sin 3x - 4 cos 3x)
y" = e- 4X (24 sin 3x + 7 cos 3x)
= 25e- 4X sin (3x + a) where tan a = i4.
(b) Multiply by e4X , e4X y =cos 3x.
e4X y/ + 4e4X y = -3 sin 3x,
e4X y" + 8e4X y/ + 16e4X y = -9 cos 3x = _ge4X y.
Divide by e4X , y" + 8y' + 25y = O.

15.4 v = x = wA cos wI, a = x = _w2 A sin wI = _w2 X,

cos2 wI = I - sin2 wt, hence v2 = w2 (A 2 - x 2 ).
Period T of sin wt is given by wT = 21T ~ T= 21T .
W

15.5
(a) y/ = (- x12) (In x) + (~) (~) = :2 (1 -In x).
y/ = 0 when In x = 1 ~ x = e.
y " = --2 (1 - In x) + -I (-I)
- = --I3 (3 - 2 In x);
x3 x2 x x
y" =0 when In x =t ~ x = e3/ 2 (inflexion).
W'hen x = e, y ,,-1
= -3- (maXImum,
. )
e
~ maximum at (e, e-1 ), inflexion at (3/2
e , 3e-
32
2 / \j"

0.4
(e, e- 1 ) (e 3/2 , %e- 3/2)

0.2

0
4 6 x
8

(b) 3x2 + 3x2y' + 6xy + 3y2y' = 0

~ Y / = -(x 22 + 2xy)
2'
At (2 -I) / = 0
"y.
x +y
Equation of tangent: y = -1; equation of normal: x = 2.

15.6 f'ex) = (x 2 - I) (4) - (4x - 5) (2x)

(x - 1)2 (x + 1)2
_ -2(2x-I)(x-2)
- (x - 1)2 (x + 1)2 .
f' (x) = 0 when x =t or x =2.
174
When x < t, f' (x) is negative, (x -1); *
when t < x < 2, f'(x) is positive, (x 1); *
when x > 2, f'(x) is negative.
Hence at x = t, f has a minimum point (t, 4),
at x = 2, f has a maximum point (2, 1).
Sketch: (a) asymptotes at x = ±1;
(b) f(x) =0 when x =t;
(c) as Ix 1-+ 00, f(x) -+ ix => y =0 is an asymptote;
(d) min (t' 4), max (2, 1).

I
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
I i
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

Domain of f is (x : x E IR, x 2 * 1).

Range is f(x) ~ 1 or f(x) ~ 4.

IS.7 V= 7rrh. (1)

Surface area =A =27rr2 + 27rrh. (2)
From equation 1, h = V2 ; in equation 2, A = 27rr2 + 27rr V = 2Trr2 + 2 V
Trr Trr2 r
dA _ 2V _ _ 2V
- - 4Trr - - - 0 when4Trr- - =>
~ r r
d2 A 4V·
--2
dr
=47r + -3-
r
> 0 for all r.

h 3 = 4 V r3 = !, r : h = 1 : 2.
-;-' h 3 8

175
 dx dy.
15.8 -d() = 2 (1 - cos () , -d() = 2 SIn () ,
dy = 2sin() = 2sin()/2cos()/2 = cot ()/2.
dx 2 (1 - cos () 2 sin 2 () /2
At A ()
,
=!!2' x = 71' - 2 y
"
=2 dy
dx
= 1.
At B ()
,
= 371'
2'
X = 371' + 2 y
"
=2 dy = - 1
dx .
Equation of tangent at A is y =x - 71' + 4.
Equation of tangent at B is y =- x + 371' + 4.

176
 16 Integration 1
Integration as the inverse of differentiation. Integration of standard functions.
Simple techniques of integration including partial fractions. The evaluation of
definite integrals.

16.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Standard Results (Arbitrary Constants Omitted)

f(x) ff(x) dx

xn (n *- -1)
n+1
In Ix I
x
eX
sin x -cos x
cos x sin x
tan x In Isec x lor-In I cos x I
cot x -In I cosec x I or In I sin x I
sec2 x tan x
cosec2 x -cotx
sec x In Isecx+tanxl orInltan(~ + ~)I
cosec x I
-In I cosec x + cot x lor In cot ~ I
sec x tan x sec x
cosec x cot x -cosec x

(b) Integration as the Inverse of Differentiation

ff'(X) dx = f(x).

{f(x)}n f'(x) dx = {f(x)}n+l

f n+1

177
 f f'(X) dx=lnlf(x)1.
f(x)

r{f'(X)} {ef(x)} dx =ef(x) •

.I

(c) Use of Partial Fractions

f(X)) dx where f(x) and g(x) are polynomials and g(x) will factorize.
f g(x

If f(x) is of the same degree as g(x) or a higher one then long division must be
carried out before changing to partial fractions.

(d) General Techniques for Integrating Trigonometric Functions

(i) sinn X (and cos n x) where n is an even integer: use the cos 2x formulae.
(ii) sinn x (and cosn x) where n is an odd integer: write sinn x = sinn- l x sinx
and then change the sin n- l x into tenns in cos x using sin2 x == 1 - cos 2 x.
(iii) tan n x where n is an integer and n > 1 : use tan 2 x == sec2 x-I.
(iv) sin ax cos bx and similar terms: use the product formulae.

(e) Indefinite Integrals

If ~
dx
{F(x)} = f(x) then ff(X) dx = F(x) + constant.

(f) Definite Integrals

Ib f(x) dx = [F(X) J: = F(b) - F(a).

16.2 Worked Examples

16.1
(a) Evaluate (i) fl2(2x dx+ 1)2 and (ii) C2
Jl
X
(2x+ 1)
2 dx.

(b) Evaluate sin 2x cos x dx.

fo W/3

dx 2
• (a) (i) f.2 (2x + 1)2 = ~ f.2 (2x + 1)2
dx

=
1 [
2"
-1
(2x + 1)
J2 - --1
-
2(5)
+_1_
2(3)
--1
15
I

178
 (ii) J12 (2x +X 1)2 ="2I J21 {(2x
2x + 1 1 }ctx

r Lx
dx + 1) 2 (2x + 1)2

= ~ ~1 ~ (2X! 1)' } dx

= ~ r {2X 2+ 1 - (2X; 1)2 } ctx

= l [In I 2x + 1 I + _1_ ] 2
4 2x + 1
1

= t (In 5 + t - In 3 - t)
= tOn t - fs) = 0.094.
Tr!3
(b) I 0 sin 2x cos x dx

Products sin ax cos bx and similar usually require the product formulae.

sin 2x cos x = l' (sin 3x + sin x).

JTr!3
o sin 2x cos x dx =.12 ITr!3
0 (sin 3x + sin x) dx

=-1 [-cos 3x - cos x ] Tr!3

2 3 0

= 2"1 (-cos
3
7r
- cos "37r cos 0
+ -3- + cos 0
)

= l' (t - l' + t + 1)
12·
=.::1...

16.2
+ x-II b
14
6 X2
(a) Show that - - - - - : - - - - dx = In a + -
(x - 2)2 (x - 3) . c

a, band c are integers to be determined.

(b) Find fSin x cos x dx by

(i) considering the result of differentiating sin 2 x,

(ii) considering the result of differentiatinf?; cos 2x.
Why are the results apparently different?

• (a) By partial fractions:

x 2 + x-II _ A + B +~
(x - 2)2 (x - 3) x - 2 (x - 2)2 X - 3

_ A (x - 2) (x - 3) + B (x - 3) + C (x- 2)2
- (x - 2)2 (x - 3)

179
 Eq uating numerators:
x 2 +x-ll=A(x-2)(x-3)+B(x-3)+C(x-2)2.
Let x = 3; then 9 + 3 - 11 = C( 1) =* C = 1
x = 2; then 4 + 2 - 11 = B (-1) =* B = 5
x = 0; then -11 = 6A - 3B + 4C = 6A - 1 5 + 4 =* A = O.

Hence
14
6 X2 + x-II
(X_2)2(x-3)
dx = J6 {(x_2)2
4
5 + _1_}
x-3
dx

= [-5 + In 1x _ 31J 6
(x - 2) 4

=- t + In 3 + t - In 1
= In 3 + t.
=* a = 3, b = 5 and c = 4.

(b) J sin x cos x dx.

! (sin2 x) = 2 sin x cos x =* fsin x cos x dx = 1- sin 2 x + C1 .

d
(cos 2x) = -2 sin 2x = -4 sin x cos x

f
dx

=* sin x cos x dx = -- t cos 2x + C 2 ·

The results appear to be different but the difference is in the constant:
cos 2x =1 - 2 sin 2 x =* - t cos 2x =- t + t sin 2 x
=t sin2 x + constant.

16.3 Find (a) fSin 2 x dx, (b) f cos 3 x dx and (c) JSin 2 x cos 3 x dx .

. 2 1 - cos 2x
• (a) sm x= 2

fSin 2 x dx = 1- JO - cos 2x) dx

=t (x - sin22X) + C

= t (2x - sin 2x) + C.

(b) cos 3 x = cos2 X cos X = (1 - sin 2 x) cos x

=* fcos 3 X dx= fccosx - sin 2 x cos x) dx

sin 3 x
= sin x - + C.
3

( c) sin2 x cos3 x = sin 2 x (1 - sin 2 x) cos x

= sin 2 x cos x - sin4 x cos x

180
 => J sin 2 x cos 3 X dx = J (sin 2 x cos x - sin4 x cos x) dx
sin 3 x sins x
= +c.
3 5

16.4
(a) Show that Jrrr/4
0 (1 + tan X)2 dx = 1 + In 2.

rrr/2 1
(b) Evaluate dx, giving the answer in exact form.
J 0 sin x + cos x

• (a) (1 + tan X)2 = 1 + tan2 x + 2 tan x = sec2 x + 2 tan x.

1f/4
J o (1 + tan X)2 dx = J1f/4
0 (sec2 x + 2 tan x) dx

1f/4
= [ tan x + 2 In I sec x I] 0

= tan i + 2 In Isec i 1- tan 0 - 2 In I sec 0 I

= 1 + 2 In v'2 = 1 + In 2.

(b) a cos x + b sin x or a sin x + b cos x can

be expressed as r cos (x - a) (see Chapter 9).
1 1
----=------
sin x + cos x v'2 cos (x - 1r/4)

f1f/2
o
1
sinx+cosx
dx =_1_
v'2 f 1f/2
o sec ( x - 4"1r) dx

_ 1
v'2

= _1_ {In (v'2 + 1) -In (v'2 - I)}

v'2
= _1_ In v'2 + 1 .
v'2 v'2-1

But = v'2 + 1 = _ 12 + 1.
v'2-1 (v'2 - 1)(v'2 + 1) v

Hence J
1f/2
o sin x + cos x
dx = J2 In (v'2 + 1)2 = (v'2) In (v'2 + 1).

181
 1'l'6
16.5 Evaluate f o sin x sec2 x dx.

sin x
• sin x sec2 x =
COS2 X
= sec x tan x.

1 1'1/6 f1'l'6
0 sin x sec x dx = 0 sec x tan x dx
2

1'1/6
= [ sec x ] 0

2
= - -1.
y'3

Alterna tively,

fo
1'l'6 sm
. x sec2 x dx = f 01'1/6 cos- 2 x sm
. x dx

=- f:/ 6
cos- 2 x d (cos x)

= [(COS x)-l] :6

__ _
2
-1.
y'3

16.6 Find ftan 3 x dx.

• tan 3 x =tan2 x tan x =(sec2 x -1) tan x

=sec2 x tan x - tan x.
ftan 3 x dx = f(sec 2 x tan x - tan x) dx

=t tan2 x + In I cos x I + c.

16.7
(a) Find (i) f(COS;3X + sin 3X)2 dx, (ii) f(COS 3x + sin 2x)~ dx.

