MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

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UNIT-I

Introduction to Managerial Economics: Managerial Economics: Meaning,

Nature, Scope &Relationship with other disciplines, Role of managerial
economics in decision Making, Opportunity Cost Principle, Production
Possibility Curve, Incremental Concept, Scarcity Concept.
Demand: Demand and its Determination: Demand function; Determinants of
demand; Demand elasticity – Price, Income and cross elasticity, Use of
elasticity for analyzing demand. Demand forecasting: Introduction and
techniques.

UNIT-II

Indifference Curve Analysis: Meaning, Assumptions, Properties, Consumer

Equilibrium, Importance of Indifference Analysis, Limitations of Indifference
Theory.
Production Function: Meaning, Concept of productivity and technology, Short

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Run and long run production function, Introduction to Isoquants; Least cost
combination of inputs, Producer’s equilibrium; Returns to scale.

UNIT-III
Theory of Cost: Cost Concepts and Determinants of cost, short run and long
run cost theory, Modern Theory of Cost, Relationship between cost and
production function
Revenue Curve: Concept of Revenue, Different Types of Revenues, concept
and shapes of Total Revenue, Average revenue and marginal revenue,
Relationship between Total Revenue, Average revenue and marginal
revenue, Elasticity of Demand and Revenue relation.

UNIT-IV

Market Structure: Market Structure: Meaning, Assumptions and Equilibrium

of Perfect Competition, Monopoly, Monopolistic Competition, Oligopoly: Price
and output determination under collusive oligopoly, Price and output
determination under non-collusive oligopoly.
Supply: Introduction to supply and supply curve.
Pricing: Pricing practices; Commodity Pricing: Economics of advertisement
costs; Types of pricing practices.

Note: Relevant Case Studies will be discussed in class.

Suggested Readings:-
1. D. M. Mithani, Managerial Economics Theory and Applications,
Himalaya Publication
2. Peterson and Lewis, Managerial Economic, Prentice Hall of India
3. Gupta, Managerial Economics, Tata McGraw Hills
4. Geetika, Managerial Economics, Tata McGraw Hills
5. D.N.Dwivedi, Managerial Economic, Vikas Publications
6. Koutsoyiannis, A Modern Micro Economics, Palgrave Macmillan
Publishers, NewDelhi.
7. H. L Ahuja Advanced Economic Analysis, S. Chand & Co. Ltd, New Delhi.

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8. G.S Gupta, Managerial Economics, Tata McGraw Hill.
9. K.K .Dewett, Modern Economic Theory, S. Chand Publication.

INDEX
SR.
NO. TOPICS
UNIT-I
1 Managerial Economics: Meaning, Nature, Scope & Relationship with other disciplines
2 Role of managerial economics in decision Making.
3 Opportunity Cost Principle.
4 Production Possibility Curve.
5 Incremental Concept.
6 Scarcity Concept.
7 Demand and its Determination, Demand function; Determinants of demand, Law of Demand.
Demand elasticity – Price, Income and cross elasticity, Use of elasticity for analyzing
8 demand.
9 Demand estimation.
10 Demand forecasting, Demand forecasting of new product.
11 Important Questions

UNIT-II
Indifference Curve Analysis: Meaning, Assumptions, Properties, Consumer Equilibrium,
12 Importance, Limitations.

13 Production function Meaning, Concept of productivity and technology, Short Run and long
run production function.
14 Isoquants; Least cost combination of inputs.
15 Producer’s equilibrium.
16 Returns to scale.
17 Important Questions.

UNIT-III
18 Theory of Cost: Cost Concepts and Determinants of cost, short run and long run cost theory.

19 Modern Theory of Cost, Relationship between cost and production function.

Revenue Curve: Meaning, Different Types of Revenues, concept and shapes of Total Revenue,
20 Average revenue and marginal revenue, Relationship between TR,AR & MR.

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 21 Elasticity of Demand and Revenue relation.

22 Important Questions.

UNIT-IV
23 Market Structure: Market Structure: Meaning, Assumptions, Types, And Determinants.
24 Equilibrium of Perfect Competition.
25 Monopoly.
26 Monopolistic Competition.
Oligopoly: Price and output determination under collusive oligopoly, Price and output
27 determination under Non-collusive oligopoly.
28 Price leadership model.
29 Supply: Introduction to supply and supply curves.
Pricing: Pricing practices; Commodity Pricing: Economics of advertisement costs; Types of
30 pricing practices.
31 Important Questions.

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UNIT-I
MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS
# INTRODUCTION OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

Managerial Economics (also called Business Economics) a subject first

introduced by Joel Dean in 1951, is essentially concerned with the economic
decisions of business managers. It is a branch of Economics that applies
microeconomic analysis to specific business decisions (i.e. Economics applied
in business decision-making). Managerial Economics may be viewed as
Economics applied to problem solving at the level of the firm. The problems of
course relate to choices and allocation of resources, which are basically
economic in nature and are faced by managers all the time. It is that branch of
Economics, which serves as a link between abstract theory and managerial

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practice. It is based on economic analysis for identifying problems, organizing
information and evaluating alternatives. In other words Managerial
Economics involves analysis of allocation of the resources available to a firm
or a unit of management among the activities of that unit. It is thus concerned
with choice or selection among alternatives. Managerial Economics is by
nature goal- oriented and prescriptive, and it aims at maximum achievement
of objectives.

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# MEANING OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

MANAGERIAL
MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS
ECONOMICS

Managerial Economic is combination of two words Managerial & Economics.

Managerial means management & relating to Management & Managers.
Economics means Economic growth & relating to trade, industry, money.
Managerial economics is a discipline which deals with the application of
economic theory to business management. It deals with the use of economic
concepts and principles of business decision making. Formerly it was known
as “Business Economics” but the term has now been discarded in favor of
Managerial Economics.

Managerial Economics may be defined as the study of economic theories, logic

and methodology which are generally applied to seek solution to the practical
problems of business. Managerial Economics is thus constituted of that part of
economic knowledge or economic theories which is used as a tool of analysing
business problems for rational business decisions. Managerial Economics is
often called as Business Economics or Economic for Firms.

# DEFINITION OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

“Managerial Economics is economics applied in decision making. It is a special

branch of economics bridging the gap between abstract theory and
managerial practice.” – Haynes, Mote and Paul.

“Business Economics consists of the use of economic modes of thought to

analyse business situations.” - McNair and Meriam

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“Business Economics (Managerial Economics) is the integration of economic
theory with business practice for the purpose of facilitating decision making
and forward planning by management.” - Spencerand Seegelman.

“Managerial economics is concerned with application of economic concepts and

economic analysis to the problems of formulating rational managerial
decision.” – Mansfield

# NATURE OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

To know more about managerial economics, we must know about its various
characteristics. Let us read about the nature of this concept in the following
points:

1] Art and Science: Managerial economics requires a lot of logical thinking

and creative skills for decision making or problem-solving. It is also
considered to be a stream of science by some economist claiming that it
involves the application of different economic principles, techniques and
methods to solve business problems.

2] Micro Economics: In managerial economics, managers generally deal with

the problems related to a particular organization instead of the whole economy.
Therefore it is considered to be a part of microeconomics.

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 3] Uses Macro Economics: A business functions in an external environment,
i.e. it serves the market which is a part of the economy as a whole. Therefore,
it is essential for managers to analyze the different factors of macroeconomics
such as market conditions, economic reforms, government policies, etc. and
their impact on the organization.

4] Multi-disciplinary: It uses many tools and principles belonging to various

disciplines such as accounting, finance, statistics, mathematics, production,
operation research, human resource, marketing, etc.

5] Prescriptive / Normative Discipline: It aims at goal achievement and

deals with practical situations or problems by implementing corrective
measures. Management Oriented: It acts as a tool in the hands of managers to
deal with business-related problems and uncertainties appropriately. It also
provides for goal establishment, policy formulation and effective decision
making.

6] Pragmatic: It is a practical and logical approach towards the day to day

business problems.

# SCOPE OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

The scope of managerial economics is not yet clearly laid out because it is a
developing science. Even then the following fields may be said to generally fall
under Managerial Economics:

1. Analysis and Forecasting: A business firm is an economic organisation

which is engaged in transforming productive resources into goods that are to
be sold in the market. A major part of managerial decision making depends on
accurate estimates of demand. A forecast of future sales serves as a guide to
management for preparing production schedules and employing resources. It
will help management to maintain or strengthen its market position and profit
base. Demand analysis also identifies a number of other factors influencing
the demand for a product. Demand analysis and forecasting occupies a
strategic place in Managerial Economics.

2.Cost and production analysis: A firm’s profitability depends much on its cost

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of production. A wise manager would prepare cost estimates of a range of

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output, identify the factors causing are cause variations in cost estimates and
choose the cost-minimising output level, taking also into consideration the
degree of uncertainty in production and cost calculations. Production
processes are under the charge of engineers but the business manager is
supposed to carry out the production function analysis in order to avoid
wastages of materials and time. Sound pricing practices depend much on cost
control. The main topics discussed under cost and production analysis are:
Cost concepts, cost-output relationships, Economics and Diseconomies of
scale and cost control.

3. Pricing decisions, policies and practices: Pricing is a very important area

of Managerial Economics. In fact, price is the genesis of the revenue of a firm
ad as such the success of a business firm largely depends on the correctness of
the price decisions taken by it. The important aspects dealt with this area are:
Price determination in various market forms, pricing methods, differential
pricing, product-line pricing and price forecasting.

4. Profit management: Business firms are generally organized for earning

profit and in the long period, it is profit which provides the chief measure of
success of a firm. Economics tells us that profits are the reward for
uncertainty bearing and risk taking. A successful business manager is one who
can form more or less correct estimates of costs and revenues likely to accrue
to the firm at different levels of output. The more successful a manager is in
reducing uncertainty, the higher are the profits earned by him. In fact, profit-
planning and profit measurement constitute the most challenging area of
Managerial Economics.

5. Capital management: The problems relating to firm’s capital investments

are perhaps the most complex and troublesome. Capital management implies
planning and control of capital expenditure because it involves a large sum
and moreover the problems in disposing the capital assets off are so complex
that they require considerable time and labour. The main topics dealt with
under capital management are cost of capital, rate of return and selection of
projects.

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6. Government Regulation:-There are endless implications of government
regulations on the business firm and at times the legal environment of
business is as important as the economic environment. So, it is necessary to
examine law- related applications of economic principles.

7. Management of Public Sector Enterprises:-Managerial economics can also

be applied to the decision making process of non-profit seeking and public
sector enterprises. Economists in various government departments and public
sector organizations are also concerned with project evaluation and cost-
benefit analysis.

# MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS IN RELATION WITH OTHER DISCIPLINES

Managerial economics has a close linkage with other disciplines and fields of
study. The subject has gained by the interaction with Economics, Mathematics
and Statistics and has drawn upon Management theory and Accounting
concepts. Managerial economics integrates concepts and methods from these
disciplines and brings them to bear on managerial problems.

1. Managerial
Managerial Economics
Economics and Economics:
is economics applied to decision making. It is a special
branch of economics, bridging the gap between pure economic theory and
managerial practice. Economics has two main branches—micro-economics and
macro-economics.

Micro-economics:- ‘Micro’ means small. It studies the behaviour of the

individual units and small groups of units. It is a study of particular firms,
particular households, individual prices, wages, incomes, individual industries
and particular commodities. Thus micro-economics gives a microscopic view
of the economy.

The roots of managerial economics spring from micro-economic theory. In

price theory, demand concepts, elasticity of demand, marginal cost marginal
revenue, the short and long runs and theories of market structure are sources
of the elements of micro-economics which managerial economics draws upon.

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It makes use of well known models in price theory such as the model for
monopoly price, the kinked demand theory and the model of price
discrimination.

Macro-economics:-‘Macro’ means large. It deals with the behaviour of the

large aggregates in the economy. The large aggregates are total saving, total
consumption, total income, total employment, general price level, wage level,
cost structure, etc. Thus macro-economics is aggregative economics.

It examines the interrelations among the various aggregates, and causes of

fluctuations in them. Problems of determination of total income, total
employment and general price level are the central problems in macro-
economics.

Macro-economies is also related to managerial economics. The environment,

in which a business operates, fluctuations in national income, changes in fiscal and
monetary measures and variations in the level of business activity have
relevance to business decisions. The understanding of the overall operation of
the economic system is very useful to the managerial economist in the
formulation of his policies.

Macro-economics contributes to business forecasting. The most widely used

model in modern forecasting is the gross national product model.

The2.theory
Managerial Economics
of decision and is
making Theory of Decision
relatively a new Making:
subject that has a
significance for managerial economics. In the process of management such as
planning, organising, leading and controlling, decision making is always
essential. Decision making is an integral part of today’s business management. A
manager faces a number of problems connected with his/her business such as
production, inventory, cost, marketing, pricing, investment and personnel.

Economist are interested in the efficient use of scarce resources hence they
are naturally interested in business decision problems and they apply
economics in management of business problems. Hence managerial
economics is economics applied in decision making.

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 3. Managerial Economics and Operations Research:

Mathematicians, statisticians, engineers and others join together and

developed models and analytical tools which have grown into a specialised
subject known as operation research. The basic purpose of the approach is to
develop a scientific model of the system which may be utilised for policy
making.

The development of techniques and concepts such as Linear Programming,

Dynamic Programming, Input-output Analysis, Inventory Theory, Information
Theory, Probability Theory, Queuing Theory, Game Theory, Decision Theory
and Symbolic Logic.

4. Managerial
Statistics Economics
is important and Statistics:
to managerial economics. It provides the basis for the
empirical testing of theory. It provides the individual firm with measures of
appropriate functional relationship involved in decision making. Statistics is a
very useful science for business executives because a business runs on
estimates and probabilities.

Statistics supplies many tools to managerial economics. Suppose forecasting

has to be done. For this purpose, trend projections are used. Similarly,
multiple regression technique is used. In managerial economics, measures of
central tendency like the mean, median, mode, and measures of dispersion,
correlation, regression, least square, estimators are widely used.

Statistical tools are widely used in the solution of managerial problems. For
example. sampling is very useful in data collection. Managerial economics
makes use of correlation and multiple regressions in business problems
involving some kind of cause and effect relationship.

5. Managerial
Managerial Economics
economics andrelated
is closely Accounting:
to accounting. It is recording the
finan- cial operation of a business firm. A business is started with the main
aim of earning profit. Capital is invested / employed for purchasing properties
such as building, furniture, etc and for meeting the current expenses of the
business.

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Goods are bought and sold for cash as well as credit. Cash is paid to credit
sellers. It is received from credit buyers. Expenses are met and incomes
derived. This goes on the daily routine work of the business. The buying of
goods, sale of goods, payment of cash, receipt of cash and similar dealings are
called business transactions.

The business transactions are varied and multifarious. This has given rise to the
necessity of recording business transaction in books. They are written in a set
of books in a systematic manner so as to facilitate proper study of their
results.

There are three classes of accounts:

(i) Personal account,

(ii) Property accounts, and

(iii) Nominal accounts.

Management accounting provides the accounting data for taking business

decisions. The accounting techniques are very essential for the success of the
firm because profit maximization is the major objective of the firm.

6. Managerial
Mathematics Economics
is another and Mathematics:
important subject closely related to managerial
economics. For the derivation and exposition of economic analysis, we require
a set of mathematical tools. Mathematics has helped in the development of
economic theories and now mathematical economics has become a very
important branch of economics.

Mathematical approach to economic theories makes them more precise and

logical. For the estimation and prediction of economic factors for decision
mak- ing and forward planning, mathematical method is very helpful. The
important branches of mathematics generally used by a managerial economist
are geometry, algebra and calculus.

The mathematical concepts used by the managerial economists are the

logarithms and exponential, vectors and determinants, input-out tables.
Operations research which is closely related to managerial economics is
mathematical in character.

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 MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS IN DECISION MAKING
# MEANING:-Managerial economics uses a wide variety of economic concepts,
tools, and techniques in the decision-making process. These concepts can be
placed in three broad categories:-

1. The theory of the firm, which describes how businesses make a variety of
decisions.
2. The theory of consumer behavior, which describes decision making by
consumers.
3. The theory of market structure and pricing, which describes the structure
and characteristics of different market forms under which business firms
operate.

# ROLE OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS IN DECISION MAKING

Managerial economics, or business economics, is a division of microeconomics

that focuses on applying economic theory directly to businesses. The
application of economic theory through statistical methods helps businesses
make decisions and determine strategy on pricing, operations, risk,
investments and production. The overall role of managerial economics is to
increase the efficiency of decision making in businesses to increase profit

Role Of Managerial Economics In Decision Making

Elastic vs. Inelastic Operations and

Pricing Goods Production Investments Risk

1) Pricing:- Managerial economics assists businesses in determining pricing

strategies and appropriate pricing levels for their products and services. Some

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common analysis methods are price discrimination, value-based pricing and
cost-plus pricing.

2) Elastic vs. Inelastic Goods:-Economists can determine price sensitivity of

products through a price elasticity analysis. Some products, such as milk, are
consider a necessity rather than a luxury and will purchase at most price points.
This type of product is considered inelastic. When a business knows they are
selling an inelastic good, they can make marketing and pricing decisions
easier

3) Operations and Production:- Managerial economics uses quantitative

methods to analyze production and operational efficiency through schedule
optimization, economies of scale and resource analyses. Additional analysis
methods include marginal cost, marginal revenue and operating leverage.
Through tweaking the operations and production of a company, profits rise as
costs decline.

4) Investments:- Many managerial economic tools and analysis models are

used to help make investing decisions both for corporations and savvy
individual investors. These tools are use to make stock market investing
decisions and decisions on capital investments for a business. For example,
managerial economic theory can be used to help a company decide between
purchasing, building or leasing operational equipment.

5) Risk:- Uncertainty exits in every business and managerial economics can

help reduce risk through uncertainty model analysis and decision-theory
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analysis. Heavy use of statistical probability theory helps provide potential
scenarios for businesses to use when making decisions.

# MANAGERIAL DECISION MAKING PROCESS (5 STEPS)

Decision making is crucial for running a business enterprise which faces a

large number of problems requiring decisions.