(b) Evaluate

• (a) (i) (cos 3x + sin 3X)2 =cos2 3x + sin2 3x + 2 sin 3x cos 3x

= 1 + sin 6x.
f(COS 3x + sin 3X)2 dx = 50 + sin 6x) dx

182
 =x _ cos 6x + C.
6
(ii) (cos 3x + sin 2X)2 = cos 2 3x + sin 2 2x + 2 cos 3x sin 2x

= 1 + cos 6x + 1 - cos 4x + SIn

. 5
X -
.
SIn X.
2 2

f(COS 3x + sin 2X)2 dx = f (1 + COS

26X - COS
24X + sin 5x - sin x ) dx

= x + sin 6x sin 4x cos 5x

+ cos x + C.
12 8 5

(b) f: x (x - 2)12 dx. Write x in the form [(x - 2) + 2].

Then x (x - 2)12 = (x - 2) (x - 2)12 + 2 (x - 2)12

=(x
f: f:
- 2)13 + 2 (x - 2)12.

x (x - 2)12 dx = {(x - 2)13 + 2 (x - 2)12} dx

= [(X - 2)14 + 2 (x - 2)13] 3

14 13 2

+ IT
_ ..1..
- 14
2 _ 41
- 182·
Alternatively, use a substitution u =x - 2 (see Chapter 17).

16.8
(a) Evaluate (i)f 2 x dx
-1 Vex + 2) ,

(b) Evaluate

• (a) (i) f-1

2

vex
X

+ 2)
dx.

x = x + 2 - 2 = (x + 2)1/2 _ 2 (x + 2)-1/2.
vex + 2) vex + 2)

f~1 v(:+ 2) dx = f~1 {(x + 2)1/2 - 2 (x +2)-1/2} d.x

= [t (x + 2)3/2 - (2) {2 (x + 2)1/2}] ~1

= {t (4)3/2 - 4 (4)1/2} - {t (1)3/2 - 4 (1 )1/2} = t.
Alternatively, use a substitution.

(ii) f1
8 ( '::;x + 2~X ) dx = {B {(X)1/3 + t(X)-1/3} dx .
183
 = [hx )4/3 + (-t)(1)(x )2/3 J~
= d·(8)4/3 + t(8)2 /3} - d· + t} = 2r
(b) Did you fall into the trap?

J: (sin2 x + cos2 X)2 dx = J: (1) dx = [x J: = 7f.

16.9 Evaluate fl X dx; (b) f: cos4 x dx;

r
(a) -1 (x + 3)

1
(c) J""3 3
x2 x_ 1 dx; (d) r/ 2
sin 2 x
dx.
.)2 "/4

• (a) x =x+3-3=1 _ _3_ .

t: (1 - x 3)
x+3 x+3 x+3

f_: x: 3 dx = ~ dx.

= [x - 3 In 1x+ 31J ~1
= (I - 3 In 4) - (-1 - 3 In 2)
=2 - 3 In 2 =- 0.079.

(b) cos4 X = (1 + cos 2X)2 = 1 + 2 cos 2x + cos 2 2x

4 4

="4
1 + "21 cos 2x + I + cos 4 x
8

f: cos4 x dx = f: Cf + -t cos 2x + i cos 4x) dx

= [3X + sin 2x + sin 4x

8 4 32
J 11

0
= ~ 7f.

(c) x3 -_ X + x by long division.

x 2 - 1 x2 - I

= [ ~2 + -t In 1 x2 - 11
] ""3

2 ""2
= c1 + -t In (2)) - (-t + -t In (1))
=1- + 1- In 2 = 0.847.

184
 (d)
f rr/2
rr/4
sin2 x
dx = f
rr/2

rr/4
cosec 2 x dx

= [-cot X] rr/2 = (0) - ( -1) = l.

rr/4

16.10 Given that f(x) =3x + 2 , express f(x) in partial fractions.

(2x - l)(x + 3)
Sketch the curve y = f(x), showing the asymptotes and the points of inter-
section of the curve with the axes.

Evaluate lS f(x) dx and shade on your sketch the region whose area is

equal to this integral. (L)

• (2x - 3x+ 2
1) (x + 3)
-
A
(2x - 1)
+
B
(x+ 3)

=A (x + 3) + B (2x - I)
(2x - 1) (x + 3)
Comparing the numerators: let x = -3; --7 =B (- 7) => B=I;
let x = t; t=A(t) => A=1.

f(x) =__
1_
2x-l
+
x+3

f(x)

4-

f( ) - 3x + 2
x - (2x _ 1)(x + 3)

x
-5 -4 -3 -2 3 4 5
I
I
I
I
(0. -~)
I
i
I
I
I
I -3
I
I
I
-4

{S f(x) dx = is { 2x 1_ I + _1_}
x+3
dx

185
 = [1- In I 2x - 1 I + In I x + 3 I] ~

=(t In 9 + In 8) - (t In 1 + In 4)
=In 3 + In 8 - In 4
=]n 6

= 1.792.

16.3 Exercises
16.1 For which of the following is it true that

f1
-1
f(x) dx = 2 (1
J o
f(x) dx?

(i) f(x) = sin x, (ii) f(x) = cos x, (iii) f(x) = x 2 , (iv) f(x) =x 3 .
A, (i) only; B, (ii) and (iv) only;
C, (iii) and (iv) only; D, (ii) and (iii) only;
E, some other combination.

16.2 Given that K is a constant of integration, then,

for x > 0, J( 1 + X 1/2 - X- 3/ 2 ) dx equals

A 2x3/2 + 2x-1/2 + K' x + :l.x

B, 3 3/2 + 2x- 1/2,
+ K'
'3 -. '
C, x + tx 3/2 + 1-X- 1/2 + K; 3 312 - 2x- 1/2 + K',
D, x + :l.x
E, none of these.

16.3
(a) Evaluate 112
(x - 4)(x - 6)
2 ax to three significant figures.

(b) Find (i) fSin 3x dx, (ii) ftan 2 x dx, (iii) fcot xdx.
3

16.4
(a) Evaluate fo
,"/2
cos x dx.

Write down

f ,"/2

-'"/2
cos x dx;
f '"o
cos x dx; f: sin x dx; f
,"/2
o sin 2x dx.

(b) Evaluate I 3~
x-I
dx.
2

186
16.5
(a) Evaluate f 7r/2
o sin 2 x dx, f 7r/2
0
COS
2
x dx,

f07r/2 cos2 2x dx, f0

7r/2
cos 2 ax dx,

where a is an integer.

(b) Find f x+2

(x - 1)2 (x + 1)
d
x.

2
16.6 Given that f(x) == ~ , express f(x) in partial fractions. Hence:
(x + 1) (x - 1)

(a) Find ff(x) dx.

+ bx3 + cx 4 when f(x) is expanded in a series of
(b) Find the first three terms ax 2
ascending powers of x, stating the values of x for which the expansion is valid.

(c) Evaluate f:· 2

f(x) dx and f:· 2
(ax 2 + bx 3 + cx 4 ) dx.

16.7 Evaluate

(a) f1
4 (y'x + 1)3
Sy'x dx, (b) f 7r/2
o sin3 x cos4 x dx,

(c) 1 -./3/2

o
y' (1
2x
- x )
2 dx,

16.8 Evaluate
(a) f 1l'12
o cos 3x
1
2 dx, (b)
i10 x 3.
x +1
2 dx.

16.9 Given that f(x) == a , express f(x) as partial fractions.

(x - 3) (x + 1)

If J: f(x) dx = In (~), find a.

f:
Using this value of a, find the value of b for which

f(x) dx = 2 In ~.

187
16.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

16.1
f l
-1
f(X) dx =2 r
Jo
1
f(x) dx

if f(x) is an even function. cos x and x 2 are even functions. Answer D

16.2 f( 1 + X 1/ 2 - X- 3 / 2 ) dx = x + tx 3 / 2 + 2X- l / 2 + K. Answer B

16.3

(a) f2
1 (x - 4)
2 (x - 6)
dx= f2 ( --1- +
1 X - 4
--1) dx
x - 6

= [-In Ix-41+1n 'X-6IT =lnt=O.182.

cos3 x
(b) (i) fSin 3 xdx= f(l-cos 2 x)sinxdx=-cosx+ +c.
3

(ii) ftan 2 x dx = J<sec2 x-I) dx = tan x - x + C.

(iii) f cot3 x dx = f cot x (cosec2 x - 1) dx

=- t coe x + In I cosec x I + C.
16.4

(a) f:/ 2 cos x dx = [sin X]:2 = 1.

2; 0; 2; 1. (Think of the graphs.)

(b) J: (x + 1+ x~ 1) dx = [x; + x+ In I x-II J: =f + In 2 = 4.193.

16.5
(a) 1 1r/2 sm
o
. 2 1
x dx = -
2
f1r/2 (1
0
- cos 2x) dx = -
1 [x - -
2 2
2X] 1r/2 = -.
sin -
0
'IT
4

f 1r/2
o cos 2 X
1
dx ="2
f1r/2
0 (1 + cos 2x) dx =
1[
"2 x+
sin 2X]1r/2 __ _
2 0
'IT.
4

f 1r/2
o cos2 2x dx ="2
1 J1r/2
0 (1 + cos 4x) dx =
'IT
"4.

1 o
1r/2 1
cos2 ax dx ="2
f1r/2
0 (1 + cos 2ax) dx =
'IT
"4.

(b) ~f ~ {x 1 + x-=-\ + (x _6 1)2 } dx = i In I~ ~ : /- 3

2 (X _ 1) + C.

188
16.6 f(x) = _~
4
{_1_ +
x-I
_3_ _
x + 1 (x + 1p
2 }.
(a) 1 + l In Ix + 1 I + l In I x-I I + C
2 (x + 1) 4 4
(b) _x 2 (1-2x+3x 2 - .•. )(1 +x+x 2 + ... )
(valid when -1 <x < 1).
(c) f°
O.2
f(x) dx = -1- +
20.2)
3 1 1
- In (1.2) + - In (0.8) - - + 0 + 0
4 4 2

= -0.00238.

f°2
o.
(_x 2+ x 3 - 2x 4) dx = [X3
-3 + 4X4 - 2x s JO.2
-5- ° = -0.00239.

t J:
16.7
(a) (x + 3X 1/ 2 + 3 + X- 1/ 2 ) dx = ¥.

(b) f° rr/2
(cos 4 x sin x - cos 6 x sin x) dx
[
= -
cos S x
5 +
cos 7
7
X ] rr/2
° = ;5'

(c) [-2 (l - X 2 )1/2 J°

..)3/2
= -2 (-iY/2 + 2 (1 )1/2 = 1.

(d) L (e- X + eX) dx ~ ~e-x + eJ ~I

= (_e- 1 + e1 ) - (_e 1 + e- 1 ) = 4.70.
16.8
(a) f° rr/12
sec2 3x dx =t
[J° tan 3x
rr/12
= t.

(b) 1' (x - _X_)dx = [X2 _ lIn Ix 2 + I1J1 = l - lIn 2 = 0.153.

Jo
I x +1 2 2
2 ° 2 2

16.9
i(x ~ 3- x: I)
I: ~ ~ ~nf(x) dx I x - 3 I - In I x + I ~: ~ - ~ In 3
=> a = 8.

fo b ~
[(x) dx = 2 LIn I b - 31 - In I b + 11 - In 1-31 + In 1 J
=2In (3-b) (-I<b<3).
3 (b + 1)
(3 - b)
=> - - => b = 2.
3 (b + 1) 9

189
 17 Integration 2
Integration by substitution and by parts.

17.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Integration by Substitution

f f(X) dx = ff(X) dx du where f(x) dx is expressed in terms of u.

du du
• With indefinite integrals, answers must be expressed in tenns of the original
variable.
• With definite integrals remember to change the limits of integration to the
corresponding values of the new variable.

(b) Special Substitutions

or

dx a
Let bx =a sin 0; then b - = a cos 0 ~ dx = - cos 0 dO
dO b

(ii) f 2
a +b x
12 2 dx.

Let bx = a tan 0; then b -dx =a sec2 0 ~ dx = -a sec2 0 dO

dO b

(iii) f a sin 0
1
+ b cos 0 + C
dO
•

Let t = tan -o . then -dt = -1 sec2 -

0 -
2' dO 2 2

and sin 0 = -2t- cos 0 = ---..,.-

1 - t2
l+t2 ' l+t 2

(iv) f 1
a cos2 0 + b sin2 0 + c
dO
.