Which product to be produced, what price to be charged, what quantity of the

product to be produced, what and how much advertisement expenditure to be
made to promote the sales, how much investment expenditure to be incurred
are some of the problems which require decisions to be made by managers.

The five steps involved in managerial decision making process are

explained below:

1. Establishing the Objective:- The first step in the decision making process
is to establish the objective of the business enterprise. The important
objective of a private business enterprise is to maximize profits. However, a
business firm
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may have some other objectives such as maximization of sales or growth of
the firm.

But the objective of a public enterprise is normally not of maximization of

profits but to follow benefit-cost criterion. According to this criterion, a public
enterprise should evaluate all social costs and benefits when making a
decision whether to build an airport, a power plant, a steel plant, etc.

2. Defining the Problem:- The second step in decision making process is one
of defining or identifying the problem. Defining the nature of the problem is
important because decision making is after all meant for solution of the
problem. For instance, a cotton textile firm may find that its profits are
declining.

It needs to be investigated what are the causes of the problem of decreasing

profits. Whether it is the wrong pricing policy, bad labour-management
relations or the use of outdated technology which is causing the problem of
declining profits. Once the source or reason for falling profits has been found,
the problem has been identified and defined.

3. Identifying Possible Alternative Solutions (i.e. Alternative Courses of

Action): Once the problem has been identified, the next step is to find out
alternative solutions to the problem. This will require considering the
variables that have an impact on the problem. In this way, relationship among
the variables and with the problems has to be established.

In regard to this, various hypotheses can be developed which will become

alternative courses for the solution of the problem. For example, in case of the
problem mentioned above, if it is identified that the problem of declining profits
is due to be use of technologically inefficient and outdated machinery in
production.

The two possible solutions of the problem are:

(1) Updating and replacing only the old machinery.

(2) Building entirely a new plant equipped with latest machinery.

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The choice between these alternative courses of action depends on which will
bring about larger increase in profits.

4. Evaluating Alternative Courses of Action:- The next step in business

decision making is to evaluate the alternative courses of action. This requires,
the collection and analysis of the relevant data. Some data will be available
within the various departments of the firm itself, the other may be obtained
from the industry and government.

The data and information so obtained can be used to evaluate the outcome or
results expected from each possible course of action. Methods such as
regression analysis, differential calculus, linear programming, cost- benefit
analysis are used to arrive at the optimal course. The optimum solution will be
one that helps to achieve the established objective of the firm. The course of
action which is optimum will be actually chosen. It may be further noted that
for the choice of an optimal solution to the problem, a manager works under
certain constraints.

The constraints may be legal such as laws regarding pollution and disposal of
harmful wastes; the way be financial (i.e. limited financial resources); they
may relate to the availability of physical infrastructure and raw materials, and
they may be technological in nature which set limits to the possible output to
be produced per unit of time. The crucial role of a business manager is to
determine optimal course of action and he has to make a decision under these
constraints.

5. Implementing the Decision:- After the alternative courses of action have

been evaluated and optimal course of action selected, the final step is to
implement the decision. The implementation of the decision requires constant
monitoring so that expected results from the optimal course of action are
obtained. Thus, if it is found that expected results are not forthcoming due to
the wrong implementation of the decision, then corrective measures should
be taken.

However, it should be noted that once a course of action is implemented to

achieve the established objective, changes in it may become necessary from
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time to time in response in changes in conditions or firm’s operating
environment on the basis of which decisions were taken.

# ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMIST

1. To make a reasonable profit on capital employed: - He must have a strong

conviction that profits are essential and his main obligation is to assist the
management in earning reasonable profits on capital employed in the firm.

2. He must make successful forecasts by making in depth study of the

internal and external factors:- This will have influence over the profitability
or the working of the firm. He must aim at lessening if not fully eliminating the
risks involved in uncertainties. He has a major responsibility to alert
management at the earliest possible time in case he discovers any error in his
forecast, so that the management can make necessary changes and adjustments
in the policies and programmes of the firm.

3. He must inform the management of all the economic trends:- A

managerial economist should keep himself in touch with the latest
developments of national economy and business environment so that he can
keep the management informed with these developments and expected trends
of the economy

4. He must establish and maintain contacts with individuals and data

sources:

(i) To establish and maintain contacts:-A managerial economist should

establish and maintain contacts with individuals and data sources in order to
collect relevant and valuable information in the field.

(ii) To develop personal relations:-To collect information he should

develop personal relations with those having specialised knowledge of the
field.

(iii) To join professional associations and should take active part in their
activities:-The success of this lies in how quickly he gathers additional
information in the best interest of the firm.
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5. He must earn full status in the business and only then he can be
helpful to the management in good and successful decision-making:

For this:

(i) He must receive continuous support for himself and his professional ideas
by performing his function effectively.

(ii) He should express his ideas in simple and understandable language with the
minimum use of technical words, while communicating with his management
executives.

# IMPORTANCE OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

Business and industrial enterprises aim at earning maximum proceeds. In

order to achieve this objective, a managerial executive has to take recourse in
decision making, which is the process of selecting a specified course of action
from a number of alternatives. A sound decision requires fair knowledge of
the aspects of economic theory and the tools of economic analysis, which are
directly involved in the process of decision-making. Since managerial
economics is concerned with such aspects and tools of analysis, it is pertinent
to the decision making process.

Spencer and Siegelman have described the importance of managerial

economics in a business and industrial enterprise as follows:

(i) Accommodating traditional theoretical concepts to the actual

business behavior and conditions:-Managerial economics amalgamates
tools, techniques, models and theories of traditional economics with actual
business practices and with the environment in which a firm has to operate.
According to Edwin Mansfield, “Managerial Economics attempts to bridge the
gap between purely analytical problems that intrigue many economic theories
and the problems of policies that management must face”.

(ii) Estimating economic relationships: Managerial economics estimates

economic relationships between different business factors such as income,
elasticity of demand, cost volume, profit analysis etc.

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(iii) Predicting relevant economic quantities: Managerial economics
assists the management in predicting various economic quantities such as
cost, profit, demand, capital, production, price etc. As a business manager has
to function in an environment of uncertainty, it is imperative to anticipate the
future working environment in terms of the said quantities.

(iv) Understanding significant external forces: The management has to

identify all the important factors that influence a firm. These factors can
broadly be divided into two categories. Managerial economics plays an
important role by assisting management in understanding these factors.

(a) External factors: A firm cannot exercise any control over these factors.
The plans, policies and programs of the firm should be formulated in the light
of these factors. Significant external factors impinging on the decision making
process of a firm are economic system of the country, business cycles,
fluctuations in national income and national production, industrial policy of
the government, trade and fiscal policy of the government, taxation policy,
licensing policy, trends in foreign trade of the country, general industrial
relation in the country and so on.

(b) Internal factors: These factors fall under the control of a firm. These
factors are associated with business operation. Knowledge of these factors
aids the management in making sound business decisions.

(v) Basis of business policies: Managerial economics is the founding principle

of business policies. Business policies are prepared based on studies and
findings of managerial economics, which cautions the management against
potential upheavals in national as well as international economy. Thus,
managerial economics is helpful to the management in its decision-making
process.

# LIMITATIONS OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

The limitations of managerial economics are as follows:-

(a) Managerial economics focus on management analysis based on financial

and cost accounting data. Thus, the reliability of this data depends on the
accuracy of the financial accounting information.

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(b) Such analysis is based on past information. But if a new scheme is to be
introduced, the circumstances change and the conclusions cannot be
predicted using this past information.

(c) Managerial economics is subjected to the personal preferences of the

individual manager which can influence the final decision of the manager to a
certain extent.

(d) It is an expensive process as a business firm generally requires a certain

number of managers to ensure proper functioning.

(e) The science of managerial economics is quite recent and is not fully
developed. Thus, it is subjected to ambiguity in certain scenarios.

The manager is required to have extensive knowledge in a variety of fields in

order to ensure that he completely comprehends the situation to be dealt
with."

OPPORTUNITY COST PRINCIPLE

Opportunity cost principle is related and applied to scarce resource. When

there are alternative uses of scarce resource, one should know which best
alternative is and which is not. We should know what gain by best alternative
is and what loss by left alternative is.

DEFINITIONS:-In the words of Left witch,"Opportunity cost of a particular

product is the value of the foregone alternative products that resources used
in its production, could have produced."

Opportunity cost is not what you choose when you make a choice —it is what
you did not choose in making a choice. Opportunity cost is the value of the
forgone alternative — what you gave up when you got something.

Example 1: If a person is having cash in hand Rs. 100000/-, he may think of

two alternatives to increase cash.

Option 1: Investing in bank. We will get returns amount 10000/-

Option2: Investing in business. We get returns amount 17000/-

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Generally we chose the option 2 because we will get more returns than the
option 1. Here the option 1 is the opportunity cost, that what we have not
chosen.

Example 2: I have a number of alternatives of how to spend my Friday night: I

can go to the movies; I can stay home and watch the baseball game on TV, or
go out for coffee with friends. If I choose to go to the movies, my opportunity
cost of that action is what I would have chosen if I had not gone to the movies -
either watching the baseball game or going out for coffee with friends. Note
that an opportunity cost only considers the next best alternative to an action,
not the entire set of alternatives.

The opportunity cost of a decision is based on what must be given up (the

next best alternative) as a result of the decision. Any decision that involves a
choice between two or more options has an opportunity cost.

# OPPORTUNITY COST FORMULA AND CALCULATION

Opportunity Cost=FO−CO

Where:-FO=Return on best foregone option,

CO=Return on chosen option

# ASSUMPTIONS OF OPPORTUNITY COSTS

The concept of opportunity costs is based on the following assumptions:-

1) Factors of production are freely mobile.

2) Perfect competition prevails in the market.

3) All the units of factors of production are homogeneous.

4) There prevails full employment of resources.

5) Factors of production are not specific as they can be put to alternative uses.

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# ILLUSTRATION OF OPPORTUNITY COST
Let’s understand these costs with the help of an illustration.

Let’s say that a farmer has a piece of land on which he can grow wheat or rice.

Therefore, if he chooses to grow wheat, then he cannot grow rice and vice-versa.

Hence, the opportunity cost for rice is the wheat crop that he forgoes. The
following diagram explains this:

Opportunity Cost Graph –

Let’s assume that the farmer can produce either 50 quintals of rice (ON) or 40
quintals of wheat (OM) using this land. Now, if he produces rice, then he
cannot produce wheat.

Therefore, the OC of 50 quintals of rice (ON) is 40 quintals of wheat (OM).

Further, the farmer can choose to produce any combination of the two crops
along the curve MN (production possibility curve). Let’s say that he chooses
the point A as shown above.

Therefore, he produces OD amount of rice and OC amount of wheat.

Subsequently, he decides to shift to point B. Now, he has to reduce the
production of wheat from OC to OE in order to increase the production of rice
from OD to OF.

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Therefore, the OC of DF amount of rice is CE amount of wheat.

# APPLICATIONS OF OPPORTUNITY COST

1. Determining factor prices:-The factors for production need a price equal

to or greater than what they command for alternative uses. If the factor price is
less than the factor’s opportunity cost, then the said factor moves to the better-
paying alternative.

2. Determining economic rent:-Many modern economists use this concept

for determining economic rent. As per them, economic rent = The factor’s
actual earning – Its opportunity cost or transfer earning

3. Consumption pattern decisions:-According to this concept, if with a given

amount of money a consumer chooses to have more of one thing, then he
needs to have less of the other.

Further, he cannot increase the consumption of all the goods at the same time.
Therefore, he decides his consumption pattern using the concept of
opportunity cost.

4. Product plan decisions:- Let’s say that a producer has fixed resources and
technology. If he wants to produce a greater amount of one commodity, then
he must sacrifice the quantity of another commodity.

Therefore, he uses this concept to make decisions about his production plan.

5. Decisions about national priorities:- Every country has certain resources

at its command and needs to plan the production of a wide range of
commodities. This decision depends on the national priorities which are based
on opportunity costs.

For example, if a country is at war, then it will use its resources to produce more
war-related goods as compared to civilian goods.

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# TYPES OF OPPORTUNITY COST IN PRODUCTION

1. Explicit Cost:-Explicit costs are the cost which includes the monetary
payment from the producers.

For example, if the company is paying $1000 per month in food by providing free
lunch and breakfast, then its explicit OC is $1000. The expenditure on food
could have been used somewhere else.

2. Implicit Cost:-Implicit cost aka national cost can be defined as the OC

which a company used in order to produce something.

For example, a company purchased small electronic devices to produce

mobile phones, laptops, etc. This cost is used to produce something, the
electronic devices are not sold or rented.

3. Marginal Cost:-Marginal opportunity cost is a cost required to produce

something extra.

For example, currently a company is producing 1000 burgers per day, but
due to heavy demand, they are running out of the burgers. So, the company
decided to hire more people and cook more burgers.

Now marginal opportunity cost will include – payment of new employees, cost
required for ingredients required to cook more burgers, profit company was
missing before and many other extra costs required for producing additional
burgers.
# CONSIDERABLE FACTORS OF OPPORTUNITY COST
While investing money, time and effort, the person has to look for the option
of giving the highest possible return on investment. Thus, giving up the value
he would have yielded from the second-best alternative.

27 | P a g e
1. The monetary value invested in any opportunity must provide an
adequate return to the investor. Therefore, money is an essential factor
involved in opportunity cost.
2. Time is a valuable asset, and once invested, cannot be reversed. The
benefit which a particular opportunity provides over the period must be
the highest as compared to the other alternatives.
3. The energy invested in the chosen alternative is equally essential and
requires a lot of skills and evaluation.

# SIGNIFICANCE OF OPPORTUNITY COST

Opportunity cost is an inevitable part of any business activity since it triggers
the process of decision making.
The primary reasons for which any business needs to determine the
opportunity cost are as follows:

1) Base for Decision Making: Opportunity cost provides support for making
an appropriate choice while selecting one out of many available
alternatives.
2) Price Determination: Based on the expenses incurred in the procurement
of any goods or services along with the cost which may have been committed
to acquiring alternative options, the price of the products or services is
determined.
3) Efficient Resource Allocation: It helps in investing the resources in the
right opportunity by analyzing the opportunity cost of all the alternatives.
4) Remuneration Decisions: In organizations, it played a crucial role in
determining the expected value an employee would create for the
organization. It is acquired after his/her comparison to the other

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 alternatives available, and thus, personnel remuneration is considered
accordingly.

# CRITICISM OR LIMITATIONS OF OPPORTUNITY COSTS

The following are leveled against the concept of opportunity cost:-

1. Opportunity costs in the case of factors of production can’t be calculated

easily.

2. This concept is not useful for calculating the risks and pains undergone by
the entrepreneur in production process.

3. This concept is applicable only when perfect competition prevails. But in

actual practice perfect competition is a myth.

4. Factors of production are not freely mobile between different alternative

employments. So opportunity cost of each factor can’t be known.

5. This concept is not applicable in the case of specific factors.

6. This concept is based on the homogeneity of factors. But all the units of
factors of production are not homogeneous in reality.

7. This concept assumes that resources are constant and do not change. So it is
a static concept.

8. Factors of production influenced by elements like inertia may not move

from one industry to the other.

9. This concept fails to take into consideration social costs like ill-health,
environmental pollution etc. arising due to the expansion of industries.

PRODUCTION POSSIBILITY CURVE

# MEANING:- A PPC shows all the combinations of two ‘goods’ which can be
provided if all resources are being used efficiently

As there are limited resources available to produce any given item, an

increase in the quantity produced of one item will lead to a corresponding
decrease in the quantity produced of the comparison item.

29 | P a g e
Since human wants are unlimited and the means to satisfy them are limited,
every society is faced with the fundamental problem of choosing and
allocating its scarce resources among alternative uses. The production
possibility curve or frontier is an analytical tool which is used to illustrate and
explain this problem of choice.

# Production Possibility Curve: Features, Schedule Representation and

Assumptions!

The economic problem of scarcity and choice can be easily and clearly
explained with production possibility frontier or curve.

Production possibility curve or production frontier refers graphically to all the

possible combinations of maximum amounts of two goods which can be
produced with the available productive resources of an economy.

In short, production possibility curve is a curve which shows all possible

combinations of two goods that can be produced by making full use of given
resources and technology in an economy.

We know that an economy always faces the problem of resource allocation i.e.
making a choice of its resources. Again there is a maximum limit to the
quantity of goods and services which an economy can produce with full use of
its available resources and technology. We also know that an increase in the
production of one commodity reduces the production of other commodity. In
this way available resources can be used alternatively to produce different
combinations of goods and services. This is known as production possibility.
The curve that shows these alternatives is called production possibility curve.

# Schedule Representation:

Let us assume that two commodities are to be produced say, cloth and wheat.
If all the resources are put to produce cloth, then the maximum of cloth will be
produced per year, depending on the quantitative and qualitative resources
and the technological efficiency. Let us, now further suppose that within the

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existing conditions only 5 million meters of cloth can be produced, with all the
resources at our command.

Alternatively, if all the resources are used for the production of wheat, we can
produce 15 million tonnes of food grains. In between these two extreme
possibilities, there are many other alternatives. Thus we shall have to
scarcities one for the other. This fact is clear from the Table No. 1.

# Diagramme Representation:

With the help of above table, we can show production possibility curve in
respect of cloth and wheat. Economy can produce maximum 5 million metres
of cloth or 15 million quintals of wheat. In Fig. 1, on OX axis, we have
measured cloth in million metres while on OY axis; we have taken wheat in
million quintals.

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The concave curve AF shows the join of various possible combinations which
gives a curve known as transformation curve or production possibility
frontier. Each production possibility curve is the locus of output combination
which is obtained from given factors or inputs. Similarly B, C, D and E show
the different combinations for two different goods i.e. cloth and wheat. The
economy has to choose out of these various combinations, which can be
produced by existing resources and technology. They are also known as
‘Technologically Efficient’ or ‘Optimum Product Mix’. Here we should
remember that any combination beyond AF curve does not possess sufficient
resources.

# ASSUMPTIONS

The production possibility curve is based on certain assumptions:

(a) The economy produces two commodities only.