Let t = tan O' then dt = sec2 0 = (1 + t 2 ) ~ dO dt

, dO -1+t2

190
 and sin 2 e = ~,
l+t
cos 2 e = - 1 - 2 .
l+t

tv) fSin ll e cos e de: let s = sin 0; then ds = cos e dO.

fcos ll
e sin e de: let e = cos () ; then de = -sin () de.

[tan ll e sec 2 e de: let t = tan e; then dt == sec 2 () d().

J seen () tan e d(): let s = sec (); then ds = sec () tan () d().
(vi) f x +
2 2~ x + e dx, where x 2 + 2bx + e will not readily factorize,

x 2 + 2bx + e == (x + b)2 + (e - b 2 ).
If (c - b 2 ) > 0, the denominator is the sum of two squares. Use a tangent
substitution for (x + b) as in (ii).
If (e - b 2 ) < 0 use partial fractions as in Chapter 16.

(vii) fy(a + 2bx1 - x2)

dx.

Change a + 2bx - x 2 to (a + b2 ) - (x -- b)2 and use a sine substitution for

(x - b) as in (i).

(viii) f xy(ax + b) dx or J f(x) d

y(ax + b) x.
Let u = y(ax + b); square both sides: u 2 =ax + b;
du 2u 2
u - b
then 2u - =a ~ dx= - du and x =- --
dx a a

(c) Integration by Parts

dv
I u -dx dx = uv - I v -du dx.
dx

( Or, more briefly, u dv f = uv - f

v du, where u and v are functions of x.)

Ch oose t h e u an d -dv so t h at v -du IS " to mtegrate t h an u dv

. eaSIer
dx dx dx

(d) Alternative Notations

I f(x) g(x) dx = f(x) I g(x) dx - I(fg(X) dX) f'(x) dx

or f uv dx = u Iv dx - f (f v dX): dx.
191
 (e) Special Cases

(i) f f(x) In x dx: put u = In x and dv = f(x).

dx

(ii) f f(x) sin- 1 x dx: put u = sin- 1 x and dv = f(x).

dx

(iii)
f f(X) tan-1 x dx: put u = tan- 1 x and dv = f(x).
dx

(iv) feax cos bx dx or f eax sin bx dx; integration by parts will have to be

performed twice.

17.2 Worked Examples

f:,
17.1
(a) Evaluate 2
x sin x dx correct to three significant figures.

(b) Using the substitution u = eX, or otherwise,

evaluate IIo
dx
3 - eX
correct to three significant figures.

• (a) By parts.
Letu=x, dv = sin x, then dU=I,v=-cosx.
dx· dx

f ,"/2 [J,"/2 + fo
o x sin x dx = -x cos x 0
,"/2
cos x dx

[ J
= sin x
,"/2
0 = 1.

(b) If u = eX then -du = eX = u.

dx
When x = 0, u = 1, when x = 1, u = e.

Jjfo1 3 - eX
1 dx du =
3 - eX du
fe
1
1
3 - u
!
u
duo

Now 1 _31{Iu + 3 - I}
u (3 - u) u

so fe
J1
1
u (3 - u)
du = !3 fe1 {! + _1_}
U 3-
du
u

=t[In lui -In 13 - ulI

192
 ::: 1 (In I e I - In I 3 - e I) - t (In 11 I - In I 21)

: : t{ 1 + In (3 ~ e)} : : 0.987.
17.2

f~;
f
(a) Find dx.
1/2
(b) Using the substitution 2x ::: sin u, or otherwise, evaluate o y'(1 - 4x 2 ) dx.

• (a) f~: dx::: fx-1/2Inxdx.

By parts, U ::: In x, dv ::: X- 1/2 . du ::: ! v::: 2X 1/2

dx 'dx x' .

f~: dx::: 2>:1/2 In x - f(~) (2X1/2) dx

::: 2X1/2 In x - 2 f X- 1/2 dx::: 2X1/2 In x - 4X 1/2 + C.

(b) If2x::: sin u then dx = ! cos u.

du 2

Whenx=O , u=O'x=!
, 2' u=!!.
2 .

= f 01f/2 y'(cos 2 u)
(1)
2" cos du u

= 2"1 f1f/2
0 cos 2 U du ="41 J1f/2
0 (1 + cos 2u) du

17.3
(a) Find JX:x +4
+ 1 dx.

(b) Using the substitution t = tan 0, or otherwise, evaluate J1f/4 1 dO,

o 5 + 4 cos 20

giving your answer to three significant figures.

x 3 +1 (-4x+l) 4x 1
• (a) =x + =x - + ~-
x2 + 4 x2 + 4 2
x +4 2
x +4 .

193
 f X3 + 1 dx
X2 + 4
= f(X - 24X + 2 1 ) dx
x +4 x +4

= {X; _ 2 In (X 2+ 4) + i tan -1 (~)} + C.

1 - t2 dt
(b) If t = tan 0 then cos 20 = 1 + t2 ' dO = sec2 0 = 1 + t2.

When 0 = 0 , t = O·, 0 =!!.4' t = 1.

Io
1T/4 1
5 + 4 cos 20
dO = [1
J 0
1 dO dt
5 + 4 cos 20 dt

= f: 1 1
5 + 4 (1 - t 2 ) (I + t 2 )
1 + t2
dt

= f: 1
- 92 dt
+t

= [j tan- 1 ( f)I = } tan- 1 (j) = 0.107.

17.4

(a) Using the substitution u2 =x 2 + 4x, or otherwise, evaluate f4 yI \+ 2 dx,

2 (x + 4x)

I:
giving your answer to two significant figures.

(b) Find the exact value of xyl(9 - 2x2 ) dx.

• (a) lfu 2 =x 2 +4xthen2u du =2x+4,sou=(x+2) dx.

dx du
When x =2, u 2 = 12 => u =2y13;
When x = 4, u 2 =32 => u = 4y12.

f
4
2
x +2
yI(x 2 + 4x)
dx = 5 4 "\;I2
2../3
1
yI(x 2 + 4x)
(x + 2) (dx)
du
du

= f4../2 (~) (u) du = [UJ4../2

2../3 2../3

= 4y12 - 2y13 = 2.2.

(b) Let 9 - 2X2 =u 2 ; then -

4x dx = 2u => (x dX)= - ~.
du du 2

I:
When x = 0, u = 3; x = 2, u = 1.

xyl(9 - 2x 2 ) dx = s: yI(9 - 2X2) (x ~~) du

194
 = -t+¥ = Jf-.
Notice the technique of substituting u 2 when a square root is involved.

17.5
(a) Evaluate J: x 2 e- x dx.

(b) Using the substitution, x = a tan (), prove that

f dx
x 2 + a2
=1. tan- 1 (~)
a a .

• Hence, or otherwise, evaluate f -2

o
2
x +4x+
dx
8 .

(a) By parts. Let u = x 2 dv = e- x , du = 2x v = _e- x •

. , dx ' dx '

s: x'e- r dx = [x' (-e-X)I + s: (e- )(2x) dx r

= -e- 1 + 2 f: xe- x dx.

Now let u = x, dv = e- x , du = 1 v = _e- x

dx 'dx' .

f: xe- x dx = [-xe- x J: f:+ le- x dx

= _e- 1 - [e-xJ~ = _e- 1 - e- 1 + eO.

Hence f: x 2 e- x dx = _e- 1 + 2 (-2e- 1 + eO)

=2-Se- 1 =0.161.

dx
(b) Ifx=atan8, d8 =asec2 () andx 2 +a 2 =a2 (tan2 8+ 1)=a 2 sec2 8.

= 1. 8 = 1. tan- 1 (~) .
a a a
1 1
= (x + 2)2 +4
= ----;;---:-
(x + 2)2 + 22 .
x + 4x + 8
2

195
 (x
1
-----=------=-
+ 2)2 + 22
dx = -2[1 tan -1 - + 0
2_2
(X 2]
= ! tan- 1 (1) - ! tan- 1 (0) = !!. .
2 2 8

17.6

(a) Evaluate J: x 2 tan- 1 x dx, giving the answer to two significant figures.

(b) Evaluate f 2y' (4X3-x2 ) dx.

1

dv du 1 x3
• (a) By parts. Let u = tan
-1
x, dx = x ; dx
2
= 1 + x2 '
v= -
3'

i
O
1 X2 tan- 1 x dx =[X3
-3 tan- 1 x J01 - f01 x33
1+ x 2
1 dx

= (~)(~) - ~ f:0- 1:X2) dx

= t2 - ~ [~2 - ~ In (1 + x 2 )] :

= -11' - -1 + 1
-ln2=0.21.
12 6 6

dx
(b) Let u2 =4 - x 2 , then 2u ~ =- 2x => x - =- u.
du
When x = 1, u =y'3; when x = 2, u = O.

f2
1
X3
y' (4 - x 2 )
dx = fO 2
.J 3 y' (4 -
x x2 )
(x dX)dU
du

= - f~3 (4 ~ u') (u du) = [!'; - 4uL

= - 3y'3 + 4y'3 = 3y'3 = 5.20.
3

17.7
(a) Evaluate

(b) Using the substitution u 2 = 3 - x, or otherwise, find f (x + 1)y'(3 - x) dx .

• (a) 7 + 6x - x 2 =- (x 2 - 6x - 7) =- {(x - 3)2 -- 16}.

196
 Thusy'(7 + 6x - X2 ) =y'{16 - (x - 3)2}.
Let x - 3 = 4 sin u, then dx = 4 cos U and
du
16 - (x - 3)2 = 16 - 16 sin 2 u = 16 cos2 u.
When x = 3, U = 0; when x = 7, U = ~.
2

17 y'(7 + 6~ _ x 2 ) dx = J:/ 2
y'{ 16 _ ~x _ 3)2} (~:) du
= f'Tr/2( 1 ) (4 cos u) du
o 4 cos u

(b) Let u2 = 3 - x, then 2u du = -1 or -2u = dx .

dx du

f(X + l)y'(3 - X)(~~) du = f<4 - u2)(u) (-2u) du

= -2 f (4u 2 - u4 ) du

= -2 ('±u 3 - lu s\ = - 2 u 3 (20 - 3u 2 )
3 5) 15

= -2 (3 _ X)3/2 (20 - 9 + 3x)

15

= ~~ (3 - X)3/2 (11 + 3x) + C.

17.8
(a) Evaluate

(b) Using the substitution t = tan ~ , or otherwise,

evaluate J'Tr/2 6 dO.

o 1 + sin 0 + 3 cos 0

• (a) By parts. Since ~ (eX' ) = 2xe x2 , choose dv = xe x2 and u =x 2 •

dx dx
Then du = 2x, v = te x '.
dx

J: x' e"dx = [V <''J: - t s: 2xe" dx

= [t x2eX' -tex'J:

= (te - te) - (0 - t) =t.

197
 (b) Let t = tan ii, then
2
dt
de
= 'hee2 f!. =1- (1
2
+ t2) = _de_
dt
When e = 0, t = 0; when e = !!2 , t = I.
1 1

o 1 + sin
6
e + 3 cos e
de
dt
dt

=J:C+
= fl 2
12
2
dt

r
o 1 + t + 2t + 3 - 3t

=
o
2 + : _ t2 dt.
2 2
By partial fractions, 6 - -- +
(2 - t) (1 + t) 2- t 1+t

1 1 6
o 2 + t - t2
dt fl(_l_
=2
2- t
+ _l_)dt
1+ t
0

= 2 [-In 12 - tI + In 11 + til1

= 2 (-In 1 + In 2) - 2 (-In 2 + In 1)
= 41n 2
= 2.77.

17.9

(a) Evaluate f3 x 3 In x dx .
• 1

(b) Calculate 14o (2x5x+ 1)+ 4x(16++17x

2
2)
dx
,

leaving your answer in exact form.

dv du _ 1 _ X4
• (a) By parts, = In x, - =x 3 , - - -, v - - .

n
U
dx dx x 4

f x' lox dx = [(~4) (In xlI - ~4)(~)dx

X4 X4J3
=[ 4"lnx- 16 1

= -¥ In 3 - -H - l' In 1 + -h
=¥ In 3 - 5 = 17.2.