(b) The quantities and qualities of factors of production viz., land, labour capital
etc. are fixed.

(c) The techniques of production are constant.

(d) There is full employment in the economy and

(e) The prices of factors of production are constant.

# FEATURES OF PRODUCTION POSSIBILITY CURVE

Production possibility curve has two main features as explained under:

1. It Slopes Downwards to Right:- Production possibility curve slopes

downwards to the right shows that economy has to forgo some quantity of
one commodity to get more quantity of other commodity.

Example:-In figure when the economy moves from combination B to C,

economy has to give up two million quintals of wheat to get one million
meters of additional cloth.

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2. Concave to the Origin:- Production possibility curve is concave to the origin.
It shows the operation of the law of increasing opportunity cost.

In figure when we move from A to B, economy has to forgo one million

quintals of wheat. Again when we move from B to C, economy is required to
give up two million quintals of wheat to get one additional unit i.e. one million
meters of cloth.

Example:- XYZ Company, Ltd is known for producing and selling pens and
pencils. Their resources for producing the two products are fixed.
The company can produce 2,000 pencils if it doesn’t produce a single pen.
Likewise, it can produce 1,500 pens if it doesn’t produce a single pencil.
Currently, it is producing 1,000 pencils and 800 pens.

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The company has recently received more demand for pencils, so management
decided to increase the production of pencils from 1,000 units to 1,500 units
by reducing the output of pens from 800 units to 5oo units. The opportunity
cost for producing 1,500 units of pencils becomes the 300 units of forgone
pens.

# SHIFT IN PRODUCTION POSSIBILITY CURVE (PPC)

Production Possibility Curve shift either downward or upward. PPC shift
downward or upward due to following reasons: –

1. Change in capital.- Increase in capital increases the quantity of production

due to which PPC shift upward. And if capital investment decreases, then the
production will also decrease which causes downward shift in PPC.

2. Change in labour force.- If efficiency of labour force increases, then

production of goods also increases, as a result, burden of labour force
production will decrease. As a result, PPC shift downward.

3. Change in technology.- If the production technique is improved, then the

production will increase which brings upward shift in PPC. If old technology is
used in production process, production will decrease which brings downward
shift in PPC.

4. Change in Time period.- PPC can shift due to the change in time period. In
the long run, economy can gain efficiency which results increase in
productivity. As a result, PPC shift upward, but the economy can’t get
efficiency in production, the production decreases and PPC shift downward.

Similarly, proper management of available resources, increase in economic

growth, new raw materials, education, trainings to labour etc. increase the
production which will shift the PPC upward. But mismanagement of available
resources, decrease in economic growth, adequate raw materials, etc.
decrease the production which will shift the PPC downward.

# WHY PPC EXPANDS OUTWARDS?

PPC expands outwards due to different factors. Investment in new plants and
machinery will increase the stock of capital. New raw materials may be
discovered. Technological advances take place through new inventions;
education and training make labour more productive. All these factors lead to
34 | P a g e
increase the production possibility of the country and while illustrating this
growth of potential output in PPC, there will be an outward expansion of PPC.

INCREMENTAL CONCEPT
The incremental concept is probably the most important concept in
economics and is certainly the most frequently used in Managerial Economics.
Incremental concept is closely related to the mar•ginal cost and marginal
revenues of economic theory.

The two major concepts in this analysis are incremental cost and incremental
revenue. Incremental cost denotes change in total cost, whereas incremental
revenue means change in total revenue resulting from a decision of the firm.

Incremental cost may be defined as the change in total cost as a result of

change in the level of output, investment, etc.

Incremental Revenue is change in total revenue resulting from change in

level of output , price etc.

Incremental cost is the total cost incurred due to an additional unit of product
being produced. Incremental cost is calculated by analyzing the additional
expenses involved in the production process, such as raw materials, for one
additional unit of production. Understanding incremental costs can help
companies boost production efficiency and profitability.

The incremental principle may be stated as follows:-

A decision is clearly a profitable one if

(i) It increases revenue more than costs.

(ii) It decreases some cost to a greater extent than it increases others.

(iii) It increases some revenues more than it decreases others.

(iv) It reduces costs more than revenues.

35 | P a g e
Example:- Suppose that you have a business that manufactures Smartphone's
and expect to sell 20,000 units. It costs you $100 to manufacture each
Smartphone’s, and your selling price per Smartphone’s is $300.

 Incremental cost

You calculate your incremental cost by multiplying the number of

Smartphone’s units with the manufacturing cost per Smartphone’s unit.

So, in this case, you will have:

20,000 x 100 = 2,000,000

So, incremental cost is $2,000,000.

 Incremental revenue

You calculate your incremental revenue by multiplying the number of

Smartphone's units with the selling price per smart phones unit.

So, you will have:

20,000 x 300 = 6,000,000

So, incremental revenue is $6,000,000.

When you compare the two, it is clear that the incremental revenue is higher
than the incremental cost. By subtracting the incremental cost from the
incremental revenue, you arrive at a profit of $4,000,000.

Illustration:- Some businessmen hold the view that to make an overall profit,
they must make a profit on every job. The result is that they refuse orders that
do not cover full costs plus a provision of profit. This will lead to rejection of
an order which prevents short run profit. A simple problem will illustrate this
point. Suppose a new order is estimated to bring in an additional revenue of
Rs. 10,000. The costs are estimated as under:

Labour Rs. 3,000

Materials Rs. 4,000

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Overhead charges Rs. 3,600

Selling and administrative expenses Rs.

1,400 Full Cost Rs.12, 000

The order appears to be unprofitable. For it results in a loss of Rs. 2,000.

However, suppose there is idle capacity which can be utilised to execute this
order. If order adds only Rs. 1,000 to overhead charges, and Rs. 2000 by way
of labour cost because some of the idle workers already on the pay roll will be
deployed without added pay and no extra selling and administrative costs,
then the actual incremental cost is as follows:

Labour Rs. 2,000

Materials’ Rs. 4,000

Overhead charges Rs.

1,000

Total Incremental Cost Rs. 7,000

Thus there is a profit of Rs. 3,000. The order can be accepted on the basis of
incremental reasoning. Incremental reasoning does not mean that the firm
should accept all orders at prices which cover merely their incremental costs.

# LIMITATIONS OF INCREMENTAL COSTS.

The concept is mainly used by the progressive concerns. Even though it is a

widely followed concept, it has certain limitations:

(a) The concept cannot be generalised because observed behaviour of the firm
is always vari•able.

(b) The concept can be applied only when there is excess capacity in the
concern.

(c) The concept is applicable only during the short period.

37 | P a g e
 CONCEPTS OF SCARCITY
Scarcity means “of limited availability”.

Example:-During Famine period, food is ‘scarce’ i.e. Scarcity of food.

Scarcity is a fundamental economic problem of having humans who have

unlimited wants & needs in world of limited resources

Scarcity refers to the limited availability of a commodity, which may be in

demand in the market.

The concept of scarcity was first given by Lionel Robbins. This explains an
individual’s capacity to buy all or some of the commodities as per the available
resources with that individual.

Robbins is famous for his definition of economics: "Economics is the science

which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce
means which have alternative uses."

Scarcity is the fundamental economic problem of having seemingly

unlimited human wants in a world of limited resources. It states that society
has insufficient productive resources to fulfill all human wants and needs.

Scarcity refers to the condition of insufficiency where the human beings are
incapable to fulfill their wants in sufficient manner. In other words, it is a
situation of fewer resources in comparison to unlimited human wants. Human
wants are unlimited. We may satisfy some of our wants but soon new wants
arise. It is impossible to produce goods and services so as to satisfy all wants
of people. Thus scarcity explains this relationship between limited resources
and unlimited wants and the problem there in.

Economic problems arise due to the scare goods. These scare goods have many
alternative uses.

For example:- a land can be used to construct a factory building or to make a

beautiful park or to raise agricultural crops. So, it is very essential to think
how limited resources can be used alternatively to satisfy some wants of
people to get maximum satisfaction as possible.

38 | P a g e
The problem of scarcity is present not only in developing countries but also in
highly developed countries such as Japan, Canada, etc. Thus, scarcity is the
heart of all economic problems.

# When will a resource be consider as ‘SCARCE’?

A resource is considered scarce when its availability is not enough to meet its
demand.

For example:- When supply of onion in market is not enough to meet the
demand, that condition can be referred as Scarcity of Onions.

In arid areas, like Rajasthan, there is lack of water i.e. supply of water≠ its
demand. This condition is called scarcity of water.

Moreover, in institutions, when supply of internal marks is not enough to

meet the demand of students, this condition is called scarcity of Internals.

# FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SCARCITY OF RESOURCES

1) Limited supply of resources (natural

Scarcity) for example,

 scarcity of water in arid areas like deserts,

 scarcity of food in famine prone areas.

2) Limited capabilities of technology or human skill (for example, those

needed for enhanced production.)

3) Sometimes the insufficiencies are a result of poor planning & execution

(Artificial scarcity).

Example In arid areas, proper planning is required for proper supply of water.

4) But the most important factor is imbalance b/w ‘Wants’ &’Have’.

According to Emerson:- “Want is a growing giant whom the coat of Have is

never large enough to cover.”

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Every person needs more resources than he have. millionaire wants more
money so that he can be counted as Billionaire

# Is it Possible to Have no Scarcity?

1. If proper planning & techniques are used for utilization and supply of
insufficient resource, then condition of its to be scarce ‘minimizes’.
2. If ‘needs’=‘have’
3. If through spiritual practice and detachment you had very few desires –
Example a monk or sannyasin then you would not see scarcity – as you
would be content with just your daily bread.
4. If you lived on an island with abundant resources and a small population,
then the scarcity of resources would be less obvious.
5. But, in present society, most people desire more than just a loin cloth and a
begging bowl.

# How to manage the condition of Scarcity?

To manage the condition of Scarcity of resources, proper planning for supply

& utilization of insufficient goods is required. This results in rise of three
major economic issues:-

 What to produce?
 How to Produce?
 For whom to produce?

1) What to Produce?

When making decisions about what to produce or what to consume, there is

inevitably an opportunity cost.

For Example:- GDP of country can be used for many purposes. However,
option having highest opportunity cost will be favored.

2) How to produce?

Use of best possible technique & planning for production of a particular

resource will result in better & huge production, hence minimizing the chance
of Scarcity.

40 | P a g e
For Example:- Before, the introduction of Green Revolution in India, there
was Scarcity of Food grains. But with the introduction of High Yielding
varieties of seeds & better technique for production, production of Food
grains almost doubled.

3) For whom to produce?

This means how the produced goods and services are to be distributed among
different income groups of people that is who should get how much. This is
the problem of sharing of the national product.

# Impact of Scarcity on Market?

1) If something is scarce - it will have a market value.

2) It will result in inflation.
3) If the supply of a good or service is low, the market price will rise,
providing there is sufficient demand from consumers. Whereas when there
is excess supply in a market, we expect to see prices falling.

For example:- If we talk about services, IITians vs. Engineer from UPTU
colleges.

DEMAND
# MEANING OF DEMAND

Demand is a quantity of a commodity which a consumer wishes to purchase at

a given level of price and during a specified period of time.

In other words, demand for a commodity refers to the desire to buy a commodity
backed with sufficient purchasing power and the willingness to spend.

Desire is just a wish for a commodity and a person can desire a commodity
even if he does not have the capacity to buy it from the market whereas
demand is desire backed by purchasing power that is to say whatever an
individual is willing to buy from the market in a given period of time at a given
price.

Example:- A poor person can desire to own a car but that will not become a
demand because he does not have the purchasing power to buy a car from the
market.
41 | P a g e
Demand in terms of economics may be explained as the consumers’
willingness and ability to purchase or consume a given item/good.
Furthermore, the determinants of demand go a long way in explaining the
demand for a particular good.

For instance, an increase in the price of a good will lead to a decrease in the
quantity that may be demanded by consumers. Similarly, a decrease in the
cost or selling price of a good will most likely lead to an increase in the
demanded quantity of the goods.

This indicates the existence of an inverse relationship between the price of the
article and the quantity demanded by consumers. This is commonly known as the
law of demand and can be graphically represented by a line with a downward
slope.

The graphical representation is known as the demand curve. The

determinants of demand are factors that cause fluctuations in the economic
demand for a product or a service.

Demand in economics means a desire to possess a good supported by

willingness and ability to pay for it. If your have a desire to buy a certain
commodity, say a car, but you do not have the adequate means to pay for it, it
will simply be a wish, a desire or a want and not demand. Demand is an effective
desire, i.e., a desire which is backed by willingness and ability to pay for a
commodity in order to obtain it.

In the words of Prof. Hibdon: "Demand means the various quantities of goods
that would be purchased per time period at different prices in a given
market".

# CHARACTERISTICS OF DEMAND

There are thus three main characteristic's of demand in economics.

42 | P a g e
 (i) Willingness and ability to pay. Demand is the amount of a commodity for
which a consumer has the willingness and also the ability to buy.

(ii) Demand is always at a price. If we talk of demand without reference to

price, it will be meaningless. The consumer must know both the price and the
commodity. He will then be able to tell the quantity demanded by him.

(iii) Demand is always per unit of time. The time may be a day, a week, a
month, or a year.

# TYPES OF DEMAND
The demand can be classified on the following basis:-

1. Individual Demand and Market Demand: The individual demand refers to

the demand for goods and services by the single consumer, whereas the
market demand is the demand for a product by all the consumers who buy that
product. Thus, the market demand is the aggregate of the individual demand.
2. Total Market Demand and Market Segment Demand: The total market
demand refers to the aggregate demand for a product by all the consumers in
the market who purchase a specific kind of a product. Further, this aggregate
demand can be sub-divided into the segments on the basis of geographical
areas, price sensitivity, customer size, age, sex, etc. are called as the market
segment demand.
3. Derived Demand and Direct Demand: When the demand for a
product/outcome is associated with the demand for another
product/outcome is called as the derived demand or induced demand. Such
as the demand for
43 | P a g e
 cotton yarn is derived from the demand for cotton cloth. Whereas, when the
demand for the products/outcomes is independent of the demand for another
product/outcome is called as the direct demand or autonomous demand. Such
as, in the above example the demand for a cotton cloth is autonomous.
4. Industry Demand and Company Demand: The industry demand refers to
the total aggregate demand for the products of a particular industry, such as
demand for cement in the construction industry. While the company demand
is a demand for the product which is particular to the company and is a part of
that industry. Such as demand for tyres manufactured by the Goodyear. Thus,
the company demand can be expressed as the percentage of the industry
demand.
5. Short-Run Demand and Long-Run Demand: The short term demand is
more elastic which means that the changes in price or income are reflected
immediately on the quantity demanded. Whereas, the long run demand is
inelastic, which shows that demand for commodity exists as a result of
adjustments following changes in pricing, promotional strategies,
consumption patterns, etc.
6. Price Demand: The demand is often studied in parlance to price, and is
therefore called as a price demand. The price demand means the amount of
commodity a person is willing to purchase at a given price. While studying the
demand, we often assume that the other factors such as income of the
consumer, their tastes, and preferences, the prices of other related goods
remain unchanged. There is a negative relationship between the price and
demand Viz. As the price increases the demand decreases and as the price
decreases the demand increases.
7. Income Demand: The income demand refers to the willingness of an
individual to buy a certain quantity at a given income level. Here the price of
the product, customer’s tastes and preferences and the price of the related
goods are expected to remain unchanged. There is a positive relationship
between the income and demand. As the income increases the demand for the
commodity also increases and vice-versa.
8. Cross Demand: It is one of the important types of demand wherein the demand
for a commodity depends not on its own price, but on the price of other
related products is called as the cross demand. Such as with the increase in
the price of coffee the consumption of tea increases, since tea and coffee are
substitutes to each other. Also, when the price of cars increases the demand
for petrol decreases, as the car and petrol are complimentary to each other.

# DEMAND SCHEDULE

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The demand schedule in economics is a table of quantity demanded of a good
at different price levels. Given the price level, it is easy to determine the
expected quantity demanded. This demand schedule can be graphed as a
continuous demand curve on a chart where the Y-axis represents price and
the X-axis represents the quantity.

According to PROF. ALFRED MARSHALL, “Demand schedule is a list of

prices and quantities”. In other words, a tabular statement of price-quantity
relationship between two variables is known as the demand schedule.

The demand schedule in the table represents different quantities of

commodities that are purchased at different prices during a certain specified
period (it can be a day or a week or a month).

The demand schedule can be classified into two categories:

1. Individual demand schedule;

2. Market demand schedule.

1. Individual Demand Schedule:- It represents the demand of an individual’

for a commodity at different prices at a particular time period. The adjoining
table 7.1 shows a demand schedule for oranges on 7th July, 2009.

2. Market Demand Schedule:- Market Demand Schedule is defined as the

quantities of a given commodity which all consumers will buy at all possible
prices at given moment of time. In a market, there are several consumers, and
each has a different liking, taste, preference and income. Every consumer has
a different demand.
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The market demand actually represents the demand of all the consumers
combined together. When a particular commodity has several brands or types
of commodities, the market demand schedule becomes very complicated
because of various factors. However, for a single item, the market demand
schedule is rather simple. Study the market demand schedule for milk in table
7.2.

# DEMAND CURVES (DIAGRAM): - The demand curve is a graphic

statement or presentation of the relationship between product price and the
quantity of the product demanded. It is drawn with price on the vertical axis
of the graph and quantity demanded on the horizontal axis.

Demand curve does not tell us the price. It only tells us how much quantity
of goods would be purchased by the consumer at various possible prices.

Depending upon the demand schedule, the demand curve can be as

follows:

1. Individual Demand Curve

2. Market Demand Curve

1. Individual Demand Curve:- An Individual Demand Curve is a graphical

representation of the quantities of a commodity that an individual (a
particular consumer) stands ready to take off the market at a given instant of
time against different prices.

In Fig. 7.1, an Individual Demand Curve is drawn on the basis of Individual

Demand Schedule given above in table 7.1.