198
 (b) +4x+ 17 _
5.\"2 A + Bx+C
(2x + 1) (16 + x 2 ) 2x + 1 16 + x 2

== A (16 + x 2 ) + (Bx + C) (2x + 1)

(2x + 1) (16 + x 2 )
Equating numerators:
Let x = - t, *-
2 + 17 = A (16 + t ) ~ A = 1.
Let x = 0, 17 = A (16) + C (1) ~ C = 1.
Let x = 1. 5 + 4 + 17 = A (17) + (B + C) 3 ~ B = 2.

14 2
5x + 4x + 17 dx =
o (2x + 1) (16 + x 2 )
J (_1_
,.4

0
+ 2x + !) dx
2x + 1 16 + x 2

-I ( 1
4

o 2x + 1
+
16 + x 2
2x
16 + x 2
+ l)dx
1· 1 ~]4
= [ -In I 2x + 1 I + In I 16 + x 2 I + - tan - 1
2 4 4 0
=(tln9+ln32+ttan- 1 1)-{1n 16)

= In 3 + In 2 +~ = In 6 + ~
16 16
= 1.99.

17.3 Exercises

17.1 Find

17.2 Fipd (a) (b) f 2

_x_
I-x
--=-2 dx.

17.3

(a) Evaluate I7r x cos x dx, correct to three significant figures.

7r/2

(b) By using the substitution u = eX, or otherwise, evaluate

Io
I
1e
3X

+e
2x dx.

17.4

(a) Find fI:: dx.

(b) By using the substitution t = tan ~, evaluate

f0
7r/2
- - - - dx, giving your answer to three significant figures.
4 + 5 cos x

199
 17.5
(a) Using the substitution x = tan u, or otherwise, evaluate

(b) Find f1/2 ~ + 2 dx.

o 4x + 1

17.6

(a) Evaluate fl (x + 1) e2X dx.

o

(b) Find fX 2 sin- 1 x dx.

17.7

(a) Evaluate f7
4 x2 -
1
8x + 25
dx.

(b) Find f x+ 3
y(2x - 7)
dx.

17.8
(a) By means of the substitution t =tan x, or otherwise, evaluate

fo
7r/4
__dx---;;-_
1 + cos 2 X •

(b) Find f(2 + x) (2 - X)3/2 dx.

17.9

(a) Find fSin 0 yO + cos 0) dO.

(b) Evaluate f7r/ 3

o
sin 0 - dO.
1 + cos 20

17.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

17.1
dx
(a) x = sin U => -- = cos u.
du

f
yO X2_ x 2 ) dx = f'sm2 u
d
U
sin 2UJ
= "21 [ u - - 2

= t {sin- 1 x - xyO - x 2 )} + C.

200
 ~
du
::'u - = -2 x ~
dx = -u.
x -
dx du

J-yO_ x-- - 2-
x )
dx = J-l du = -u = -yO - X2 ) + C.

17.2
(a) x = tan u ~
dx = sec2 u.
--
du

X2
J 1 +x 2
dx = Jtan 2 u du = J(sec 2 u - 1) du

= tan u - u = x - tan -1 x + C.

(b)
J ~2-
1 - x2
dx= J(-1 + _ 1 )
1- x 2
dx= lJ(-2+ _ 1 +
2 1- x
1 )dx
l+x

=- x - l' In I 1 - x I + l' In I 1 + x I + C

= -- x + '21 In 11-+-
x + C.
I-x
I
17.3
(a) By parts, u = x, dv = cos x gives [x sin x + cos x] 11'
dx 11'/2

(b) u = eX

fol
J,
e3x dx
1 + e2x
= i
1
e
~
1+ u
du
2

17.4
(a) By parts, u = In x, -dv = 2"
dx x
1 leads to - -1 In x +
x
J 1 dx
2"
x
1
= - - (1 + In x) + C.
x
x dt 1 2 X 1 + t2 dx 2
(b) t = tan "2 so dx = "2 sec "2 = -2- ~ dt - 1 + t2 .

1
1 dx-l 2 dt=lfl(_I_+_1_)dt
4 + 5 cos x 0 9 - t2 3 0 3- t 3+t
1

=t[-In 13-tl+In 13+t~0 =tIn2=O.231.

201
 17.5
(a) x = tan u ~ dx = sec 2 u = 1 + x 2 •
du

l dx
fo (1 + x 2 )2
-
-
/
JTr 4
0
cos2 U du = tf 1
1t
o
4 (1 + cos 2u) du = t (1f + 2).

(b) J o
1/2 X
4x 2 + 1
dx = t[ln (4x 2 + I)J1 / = t In 2.
0
2 (1)

1/2 2
For f0 -4-x"2'--+-1 dx ' 1et 2x =t an u, du -- sec u '
2 dx 2

. r (l)du=[UJ:' = ~ (2)

Adding equations 1 and 2 gives ~ In 2 + * = 0.872.

17.6
(a) By parts, u =x + 1, :: = e2x , gives
[-t (x + 1) e2x - t e2xJ =te 1 2 - teo = 5.29.
o

(b) By parts, u = sin- 1 x, :.: =x 2 , giy~s

Let 1 - x 2 =w2 , then -2x dx

dw
= 2w ~ x -dx_--w.
dw

= -1
3
f (1 - w 2 )
w
( -w) dw = - -1
3
f (l - w 2 ) dw

=- ~ (3 - w 2) = - i (2 + x 2)y'(1 - x 2).

Hence f x 2 sin- 1 x dx = ~3 sin- 1 x + (2 +9 X2)y'O - x 2 ) + C.

17.7 dx
(a) x 2 - 8x + 25 = (x - 4)2 + 9 ~ put x - 4 = 3 tan u, du = 3 sec2 u.

f 4
7

X
2
-
1
8x + 25
dx = Jt
Tr/4

0
du = [-t uJ
Tr/4

0
= ~.
1 ...

dx
(b) Let 2x - 7 = u2 , 2 - = 2u.
du

202
 x+3
j '\/C2x dx = j(U 2 + 13) du = l (U 3 + 13U) = !!-.6 (u 2 + 39)
- 7) 2 2 3

= ·t(x + 16)y' (2x - 7) + C.

17.8
dt dx
ta) t = tan x, -
2
= 1 + t so - = -1-2 .
dx dt 1+ t

fTi/4o 1+
dx
cos2 X
= f1_1_
0 2 + t2
dt = [J..- tan- 1
[vi 2
_t_J 1
y'2 0
= 0 435
. •

dx
(b) Let 2 - x = u2 , - - = 2u.
du

f(2 + x) (2 - X)3/2 dx = -2 j(4u 4 -- u6 ) du =- 2;; (28 - 5u 2 )

=- 325 (18 + 5x) (2 - X)5/2.

17.9
(a) Let 1 + cos e = u2 , , e -dO = 2u.
-SIn
du

fsin 0 y'(I + cos e) de = J-2u 2 du =- t (1 + cos 0)3/2 + C.

(b) f1T/3 •
SIn 2
8
de =1-
J 1T / 3
sec e tan
[J
e de = l' sec 0
Tr/3
= 0.5.
o 2 cos e 0 0

203
 18 Applications of
Integration
The idea of area under a curve as the limit of a sum of area of rectangles.
Simple applications of integration to plane areas and volumes of revolution.

18.1 Fact Sheet

(a) Area as the Limit of a Sum

The area A enclosed by the curve y = f(x), (y > 0), the x axis and the lines x = a
and x = b, (a ~ x ~ b), may be divided into n strips, each of width ~x, height
y = f(x), area ~A ::::z y~x ::::z f(x) ~x.

---.L.....I--L........,"'--L---L......I...-.L....l_ _ _ _ x
a 5x b

Summing for all the strips,

~ ~A ~ ~ f(x) ~x.
n

If n is increased and ~x decreased, in the limit as n tends to infinity,

area A = f
b

a
f(x) dx.

204
(b) Calculation of Areas

• Area between a curve and the x-axis

0) If y = f(x) ~ a for a ~ x ~ b, area of elemental strip = y ox ~ f(x) ox.

y = fIx)
--~

Area = f
b

a
ydx= f b

a
f(x)dx.

a b

(ii) Ify=f(x)~Ofora~x~b, area=- f

b

a
y dx=- fa
b

f(x)dx.

a b

'lJEI
.. x

y = fIx)

(iii) If y = f(x) cuts the x-axis at x = c, (a < c < b),

shaded area = Al + A2 = f
c

a
f(x) dx - f b

c
f(x) dx.

~ b
.. x

• Area between two curves

If Yl = fl (x) and Y2 = f 2 (x) intersect when x = a and x = b, and if fl (x) > f2 (x)
for a < x < b, area of elemental strip ~ (Yl - Y2) oX = [f 1 (x) - f 2 (x)) ox.

y, = f, (x)

Area = f
b

a
[f 1 (x) - f 2(x)] dx.

~ x
a b

205
 • Area between a curve and the y-axis

If.\" =g(y) ~ 0 for c ~y ~ d, area of elemental strip ~ x By = g(y) By.

f f
d d
dl----.....3Io,. x = g(y)
Area = x dy = g(y) dy.
e e '----x-_~

C f--------1

(c) Calculation of Volumes of Revolution

(i) About the x-axis. If y = f(x), for a ~ x ~ b, volume of elemental disc ~ 1r y2 Bx.

J
b y = f(x)
Volume = 1r y2 dx
a

= fb 1r {f(x)}2 dx.
a

(ii) About the y-axis. If x = g(y) for c ~ y ~ d, volume of elemental disc ~ 1r x 2 By.

Volume =f e
d

1rX2 dy d

x = g(y)

= f d

e
1r {g(y)}2 dy.

206
(iii) About the line y = c (parallel to the x-axis).
If y = f(x), volume of elemental disc ~ 1r (y - e? 8x.

y
y = f(x)
I
I
b

Volume = fa 1r (y - e)2 dx
fIx) - c

L
1
b
c - - t r - - ' - - I r - - - - - - - - - -L - Y =c
= 1r {f(x) - e}2 dx. I
I
I
I
I
~~--~~~-----------Ir_----~x
o
----J
a ........ b
.............. i

(iv) About the line x =a (parallel to the y-axis),

If x = g(y), volume of elemental disc ~ 1r (x - a)2 8y.

y
I
I... x=a
1

J
I I
d d --1------1-----
Volume = 1r (x - a)2 dy
\ i x'" g{y)
e
\

= Jd 1r {g(y) - a}2 dy. g(y) -a

e

o ~--------~---------------x
a

207
18.2 Worked Examples
18.1 Calculate the area of the finite region bounded by the curve y =x (6 - x)
and the straight line y = 2x .

•
y

y = x (6 - x)

-----.~--------~------~r_------~~~_x

The two curves intersect when 2x = x (6 - x) => x = 0 or 4.

Area of shaded element ~ (y 1 - Y2) (jx,

r
where Yl = x (6 - x) and Y2 = 2x.

Area of the finite region = {(6x - x 2 ) - 2x} dx

o
4

={ (4x - x 2 ) dx

= [2X' - x;I
-- 32 - 64
3 .

Area of the finite region = ~2 square units.

208
18.2 Find the area enclosed by the curve y2 = 4ax and the straight line x = 3a.
Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed when the region is
rotated through four right angles about the line x = 3a .

• Curve y2 = 4ax and line x = 3a intersect when

y2 = (4a) (3a) ~ y = ±2a.y3.
Area of shaded element;::::; (X2 - Xl ) (jy where
_ y2
Xl 4a and

4a

2a

-4a

Enclosed area = f2a.J3 (3a _ y2)dY = 2 f2a.J3 (3a - ~)dY

-2a.J 3 4a 0 4a

3 ]
2a .J 3
=2 [ 3ay- L
12a 0

=8a 2 .y3 square units.

Volume of disc obtained by rotating the element about the line
x=3a;::::;1T(x2 -Xt)2 8y.

Volume of solid = 21T f 2a.J3 (

0 3a - ~
2)2
dy

= 21T f
2a.J3( 2
9a 2 _ 3y + ~ dy
4)
o 2 16a 2

3 sd2a.J3
= 21T [ 9a 2y - L + -y-
2 80a 2 o

= 21T (18a 3 .y3 - 12a 3 .y3 + 18a 35Y3).

Volume of solid = 961Ta 3 .y3 cubic units.

5

209
 18.3 Draw the graphs of sin 3x and sin x for 0 ~ x ~ 1T on the same axes and
calculate the points of intersection.
Find the areas of the three regions enclosed by these curves .

• y ~ sin x
y

y =sin 3x

,..~
- 1

At points of intersection sin 3x =sin x,

3x = n1T + (_1)n x , so X = 0 , !!.4' 31T 7r.
4 '

For area A: Area of shaded element ~ (Yl - Y2) 8x,

where Yl =sin 3x and Y2 = sin x.
=r
7r/4
Area A (sin 3x - sin x) dx
"0

= [
-cos 3x + cosx
3
J 7r/4

=t (y'2 - 1) square units.

Area C= AreaA.
For area B: area of shaded element ~ (Y2 - Yl) 8x.

COS 3x ] 37r/4
AreaB = [ -cos x +
3 7r/4

=1-y'2 square units.

The enclosed areas are t (y'2 - 1), 1- y'2 and t (y'2 - 1).

210
18.4 Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed when the region enclosed
by the curve y = xe- x , the x-axis and the line x = 3 is rotated completely
about the x-axis .

• Volume of shaded disc ~ 1Ty2 ox.

0.25

----~----~~~+-~~--------
o
.. x

Volume of solid =1T ro

y~ dx =1T f3
0
x 2 e-2x ox.

2 dv __ e-2x. du __ 2x v __ _e- 2x
Integrating by parts, let u = x , dx ' dx ., 2

dV
· u =x -- d -2x
BY Parts agam
,. , dx = e -2x .' --
U = I v =- -
dx '
e -
2
-

f
3 xe -2x dx-_ [- xe-
--
2x J3 + f3 2x
e--
- dx
o . 2 00 2
= [_ xe;2X e-2x
--4-
J3 .
o
Hence the volume of revolution

V= 1T [ -x2 e-2x _ ~ 2XJ

e-2x _ e__
- 3
2 2 4 0

= 'IT {_~6 (18 + 6 + 1) + ~}.

V = 0.737 cubic units.

!
18.5 The periodic function f(x) is such that
x, o ~x < 1,
f(x) = 2 - x, I ~x<2,

0, 2 ~x<3.
and f(x + 3) ;:: f(x).

211
 Sketch the graph of f(x) for -5 ~ x ~ 5 and evaluate f9 f(x) dx.
o

• f(x + 3) = f(x) indicates that the graph is periodic, period 3.

f(x)

---+----~----~--_4~--~----~--_4----~----~----r_--~--~x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 o 2 3 4 5

f9 f(x) dx = area between the curve y = f(x) and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 9
o
= the area of three triangles.
Area of one triangle = 1 square unit.

Therefore f9 f(x) dx = 3.
o

18.6 Sketch the curve with equation y2 =x (x - 2)2. Find the area of the loop
and the volume of the solid generated when this region is rotated through
two right angles about the x-axis .

• Sketch.
(a) This is an even function of y, and therefore is symmetrical about the
x-axis.
(b) y2 ~ 0 =? X (x - 2)2 ~ 0 =? X ~ o.
(c) Curve cuts x-axis at x = 0 and x = 2.
Cd) y = ±(x - 2h/x.
As x ~ 0, y behaves as the curve y =+= 2yx (with infinite gradient).
As x ~ 2, y behaves as the curve y = ± (x - 2\12 (two straight lines, gradients
±Y2.)
v
1

~------~r-------~~--------+-~x
o 3

212
 Area of shaded element ~ y 8x = Xl/2 (2 - x) 8x.

Area of loop = 2 f2 Y dx = 2 52 (2X 1/2 - X3/2) dx

o 0

~ 2 [4x;I' _2X;I'J:
= 2 (~ y2 - ~ y2 )
32y2 .
= square UnIts.
15
Volume of disc generated by rotating the shaded element about the x-axis
~7ry2 8x.

Volume of revolution = 7r f2 X(x - 2)2 dx

o

= 7r f2 (x 3- 4x 2 + 4x) dx
o

~ ~ [~ - 4~3 + 2x' J:
= 7r ( 4 - 332 + 8 )

= 47r cubic units.

3

18.7 Find the area of the region enclosed by the curve y = 2x + 3 cos x, the x-axis
and the lines x = 0 and x = 7r. Find the volume of the solid generated when
this region is rotated completely about the x-axis.

• y

4 y = 2x + 3 cos x

2 y

----~----~~+_------~--------_+~------~--~x

o 2 3 4

213
 The area of the shaded element ~y 6x.

Required area = f: (2x + 3 cos x) dx

=1l'2
= 9.87 square units.

Volume of disc generated when shaded element is rotated about the x-axis
~ 1l' (2x + 3 cos X)2 6x.

Volume of revolution = 1l' f: (4x 2 + 12x cos x + 9 cos 2 x) dx.

Now, by parts, f x cos x dx = x sin x - f

sin x dx

=x sin x + cos x.

Also, f(4X 2 + 9 cos2 x) dx = f{4x 2 + l' (1 + cos 2x)} dx

= 4x
3 + 9x + 9 sin 2x.
3 2 4

*
Thus,

volume of revolution = 1l' [4;3 + ~x + sin + 2x 12x sin x + 12 cos x J:

=1l' (4;3 + 9; _ 12) _ (12) 1l'

= 98.9 cubic units.

18.8 The inner surface of a bowl is of the shape formed by rotating completely
about the y-axis the area bounded by the curve y = x 2 - 4, the x-axis, the
y-axis and the line y = 3. Find the volume of the bowl.
Calculate the volume of water in the bowl when the depth of water is
d « 3). If water is poured in at a rate of 5 cubic units per second, find the
rate at which the depth is increasing when d = 1.

214
 • y

~--x -_..0:1

--~--~~==~o==~~----~--x
-4 4

Volume of disc S V ~ 1f x 2 Sy.

Volume of bowl V= 1f f 3

o
x 2 dy.

But x 2 =Y + 4, so volume of bowl = 1f f3 (y + 4) dy

I
o

=,,[~2 +4y

=1f(~+12).
. = 331f
Volume of bowl 2 = 51.8 cubic units.
When the water has a depth of d,

V=1f [y; + 4y1

d

volume of water

-dV
- = 1f (d + 4) . dV
so wIth - = 5
d (d) "dt'

d (d) _ d (d) (d
~ - dV dt
V) -_1f(d+4)'
5

Depth is increasing at a rate of 5 units per second.

1f (d+ 4)
When d = 1, the depth is increasing at l = 0.32 units per second.
1f

215
18.3 Exercises
18.1 Sketch the graph y = x (x - 2) (3 - x). Find the equation of the tangents at
x = '2 and x = 3. Find the area of the region enclosed by the curve and these two
tangents.

18.2 Find the area of the region enclosed by the curves y2 = 4x and y2 = 8 - 4x.
Find the volume of the solid generated when this region is rotated about the
y-axis.

18.3 By considering a circle centre (0, -r), radius r, or otherwise find the volume
of the cap of depth h of a sphere, radius r.

18.4 The region A is bounded by the x-axis, the curve y = tan x and the line
1f
x= -.
3
Find
(a) the area of A,
(b) the volume of the solid of revolution formed when A is rotated about the
x-axis.

18.5 Sketch the curve y2 = (x + 1)2 (2 - x).

Find
(a) the area of the loop,
(b) the volume generated when the loop is rotated about the x-axis.

18.6 Calculate the finite area enclosed by the coordinate axis, lines x =4 and
y= 4 and the curve xy = 4.

18.7 Sketch the graph y =x + 1 from 0 < x ~ 3.

x
Calculate the area of the region bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the lines
x = 1 and x = 3.
Find the volume of the solid formed by rotating the region through four right
angles about Ox, leaving your answer in terms of1f.

18.8 Calculate the area of the finite region enclosed between the curves y = x 3
and x = y2.
Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed when the region is rotated
through four right angles about the y-axis.

18.4 Outline Solutions to Exercises

18.1 y = _x 3 + 5x 2 - 6x,y' = -3x2 + lOx - 6.
At (2, 0) y' = 2 equation of tangent y = 2x - 4.
At (3,0) y' = -3; equation oftangenty = -3x + 9.
Intersect at A (2.6, 1.2).
Area of triangle ABC = 0.6 units.

Area under curve = f3 (_x 3+ 5x 2 - 6x) dx =fz.

2
Required area 0.183.

216
 y

y = x (x - 2)(3 - x)

----~oi--------+------~I-------~~----~-x

-1

-2

\8.2 Area = 2 ( { (8 ~Y') - Y: }dY

= ( (4.y')dy= [4 Y- Y; I = 136

--~-------+------~--~x
o 2

y2 = 8 - 4x

Volume=21T f2 {

o
(8 - y2
16
)2

217
 18.3 Equation of the circle is x 2 + (y + r)2 =y2 ~ x2 = _y2 - 2yr.

o
-----:::=__4--=------11_ x

Volume of cap = 11' f o

-h
x 2 dy=1I' f 0

-h
(_y2 -2yr)dy

=_W[~3 + y2{ =W(_;3 2r). +h

2
Volume of cap = 31I'h (3r - h).

18.4 (a) A = f 11/ 3

o
tanxdx= [-In IcosxlJ
11/3

o
=ln2=O.693.

~ ______ ~,-~~ __-+__ ~_x

(b) V =11' f 11/3

0 tan 2 x dx =11' t 11/3

(sec2 x-I) dx

218
18.5 Area = 2 f2 (x+ 1)(2 _X)1/2 dx.
-1

24· 13
Substitute u2 = 2 - x, A = -4 fO (3u 2 - u4 ) du = __v_ = 8.31.
..)3 5

----~~-------+----~--_r--------~--~x
2

2 2
Volume = 1f 5_ 1
(x + 1)2 (2 - x) dx = 1f f_1 (2 + 3x - x 3) dx

= 271f = 21.2.
4

y
18.6

~-r--+-=+--~------------"X
o 2 3 4

Area A = 4, areaB = r 4

(~)dX = 41n 4.
Total area = 9.55.

219
 18.7
v

o 2 3

Area = { ( x + ~) dx = 4 + 3 In 3 = 7.3 O.

Volume=1T f 3(

1 \
x+-
3)2 dx=--.
X
B01T
3

18.8
v

.. x

I
,
I ....
........

Area = f o
(yl/3 - y2) dy = 5/12.

Volume about y-axis = 1Tfl (y2/3 _ y4) dy = 21T = 1.26.

o 5

220
 19 Complex Numbers
Sum, product and quotient in cartesian and modulus-argument forms. Complex
conjugate numbers. Representation of complex numbers on an Argand diagram.
De Moivre's theorem with simple applications to trigonometric identities and the
roots of a number. The relation
ei8 = cos () + i sin ()
and its use in the rotation of vectors. Simple loci including I z - a I = k I z - b I
and arg (z - a) - arg (z - b) = O.

19.1 Fact Sheet

(a) i =v'(-l)

• i2 = -1; i4 = 1; -:-1 = -1..

I
i 4n + 1 = i , i 4n + 2 =-1·, i4n + 3 = -i for all integer values of n.

(b) Real and Imaginary Numbers

• If z =x + iy where x and yare real numbers,

x = R(z) or Re(z): the real part of z;
y = I(z) or Im(z): the imaginary part of z.

(c) Complex Conjugate

• If z = x + iy, z (or z*) = x - iy is the complex conjugate of z.

(d) Algebra

• (a + ib) + (e + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d). z + z* = 2x = 2Re(z)

• (a + ib) - (e+id) == (a-c) + i(b-d). z - z* 2iy 2Im(z) = =
• (a + ib)(e + id) = (ae - bd) + i(bc + ad). zz* = x 2 + y2 (Realf
• a + ib = (a + ib)(e - id) = (ae + bd) + i(be - ad)
e + id (e + id)(e - id) (e 2 + d 2 ) (e 2 + d 2 ) .

221
 (e) Argand Diagram

• z =x + iy can be regarded as an ordered pair (x, y) and can be plotted on

cartesian axes (called an Argand diagram).
• From the sketch x = r cos 0, y = r sin 0,
z =x + iy =r (cos 0 + i sin 0) or r cis O.
This is the trigonometric form of a complex number.

Y
(x, Y)
I [r,O]
I
I
I
IY
I
I
I

0 x x

• r = y(x 2+ y2) is called the modulus of z, written I z 1= r = y(x 2 + y2).