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2. Market Demand Curve:- A Market Demand Curve is a graphical
representation of the quantities of a commodity which all the buyers in the
market stand ready to take off at all possible prices at a given moment of time.
In Figure 7.2 a Market Demand Curve is drawn on the basis of Market Demand
Schedule given in Table 7.2.

Both, the individual consumer’s demand curve is a straight line. A demand

curve will slope downward to the right.

It is not necessary, that the demand curve is a straight line. A demand curve
may be a convex curve or a concave curve. It may take any shape provided it is
negatively sloped.

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# DETERMINANTS OF DEMAND

Some of the important determinants of demand are as follows,

1] Price of the Product:- People use price as a parameter to make decisions if

all other factors remain constant or equal. According to the law of demand, this
implies an increase in demand follows a reduction in price and a decrease in
demand follows an increase in the price of similar goods.

The demand curve and the demand schedule help determine the demand
quantity at a price level. An elastic demand implies a robust change quantity
accompanied by a change in price. Similarly, an inelastic demand implies that
volume does not change much even when there is a change in price.

2] Income of the Consumers:- Rising incomes lead to a rise in the number of

goods demanded by consumers. Similarly, a drop in income is accompanied by
reduced consumption levels. This relationship between income and demand is
not linear in nature. Marginal utility determines the proportion of change in
the demand levels.

3] Prices of related goods or services:-

a) Complementary products – An increase in the price of one product will

cause a decrease in the quantity demanded of a complementary product.
Example: Rise in the price of bread will reduce the demand for butter. This
arises because the products are complementary in nature.

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b) Substitute Product – An increase in the price of one product will cause an
increase in the demand for a substitute product.
Example: Rise in price of tea will increase the demand for coffee and
decrease the demand for tea.
4] Consumer Expectations:- Expectations of a higher income or expecting an
increase in prices of goods will lead to an increase the quantity demanded.
Similarly, expectations of a reduced income or a lowering in prices of goods
will decrease the quantity demanded.

5] Number of Buyers in the Market:- The number of buyers has a major

effect on the total or net demand. As the number increases, the demand rises.
Furthermore, this is true irrespective of changes in the price of commodities.

LAW OF DEMAND

There is an inverse relationship between quantity demanded and its price.

The people know that when price of a commodity goes up its demand comes
down. When there is decrease in price the demand for a commodity goes up.
There is inverse relation between price and demand . The law refers to the
direction in which quantity demanded changes due to change in price.

A consumer may demand one dozen oranges at $5 per dozen . He may demand
two dozens when the price is $4 per dozen. A person generally buys more at a
lower price. He buys less at higher price. It is not the case with one person but
all people liken to buy more due to fall in price and vice versa. This is true for
all commodities and under all conditions. The economists call it as law of
demand. In simple words the law of demand states that other things being
equal more will be demanded at lower price and lower will be demanded at
higher price.

# DEFINITION

Alfred Marshal says that the amount demanded increase with a fall in price,
diminishes with a rise in price.

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C.E. Ferguson says that according to law of demand, the quantity demanded
varies inversely with price.

Paul A. Samuelson says that law of demand states that people will buy more
at lower prices and buy less at higher prices, other things remaining the
same.

# ASSUMPTIONS OF THE LAW

1. There is no change in income of consumers.

2. There is no change in the price of product.
3. There is no change in quality of product.
4. There is no substitute of the commodity.
5. The prices of related commodities remain the same.
6. There is no change in customs.
7. There is no change in taste and preference of consumers.
8. The size of population remains the same.
9. The climate and weather conditions are same.
10. The tax rates and other fiscal measures remain the same.

# Explanation of the law

The relationship between price of a commodity and its demand depends upon
many factors. The most important factor is nature of commodity. The demand
schedule shows response of quantity demanded to change in price of that
commodity. This is the table that shows prices per unit of commodity ands
amount demanded per period of time. The demand of one person is called
individual demand. The demand of many persons is known as market
demand. The experts are concerned with market demand schedule. The
market demand schedule means 'quantities of given commodity which all
consumers want to buy at all possible prices at a given moment of time'. The
demand schedules of all individuals can be added up to find out market
demand schedule.

Demand schedule
Price in dollars. Demand in Kg.

5 100

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 4 200

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 3 300

2 400

The table shows the demand of all the consumers in a market. When the price
decreases there is increase in demand for goods and vice versa. When price is
$5 demand is 100 kilograms. When the price is $4 demand is 200 kilograms.
Thus the table shows the total amount demanded by all consumers various
price levels.

Diagram

There is same price in the market. All consumers purchase commodity

according to their needs. The market demand curve is the total amount
demanded by all consumers at different prices. The market demand curve
slopes from left down to the right.

# TYPES OF DEMAND FUNCTION

Based on whether the demand function is in relation to an individual

consumer or to all consumers in the market, the demand function cab be
categorized as

1. Individual Demand Function

2. Market Demand Function

1. Individual Demand Function:- Individual demand function refers to the

functional relationship between demand made by an individual consumer
and

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the factors affecting the individual demand. It shows how demand made by an
individual in the market is related to its determinants.

Mathematically, individual demand function can be expressed as,

Dx= f (Px, Pr, Y, T, F)

Where,

Dx= Demand for commodity x;.

Px= Price of the given commodity x;

Pr= Price of related goods;

Y= Income of the individual

consumer; T= Tastes and preferences;

F= Expectation of change in price in the future.

1] Price of the given commodity:- Other things remaining constant, the rise
in price of the commodity, the demand for the commodity contracts, and with
the fall in price, its demand increases.

2] Price of related goods:- Demand for the given commodity is affected by

price of the related goods, which is called cross price demand.

3] Income of the individual consumer:- Change in consumer’s level of income

also influences their demand for different commodities. Normally, the demand
for certain goods increase with the increasing level of income and vice versa.

4] Tastes and preferences:- The taste and preferences of individuals also

determine the demand made for certain goods and services. Factors such as
climate, fashion, advertisement, innovation, etc. affect the taste and
preference of the consumers.

5] Expectation of change in price in the future:- If the price of the commodity

is expected to rise in the future, the consumer will be willing to purchase

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more

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of the commodity at the existing price. However, if the future price is expected
to fall, the demand for that commodity decreases at present.

6] Size and composition of population:- The market demand for a commodity

increases with the increase in the size and composition of the total population.
For instance, with the increase in total population size, there is an increase in
the number of buyers. Likewise, with an increase in the male composition of the
population, the demand for goods meant for male increases.

7] Season and weather:- The market demand for a certain commodity is also
affected by the current weather conditions. For instance, the demand for cold
beverages increase during summer season.

8] Distribution of income:- In case of equal distribution of income in the

economy, the market demand for a commodity remains less. With an increase
in the unequal distribution of income, the demand for certain goods increase
as most people will have the ability to buy certain goods and commodities,
especially luxury goods.

2. Market Demand Function:- Market demand function refers to the

functional relationship between market demand and the factors affecting
market demand. Market demand is affected by all the factors that affect an
individual demand. In addition to this, it is also affected by size and composition
of population, season and weather conditions, and distribution of income.

Mathematically, market demand function can be expressed as,

Dx= f (Px, Pr, Y, T, F, Po, S, D)

Where,

Dx= Demand for commodity x;

Px= Price of the given commodity x;

Pr= Price of related goods;

Y= Income of the individual consumer;

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T= Tastes and preferences;

F= Expectation of change in price in the future;

Po= Size and composition of population;

S= Season and weather;

D= Distribution of

income.

1. Pattern of Income Distribution:- If National income is equitably

distributed, there will be more demand and vice-versa. If income distribution
moves in favour of downtrodden people, then demand for such commodities,
which are used by common people would increase. On the other hand, if the
major part of National income is concentrated in the hands of only some rich
people, the demand for luxury goods will increase.

2. Demographic Structure:- Market demand is influenced by change in size

and composition of population. Increase in population leads to more demand
for all types of goods and decrease in population means less demand for them.
Composition of population also affects its demand. Composition refers to the
number of children, adults, males, females etc., in the population.

When the composition changes, for example, when the number of females
exceeds to that of the males, then there will be more demand for goods required
by women folk.

3. Government Policy:- Government policy of a country can also affect the

demand for a particular commodity or commodities through taxation.
Reduction in the taxes and duties will allow more persons to enter a particular
market and thus raising the demand for a particular product.

4. Season and Weather:- Demands for commodities also depend upon the
climate of an area and weather. In cold hilly areas woolens are demanded.
During summer and rainy season demand for umbrellas may rise. In winter
ice is not so much demanded.
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5. State of Business:- The levels of demand in a market for different goods
depend upon the business condition of the country. If the country is passing
through boom, the trade is active and brisk. The demand for all commodities
tends to rise. But in the days of depression, when trade is dull and slow, demand
tends to fall.

# Why demand curve falls?

1] Marginal utility decreases:- When a consumer buys more units of a
commodity, the marginal utility of such commodity continue to decline. The
consumer can buy more units of commodity when its price falls and vice
versa. The demand curve falls because demand is more at lower price.

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2] Price effect:- When there is increase in price of commodity, the consumers
reduce the consumption of such commodity. The result is that there is
decrease in demand for that commodity. The consumers consume more or
less of a commodity due to price effect. The demand curve slopes downward.

3] Income effect:- Real income of consumer rises due to fall in prices. The
consumer can buy more quantity of same commodity. When there is increase
in price, real income of consumer falls. This is income effect that the consumer
can spend increased income on other commodities. The demand curve slopes
downward due to positive income effect.

4] Same price of substitutes:- When the price of a commodity falls, the

prices of substitutes remaining the same, consumer can buy more of the
commodity and vice versa. The demand curve slopes downward due to
substitution effect.

5] Demand of poor people:- The income of people is not the same, The rich
people have money to buy same commodity at high prices. Large majority of
people are poor, They buy more when price fall and vice versa. The demand
curve slopes due to poor people.

6] Different uses of goods:- There are different uses of many goods. When
prices of such goods increase these goods are put into uses that are more
important and their demand falls. The demand curve slopes downward due to
such goods.

# Exceptions to the law

1] Inferior goods:- The law of demand does not apply in case of inferior
goods. When price of inferior commodity decreases and its demand also
decrease and amount so saved in spent on superior commodity. The wheat
and rice are superior food grains while maize is inferior food grain.

2] Demonstration effect:- The law of demand does not apply in case of

diamond and jewelry. There is more demand when prices are high. There is
less demand due to low prices. The rich people like to demonstrate such items
that only they have such commodities.

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3] Ignorance of consumers: - The consumers usually judge the quality of a
commodity from its price. A low priced commodity is considered as inferior and
less quantity is purchased. A high priced commodity is treated as superior and
more quantity is purchased. The law of demand does not apply in this case.

4] Less supply:- The law of demand does not work when there is less supply
of commodity. The people buy more for stock purpose even at high price.
They think that commodity will become short.

5] Depression:- The law of demand does not work during period of depression.
The prices of commodities are low but there is increase in demand. it is due to
low purchasing power of people.

6] Speculation:- The law does not apply in case of speculation. The

speculators start buying share just to raise the price. Then they start selling
large quantity of shares to avoid losses.

7] Out of fashion:- The law of demand is not applicable in case of goods out of
fashion. The decrease in prices cannot raise the demand of such goods. The
quantity purchased is less even though there is falls in prices.

# IMPORTANCE OF THE LAW

1] Price determination:- A monopolist can determine price of a commodity
on the basis of such law. He can know the effect on demand due to increase or
decrease in price. The demand schedule can help him to determine the most
suitable price level.

2] Tax on commodities:- The law of demand is important for tax authorities.

The effect of tax on different commodities is checked. The commodity must be
taxed if its demand is relatively inelastic. A commodity cannot be taxed if its
sales fall to great extent.

3] Agricultural prices: - The law of demand is useful to determine

agricultural prices. When there are good crops, the prices come down due to
change in demand. In case of bad crops, the prices go up if demand remains
the same. The poverty of farmers can be determined.

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4] Planning:- Individual demand schedule is used in planning for individual
goods and industries. There is need to know the effect of change in price on
the demand of commodity at national and world level. The nature of demand
schedule helps to know such effect.

ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
# MEANING OF ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
The Elasticity of Demand is a measure of change in the quantity demanded in
response to the change in the price of the commodity. Simply, the effect of a
change of price on the quantity demanded is called as the elasticity of demand.
Marshall, a renowned economist, has suggested a mathematical method to
measure the elasticity of demand:-

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 According to this Formula, the elasticity of demand can be defined as a
percentage change in demand as a result of the percentage change in price.
Numerically, it can be written as:-

Where,
ΔQ = Q1 –Q0
ΔP = P1 – P0
Q1= New quantity
Q2= Original quantity
P1 = New price
P0 = Original price

# TYPES OF ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

1. Price Elasticity of Demand: The price elasticity of demand, commonly

known as the elasticity of demand refers to the responsiveness and
sensitiveness of demand for a product to the changes in its price. In other
words, the price elasticity of demand is equal to

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 Numerically,

Where,
ΔQ = Q1 –Q0,
ΔP = P1 – P0,
Q1= New quantity,
Q2= Original quantity,
P1 = New price,
P0 = Original price

 Types of Price Elasticity of Demand

The following are the main types of price elasticity of demand:-

Types of Price
Elasticity of
Demand

Perfectly Elastic Perfectly Relatively Relatively

Unitary Elastic
Demand (Ep = ∞) Inelastic Demand (E
Elastic
p =0) Demand (1 to ∞) Inelastic Demand (0-1)
Demand (E =1)
p

1.
Perfectly Elastic Demand (Ep = ∞):- The demand is said to be perfectly
elastic when a slight change in the price of a commodity causes a major
change in its quantity demanded. Such as, even a small rise in the price of a
commodity can result into fall in demand even to zero. Whereas a little fall in
the price can result in the increase in demand to infinity.

In perfectly elastic demand the demand curve is a straight horizontal

line which shows, the flatter the demand curve the higher is the elasticity of
demand.

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2.
Perfectly Inelastic Demand (Ep =0):- When there is no change in the demand
for a product due to the change in the price, then the demand is said to be
perfectly inelastic. Here, the demand curve is a straight vertical line which
shows that the demand remains unchanged irrespective of change in the
price.,
i.e. quantity OQ remains unchanged at different prices, P1, P2, and P3.

3.
Relatively Elastic Demand (1 to ∞):- The demand is relatively elastic
when the proportionate change in the demand for a commodity is greater
than the proportionate change in its price. Here, the demand curve
is gradually sloping which shows that a proportionate change in quantity
from OQ0 to OQ1 is greater than the proportionate change in the price from
OP1 to Op2.

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4.
Relatively Inelastic Demand (0-1):- When the proportionate change in the
demand for a product is less than the proportionate change in the price, the
demand is said to be relatively inelastic demand. It is also called as the
elasticity less than unity, i.e. 1. Here the demand curve is rapidly sloping,
which shows that the change in the quantity from OQ 0 to OQ1 is relatively
smaller than the change in the price from OP1 to Op2.

5.
Unitary Elastic Demand (Ep =1):- The demand is unitary elastic when the
proportionate change in the price of a product results in the same change in
the quantity demanded. Here the shape of the demand curve is a rectangular
hyperbola, which shows that area under the curve is equal to one.

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II. Income Elasticity of Demand: The income is the other factor that influences
the demand for a product. Hence, the degree of responsiveness of a change in
demand for a product due to the change in the income is known as income
elasticity of demand. The formula to compute the income elasticity of
demand is:-

For most of the goods, the income elasticity of demand is greater than one
indicating that with the change in income the demand will also change and
that too in the same direction, i.e. more income means more demand and vice-
versa.

 Types of Income Elasticity of demand

Types of Income
Elasticity of demand

Positive income Negative income Zero income

elasticity of demand (EY>0)
elasticity of demand ( EY<0) elasticity of demand ( EY=0)

Income elasticity Income elasticity Income elasticity

greater than unity (EY > 1) equal to unity (EY = 1) less than unity (EY < 1)

1. Positive income elasticity of demand (EY>0)

If there is direct relationship between income of the consumer and demand

for the commodity, then income elasticity will be positive. That is, if the
quantity demanded for a commodity increases with the rise in income of the
consumer and vice versa, it is said to be positive income elasticity of demand.
For example:as the income of consumer increases, they consume more of

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superior (luxurious) goods. On the contrary, as the income of consumer
decreases, they consume less of luxurious goods.

 Positive income elasticity can be further classified into three types:-

a)
Income elasticity greater than unity (EY > 1)
If the percentage change in quantity demanded for a commodity is greater
than percentage change in income of the consumer, it is said to be income
greater than unity. For example: When the consumer’s income rises by 3%
and the demand rises by 7%, it is the case of income elasticity greater than
unity.

In the given figure, quantity demanded and consumer’s income is measured

along X-axis and Y-axis respectively. The small rise in income
from OY to OY1 has caused greater rise in the quantity demanded
from OQ to OQ1 and vice versa. Thus, the demand curve DD shows income
elasticity greater than unity.
b)
Income elasticity equal to unity (EY = 1)
If the percentage change in quantity demanded for a commodity is equal to
percentage change in income of the consumer, it is said to be income elasticity
equal to unity.
For example:- When the consumer’s income rises by 5% and the demand
rises by 5%, it is the case of income elasticity equal to unity.

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In the given figure, quantity demanded and consumer’s income is measured
along X-axis and Y-axis respectively. The small rise in income
from OY to OY1 has caused equal rise in the quantity demanded
from OQ to OQ1 and vice versa. Thus, the demand curve DD shows income
elasticity equal to unity.
c)
Income elasticity less than unity (EY < 1)
If the percentage change in quantity demanded for a commodity is less than
percentage change in income of the consumer, it is said to be income greater
than unity. For example:When the consumer’s income rises by 5% and the
demand rises by 3%, it is the case of income elasticity less than unity.

In the given figure, quantity demanded and consumer’s income is measured

along X-axis and Y-axis respectively. The greater rise in income
from OY to OY1 has caused small rise in the quantity demanded
from OQ to OQ1 and vice versa. Thus, the demand curve DD shows income
elasticity less than unity.