• From (d) it can be seen that I z i2 = zz*.
• 0 = arctan(~) is called the argument of z, written arg Z = 0 = arctan(~).
• Since arctan is multivalued, the value of 0 in the interval -71" < 0 :E;;; 71" is
called the principal value.
• z can also be regarded as the ordered pair [r, 0] (on an Argand diagram).

(f) Exponential Form

It can be shown that cos 0 + i sin 0 = eiO ,

so z = x + iy = r (cos 0 + i sin 8) = re iO •
If Z 1 = r1 ei0 1 and Z2 = r2 ei02 then
(i) Z1Z2 = r1 r 2 ei (OI+ 0 .).
Thus, in a product, moduli are multiplied and arguments are added, i.e.,
multiplication causes an enlargement factor r followed by a rotation 0 on
an Argand diagram.
(ii) Z1/Z2 = ~ e i (OI- 0 .).
r2
Thus, in a quotient, moduli are divided and arguments are subtracted.

(g) De Moivre's Theorem

If z = (cos 0 + i sin 0) then zn = (cos 0 + i sin o)n = cos nO + i sin nO.

From this cos nO = Re [(cos 0 + i sin o)n]
= cosnO -(;)cosn- 2 0 sin 2 0 +(;) cosn- 0 sin
4 4 0 ....

sin nO = 1m [(cos 0 + i sin o)n]

= (~) cosn- 1 0 sinO - (;) cosn- 3 0 sin 3 0 + ....

222
(h) Loci of z on an Argand Diagram

(i) Iz - a I = c represents a circle centre a represented by A, radius c.

Locus (i)

(ii) I z - a I = I z - b I represents the perpendicular bisector of the line join-

ingA to B.

(iii) Iz - a I = k Iz - b I (k =1= 0 or I) represents a circle, symmetrical about

the line through A and B.

Locus (iii)

223
 (iv) arg (z - a) = 0 represents the half line from A to z in the direction of 0
with the x-axis.
Locus (iv)

(v) arg (z - a) = arg (z - b) represents the line through A and B omitting the
line segment AB.

Locus (v)

(vi) arg (z - a) - arg (z - b) = 0 represents an arc of a circle through A and B

which subtends an angle of 20 at the centre of the circle.

Special Case arg (z - a) - arg (z - b) = 7r represents a semicircle on AB as

2
diameter.

224
19.2 Worked Examples
19.1
(a) Find the square roots Z 1 and Z 2 of -5 + 12i in the form a + bi where a and b
are real.
(b) Find the moduli and arguments of -5 + 12i, Zl and Z2 and plot the points
representing these on an Argand diagram.
• (a) Let (a + bi)2 = -5 + 12i,

a2 - b 2 + 2abi = -5 + 12i;
:. a 2 - b 2 = -5 CDand 2ab = 12 cr>.
Either find a and b by inspection
or
b= ~ (from
a
cr».
In CD a2 - 36 =-5
, a2 '

a4 + 5a 2 - 36 = 0 ,
(a 2 + 9)(a 2 - 4) = O~
a is real =* a2 =1= -9, a = ±2.
In@,b = ± 3.
:.zl=2+3i z2=-2-3i.
(b) 1-5 + 12il = V(5 2 + 122) = 13,
IZI 1= V(22 + 32 ) = VI3,
IZ2 1= V«_2)2 + (_3)2) = VI3.

arg (-5 + 12i) = tan - e52) (2nd quadrant)

= 1.966 radians.

arg (2 + 3i) = tan- 1 ( ~) (1 st quadrant)

= 0.983 radians.

arg (-2 -3i) = tan- 1 C=~ ) (3rdquadrant)

= -2.159 radians.
[Note that arg (2 + 3i) = t arg (-5 + 12i). ]

5 x

225
 19.2
(a) Find the modulus and argument of ZI = I + i, and Z2 ="';3 - i. Hence, or
otherwise, write down IZ1141, IZ231, IZ lZ21, arg (z 16 ) and arg (ZdZ2)'
(b) Write down a quadratic equation in z, with real coefficients, which has a root
of 2 - 3i.
(c) Express 10 . in the form a + bi.
3 - 41
• (a) II+il="';(12+12)="';2, argZl=tan-l(+)=~.
1"';3-il= "';("';3 2 +12)=2, argz2 = tan-l (~~) =-~.
Note: When finding arg z illustrate the point on an Argand diagram to
ensure the correct solution of tan- 1 (~)-

IZ1141 = ("';2)14 = 128, IZ 23 1= 2 3 = 8, IZ 1Z2 1= 2"';2.

arg (z 16) = 61T = 31T (or - '!!.. for the principal value) .
4 2 2
arg ~ =argzl -argz2
Z2

= ~ - (- ~) = :; .
(b) If one root is 2 - 3i, then the other root is 2 + 3i.
Sum of roots = 4, product of roots = 2 3 + 3 2 = 13.
Quadratic equation is Z2 - (sum of roots) Z + product of roots = 0;
Z2 - 4z + 13 = O.

(c) ~ = 10 (3 + 4i) = 10(3+4i)

3 - 4i (3 - 4i)(3 + 4i) 9 + 16
=t (3 + 4i)
=t+ti.

19.3
( 1·)6
(a) Find the modulus and argument of - 19.
(1 + i)
(b) If z = 3 + 4i, illustrate, on one or more Argand diagrams, the points
AI' A2 . . . A9 representing (i) 2z, (ii) 2 + z, (iii) 25/z, (iv) z*, (v) iz,
t t
(vi) Z2 /5, (vii) (z + z*), (viii) (z - z*), (ix) Z3 /25.
z Iz; I.
Calculate I I and

• (1 - i)6 = (1 - i)6 (1 - i)9

(a) (1 + i)9 [(1 + i)(1 - i)] 9
= (1 - i)15
29

11-il="';2, arg (1 - i) = - !!.

4·

:. I (1 - i) 15 I = 2 15 /2 , arg «(1 - i)15) = - 151T + 2n1T

4
(for principal value) .

... (1 - i)15 -_ 2- 3 / 2 ( cos ( - -151T) + ..

Ism ( -151T))
-
226 29 4 4
 1 1T . 1T)
= - - ( cos 4" + 1.sm 4" .
2V2
_ 1 1T
Modulus- - -
2V2 '
argument = 4"'
(b) z = 3 + 4i.

(i) 2z = 6 + 8i, (ii) 2 + z = 5 + 4i, (iii) _25 = _2_5(.o...-3_-_4i..::....) =3 - 4i,

z 9 + 16
(iv) z* = 3 - 4i, (v) iz = 3i + 4i2 = -4 + 3i,
(vi) Z2 = (3 + 4i)2 = (9 - 16) + 24i = _ '2 + 24 i
5 5 5 5 5'
(vii) t (z + z*) = 3, (viii) t (z - z*) = 4i,
•
(IX) -
Z3
= -Z2 x ~ = ( -7 ~ 24i ) ( 3 ~ 4i )
25 5
- 96 + 72i - 28i
= -21 25

=_ 117 + 44i
25 25
A,
8 •
7

As
• 5

As A A2
4 • •
A5
• 3

A9 2
•

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 2 3 4 5 6

-1

-2

-3

-4

227
 19.4
(a) Show that I Z 1 I + I Z 2 I ;;;;= I Z 1 + Z 2 I. What is the significance of the equality?
(b) Find the roots of the equation x 3 + 6x 2 + lax = O.
(c) Find the values of p and q if
P (2 + 3i) + (q - i) (4 - i) = 3 + 2i,
given that (i) p and q are real,
(ii) p and qare complex conjugates.

• (a) In the Argand diagram A represents Z 1, B represents Z2 and C represents

Zl + Z2' Considering the sides of triangle OAC, OC ~ OA + AC (prop-
erty of the sides of a triangle),
:.lz 1 1+lz2 1;;;;=lz 1 +Z 2 1.
If I Z 1 I + I Z 2 I = I Z 1 + Z 2 I then 0, A, Band C are collinear
i.e. Zl = kz 2 •

y
A

(b) x 3 + 6x 2 + lax = 0 ~x (x 2 + 6x + 10) = 0,

:. x =a or x 2 + 6x + 10 =O.
Completing the square, x 2 + 6x + 9 = -1,
(x+ 3)2 = -1,
:. x + 3 = ± i,
x = -3 ± i.
The roots of the equation are x = 0, x = -3 + i, x = -3 - i.
Note: The complex roots of a quadratic equation with real coefficients
are a conjugate pair.
(c) p(2 + 3i) + (q - i)(4 - i) = 3 + 2i.
(i) 2p + 3pi + 4q - 4i - qi - 1 = 3 + 2i.
Real part: 2p + 4q - 1 = 3 ~ p + 2q = 2,
Imaginary part: 3p - 4 - q =2 => 3p - q = 6,
CD·
p = 2, q = o.
0·
(ii) Let p = a + bi, q = a - bi;
(a + bi) (2 + 3i) + (a - bi - i) (4 - i) = 3 + 2i,
2a + 2bi + 3ai - 3b + 4a - 4bi - 4i - ai - b - 1 = 3 + 2i.
Real parts: 2a - 3b + 4a - b - 1 = 3 => 6a - 4b = 4.
Imaginary parts: 2b + 3a - 4b - 4 - a = 2 => 2a - 2b = 6.
:. a = -4 b = -7.
:. p.. = -4 - 7i, q = -4 + 7i.
Note: Each complex number equation gives 2 real equations;
real part = real part
imaginary part = imaginary part.

228
19.5 Find the cartesian equation of the following loci. Define the loci in
geometric terms. Illustrate each on an Argand diagram.
(a){z:lz-21=3}, (b) {z:arg(Z-i)= :}, (c)lz-2il=lz-ll,

(d) {z:arg (z - 1) = arg (z + l)}, (e) arg (z - 1) - arg (z + i) = '!!.-

2
(f) Iz - 1 - il =2 Iz + 2 - 4il.
• (a) 1z - 21 = 3, i.e. I (x - 2) + iy I = 3
(x - 2)2 + y2 = 9.
Circle centre (2, 0) radius 3.

v
Locus

(b) arg (z - i) = :' i.e. arg (x + i (y - 1)) = '!!.-,

4
i.e. tan- 1 (y x- 1) =!!.4' or yx- 1 = 1,
i.e. y =x + 1.

o x

Locus is the half line from (0, 1) gradient 1, x increasing.

311"
Note: The other half line would be the locus of arg (z - i) =-
4
229
 (c) Iz-2il=lz-ll, i.e. 1x + i (y - 2) 1= 1(x - 1) + iy I,
x2 + (y _ = (x _ 1)2 + y2 ,
2)2
X 2 + y2 _ 4y + 4 = X2 - 2x + 1 + y2 ,
2x - 4y + 3 = O.
Locus is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining (1, 0) to
(0,2).

o 2 3 x

(d) arg (z - 1) = arg (z + i),

i.e. arg ((x - 1) + iy) = arg (x + i (y + 1))
Y _ Y+1
=> - - - - -
x-I x
=> xy=xy + x - y - 1
=>x - y - 1 = O.

Locus

Locus is the straight line through (0, -1) and (1, 0) omitting
the section between these two points.
Note: This section would be the locus of arg (z - 1) =
arg (z + i) + 7r.
(e) arg (z - 1) - arg (z + i) = !!.
2
or arg ((x -- 1) + iy) - arg (x + iCy + 1)) = !!..
2
If arg (z - 1) = a then tan a = y .
x-I '

230
 Y +l
If arg (z + i) = {j then tan~= --,
x
and if a - {j = ! then
2
tan (a _ (j) = tan a - tan {j = tan!!..
1 + tan a t~n {j 2
This gives 1 + tan a tan {I = 0,
l+_y_·y+l =0 or x (x - 1) + y (y + 1) =0
x -1 x
or (x - t)2 + (y + t)2 -1-
- 2·

y Locus

This is the equation of the circle centre (t, -t) radius v't.
However, the locus is a semicircle, and this must be determined
from the Argand diagram.
From the diagram it can be seen that the circle passes through
the points (1, 0) and (0, -1), the two points indicated in the
given equation. The locus is one of the semicircles on the line
joining these points as diameter.
Consider the origin as one value of z which satisfies the
equation of the circle

a= 1T, and therefore a - {j = ! (as required),

. 2
:. the locus is the semicircle which passes through the origin.