2. Negative income elasticity of demand ( EY<0)

If there is inverse relationship between income of the consumer and demand
for the commodity, then income elasticity will be negative. That is, if the
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quantity demanded for a commodity decreases with the rise in income of the
consumer and vice versa, it is said to be negative income elasticity of demand.
For example:-As the income of consumer increases, they either stop or
consume less of inferior goods.

In the given figure, quantity demanded and consumer’s income is measured

along X-axis and Y-axis respectively. When the consumer’s income rises
from OY to OY1 the quantity demanded of inferior goods falls
from OQ to OQ1 and vice versa. Thus, the demand curve DD shows negative
income elasticity of demand.

3. Zero income elasticity of demand ( EY=0 )

If the quantity demanded for a commodity remains constant with any rise or
fall in income of the consumer and, it is said to be zero income elasticity of
demand. For example:In case of basic necessary goodssuch as salt, kerosene,
electricity, etc. there is zero income elasticity of demand.

In the given figure, quantity demanded and consumer’s income is measured

along X-axis and Y-axis respectively. The consumer’s income may fall to OY1 or
rise to OY2 from OY, the quantity demanded remains the same at OQ. Thus,
the demand curve DD, which is vertical straight line parallel to Y-axis shows
zero income elasticity of demand.

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d)
Cross Elasticity of Demand: The cross elasticity of demand refers to the
change in quantity demanded for one commodity as a result of the change in
the price of another commodity. This type of elasticity usually arises in the
case of the interrelated goodssuch as substitutes and complementary goods.
The cross elasticity of demand for goods X and Y can be expressed as:

The two commodities are said to be complementary, if the price of one

commodity falls, then the demand for other increases, on the contrary, if the
price of one commodity rises the demand for another commodity decreases.
For example,petrol and car are complementary goods.

While the two commodities are said to be substitutes for each other if the
price of one commodity falls, the demand for another commodity also
decreases, on the other hand, if the price of one commodity rises the demand
for the other commodity also increases. For example, tea and coffee are
substitute goods.

 Types of Cross Elasticity of Demand:

Types of Cross
Elasticity of Demand

Positive Cross Negative Cross Zero Cross

Elasticity of Demand
Elasticity of Demand Elasticity of Demand

1. Positive Cross Elasticity of Demand

When goods are substitute of each other than cross elasticity of demand is
positive. In other words, when an increase in the price of Y leads to an
increase in the demand of X. For instance, with the increase in price of tea,
demand of coffee will increase.

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In fig. 21 quantity has been measured on OX-axis and price on OY-axis. At
price OP of Y-commodity, demand of X-commodity is OM. Now as price of Y
commodity increases to OP1 demand of X-commodity increases to OM 1 Thus,
cross elasticity of demand is positive.

2. Negative Cross Elasticity of Demand

In case of complementary goods, cross elasticity of demand is negative. A
proportionate increase in price of one commodity leads to a proportionate fall
in the demand of another commodity because both are demanded jointly.
For Example:- Car & Petrol.
In fig. 22 quantity has been measured on OX-axis while price has been
measured on OY-axis. When the price of commodity increases from OP to
OP1 quantity demanded falls from OM to OM1. Thus, cross elasticity of demand
is negative.

3. Zero Cross Elasticity of Demand

Cross elasticity of demand is zero when two goods are not related to each
other. For instance, increase in price of car does not effect the demand of
cloth. Thus, cross elasticity of demand is zero. It has been shown in fig. 23.

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 Therefore, it depends upon substitutability of goods. If substitutability is
perfect, cross elasticity is infinite; if on the other hand, substitutability does
not exist, cross elasticity is zero. In the case of complementary goods like
jointly demanded goods cross elasticity is negative. A rise in the price of one
commodity X will mean not only decrease in the quantity of X but also
decrease in the quantity demanded of Y because both are demanded together.
e)
Advertising Elasticity of Demand: The responsiveness of the change in
demand to the change in advertising or rather promotional expenses, is
known as advertising elasticity of demand. In other words, the change in the
demand as a result of the change in advertisement and other promotional
expenses is called as the advertising elasticity of demand. It can be
expressed as:

Numerically,

Where,
Q1 = Original Demand

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Q2= New Demand
A1= Original Advertisement
Outlay A2 = New Advertisement
Outlay

# FACTORS AFFECTING OF ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

1. Nature of commodity:- Elasticity of demand of a commodity is influenced
by its nature. A commodity for a person may be a necessity, a comfort or a
luxury.
i. When a commodity is a necessity like food grains, vegetables, medicines,
etc., its demand is generally inelastic as it is required for human survival and
its demand does not fluctuate much with change in price.

ii. When a commodity is a comfort like fan, refrigerator, etc., its demand is
generally elastic as consumer can postpone its consumption.

iii. When a commodity is a luxury like AC, DVD player, etc., its demand is
generally more elastic as compared to demand for comforts.

iv. The term ‘luxury’ is a relative term as any item (like AC), may be a luxury
for a poor person but a necessity for a rich person.

2. Availability of substitutes:- Demand for a commodity with large number

of substitutes will be more elastic. The reason is that even a small rise in its
prices will induce the buyers to go for its substitutes.
For example, a rise in the price of Pepsi encourages buyers to buy Coke and
vice-versa.
Thus, availability of close substitutes makes the demand sensitive to change in
the prices. On the other hand, commodities with few or no substitutes like
wheat and salt have less price elasticity of demand.

3. Income Level:- Elasticity of demand for any commodity is generally less for
higher income level groups in comparison to people with low incomes. It
happens because rich people are not influenced much by changes in the price
of goods. But, poor people are highly affected by increase or decrease in the
price of goods. As a result, demand for lower income group is highly elastic.

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4. Level of price:- Level of price also affects the price elasticity of demand.
Costly goods like laptop, Plasma TV, etc. have highly elastic demand as their
demand is very sensitive to changes in their prices. However, demand for
inexpensive goods like needle, match box, etc. is inelastic as change in prices
of such goods do not change their demand by a considerable amount.

5. Postponement of Consumption:- Commodities like biscuits, soft drinks,

etc. whose demand is not urgent, have highly elastic demand as their
consumption can be postponed in case of an increase in their prices. However,
commodities with urgent demand like lifesaving drugs, have inelastic demand
because of their immediate requirement.

6. Number of Uses:- If the commodity under consideration has several uses,

then its demand will be elastic. When price of such a commodity increases,
then it is generally put to only more urgent uses and, as a result, its demand
falls. When the prices fall, then it is used for satisfying even less urgent needs
and demand rises.
For example, electricity is a multiple-use commodity. Fall in its price will result
in substantial increase in its demand, particularly in those uses (like AC, Heat
convector, etc.), where it was not employed formerly due to its high price. On
the other hand, a commodity with no or few alternative uses has less elastic
demand.

7. Share in Total Expenditure:- Proportion of consumer’s income that is spent

on a particular commodity also influences the elasticity of demand for it.
Greater the proportion of income spent on the commodity, more is the elasticity
of demand for it and vice-versa.
Demand for goods like salt, needle, soap, match box, etc. tends to be
inelastic as consumers spend a small proportion of their income on such
goods. When prices of such goods change, consumers continue to purchase
almost the same quantity of these goods. However, if the proportion of income
spent on a commodity is large, then demand for such a commodity will be
elastic.

8. Time Period:- Price elasticity of demand is always related to a period of

time. It can be a day, a week, a month, a year or a period of several years.
Elasticity of demand varies directly with the time period. Demand is generally
inelastic in the short period.

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It happens because consumers find it difficult to change their habits, in the
short period, in order to respond to a change in the price of the given
commodity. However, demand is more elastic in long rim as it is
comparatively easier to shift to other substitutes, if the price of the given
commodity rises.

9. Habits:- Commodities, which have become habitual necessities for the

consumers, have less elastic demand. It happens because such a commodity
becomes a necessity for the consumer and he continues to purchase it even if
its price rises. Alcohol, tobacco, cigarettes, etc. are some examples of habit
forming commodities.

# IMPORTANCE OF ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

1. The concept of demand elasticity helps in understanding the price

determination by the monopolist. A monopoly is the market structure
wherein there is only one seller whose main objective is to maximize the
profits. The price he chooses for his product depends on the elasticity of
demand. Such as, if the demand for a commodity is high he can choose the
higher price as the consumers will buy the product even when the prices
rise. But however, if the demand is elastic, he will choose the lower prices.
2. The determination of the price depends on demand for and supply of the
commodity. But however, the demand is governed by the demand elasticity
and the supply too is governed by the elasticity of supply. Therefore, the
price of a commodity depends on both the demand and supply elasticity.
3. The concept of demand elasticity also helps in understanding other types
of prices, such as exchange rates, i.e. a rate at which currency unit of one
country is exchanged for the currency unit of another country. Also, the
terms of trade, i.e. the rate at which the exports are changed for imports
can be easily understood through this concept.
4. The concept of elasticity of demand also helps the government in its
taxation policies. This helps the government to have a fair idea about the
demand elasticity of goods which are being taxed.
5. This concept also helps in the determination of wages, such as if the
demand for labour is inelastic the union can demand higher wages and
conversely if the labour demand is elastic the demand for higher wages
could not be raised.

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 DEMAND ESTIMATION

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# INTRODUCTION OF DEMAND ESTIMATION
Demand estimation or forecasting occupies a crucial place in a business activity.
This view may be optimistic or pessimistic based on hunches. Estimation can
be both physical as well as financial in nature and is used mostly for planning.

# MEANING OF DEMAND ESTIMATION

Demand estimation are predicting future demand for the product. In other
words, it refers to the prediction of probable demand for a product or a
service based on the past events.

Demand Estimation means to model. How consumer behaviour changes due

to change in price of commodity, consumer income or any other variable
which impact demand.

Demand estimation provide information about price and respective quantitates

that consumers are willing and able to demand.

According to evan j. donglas, “demand estimation may be defined as the

process of finding values for demand in future time periods.”

# METHODS OF DEMAND ESTIMATION

(A) OPINION POLLING METHODS:-The Opinion Poll Methods are used to

collect opinions of those who possess the knowledge about the market, such
as sales representatives, professional marketing experts, sales executives and
marketing consultants.

The Opinion poll methods include the following survey methods:-

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1. Expert-Opinion Method: Companies with an adequate network of sales
representatives can capitalize on them in assessing the demand for a
target product in a particular region or locality that they represent. Since sales
representatives are in direct touch with the customer, are supposed to know
the future purchase plans of their customers, their preference for the product,
their reaction to the introduction of a new product, their reactions to the
market changes and the demand for rival products.

Thus, sales representatives are likely to provide an approximate, if not

accurate, estimation of demand for a target product in their respective regions
or areas. In the case of firms, which lack in sales representatives can collect
information regarding the demand for a product through professional
market experts or consultants, who can predict the future demand on the
basis of their expertise and experience.

Although the expert opinion method is too simple and inexpensive, it

suffers from serious limitations.

First, The extent to which the estimates provided by the sales representatives
or professionals are reliable depends on their skill and expertise to analyze
the market and their experience.

Secondly, There are chances of over or under-estimation of demand due to

the subjective judgment of the assessor.

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Thirdly, the evaluation of market demand is often based on inadequate
information available to the sales representatives since they have a narrow
view of the market.

2. Delphi Method:-The Delphi method is the extension of the expert opinion

method wherein the divergent expert opinions are consolidated to
estimate a future demand. The process of the Delphi technique is very
simple. Under this method, the experts are provided with the information
related to estimates of forecasts of other experts along with the underlying
assumptions. The experts can revise their estimates in the light of demand
forecasts made by the other group of experts. The consensus of experts
regarding the forecast results in a final forecast.

Market Studies and Experiments: Another alternative method to collect

information regarding the current as well as future demand for a product is to
conduct market studies and experiments on the consumer behaviour under
actual, but controlled market conditions. This method is commonly known as
Market Experiment Method.

Under this method, firms select some areas of representative markets, such as
three or four cities having the similar characteristics in terms of the
population income levels, social and cultural background, choices and
preferences of consumers and occupational distribution. Then the market
experiments are carried out by changing the prices, advertisement
expenditure and all other controllable factors under demand function, other
things remaining the same. Once these changes are introduced in the market,
the consequent changes in the demand for a product are recorded. On the
basis of these recorded estimates, the elasticity coefficients are calculated. These
computed coefficients along with the demand function variables are used to
assess the future demand for a product.

The alternative method to market experiments is the Consumer Clinics or

Controlled Laboratory Method wherein the consumers are given some
money to make purchases in stipulated store goods with different prices,
packages, displays, etc. This experiment displays the responsiveness towards
the changes made in the prices, packaging and a display of the product.
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One of the major limitations of market experiment method is that it is too
expensive and cannot be afforded by small firms. Also, this method is based on
short-term controlled conditions which might not exist in the uncontrolled
market. Therefore, the results may not be applicable in the long term
uncontrolled conditions.

(B) CONSUMER SURVEY:-Consumer Survey Method is one of the techniques

of demand forecasting that involves direct interview of the potential
consumers.

Consumer Survey Method includes the further three methods that can be used
to interview the consumer:

These are two types:-

(1) Complete enumeration:-Under this method, a forecaster contact almost

all the potential users of the product and ask them about their future purchase
plan. The probable demand for a product can be obtained by adding all the
quantities indicated by the consumers. Such as the majority of children in city
report the quantity of chocolate (Q) they are willing to purchase, then total
probable demand (Dp) for chocolate can be determined as:

Dp = Q1+Q2+Q3+Q4+……+Qn

Where,

Q1, Q2, Q3 denote the demand indicated by children 1, 2,3 and so on.

One of the major limitations of this method is that it can only be applied
where the consumers are concentrated in a certain region or locality. And if
the population is widely dispersed, then it can turn out to be very costly.
Besides this, the other limitation is that the consumers might not know their
actual demand in future. Due to this, they may give a hypothetical answer that
may be biased according to their own expectations regarding the market
conditions.

(2) Sample survey:-The sample survey method is often used when the target
population under study is large. Only the sample of potential consumers is
selected for the interview. A sample of consumers is selected through a
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sampling method. Here, the method of survey may be a direct interview or
mailed questionnaires to the selected sample-consumers.

The probable demand, indicating the response of the consumers can be

estimated by using the following formula:

Where

Dp =probable demand forecast;

H =Census number of households from the relevant market;

Hs =number of households surveyed or sample households;

HR =Number of households reporting demand for a

product;

AD=Average Expected consumption by the reporting households (total

quantity consumed by the reporting households/ Number of households.

This method is simple, less costly and even less time-consuming as compared
to the comprehensive survey methods. The sample Survey method is often
used to estimate a short-run demand of business firms, households,
government agencies who plan their future purchases.

However, the major limitation of this method is that a forecaster cannot

attribute more reliability to the forecast than warranted.

(C) STATISTICAL METHOD:- This method have proved to be very useful in

estimating demand. There are several Analytical and Statistical methods of
sales forecasting, that a firm can employ on the basis of its forecasting
needs. These methods are listed below:-

(1) Trend projection method:-Time Series Analysis: The time series analysis
is yet another most extensively used sales forecasting method wherein the sales
of several continuous years are chronologically ordered, and the pattern is
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studied thereafter. The time series method helps in analysing the
following:-

 The Seasonal Variation, i.e. the change in the sales due to the seasonal
variations.
 The Cyclical Patterns, i.e. the sales pattern that repeat itself after every
year.
 Trends in Data
 The Growth Rate, i.e. the rate at which the sales grow with each year.

This method is based on the assumption that the factors affecting the sales do
not change much over a period of time and hence the future is derived from
the past.

(2) Regression Analysis: This method is adopted to study the functional

relation of those factors that influence sales. The sale is the dependent
variable while the factors that influences sales are explanatory or causal
variables. Thus, in this method, the relationship between the dependent
variable (sales forecast) and the causal variable is measured. The following
regression equation shows the different relationships between the sales and
the factors influencing the sales:

Y = a+b1x1+b2x2+…..+bnxn

Where, Y = sales,

x1,x2 …..xn represents the causal factors

b1,b2….bn are the constants that show the extent to which the causal factors
contribute towards the sales. This method also known as time series method.
Time series refer to the data over a period of time, during which time
fluctuation may occur.

(3) Simple Projection Method: Under this method, the firm forecast the
current year’s sales by simply adding up the expected growth rate to the last
year’s sales. This growth rate can be determined by either considering the
industry’s growth rate or by taking the growth rate achieved by the top

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company (leader) in the industry. Often the companies use the following
formula to arrive at the sales projection:

Next year’s sales = (Current Year’s Sales)2 / Last Year’s Sales

This method proves to be fruitful for only those firms whose sales are
relatively stable or show an increasing trend.

(4)Extrapolation Method: The extrapolation method is again a project/trend

method, but is quite complex than the simple projection method. Here, the
sales figures of past several years are plotted on graph paper and the points
are connected via a line which is further stretched to obtain the future sales
figures.

It is assumed that the future sales will follow the same pattern as followed by
the past sales trend and observes the same curve on a graph. This method can
be applied effectively where the firms have the steady past sales and expect
no abrupt disruptions in the future.

(5)Moving Averages Method: The moving averages method is used to

predict future sales more accurately by eliminating the effects of seasonality
and other irregular trends in sales. This method provides the time series of
moving averages.

Here, each time series point is the arithmetical or the weighted average of a
number of preceding consecutive points. Minimum two years past sales data
are required in case the seasonal effects on the sales persists.

(6) Exponential Smoothing: The exponential smoothing is yet another

projection method and works on the similar guidelines of the moving
averages methods. Here also, each point of time series is the arithmetical
average of preceding consecutive points and where the heaviest weight is
assigned to the most recent data.

This method is often used in the situation where the data under forecast is
large. The exponential smoothing has the stable response to change, and the
response can be changed accordingly.

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# CRITERIA OF A GOOD ESTIMATION METHOD

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There is a practical difficulty in selecting the appropriate method for demand
estimation:

1. Accuracy:- It is necessary to check the accuracy of past estimates

against present performance and of present estimates against future
performance.

2. Simplicity:- Firms must be able to understand and have the confidence

in the techniques used.

3. Economy:- A firm has to strike a balance between the benefits from

increased accuracy and the extra cost of providing the improved
estimation.

4. Timeliness:- There is a time gap between the occurrence of an event

and its estimate-known as ‘lead time’.

5. Effective:- It is quite easy to judge the existing trends

DEMAND FORECASTING
# MEANING & DEFINITION OF DEMAND FORECASTING

Demand forecasting is a systematic process that involves anticipating the

demand for the product and services of an organization in future under a set
of uncontrollable and competitive forces.

Accurate demand forecasting is essential for a firm to enable it to produce the

required quantities at the right time and arrange well in advance for various
inputs.

In the words of Cundiff and Still, “Demand forecasting is an estimate of sales

during a specified future period based on proposed marketing plan and a set
of particular uncontrollable and competitive forces.”

Demand forecasting enables an organization to take various business decisions,

such as planning the production process, purchasing raw materials, managing
funds, and deciding the price of the product. An organization can forecast
demand by making own estimates called guess estimate or taking the help of
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specialized consultants or market research agencies.

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For Example: -A printing press owner forecasts high demand for notebooks
in June and July due to the new session. Therefore, he plans for a large-scale
production during this time and arranges for the raw material, workforce,
finance and machinery accordingly.

# OBJECTIVES OF DEMAND FORECASTING

Demand forecasting is one of the major components in the success of any

business. All organizational activities, whether they are short-term business
operations or long-term strategic decisions are dependent on it.

These objectives are illustrated under the following categories further sub-
divided into points:-

I. Short-Term Objectives: - To ensure the effective working of the

organisation, estimation of sales for the past six months is done. Let us now go
through the following purpose of demand forecasting in the short run:

1) Formulation of Production Policy: Demand forecasting aims at meeting

the demand by ensuring uninterrupted production and supply of goods
and services.
2) Formulation of Price Policy: It helps in formulating an effective price
mechanism to deal with the market fluctuations and conditions like
inflation.
3) Maximum Utilization of Machines: It streamlines the production
process and operations such that there is the optimum utilisation of
machines.

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 4) Proper Control of Sales: Forecasting the regional sales of a particular
product or service provides a base for setting a sales target and evaluating
the performance.
5) Regular Supply of Material: Sales forecast determines the level of
production leading to the estimation of raw material. Thus, a continuous
supply of raw material and inventory management can be done.
6) Arrangement of Finance: To maintain short-term cash in the
organisation it is essential to forecast the sales as well as liquidity
requirement accordingly.
7) Regular Availability of Labour: Estimation of the production capacity
provides for the acquisition of suitable skilled and unskilled labour.

II. Long-Term Objectives: - Demand forecasting is inevitable for the long-

term existence of an organisation. Following objectives justify the statement:-

1) Long-Term Finance Management: Forecasting sales for the long-term

contributes to long-term financial planning and acquisition of funds at
reasonable rates and suitable terms and conditions.
2) Decisions Regarding Production Capacity: Demand forecast determines
the production level which provides a base for decisions related to the
expansion of the production unit or size of the plant.
3) Labour Requirement: Demand forecasting initiate’s expansion of business
thus leading to the estimation of required human resource to accomplish
business goals and objectives.

# NATURE & SCOPE OF DEMAND FORECASTING

1. Period of forecasting: -As a first step, one has to decide about the length of
period for the forecast. The time periods usually divided three parts

(a) Short run forecasting: -It refers to a period of up to 3 months. These

factor include weather conditions, tastes, fashion etc.

(b) Medium-term forecasting:-It covers a period between 3 months and one

year. In case of medium-term forecasts, experience and sound judgement are
more than important statistical estimation.

(c) Long run forecasting: -It refers to period more than one year. In this we
include like structural changes, socio-economic changes, government fiscal and
monetary policy etc.
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2. Level of forecasting

(a) Macro-economic forecasting: -It is concerned with business conditions

over the whole economy. These business conditions are measured with the help
of some indicators like those relating to national income, industrial
production and wholesale prices etc.

(b) Industry Demand forecasting:-The firm may use such estimates for its
output, sale, capacity etc.

(c) Firm demand forecasting: -A big firm like Tata and Birla, will like to do
forecasting of its own products independent of the rest of the firms in the
industry.

(d) Product-line forecasting: -It helps the firm decide which of the product
or products should have priority in the allocation of firm’s limited resources.

(e) International level forecasting: -International events influence national

economy through international trade.

3. General purpose forecasting: -It will helpful if the general estimate is

broken down into specific estimate with respect to commodities, area of sale,
domestic and export market etc.

4. Forecast of established market: -Problems and methods of estimation

differ in these two cases. For the establish products, past sale trend and
competitive condition are known, while this is not so for the ‘new’ product.

# PROCESS OF DEMAND FORECASTING

Demand forecasting is not based on assumptions but is a systematic and

scientific process of estimating future sales and performance as well as
directing the resources accordingly.

The steps involved in a standard demand forecasting process are as follows:

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1) Setting the Objectives: - The purpose for which the demand forecasting is
being done, must be clear. Whether it is for short-term or long-term, the
market share of the product, the market share of the organisation,
competitors share, etc. By all these aspects, the objectives for forecasting
are framed.
2) Determining the Time Perspective: - The defined objectives are
supported by the period for which the forecasting is being done. The
demand for a commodity varies with the change in its determinants over
the period. There is a negligible change in price, income or other factors in
the short run. But, the organisation may notice a considerable difference in
these determinants over a long-term, affecting the demand of a commodity.
3) Selecting a Suitable Demand Forecasting Method: - Demand forecasting
is based on specific evidence and is determined using a particular
technique or method. The method of prediction must be selected wisely. It
is dependent on the information available, the purpose of predicting and
the period it is done for.
4) Collecting the Data: - Forecasting is based on past experiences and data.
This data or information can be primary or secondary. Primary data
comprises of the information directly collected by the analysts and
researchers; whereas secondary data includes the physical evidence of the
past performance, sales trend in the past years, financial reports, etc.

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5) Estimating the Results: - The data so collected is arranged in a systematic
and meaningful manner. The past performance of a product in the market
is analysed on this basis. Accordingly, future sales prediction and demand
estimation are done. The results so drew must be in a format which is easy
to understand and apply by the management.

# FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND FORECASTING

Demand is never constant and fluctuates with the change in certain factors
related to the commodity and the market in which the business operates. With
the changing demand, it’s forecasting also varies.

Following are some of the factors which influence the demand forecasting of
a commodity:-

1) Price of Goods:- Demand estimation is highly dependent on the price of

goods or services. The pricing policy and fluctuation in the present price
can give an idea of change in demand for that particular commodity.
2) Type of Goods: - The type of commodity, its features and usability
determines the customer base it is going to cater. The demand for existing
goods can be easily estimated by following the previous sales trend,
competitors’ analysis and substitutes available. Whereas, the demand for a
new product on the market is difficult to predict.
3) Competition: - The level of competition in the market supports the
process of demand forecasting. It is easy to predict sales in a less
competitive market whereas the same becomes difficult in a market where
the new firms can freely enter.

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4) Technology: - The demand for any product or service changes drastically
with the advancement in technology. Therefore, it is essential for an
organisation to be aware of technological development while forecasting the
demand for any commodity.
5) Economic Perspective: - Being updated with economic changes and growth
is necessary for demand forecasting. It assists the organisation in
preparing for future possibilities and analysing the impact of economic
development on sales.

# IMPORTANCE OF DEMAND FORECASTING

1) Production Planning:- Expansion of output of the firm should be based on

the estimates of likely demand, otherwise there may be overproduction and
consequent losses may have to be faced.

2) Sales Forecasting:- Sales forecasting is based on the demand forecasting.

Promotional efforts of the firm should be based on the sales forecasting.

3) Control of Business:- For controlling the business, it is essential to have a

well-conceived budgeting of costs and profits that is based on the forecast of
annual demand.

4) Inventory Control:- A satisfactory control of business inventories, raw

materials, intermediate goods, finished product, etc. requires satisfactory
estimates of the future requirements which can be traced through demand
forecasting.

5) Economic Planning and Policy Making:- The government can determine

its import and export policies in view of the long-term demand forecasting for
various goods in the country.

6) Growth and Long- term Investment Programs:- Demand forecasting is

necessary for determining the growth rate of the firm and its long-term
investment programs and planning.

# IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

 Short Questions (2 marks)

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Q1. Define Managerial Economics?

Q2. Opportunity Cost Principle.

Q3. Production Possibility Curve
Q4. Incremental Principle
Q5. Scarcity Cost.
Q6. Demand Estimation.
Q7. Demand Forecasting.
Q8. Uses of Elasticity of Demand.
Q9. Price Elasticity of Demand.
Q10. Cross Elasticity of Demand.
Q11. Income Elasticity of
Demand. Q12. Define Demand?
Q13. Define Demand Function?
Q14. Decision Making in Managerial Economics.

 Long Questions (10 marks)

Q1:- Define Managerial Economics? Explain The Nature & Scope Of Managerial
Economics?

Q2:- Define Managerial Economics? Discuss The Relationship Between Other

Disciplines Of Managerial Economics?

Q3:- Discuss The Role Of Managerial Economics In Decision

Making? Q4:- Write the Short Note on Followings:-

A) Opportunity Cost Principle.

B) Production Possibility Curve

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C) Incremental Principle

D) Scarcity Cost.

Q5:- Define Demand? Discuss Its Characteristics, Schedule & Curve & Its
Determinants?
Q6:- Explain The Law Of Demand. Why Does Demand Curve Slopes
Downwards To The Right? Explain The Circumstances In Which Demand
Curve Slope?

Q7:-Explain The Methods Of Elasticity Of

Demand? Q8:- Write the Short Note on

Followings:-

A) Demand Estimation.
B) Demand Forecasting.
C) Types Of Demand
Q9:- Write the Short Note on Followings:-

A) Opportunity Cost Principle.

B) Production Possibility Curve

Q10:- Write the Short Note on Followings:-

A) Incremental Principle.
B) Scarcity Cost.

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 ===================================

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 UNIT-II
INDIFFERENCE CURVE
An indifference curve is a locus of all combinations of two goods which yield
the same level of satisfaction (utility) to the consumers.

Since any combination of the two goods on an indifference curve gives equal
level of satisfaction, the consumer is indifferent to any combination he
consumes. Thus, an indifference curve is also known as ‘equal satisfaction
curve’ or ‘iso-utility curve’.

On a graph, an indifference curve is a link between the combinations of

quantities which the consumer regards to yield equal utility. Simply, an
indifference curve is a graphical representation of indifference schedule.

The table given below is an example of indifference schedule and the graph
that follows is the illustration of that schedule.

Table: Indifference schedule

Combination Mangoes Oranges
A 1 14
B 2 9
C 3 6
D 4 4
E 5 2.5

Figure: Graphical representation of indifference curve

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# ASSUMPTIONS OF INDIFFERENCE CURVE

The indifference curve theory is based on few assumptions. These

assumptions are

1] Two commodities:- It is assumed that the consumer has fixed amount of

money, all of which is to be spent only on two goods. It is also assumed that
prices of both the commodities are constant.

2] Non satiety:- Satiety means saturation. And, indifference curve theory

assumes that the consumer has not reached the point of satiety. It implies that
the consumer still has the willingness to consume more of both the goods. The
consumer always tends to move to a higher indifference curve seeking for
higher satisfaction.

3] Ordinal utility:- According to this theory, utility is a psychological

phenomenon and thus it is unquantifiable. However, the theory assumes that
a consumer can express utility in terms of rank. Consumer can rank his/her
preferences on the basis of satisfaction yielded from each combination of goods.

4] Diminishing marginal rate of substitution:- Marginal rate of substitution

may be defined as the amount of a commodity that a consumer is willing to
trade off for another commodity, as long as the second commodity provides
same level of utility as the first one.

And, diminishing marginal rate of substitution states that the rate by which a
person substitutes X for Y diminishes more and more with each successive
substitution of X for Y.

As indifference curve theory is based on the concept of diminishing marginal

rate of substitution, an indifference curve is convex to the origin.

5] Rational consumers:- According to this theory, a consumer always

behaves in a rational manner, i.e. a consumer always aims to maximize his
total satisfaction or total utility.

# PROPERTIES OF INDIFFERENCE CURVE

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There are four basic properties of an indifference curve. These properties are

1] Indifference curve slope downwards to right:- An indifference curve can

neither be horizontal line nor an upward sloping curve. This is an important
feature of an indifference curve.

When a consumer wants to have more of a commodity, he/she will have to

give up some of the other commodity, given that the consumer remains on the
same level of utility at constant income. As a result, the indifference curve
slopes downward from left to right.

In the above diagram, IC is an indifference curve, and A and B are two points
which represent combination of goods yielding same level of satisfaction.

We can see that when X1 amount of commodity X was consumed, Y1 amount

of commodity Y was also consumed. When the consumer increased the
consumption of commodity X to X2, the amount of commodity Y fell to Y2.
And, thus the curve is sloping downward from left to right.

2] Indifference curve is convex to the origin:- As mentioned previously, the

concept of indifference curve is based on the properties of diminishing
marginal rate of substitution.

According to diminishing marginal rate of substitution, the rate of substitution

of commodity X for Y decreases more and more with each successive
substitution of X for Y.

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Also, two goods can never perfectly substitute each other. Therefore, the rate
of decrease in a commodity cannot be equal to the rate of increase in another
commodity.

Table: Indifference schedule

Combination Cigarette Coffee

A 1 12

B 2 8

C 3 5

D 4 3

E 5 2

The above table represents various combination of coffee and cigarette that
gives a man same level of utility. When the man drinks 12 cup of coffee, he
consumes 1 cigarette every day. When he started consuming two cigarettes a
day, his coffee consumption dropped to 8 cups a day. In the same way, we can
see other combinations as 3 cigarettes + 5 cup coffee, 4 cigarettes + 3 cup
coffee and 5 cigarettes + 2 cup coffee.

We can clearly see that the rate of decrease in consumption of coffee is not the
same as rate of increase in consumption of cigarette. Similarly, rate of
decrease

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in consumption of coffee has gradually decreased even with constant increase
in consumption of cigarette.

Thus, indifference curve is always convex (neither concave nor straight).

3] Indifference curve cannot intersect each other:- Each indifference curve

is a representation of particular level of satisfaction.

The level of satisfaction of consumer for any given combination of two

commodities is same for a consumer throughout the curve. Thus, indifference
curves cannot intersect each other.

The following diagram will help you understand this property clearer.

In the above image, IC1 and IC2 are two indifference curves and C is the point
where both the curves intersect.

According to indifference curve theory, satisfaction at point C = satisfaction at

point A
Also, satisfaction at point C = satisfaction at point B
But, satisfaction at point B ≠ satisfaction at point A.

Therefore, two indifference curves cannot intersect. Yet, two indifference

curves need not be parallel to each other.

4] Higher indifference curve represents higher level of satisfaction

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Higher the indifference curves, higher will be the level of satisfaction. This
means, any combination of two goods on the higher curve give higher level of
satisfaction to the consumer than the combination of goods on the lower
curve.

In the above figure, IC1 and IC2 are two indifference curves, and IC2 is higher
than IC1. We can also see that Q is a point on IC2 and S is a point on IC2.

Combination at point Q contains more of both the goods (X and Y) than that of
the combination at point S. We know that total utility of commodity tends to
increase with increase in stock of the commodity. Thus, utility at point Q is
greater than utility at point S, i.e. satisfaction yielded from higher curve is
greater than satisfaction yielded from lower curve.

# USES OF THE INDIFFERENCE CURVE APPROACH

Indifference curve techniques were not developed just to confuse students of

economics. They do offer a more penetrating analysis of consumer demand
than simple demand curves and they are of considerable importance in the
study of advanced economic theory. So, it is worthwhile to make the effort and
really try to understand them. It is convenient at this point to examine two
uses, other than the analysis of effects of changing prices and incomes, that
may be made of the curves.

(a) Inflation:- Indifference curves demonstrate the effects of inflation or the

situation in which prices and incomes are rising. When prices rise consumers
must secure a rise in money incomes in order to maintain their real income
and their standard of living. A 10 per cent rise in prices has to be accompanied
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by a

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10 per cent rise in money income if consumers are not to suffer a fall in real
income. Fig.16 reveals a more subtle change.

With his original income OA the consumer had a budget line AB and chose to
buy OW units of clothes and spend OV on other goods. If his income rises by
10 per cent to compensate for a 10 per cent rise in prices he can still buy a
maximum of OB units of clothes but his budget line moves to CB, enabling him
to buy OX units of clothes and retain OY units of money. He therefore moves to
a higher indifference curve, even though his real income is constant.

The higher money income gives greater satisfaction. Although real incomes
are not higher, as the money incomes will buy only the same quantity of real
goods, the consumer is deluded into buying more as the extra money has less
utility, and he thinks the residue larger than it actually is. This is one way in
which inflation distorts the pattern of expenditure. Other effects of inflation
are considered in Unit Twenty- three.

If the price of clothes rose and there was no compensating rise in income the
budget line would have become steeper and forced the consumer to a lower
indifference curve. This would reduce his living standards and this is the
normal effect of inflation.

(b) Taxation:- In Fig. 17 a comparison is made between the relative effects of

income taxes and expenditure taxes.

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In this absence of taxation we can assume that the consumer is at a buying OB
units of clothes and OC units of other goods. If a tax is imposed on consumer
to point b on IC1. At this point he buys OG units of clothes and spends OD units
on other things. Before the tax was imposed the consumer could have
combined OG units of clothes with OL units of money income or other goods
as we can see from the budget line AE.

The tax has therefore reduced his real income by LD. This could equally well
have been achieved by the imposition of an income tax equivalent to LD, when
the consumer to move to c on IC 2 which is preferable to the position b that the
expenditure tax leaves him in. He is able to enjoy GJ more of clothing than he
could when clothes were taxed.

While this is true for the individual whose indifference map we have drawn, it
is not necessarily true for all consumers and so we cannot on the basis of this
analysis argue that income taxes are preferable to expenditure taxes.