( If you consider the point (1, -1), a = - ~, {j = 0,

:. a - (j = - ~)

(f) 1z - 1 - i 1= 21 z + 2 - 4i I or
I(x -1)+i(y -1)1= 21(x+2)+i(y -4)1:
(x - 1)2 + (y - 1)2 =4 [(x + 2)2 + (y - 4)2] :

x 2 + y2 - 2x - 2y + 2 = 4x 2 + 16x + 16 + 4y2 - 32y + 64:

3x 2 + 3y2 + 18x- 30y + 78 = 0,
x 2 + y2 + 6x - lOy + 26 =0 or

231
 The locus is the circle centre (-3, 5) radius 2Y2.

(1, 1)

a x

It is often better to think of these loci in words, especially if

the cartesian equation is not required.
(a) The distance of z from the point (2, 0) is 3, Le. circle
centre (2, 0) radius 3.
(b) The line from (0, 1) to z is in the direction rr/4, Le. locus is
a half line.
(c) The point z is equidistant from (0, 2) and (1, 0), i.e. the
locus is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining (0, 2)
to (1,0).
(d) The line from (1,0) to z is in the same direction as the line
from (0, -1) to z, Le. locus is the straight line through
(1, 0) and (0, -1), omitting the section between the two
points.
(e) The angle which the line joining (1, 0) to z makes with the
positive x-axis is rr/2 more than that which the line joining
(0, -1) to z makes with the positive x-axis. In this case
where the difference is rr/2 the locus is a semicircle (angle
in a semicircle is rr/2).
(f) The distance of z from (1, 1) is twice the distance of z
from (-2, 4).

19.6 Solve the equation Z3 = 8,

(a) by finding one root by inspection and hence solving Z3 - 8 = 0 by an
algebraic method,
(b) by expressing z in modulus-argument form and then using De Moivre's
theorem.
Illustrate the roots on an Argand diagram .

• (a) z3 = 8.
z = 2 is one root, i.e. (z - 2) is a factor of Z3 - 8.
By long division (or inspection): Z2 + 2z + 4
Z3 - 8 = (z - 2) (Z2 + 2z + 4), z - 2 )Z3 -8
Z3 - 2Z2
-2±y4-16
:. z =2 or z = 2 2Z2
2Z2 - 4z
z= -2±2y3i =-1 ±y3L 4z - 8
2

232
 (b) Ifz = [r, 0], then Z3 = [r 3 , 30],
8 = [8, 2mr];
:. [r 3 , 30] = [8, 2mr] ,
r3 = 8, r =2; 30 = 2mr, 0 =1-mr; where n is an integer.
Any 3 consecutive integers may be used. Taking n = -1, 0, 1, then
roots are z =2, z = 2 (cos 1-1T + i sin 1-1T), z = 2 (cos -1-1T + i sin -1-1T),
and z = 2, -1 + y'3i, -1 - y'3i.

Z, • 2

Zo

o -1 5 8 x

z,. -2

19.7
(a) Sketch the following loci in the complex plane (i.e. Argand diagram):
(i) arg (z + 1 - i) = 21T ; (ii) ~ ~ arg (z - 1 - 2i) ~ ~ ; (iii) I z I = 2 I z - 21.
3 4 2
Find the cartesian equation of (iii).
(b) Use De Moivre's theorem to express tan S() in terms of tan O. Hence find the
general solution of the equation.
S tan 4 0 - 10 tan 2 () + 1 = O.
• (a) (i) arg (z - (-1 + i)) = 2;, i.e. the line from (-1,1) to z is in the direc-
t. 21T
Ion - .
3

-3 -2 -1 x

233
 (ii) !!. ~ arg (z - (1 + 2i» ~ !!. .
4 2
The locus is the region between the line from (I, 2) in the direction
1r/4 and the line from (1, 2) in the direction 1r/2 boundary lines
included.

o 2 3 4 5 x

(iii) The distance of z from (0, 0) is twice the distance of z from (2, 0).
This is a circle. The cartesian equation is
y(x 2 + y2) = 2 y[(x _ 2)2 + y2 ] , x 2 + y2 = 4 (x __ 2)2 + 4y2 ,
3x 2 + 3y2 - 16x + 16 0, =
x 2 + y2 - ¥ x + If = 0,
(x - -iY + y2 = If.
Circle centre (t, 0), radius 1.

o x

(b) (cos (J + i sin (J)S = cos 5(J + i sin 5(J (De Moivre's theorem)
~ cos 5(J + i sin 5(J = cos (J + 5 cos (J i sin (J + 10 cos 3 (J i 2 sin 2 (J
s 4
+ 10 cos2(J i3 sin3 (J + 5 cos (J i4 sin 4 (J + is sins (J.
cos 5(J = cos s (J == 10 cos 3 (J sin 2 (J + 5 cos (J sin 4 (J (real part);
sin 5(J = 5 cos4 (J sin (J - 10 cos2 (J sin 3 (J + sins (J (imaginary part);
tan 5(J = sin 5(J = 5 cos (J sin (J - 10 cos (J sin (J + sins (J
4 2 3

cos 5(J coss (J - 10 cos 3 (J sin 2 (J + 5 cos (J sin4 (J

Divide numerator and denominator by coss (J;

5 tan (J - 10 tan (J + tanS (J

3
tan 5(J = -----=------;--
2 4
1 - 10 tan (J + 5 tan (J

234
 When 5(} =7r/2 + n7r, tan 5(} is undefined (tends to infinity);
Hence the denominator must be zero.

5 tan 4 () - 10 tan 2 () + I =0 when 50 =! + n7r,

2
or(} = ~ (1 +2n).
10

19.8 Using the series for eX, cos x and sin x, show that
ei6 = cos () + i sin ()
Hence show that eia - ei(t = 2i ei(a+(t)/2 sin(a-(t)/2.
. =x - -x 3 + -X S - ' •• ,
smx
3! 5! '
x2 X4
cos X =1- - +- . . "
2! 4!
'2(}2
ei6 =I + i(} + _1_
'3(}3
+ _1__
i4(}4
+ __ + • • •
2! 3! 4!
, (J2 i() 3 (}4 i() 5
=I +1(} - - - - +- + -
2! 3! 4! 5!
(}2 (}4 (}3 (}S
=I - - + - + ••• + i() - - + - •••
2! 4! 3! 5!
= cos () + i sin () ,
eia _ ei(t =(cos ex + i sin ex) - (cos (3 + i sin (3)
= (cos ex - cos (3) + i (sin ex - sin (3)
' ex + (3 , ex - (3 ex +-
(3 , ex - (3
=- 2 SIn - - sm - - + 2'1 cos - sm--
2 2 2 2

= 2i sin ex ~ (3 (i sin ex; (3 + cos ex ~ (3)

= 2i sin ex - (3 ei (a+(t)/2
2

19.3 Exercises
19.1 If Zl = 2 + 3i and Z2 = 3 - 2i, evaluate
(a)zlz2, (b)Zl +Z2, (C)Zl -Z2'

and illustrate the results on an Argand diagram,

19.2 If one root of a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 is 2 - i, find the

other root and values of a, band c, given that a, band c are real.

19.3 Solve the complex equations for a and b where a and b are real:
(a) (2 + i)(3 - 2i) = a + hi;
(b) a2++bii = (1 - i);
(c) (2a - hi) - (b - ia) = 2 + i.
235
 19.4 Express 1 +y3i in polar form and, hence or otherwise, evaluate
2 b (1 + y3i)2
(a) (1 +y3i)3 ' ( ) (1 - y3i)4 .

19.5 If Zl = 2 + i and Z2 = 3 + 4i, evaluate

(a) IZll, (b) IZ21, (c) arg (z 1), (d) arg (Z2),
(f) IZ 1 Z2 I, (g) Z12, (h) arg (z 1 2 ).

19.6 5 2·
(a) Find the modulus and argument of + ~
7 - 31
(b) In an Argand diagram: 0 is the origin, the point A represents (2 - i), ABCDEF
is a regular hexagon (labelled antic10ckwise), with 0 as the centre. Calculate the
exact coordinates of Band C and hence write down the coordinates of the remain-
ing vertices.

19.7
(a) Use De Moivre's theorem to show that sin 30 = 3 sin 0 - 4 sin 3 O.
Hence evaluate f~/2 sin 3 0 dO.
(b) Sketch the locus of the point in the Argand diagram representing the complex
number Z where arg ( Z + ~ ) = .!!..
Z + 21
2
(c) If (x + yi)2 = 3 - 4i find the possible values of x and y. Hence solve the equa-
tion Z2 - 2z = 2 - 4i.

19.8
(a) Find the modulus and principal argument (in radians) of (~ + is i) to 2 d.p.
Hence find the modulus and principal argument of (~ + is i)lS .
Write down the modulus and principal argument of (~: - fs i)1S .
(b) If Z = -1 + i find Z2, Z3 and liz and plot these values on an Argand diagram.
(c) Find the cube roots of i.

19.9
(a) Show on Argand diagrams the regions defined by
(i) 1Z - 4 + 3i I ~ 5
(ii) 2 ~ 1Z 1 ~ 4 and :!!. ~ arg Z ~ - :!!..
2 6
(b) Find the moduli and arguments of 1 +v.3i and 2
1-1 1-i
Represent these on an Argand diagram and hence prove that

arg ( -1 +Y3i) = 111r and arg ( 3 +y3i) = 511"

l-i 12 l-i 12

19.10
(a) Find the cartesian equation of the line I Z + 2i 1 = I Z - 1 - i i.
(b) Show that when z = ei8 then z" + z-" = 2 cos nO. Use this to find expression
for cos 20 and cos 30.
( c) Express 3 + 4i. m . an d po 1ar lorm.
. carteSIan +" Hence f·m d (3-+-4i.) 1/3.m po1ar
2+1 2+1
form.

236
 19.11 A fixed complex number a is such that 0 < arg a < 7r/2. In an Argand dia-
gram a is represented by the point A and the complex number ia is represented by
B. The complex number z is represented by T.
Describe the locus of T if:
(a) 1z - a 1 = 1z - ia I, (b) arg (z - a) = arg ia.
Sketch the loci on one diagram and label the point of interception C.
Describe the quadrilateral OACB giving reasons.
If a = 3 + i find the complex number represented by C.

19.12
(a) If 1 - y3i is a root of 2x 3 - 5x 2 + lOx - 4 = 0 find the other roots.
(b) Let z = cos 8 + i sin 0 (or cis 0).
(0 Draw an Argand diagram showing z and z + 1. Label these points A and B
and show that the triangle OAB is isosceles.
(ii) From the diagram, or by calculation, find 1z + I 1 and arg (z + 1).
(iii) Show that _1_ =t (1 - i tan to).
1+z

19.13 An equilateral triangle has its vertices on the circle 1 z 1 =3. One vertex is
at the point representing [3, - ;] . Find the other two vertices in cartesian
form.

19.4 Outline Solutions To Exercises

19.1 = (2 + 3i) (3 - 2i) = 12 + 5i;
ZlZ2
~ = (2 + 3i)(3 + 2i) = 13i =i.
Z2 (3-2i)(3+2i) 13

•
Z, -Z2
• 5
z,Z2
4
Z,
3 •
2

• Z, +Z2

-2 2 4 6 8 10 12
Z1
-1
Z2

-2 •
Z2

19.2 Roots are 2 - i, 2 + i. Sum of roots = 4, product = 5 equation x 2 - 4x + 5 = 0,

a= l,b=-4,c=5.

19.3
(a) (2 + i) (3 - 2i) = 8 - i; a = 8, b = -1.
(b) 2 + i = a + bi (2 + i) (1 + i) = 1 + 3i
1- i ' ( 1 - i) (1 + 0 2
(c)2a-b=2, -b+a=l, :.a=l, b =0.

237
 19.4
(a) 11 +y'3il = 2 arg (1 +y'3i) =!. (1 +y'3i)3 = [2 3 ,71'] = -8.
2 =2=2 3
.. (1 +y'3i)3 -8 4
(b) (1 +y'3i)2 = [4, 2;J, (1 -y'3i)4 = [16, - ~71' ] .