# IMPORTANT APPLICATIONS OF INDIFFERENCE CURVES

The technique of indifference curves has assumed special significance

because of its application in almost every sphere of economic activity. A few
such applications can be mentioned as follows:

1. In the theory of production:- The basic aim of a producer is to attain a low

cost combination. Indifference curves are useful in the realization of this
objective.

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When we use these curves in the theory of production, they are called iso-
product curves. Producer’s equilibrium i.e. low cost combination is obtained
at the point where producer’s budget line becomes tangent to one of the iso-
product curves on the map.

2. In the theory of Exchange:- Prof. Edge worth used the technique of

indifference curves to show the mutual gains from the exchange of two goods
between two consumers.

Exchange makes it possible for both the consumers to reach a higher level of
satisfaction. The process of shifting to the higher level of satisfaction is
explained with the help of ‘contract curves.’

3. In the field of Rationing:- This technique can also be made use of in the
field of rationing Ordinarily two commodities are rationed out to different
individuals, irrespective of their preferences.

But if their respective preferences are considered and the amounts of the two
commodities be distributed among consumers in accordance with their scale
of preferences, each of them shall be in a position to search a higher
indifference curve and satisfaction.

4. In the measurement of consumer’s surplus:- Indifference curve

technique has rehabilitated the old Marshallian concept of consumer’s surplus
that has lain buried almost for decades under the weight of unrealistic and
illusory assumptions.

Consumer’s surplus can be measured with the help of this technique without
any need for making unralistic assumptions.

5. In the field of taxation:- The technique is also applied to test preference

between a direct and indirect tax. With the help of indifference curves it can
be shown that a direct tax is preferable to an indirect tax as regards its effects
on consumption and satisfaction of the tax payer.

In view of the above application of the technique, it may be asserted that it

forms an integral part of the modern welfare economics.

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# APPLICATION OF INDIFFERENCE CURVES IN PUBLIC FINANCE

Indifference curves can be used to study the effects of direct and indirect
taxes. There are bad effects on the demand for goods when indirect tax (excise
duty) is levied by finance ministry than the direct tax in the form of income
tax.

We take an example of income tax and excise duty and their effects on the
demand for a commodity as shown in the Diagram 23. AB is the original
budget line where consumer is in equilibrium at point E and purchases OQx of
community X. When income tax is levied the budget line shifts below to A 1B1
where the consumer is in equilibrium at point E1 and purchases OQx1 of
commodity X.

If excise duty is levied in place of income tax then the consumer’s budget line
will shift downward to AB2 and the consumer will be in equilibrium at E 2 point
with the amount of OQX2 of commodity X. OQx2 is lesser than OQX1. Hence the
impact of excise duty (indirect tax) on the demand for a good is bad than the
impact of income tax (direct tax).

Similarly, the effect or impact of government subsidy can also be studied with
the help of indifference curves. The subsidy makes the goods cheaper and its
effect is just like the effects of price effect.

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# LIMITATIONS OF INDIFFERENCE CURVE ANALYSIS

(i) The indifference curve analysis is utility analysis in a new grab. It has
simply substituted new concepts and equations instead of the old ones. The
old principle of diminishing marginal utility has been replaced by the new
principle of diminishing marginal rate of substitution. The old equation of
consumer equilibrium.

MUA/PA = MUB/PB = MUM

is replaced by a new equation, which says that the consumer is in equilibrium,

when the marginal rate of substitution between the two commodities, which
is the ratio of their marginal utilities is equal to their price ratio. This is
nothing but the reformulation of previous equation in a modified form.

(ii) Indifference curve analysis assumes that consumers are familiar with their
preference schedules. But, it is not possible for a consumer to have a complete
knowledge of all the combinations of the two commodities, total satisfactions
from them, rates of substitutions and total incomes. At best he can tell his
preferences in the neighborhood of his existing position. Moreover, the
preferences of this consumer keep changing.

(iii) This analysis is confined to the case of only two commodities. For
covering a large number of commodities, one commodity, say, ‘Y’ has to be
taken as a composite commodity (represented by money) such that prices of
all the commodities comprising the composite commodities increase or
decrease simultaneously and by the same proportion.

This may not happen in reality. It also becomes difficult to isolate the effect of
change in price of a particular commodity. For three goods case, we can also
use three – dimensional diagram, but, it is difficult to handle. Geometry fails all
together for dealing with the situation of more than three goods. In such
situation, we may have to fall back upon complicated algebraic methods.

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(iv) This analysis assumes rationality of the consumer. In many situations,
however, consumer behaves in an irrational and thoughtless manner.

(v) Indifference curve analysis is introspective, as it studies consumer

behaviour on the basis of imaginary drawn indifference curves. Further, it is
based on weak ordering hypothesis. Thus, consumer is indifferent towards
some combinations. Samuelson criticised this analysis, since when a consumer
chooses one particular combination, he prefers it over all other combinations
Thus, and ‘choice reveals preference’. Samuelson enunciated demand theory
from observed consumer behaviour, which is more scientific.

(vi) This analysis assumes perfect divisibility of the commodities. But,

consumer is often faced by lumpy units. So, the continuity of indifference curves
is not ensured as assumed by indifference curves analysis, as also large
number of very closed placed indifference curves. Further, choices with
extreme combinations (too much of commodity ‘X’ and very little of ‘Y’ and
vice-versa) are not observed in the real world.

(vii) Indifference curve analysis is micro economic in character. It is not

possible to draw indifference curves indicating the choices of a group or a
country as a whole. In this respect, utility analysis has an edge over, as it goes
by a general opinion based on past experience and observation.

(viii) Indifference curve analysis is not amenable to statistical investigation

and empirical research, as the entire analysis is based upon theoretically
formulated cross-effect relationships and not upon statistical observations. In
view of Samuelsson, indifference curves are imaginary.

(ix) Indifference curve analysis fails to explain consumer behaviour under risk
and uncertainty.

Thus, indifference curve analysis is not free from defects of its own. Even
some of these defects were appreciated by Hicks, who sought to remove them
in his later work ‘A Revision of Demand Theory’ published in 1956. The
approach is a considerable improvement over the conventional utility
approach and has gained popularity among economists.

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 CONSUMER'S EQUILIBRIUM
# MEANING OF CONSUMER'S EQUILIBRIUM
"The term consumer’s equilibrium refers to the amount of goods and
services which the consumer may buy in the market given his income and
given prices of goods in the market".

A consumer is in equilibrium when given his tastes, and price of the two
goods, he spends a given money income on the purchase of two goods in such
a way as to get the maximum satisfaction.

According to Anna Koulsayiannis, “The consumer is in equilibrium when he

maximises his utility, given his income and the market prices.”

Every consumer aims at getting maximum satisfaction out of his given

expenditure. A consumer is said to have attained equilibrium when he spends
given income or budget in such a way as to yield optimum satisfaction, given
the prices of two goods and the consumer’s preference.

In simple words, a consumer is said to be in equilibrium when he is getting

maximum satisfaction out of his limited income.

A consumer may find out his equilibrium condition with the help of indifference
curve analysis.

# ASSUMPTIONS OF CONSUMER’S EQUILIBRIUM

Consumer’s equilibrium through indifference curve analysis is based on the

following assumptions.
1. The consumer is rational and seeks to maximize his satisfaction through
the purchase of goods.
2. The consumer consumes only two goods (X and Y).
3. The goods are homogenous and perfectly divisible.
4. Prices of the goods and income of the consumer are constant.
5. The indifference map for goods X and Y are given. The indifference map
is based on the consumer’s preferences for the goods.
6. The preference or habit of the consumer does not change throughout the
analysis.

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 7. The income of consumer is given and constant.

# CONDITIONS OF CONSUMER’S EQUILIBRIUM

The following are the conditions of consumer’s equilibrium

1. Budget line should be tangent to the indifference curve

2. At the point of equilibrium, slope of the budget line = slope of the
indifference curve
3. Indifference curve should be convex to the point of origin.

1. Budget line should be tangent to the indifference curve

Consumer’s equilibrium is based on the assumption that the income of a
consumer is constant and that he spends his entire income on purchasing two
goods whose prices are given.
A budget line is a graphical representation of various combinations of two
goods that a consumer can afford at specified prices of the products at
particular income level. A budget line can be drawn on the basis of
expenditure plan.
The table given below is an example of expenditure plan and the graph that
follows is its presentation on graph.

Table: Expenditure plan

Given: Budget of the consumer is Rs 10, Price of good X is Rs 1 each

and Price of good Y is Rs 2 each
Combination Units of good Y Units of good X
A 5 0
C 4.5 1
E 3 4
D 1.5 7
B 0 10

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Figure: Interplay of budget line and indifference curves

In the given diagram, we can see IC1, IC2 and IC3 are three different
indifference curves and AB is a budget line. A consumer can only consume
such combinations of goods which lie upon the budget line at a given income
level and constant price of goods X and Y.
Since, we have,
level of income = Rs 10
price of good X = Rs 1
price of good Y = Rs 2

a consumer can only purchase goods in combination which satisfies the

given equation “I = PX X QX + PY X QY” or “10 = 1 X QX+ 2 X QY”

At point A, 0 X 1 + 5 X 2 = 10
At point C, 4.5 X 2 + 1 X 1 = 10
At point E, 3 X 2 + 4 X 1 = 10
At point D, 1.5 X 2 + 7 X 1 = 10
At point B, 0 X 2 + 10 X 1 = 10
Thus, all these points lie on the budget line AB.
By the property of indifference curves, we know,utility in IC3 > utility
in IC2 > utility in IC1
A consumer can have any combination of goods that lie on the budget line
except for the combinations A and B because in either case he would only
have X or Y.

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The consumer can purchase combinations C or D but these will not yield him
maximum satisfaction as they lie on lower indifference curve. On the other
hand, he cannot get any combination on IC3 as it is away from the budget line.
Thus, the consumer will be in equilibrium (achieve maximum satisfaction at
any given level of income) where the budget line is tangent to the indifference
curve, i.e. at point E on IC2.
2. At the point of equilibrium, the slope on indifference curve = slope of
the budget line.
At any given point on the budget line,

For example, at point E, the slope of budget line = intercept on y-axis /

intercept on x-axis
or, slope of budget line at point E = 3/6 = 1/2
The slope is 1/2 throughout the budget line.
From condition 1, we have known that consumer’s equilibrium exist at the
point on indifference curve where budget line is tangent to the curve.
Thus, at equilibrium point, slope of budget line is equal to slope of the
indifference curve.
3. Indifference curve should be convex to the point of origin
The other condition of equilibrium is that at the point of equilibrium,
indifference curve should be convex to the origin. It means that marginal
substitution rate between X and Y (MRSXY) should be diminishing. If
indifference curve is concave and not convex to the origin, then it will not be
the point of equilibrium.

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In the above figure, AB is a budget line tangent to IC curve at point E.
At point E, marginal rate of substitution is increasing instead of diminishing. It
means, by moving left or right of point E, a consumer can obtain higher
amount of either good X or good Y. Thus point E is not an equilibrium point.
A consumer will therefore be in equilibrium when at the point of tangency of
indifference curve and the budget line, the indifference curve is convex to the
origin.
As shown in the above figure, a consumer is in equilibrium at point E1
where budget line AB is tangent to the indifference curve IC1 which is
convex to the origin.

PRODUCTION FUNCTION
# MEANING & DEFINITION OF PRODUCTION FUNCTION
The Production Function shows the relationship between the quantity of
output and the different quantities of inputs used in the production process.
In other words, it means, the total output produced from the chosen quantity
of various inputs.

Generally, production is the transformation of raw material into the finished

goods. These raw materials are classified as land, labor, capital or natural
resources. These may be fixed or variable depending upon the nature of the
business.

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This function establishes the physical relationship between these inputs and
the output. The efficiency of this relationship depends on the different
quantities used in the production process, the quantities of output and the
productivity at each point. It can be shown algebraically:

Q = f( L, C, N )
Where Q = Quantity of

output L = Labour

C=

Capital N

= Land.

Hence, the level of output (Q), depends on the quantities of different inputs (L,
C, N) available to the firm. In the simplest case, where there are only two
inputs, labour (L) and capital (C) and one output (Q), the production function
becomes.

Q =f (L, C)

“Production function is the relationship between inputs of productive services

per unit of time and outputs of product per unit of time.” Prof. George J.
Stigler

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“The relationship between inputs and outputs is summarized in what is called
the production function. This is a technological relation showing for a given

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state of technological knowledge how much can be produced with given
amounts of inputs.” Prof. Richard J. Lipsey

# ASSUMPTIONS OF PRODUCTION FUNCTIONS

1. Perfect divisibility of both inputs and outputs

2. Limited substitution of one factor for another

3. Constant technology

4. Inelastic supply of fixed factors in the short run

# USES OF PRODUCTION FUNCTION

1. How to obtain Maximum output

2. Helps the producers to determine whether employing variable inputs /costs
are profitable
3. Highly useful in long run decisions
4. Least cost combination of inputs and to produce an output

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# CHARACTERISTICS OF PRODUCTION FUNCTION

The function has the following characteristics

1) Production function always relates to a particular period.

2) It shows maximum output secured by combining the available technical

knowledge with the factors of production.

3) It reveals all the possibilities of combination of different factors needed for

the purpose of production. Production function is necessary for a producer for
knowing the quantity of different factors and their prices.

4) It explains about the relationship between physical inputs and physical

output only. It did not mention the prices of these units.

5) The method of utilizing the inputs in production depends on the technical

knowledge.

6) The nature of production is determined by whether the factors of

production are completely divisible or indivisible. Constant returns does not
arise when the factors of production are divisible.

# CLASSIFICATION OF PRODUCTION FUNCTION

Production function may be classified into two:-

1. Short-run production function which is studied through Law of Variable

Proportions
2. Long-run production function which is explained by Returns to Scale

1. Short-run production function - The law of variable proportions

The law examines the relationship between one variable factor and output,
keeping the quantities of other factors fixed.
 Definition

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As the proportion of one factor in a combination of factors is increased, after a
point, first the marginal and then the average product of that factor will
diminish.
 Assumptions of the law
The law is based on the following assumptions
1) Only one factor is made variable and other factors are kept constant.
2) This law does not apply in case all factors are proportionately varied. i.e.
where the factors must be used in rigidly fixed proportions to yield a
product.
3) The variable factor units are homogenous i.e. all the units of variable
factors are of equal efficiency.
4) Input prices remain unchanged
5) The state of technology does not change or remains the same at a given
point of time.

6) The entire operation is only for short-run, as in the long-run all inputs
are variable.

 Three stages of law

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Stage I: Stage of increasing returns:-Stage I ends where the average product
reaches its highest (maximum) point. During this stage, the total product, the
average product and the marginal product are increasing. It is notable that the
marginal product in this stage increases but in a later part it starts declining.
Though marginal product starts declining, it is greater than the average product
so that the average product continues to rise.
Stage II: Stage of decreasing returns:-Stage II ends at the point where the
marginal product is zero. In the second stage, the total product continues to
increase but at a diminishing rate. The marginal product and the average
product are declining but are positive. At the end of the second stage, the total
product is maximum and the marginal product is zero.
Stage III: Stage of negative returns:-In this stage the marginal product
becomes negative. The total product and the average product are declining.

The stage of Operation:-In stage I the fixed factor is too much in relation to
the variable factor. Therefore in stage I, marginal product of the fixed factor is
negative. On the other hand, in stage III the marginal product of the variable
factor is negative. Therefore a rational producer will not choose to produce in
stages I and III. He will choose only the second stage to produce where the
marginal product of both the fixed factor and variable factor are positive. At this
stage the total product is maximum. The particular point at which the
producer will decide to produce in this stage depends upon the prices of
factors. The stage II represents the range of rational production decisions.
2. Long-run production function - Returns to Scale
In the long run, all factors can be changed. Returns to scale studies the
changes in output when all factors or inputs are changed. An increase in scale
means that all inputs or factors are increased in the same proportion.
 Three phases of returns to scale

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The changes in output as a result of changes in the scale can be studied in 3
phases. They are
1. Increasing returns to scale:-If the increase in all factors leads to a more
than proportionate increase in output, it is called increasing returns to scale.
For example, if all the inputs are increased by 5%, the output increases by
more than 5% i.e. by 10%. In this case the marginal product will be rising.
2. Constant returns to scale:-If we increase all the factors (i.e. scale) in a
given proportion, the output will increase in the same proportion i.e. a 5%
increase in all the factors will result in an equal proportion of 5% increase in
the output. Here the marginal product is constant.
3. Decreasing returns to scale:-If the increase in all factors leads to a less
than proportionate increase in output, it is called decreasing returns to scale
i.e. if all the factors are increased by 5%, the output will increase by less than
5% i.e. by 3%. In this phase marginal product will be decreasing.

# CONCEPT OF PRODUCTIVITY AND TECHNOLOGY

Factors of production typically include land, labour, capital, and natural

resources. These inputs are used directly to produce a good or service.
Technology, on the other hand, is used to put these factors of production to
work. A firm doesn’t purchase additional units of technology to feed into the
production process in the same way that a firm might hire more labour in
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order

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to increase output. Instead, the technology available in a particular industry or
economy allows firms to use labour and capital more or less efficiently. It is
important to note that advances in technology are a result of innovation,
innovative practices such as process changes are also worth mentioning in
this context. Innovation is the driving economic force behind these leaps in
efficiency.
Technological change is a term used to describe any change in the set of
feasible production possibilities. A change in technology alters the
combinations of inputs or the types of inputs required in the production
process. An improvement in technology usually means that fewer and/or less
costly inputs are needed. If the cost of production is lower, the profits
available at a given price will increase, and producers will produce more. With
more produced at every price, the supply curve will shift to the right, meaning
an increase in supply and a decrease in prices. For the economy as a whole, an
improvement in technology shifts the production possibilities frontier
outward.

Production Possibility Frontier (PPF): An increase in technology that allows for greater
output based upon the same inputs can be described as an outward shift of the PPF, as
demonstrated in this figure.

Production Possibility Frontier (PPF): An increase in technology that allows

for greater output based upon the same inputs can be described as an outward
shift of the PPF, as demonstrated in this figure.
The invention and popularization of the assembly line is an example of
process change, which is worth mentioning in context with technological
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change.