(1 + y'3i)2 =
(1 -y'3i)4
671'J =
4' 3
[l
4.
l

19.5 IZI 1= y'5, IZ21 = 5; arg (zd = tan- 1 (t) = 0.4636,

arg (Z2) = tan- 1 (1) = 0.9273; ZlZ2 =2 + Iii, IZ 1Z2 1= y'125 = 5y'5,
Z12 = 3 + 4i, arg (Z12) = 0.9273.

19.6
(a) (5 + 2i) (7 + 3i) = 1 + i
49 + 9 2 '
11 + i = y'2
2 2 '
I arg (1 + i) = ! .
2 4

L 3 3
r
(b) Use a complex number 1, !] or cos ! + i sin! to rotate OA to OB
3
and OB to ~C. i.e. multiply (2 - i) by ( i + ~3i) to give B.

(2 - i) ( i + ~3i) = (1 + ~3 ) + i (y'3 - i).

((I+~3)+i(y'3-i)) (i+~3i) =(~3_1) +i (y'3+i)'
B (2 +y'3 2y'3 - 1) C (y'3 - 2 2y'3 + 1\ D (-2 1)
2' 2 ' 2' 2)' "
E (_ 2 +y'3 1 - 2y'3) F (2 -y'3 _ 2y'3 + 1 ) .
2 ' 2 ' 2' 2

c y
/I
// \
D~ 1
I', ...... \
\ ......
-2\ -1/0 x
\ / / -1
EIc:,
' ...... ,

19.7
(a) cos 30 + i sin 30 = (cos 0 + i sin 0)3 = cos 3 0 + 3 i cos2 0 sin 0 - 3 cos 0 sin2 0
- i sin 3 0.
:. sin 30 = 3 cos2 0 sin 0 - sin 3 0 = 3 sin 0 - 4 sin 3 O.

fo
7r /2
sin 3 0 dO =
f7r/2
0 (t sin 0 - t sin 30) dO = l

238
(b) arg (z + 2) - arg (z + 2i) = !!. .
2
Locus is a semicircle on the line joining (-2, 0) to (0, -2) as diameter. Inspec-
tion shows which semicircle.

(c) x 2 - y2 + 2xyi = 3 - 4i => x 2 _ y2 = 3, xy = -2.

By inspection, x = 2, y = - l o r = 1. x = -2, y
Z2 - 2z =2 - 4i. Add 1 to each side.
Z2 - 2z + 1 = 3 - 4i => (z - 1)2 = 3 - 4i, z - 1 = ± (2 - i)
z = 3 - i or -1 + i.

19.8
(a) Iz I = ls v'(24 2 + 7 2 ) = 1, arg z = tan- 1 ?4 = 0.28 radians.
Iz 15 1= Izl15 = 1. arg (Z15) = 150 = 4.26 radians.
This is not a principal argument, so subtract 21r. arg (Z15) = -2.03 radians.
I Z 115 = Iz 115 = 1, arg (Z15) = -ISO = 2.03 radians.
I
(b) z = -1 + i, Z2 = -2i, Z3 = 2 + 2i, 1.1. .
- = - 2" - 2 1.
Z

z.
-1. 0 2 x

-1

-2

(c)z3=i, z=[r,O], i= [1'I+2nlrJ.

3 _ 1r 1r 51r 1r
r = I, r = 1, 30 - - + 2nlr => 0 = - - - - . , 1, -1)
(n=O
2 6' 6' 2
Cube roots of i are 1 cis 0 => v'3 + J.. -v'3 + J.. -i
2 2' 2 2'

239
 19.9
(a) (i) I z - 4 + 3i I ~ 5 interior and circumference of circle centre (4, -3) radius 5.

5 x

•
(4, -3)

(ii) The part of the annulus between 7r/2 and -7r/6 including the boundary.

~==l4 x

-4

(b) 1 \+~7il = J2 = y2,

+v'.3i)
arg ( 11
-1
(z 1).

_ 2
1 1- i
I =~
y2
= -/2
v'
arg (_2.) =!!.
1 -1 4
3 +y3i
---'--._. =Zl + Z2 =Z4·
1- 1

In the diagram A represents Z1, B represents z 2, C represents z 3, D represents z 4.

OBDA is a rhombus LA OB = !!., LDOB = !!..
3 6
7r 7r 57r
arg (z 1 + Z2) = - + - = - .
4 6 12

240
OBAC is a rhombus.
_1f 111f
arg (Z1 - Z2 ) - - + - + -
1f 1f
= --.
4 3 3 12

19.10
(a) I z + 2i I = I z - 1 - i I.
x 2 + (y + 2)2 = (x - 1)2 + (y - 1)2 ~ 2x+ 6y + 2 = 0
x + 3y + 1 = O.
(b) z = ei6 " zn = e in6 z-n = e- in6 = cos nO - i sin nO ,
zn + z-n = cos nO + i sin nO + cos nO - i sin nO = 2 cos nO.
t t
cos 20 = (Z2 + Z-2) = [(cos 0 + i sin 0)2 + (cos 0 - i sin O? ]
t·
= [2 cos2 0 -- 2 sin 2 0]
= cos 2 0 - sin 2 O.
t
cos 30 = [(cos 0 + i sin 0)3 + (cos 0 - i sin 0)3]
= [cos 3 0 - 3 cos 0 sin 2 0] ;
= 4 cos 3 0 - 3 cos o.
(c) 32 ++ ~i = 2 + i = y5 (cos 0 + i sin 0). 0 = 0.464c + 2n1f.

3+4i)1/3 = 5 1/ 6 (cos (0.155) + i sin (0.155))

(--
2 +i
and two others with angles 0.155 ± t 1f.

19.11 OA is rotated by rr/2 to give OB (multiplication by i).

(a) Locus of T is the perpendicular bisector of AB.

241
 y

(b) Locus of T is a line from A parallel to OB.

OACB is a square (OA =OB, LAOB =90° AC II OB).
a = 3 + i, ia =-I + 3i a + ia =2 + 4i (C).

19.12
(a) I -y'3i and I +y'3i are roots. Sum of roots =2, product =4, x 2 - 2x + 4 =0,
:. (x 2 - 2x + 4) (2x - I) =0, roots I - y'3i, I + y'3i, t.
(b) I cis 8 1= 1, OA = 1, AB = I. :. OAB is an isosceles triangle.

LOAB = 7r - 8 '* LAOB = 8/2.

=
OB 20N = 2 cos 8/2.
8
I z + 1 I = 2 cos -, 8
arg (z + I) = -.
2 2

242
19.13 Rotating by ~7T ,the other vertices are

[3, ~ Jand [3, 7T].

3 x

Coordinates are 3 ( cos ~ ) + 3i sin (~) i.e, (~, 3 ~3) and (-3,0).

243
 Index*
acceleration 165, 167 degrees 75
algebraic relation 60 derivative 151
angles differentiation 151
compound 92 logarithmic 154
multiple 93 parametric 163,166
annulus 240 standard results 152
arc length 76 differentiation of
area composite functions 151
calculation 205,208 exponential functions 142, 152
limit of a sum 204 implicit functions 163,166
Argand diagram 222,225-226,228- inverse trigonometric functions 155
229,232 products 151
argument 222,225-226,230 quotients 151
arithmetic discriminant 9, 1 0
mean 20,51 displacement vector 118
progression 20,21 domain 129,132
asymptotes 42
ellipse 61
binomial 27 parametric form 103
coefficients 27 enlargement 222
expansions 27.28, 38 equation
fractional powers 29 graphical solution 130,147
validity 27,29,38, 39 parametric 103
quadratic 9
cartesian axes 222 simultaneous 14
cartesian coordinates 60 trigonometric 92,94
cartesian equations 229,236-237 equation of
chain rule 151 circle 61,65,66,103
chord, gradient of 153 ellipse 61,103,112
circle 61, 65 line 60,66
centre of 66 parabola 67,103,105
parametric form 103 rectangular hyperbola 103, 109
tangent to 66 exponential
circular measure 76 form 222,235
circumcircle 72, 76,80 function 142
coefficients series 143, 145
rational 11
real 5 factorizing 5, 6
collinear points 65 factors 3,4
completing the square 9, 11, 64 linear 4,6,37,38
complex conjugate 221,228 quadratic 37,40
complex equation 235 repeated 37,41
complex numbers 221 factor theorem 1, 4, 39
complex products 222 flowchart 135
complex quotients 222 function of a function 151
composite functions 129,151,154 functions 129
compound angles 92 bounded 134
conjugate pairs 9, 11 composite 129,151,154
cosecant 76 derived 129
cosine 75 even 131,134
formula 76,80 inverse 130
cotangent 79 mapping 129
cube 82,83 odd 131,134
cube roots 236, 239 periodic 67, 211
curve sketching 42,50,54,61 geometric
mean 20,51
De Moivre's Theorem 222,232-234, progression 20,22
236 ratio 20,21, 22
* Numbers in italics refer to worked examples
244
 series 20,21 parametric
sum 20,21,22 equations 103
gradient, parametric form 103 differentiation 163, 166
graphical solution 86,91, 130 partial fractions 37
graphs 48,64, 68,77 parallelepiped 126
greatest value 10 Pascal's triangle 27
period 67, 84,86,212
i 221 perpendicular distance 71
identity 1,2, 9 planes, angle between 85,87
1m 221 polar form 236
imaginary numbers 221 polynomial 1
imaginary parts 228 division I , 4
implicit differentiation 163, 166 powers, ascending 38, 39
increment, small 165 position vector 118, 122
indices 1,6 principal argument 236
inequalities 47, 48 principal value 222,226
modulus 47 progressions 20
properties 47 pyramid 87
region 50 Pythagorean identities 76,92
sketches 48
inflexion, points of 164,167
integrals I 78 "quadratic approximation 28
integration 177 equation 9,226, 235
by partial fractions 178, 179, 185, roots of 10, 11
198 factors 37, 40
by parts 191 function 9, 11
by substitution 190 quartic function 54
definite 178
indefinite 178 (r, a) formulae 93,96
trigonometric 178 radian 75
intersection, points of 42 range 11,129,132,133
inverse functions 158 rate of change 164,214
isosceles 242 ratio theorem 118
Re 221
least value 10,11 real coefficients 226
limit points 130 real numbers 221
linear factors 4,6,37,38 real parts 228
line rectangular hyperbola 103
equation of 60 recurring decimal 23,24
gradient of 60 remainder 1,3, 4
intersecting 124 theorem 1,7
length of 60 repeated factors 37, 41
parallel 61 rhombus 240
parametric form 119,123 roots 9,226,228,232
perpendicular 61 product of 9,10,16,226
vector equation 119 rational 10
locus 71,223,229-230,233,236 real 10, 13
equation of 107, 11 0 sum of 9,10,15,226
logarithms 142 rotation 241
logarithmic differentiation 154
long division 1,38 ~ 20
scalar product 120,125
maximum 13,16,163,167 scaling 68
minimum 11,163,167 secant 76
modulus 119,222,225-226,236 sector 76
modulus argument 232 segment 88, 91
multiple angles 93 series 20
particular 28, 37
Napierian logarithms 143 sum of 23,25
natural logarithms 143 set 52,54
normal simultaneous equations 14
equationof 104,112,163 sine 75
to hyperbola 109, 112 formula 76,80
skew lines 79,85
ordered pairs 222 small increments 165
solution set 51
parabola 67 square, completing the 9, 11, 64
parametric form 103 square roots 225
tangent of 106 stationary points 163, 170

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 straight lines 60,66,71,123 form 222
equation of 119,124 formulae 92,97,98
stretch 63, 64 functions 75
surds 2 graphs 77
identities 92
't' formulae 93,96, 197
tangent 73,163
equation of 104, 105 unit vector 118,121
to ellipse 112
to hyperbola 109
to parabola 105, 110 vector
tetrahedron 81 algebra 118
transformations 63,64 components 119
one-way stretch 63,64 magnitude 119
scaling 68 perpendicular 121, 125
translation 11,63,64, 68 projection 120
trapezium 122 resolved components 120
trigonometric velocity 165,167
equations 92 volume of revolution 206

246