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Innovative practices to how we do this is an example of the way in which output
can be increased with the same input, and is often discussed in conjunction with
technological innovation. During the industrial revolution, many products that
had previously been created by hand by a single person or a team of
craftsmen began to be manufactured instead in factories in which each
worker performed one simple operation. This meant that companies could
produce much more output using the same amount of raw materials, capital,
and labour. Supply of these goods increased, and the production possibilities
curve for the entire economy shifted outwards.
Technological change in the computer industry has resulting in a shift of the
computer supply curve. Due to advances in technology, computers can now be
manufactured more cheaply, even though they continue to grow smaller,
faster, and more powerful. Producers respond to the cheaper production
process by increasing output, shifting the supply curve outwards. Thus, the
number of computers produced increases and the price of computers falls.

ISO-QUANT CURVE / ISO-PRODUCT CURVE

# ISO-QUANT / ISO-PRODUCT CURVE

The term Iso-quant or Iso-product is composed of two words, ISO = EQUAL,
QUANT = QUANTITY OR PRODUCT = OUTPUT.
Thus it means equal quantity or equal product. Different factors are needed to
produce a good. These factors may be substituted for one another.
A given quantity of output may be produced with different combinations of
factors. Iso-quant curves are also known as Equal-product or Iso-product or
Production Indifference curves. Since it is an extension of Indifference curve
analysis from the theory of consumption to the theory of production.
Thus, an Iso-product or Iso-quant curve is that curve which shows the
different combinations of two factors yielding the same total product. Like,
indifference curves, Iso- quant curves also slope downward from left to right.
The slope of an Iso-quant curve expresses the marginal rate of technical
substitution (MRTS).

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Definitions:-
“The Iso-product curves show the different combinations of two resources
with which a firm can produce equal amount of product.” Bilas
“Iso-product curve shows the different input combinations that will produce a
given output.” Samuelson
“An Iso-quant curve may be defined as a curve showing the possible
combinations of two variable factors that can be used to produce the same
total product.” Peterson
“An Iso-quant is a curve showing all possible combinations of inputs
physically capable of producing a given level of output.” Ferguson

# ASSUMPTIONS OF ISO-QUANT / ISO-PRODUCT CURVE

The main assumptions of Iso-quant curves are as follows:-
1. Two Factors of Production: - Only two factors are used to produce a
commodity.
2. Divisible Factor: Factors of production can be divided into small parts.
3. Constant Technique: - Technique of production is constant or is known
beforehand.
4. Possibility of Technical Substitution: - The substitution between the two
factors is technically possible. That is, production function is of ‘variable
proportion’ type rather than fixed proportion.
5. Efficient Combinations: - Under the given technique, factors of production
can be used with maximum efficiency.
# ISO-PRODUCT / ISO-QUANT SCHEDULE
Let us suppose that there are two factor inputs—labour and capital. An Iso-
product schedule shows the different combination of these two inputs that
yield the same level of output as shown in table 1.

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The table 1 shows that the five combinations of labour units and units of
capital yield the same level of output, i.e., 200 metres of cloth. Thus, 200 metre
cloth can be produced by combining.

(a) 1 units of labour and 15 units of capital

(b) 2 units of labour and 11 units of capital

(c) 3 units of labour and 8 units of capital

(d) 4 units of labour and 6 units of capital

(e) 5 units of labour and 5 units of capital

# ISO-PRODUCT / ISO-QUANT CURVE

From the above schedule Iso-product curve can be drawn with the help of a
diagram. An. equal product curve represents all those combinations of two
inputs which are capable of producing the same level of output.
The Fig. 1 showsthe various combinations of labour and capital which give
the same amount of output. A, B, C, D and E.

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# ISO-PRODUCT MAP OR EQUAL PRODUCT MAP
An Iso-product map shows a set of Iso-product curves. They are just like
contour lines which show the different levels of output. A higher Iso-product
curve represents a higher level of output.
In Fig. 2we have family Iso-product curves, each representing a particular
level of output.
The Iso-product map looks like the indifference of consumer behaviour
analysis. Each indifference curve represents particular level of satisfaction
which cannot be quantified. A higher indifference curve represents a higher
level of satisfaction but we cannot say by how much the satisfaction is more or
less. Satisfaction or utility cannot be measured.

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An Iso-product curve, on the other hand, represents a particular level of
output. The level of output being a physical magnitude is measurable. We can
therefore know the distance between two equal product curves. While
indifference curves are labelled as IC1, IC2, IC3, etc., the Iso-product curves
are labelled by the units of output they represent -100 metres, 200 metres,
300 metres of cloth and so on.

# PROPERTIES OF ISO-QUANT/ ISO-PRODUCT CURVES

The properties of Iso-product curves are summarized below:
1. Iso-Product Curves Slope Downward from Left to Right:-They slope
downward because MTRS of labour for capital diminishes. When we increase
labour, we have to decrease capital to produce a given level of output.
The downward sloping Iso-product curve can be explained with the help
of the following figure:

The Fig. 3 showsthat when the amount of labour is increased from OL to OL1,
the amount of capital has to be decreased from OK to OK1, The Iso-product
curve (IQ) is falling as shown in the figure.
The possibilities of horizontal, vertical, upward sloping curves can be ruled
out with the help of the following figure 4:

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(i) The figure (A) showsthat the amounts of both the factors of production
are increased- labour from L to Li and capital from K to K1. When the amounts
of both factors increase, the output must increase. Hence the IQ curve cannot
slope upward from left to right.
(ii) The figure (B) shows that the amount of labour is kept constant while
the amount of capital is increased. The amount of capital is increased from K
to K1. Then the output must increase. So IQ curve cannot be a vertical straight
line.
(iii) The figure (C) shows a horizontal curve. If it is horizontal the quantity of
labour increases, although the quantity of capital remains constant. When the
amount of capital is increased, the level of output must increase. Thus, an IQ
curve cannot be a horizontal line.
2. Isoquants are Convex to the Origin:-Like indifference curves, isoquants are
convex to the origin. In order to understand this fact, we have to understand
the concept of diminishing marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS),
because convexity of an isoquant implies that the MRTS diminishes along the
isoquant. The marginal rate of technical substitution between L and K is defined
as the quantity of K which can be given up in exchange for an additional unit
of
L. It can also be defined as the slope of an isoquant.
It can be expressed as:-MRTSLK = – ∆K/∆L = dK/ dL
Where ∆K is the change in capital and AL is the change in labour.
Equation (1) states that for an increase in the use of labour, fewer units of
capital will be used. In other words, a declining MRTS refers to the falling
marginal product of labour in relation to capital. To put it differently, as more
units of labour are used, and as certain units of capital are given up, the
marginal productivity of labour in relation to capital will decline.
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This fact can be explained in Fig. 5. As we move from point A to B, from B to
C and from C to D along an isoquant, the marginal rate of technical
substitution (MRTS) of capital for labour diminishes. Every time labour units
are increasing by an equal amount (AL) but the corresponding decrease in the
units of capital (AK) decreases.
Thus it may be observed that due to falling MRTS, the isoquant is always
convex to the origin.
3. Two Iso-Product Curves Never Cut Each Other: - As two indifference
curves cannot cut each other, two Iso-product curves cannot cut each other.
In Fig. 6, two Iso-product curves intersect each other. Both curves IQ1 and IQ2
represent two levels of output. But they intersect each other at point A. Then
combination A = B and combination A= C. Therefore B must be equal to C. This
is absurd. B and C lie on two different Iso-product curves. Therefore two
curves which represent two levels of output cannot intersect each other.

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4. Higher Iso-Product Curves Represent Higher Level of Output:-A higher
Iso-product curve represents a higher level of output as shown in the figure 7
given below:

In the Fig. 7,units of labour have been taken on OX axis while on OY, units of
capital. IQ1 represents an output level of 100 units whereas IQ2 represents
200 units of output.
5. Isoquants Need Not be parallel to Each Other: - It so happens because
the rate of substitution in different isoquant schedules need not be necessarily
equal. Usually they are found different and, therefore, isoquants may not be
parallel as shown in Fig. 8. We may note that the isoquants Iq1 and Iq2 are
parallel but the isoquants Iq3 and Iq4 are not parallel to each other.

6. No Isoquant can Touch Either Axis: - If an isoquant touches X-axis, it

would mean that the product is being produced with the help of labour alone
without
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using capital at all. These logical absurdities for OL units of labour alone are
unable to produce anything. Similarly, OC units of capital alone cannot
produce anything without the use of labour. Therefore as seen in figure 9, IQ
and IQ1 cannot be isoquants.

7. Each Isoquant is Oval-Shaped: - It means that at some point it begins to

recede from each axis. This shape is a consequence of the fact that if a
producer uses more of capital or more of labour or more of both than is
necessary, the total product will eventually decline. The firm will produce
only in those segments of the isoquants which are convex to the origin and lie
between the ridge lines. This is the economic region of production. In Figure
10, oval shaped isoquants are shown.

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Curves OA and OB are the ridge lines and in between them only feasible units
of capital and labour can be employed to produce 100, 200, 300 and 400 units
of the product.
For example, OT units of labour and ST units of the capital can produce 100
units of the product, but the same output can be obtained by using the same
quantity of labour T and less quantity of capital VT.
Thus only an unwise entrepreneur will produce in the dotted region of the
Iso- quant 100. The dotted segments of an isoquant are the waste- bearing
segments. They form the uneconomic regions of production. In the up dotted
portion, more capital and in the lower dotted portion more labour than
necessary is employed. Hence GH, JK, LM, and NP segments of the elliptical
curves are the isoquants.

LEAST-COST COMBINATION OF PRODUCTION

# MEANING OF LEAST-COST COMBINATION OF PRODUCTION
Least-Cost Combination- A rational firm would combine the various factors of
production its production function in such a way that with the minimum input
and maximum output is obtained at the minimum cost. Such a combination is
referred to as the least cost combination. The least cost combination of two
inputs (labour and capital in our example)
The problem of least-cost combination of factors refers to a firm getting the
largest volume of output from a given cost outlay on factors when they are
combined in an optimum manner.
In the theory of production, a producer will be in equilibrium when, given the
cost-price function, he maximizes his profits on the basis of the least-cost
combination of factor. For this he will choose that combination of factors
which maximizes his cost of production. This will be the optimum
combination for him.
# ASSUMPTIONS LEAST-COST COMBINATION
The assumptions on which this analysis is based are:
1) There are two factors. Capital and labour.
2) All units of capital and labour are homogeneous.

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3) The prices of factors of production are given and constant.
4) Money outlay at any time is also given.
5) Perfect competition is prevailing in the factor market.
# LEAST COST COMBINATION EQUATION
The least cost combination or optimum factor combination or producer’s
equilibrium is shown by an equation as follows:-
MP of Factor A/Price of factor A = MP of Factor B/Price of factor B =
MP of Factor C/Price of factor C
[Where MP is Marginal
Productivity]
The above equation explains that a producer substitutes the factor’s A, B and C
until their marginal productivity become equal. Here production costs will be
minimum. Such a combination of factors is known as optimum factor
combination. The optimum factor combination determines how factors of
production are allotted between different firms and industries.

# LEAST COST COMBINATION EQUATION

The least cost combination or optimum factor combination or producer’s
equilibrium is shown by an equation as follows:-
MP of Factor A/Price of factor A = MP of Factor B/Price of factor B =
MP of Factor C/Price of factor C
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 [Where MP is Marginal Productivity]
The above equation explains that a producer substitutes the factor’s A, B and C
until their marginal productivity become equal. Here production costs will be
minimum. Such a combination of factors is known as optimum factor
combination. The optimum factor combination determines how factors of
production are allotted between different firms and industries.
# LAW OF SUBSTITUTION
OR PRINCIPLE OF LEAST COST COMBINATION
The objective of profit maximization can be achieved by two ways, one by
increasing output and other by minimizing the cost. The minimization of cost
can be possible by deciding the use of more than one resource in
substitution of other resources.
The objective of factor-factor relationship is twofold:-
1) Minimization of cost at a given level of Output.
2) Optimization of output to the fixed factors through alternative resource
use combinations.
y =f (x1, x2, x3, x4..................xn)
Y is the function of x1 and x2 while other inputs are kept at constant. The
relationship can be better explained by the principle of least cost
combination.
# PRINCIPLE OF LEAST COST COMBINATION

A given level of output can be produced using many different combinations of

two variable inputs. In choosing between the two completing resources, the
saving in the resource replaced must be greater than the cost of resource added.
The principle of least cost combination states that if two factor inputs are
considered for a given output the least cost combination will be such where
their inverse price ratio is equal to their marginal rate of substitution.

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1. Marginal Rate of substitution (MRS): MRS is defined as the units of one
input factor that can be substituted for a single unit of the other input factor.
So MRS of x2 for one unit of x1 is

Number of unit of replaced resource (x2)

MRS =——————————————————–
Number of unit of added resource (x1)

2. Price Ratio (PR) =

Cost per unit of added resource

(x1) PR=
————————————————–
Cost per unit of replaced resource (x2)

Price of x1
PR= —————
Price of x2
Therefore the least cost combination of two inputs can be obtained by
equating MRS with inverse price ratio.
i.e. x2 * Px2 = x1 * Px1

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# LEAST COST COMBINATION EXPLANATION &DIAGRAM

On the basis of given prices of factors of production and given money outlay
we draw a line A, B.

The firm cannot choose and neither combination beyond line AB nor will it
chooses any combination below this line. AB is known as the factor price line
or cost outlay line or iso-cost line. It is an iso-cost line because it represents
various combinations of inputs that may be purchased for the given amount of
money allotted. The slope of AB shows the price ratio of capital and labour, i.e.,
By combining the isoquants and the factor-price line, we can find out the
optimum combination of factors. Fig. illustrates this point.

In the Fig. equal product curves IQ 1, IQ2 and IQ3 represent outputs of 1,000
units, 2,000 units and 3,000 units respectively. AB is the factor-price line. At
point E the factor-price line is tangent to iso-quant IQ2 representing 2,000
units of output. Iso-qunat IQ3 falls outside the factor-price line AB and,
therefore, cannot be chosen by the firm. On the other hand, iso-quant IQ, will
not be preferred by the firm even though between R and S it falls within the
factor- price line. Points R and S are not suitable because output can be
increased without increasing additional cost by the selection of a more
appropriate input combination. Point E, therefore, is the ideal combination
which maximizes output or minimizes cost per units: it is the point at which
the firm is in equilibrium.

#LIMITATIONS OF PRINCIPLE OF LEAST COST COMBINATION

There are certain limitations to the principle of least cost combination.

136 | P a g e
1) All the factors of production are not perfectly divisible. Substitution of
factors is not possible in the case of such factors.
2) It is not possible to estimate correctly the marginal productivity of every
factor of production.
3) The producer has to determine not only the optimum combination of
factors but also the optimum returns to scale. So it becomes a difficult task for
him to arrive at a least cost combinations of factors.

PRODUCER EQUILIBRIUM
# INTRODUCTION
PRODUCER Creator of Utility is known as a Producer. A person who converts
inputs into outputs.

PROFIT The ultimate aim of any firm is to earn the maximum profit. Profit
refers to the excess of revenue over cost.

Profit refers to the excess of receipts from the sale of goods over the
expenditure incurred on producing them.

The amount received from the sale of goods is known as ‘revenue’ and the
expenditure on production of such goods is termed as ‘cost’. The difference
between revenue and cost is known as ‘profit’.

For example,if a firm sells goods for Rs. 10 crores after incurring an
expenditure of Rs. 7 crores, then profit will be Rs. 3 crores. 2

Profit = TR – TC [Where R = Revenue & C = Cost]

EQUILIBRIUM Equilibrium refers to a state of rest when no change is

required. A firm [Producer] is said to be in equilibrium when it has no
inclination to expand or to contract its output. This state is either reflects
maximum profits or minimum losses.

 MEANING OF PRODUCER’S EQUILIBRIUM

Equilibrium refers to a state of rest when no change is required. A firm
(producer) is said to be in equilibrium when it has no inclination to expand or

137 | P a g e
to contract its output. This state either reflects maximum profits or minimum
losses.
The ultimate aim of any firm is to earn the maximum profit possible. Producer
equilibrium is the situation of PROFIT – MAXIMISATION. At equilibrium, the
firm has the maximum level of output being produced and earning the
maximum profit out the same. It is the equilibrium level of output which the
producer will produce at MINIMUM COSTand sell to earn MAXIMUM
PROFIT.

# METHODS OF PRODUER EQUILIBRIUM

There are two methods for determination of Producer’s Equilibrium:

1. Total Revenue and Total Cost Approach (TR-TC Approach)

2. Marginal Revenue and Marginal Cost Approach (MR-MC Approach)

1. Total Revenue-Total Cost Approach (TR-TC Approach):- A firm attains

the stage of equilibrium when it maximises its profits, i.e. when he maximises
the difference between TR and TC. After reaching such a position, there will be
no incentive for the producer to increase or decrease the output and the
producer will be said to be at equilibrium.
According to TR-TC approach, producer’s equilibrium refers to stage of that
output level at which the difference between TR and TC is positively
maximized and total profits fall as more units of output are produced. So, two
essential conditions for producer’s equilibrium are:-

The difference between TR and TC is positively

maximized; Total profits fall after that level of output.

TR >TC ( TR CURVE LIES ABOVE TC CURVE)

The first condition is an essential condition. But, it must be supplemented

with the second condition. So, both the conditions are necessary to attain the
producer’s equilibrium.

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A. Producer’s Equilibrium (When Price remains Constant)
When price remains same at all output levels (like in case of perfect
competition), each producer aims to produce that level of output at which he
can earn maximum profits, i.e. when difference between TR and TC is the
maximum. Let us understand this with the help of Table 8.1, where market
price is fixed at Rs. 10 per unit:

Table 8.1: Producer’s Equilibrium (When Price remains Constant):

Output Price TR TC Profit = Remarks

(units) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) TR-TC
(Rs.)
0 10 0 5 -5 Profit rises
1 10 10 8 2 with increase
2 10 20 15 5 in output
3 10 30 21 9
4 10 40 31 9 Producer’s Equilibrium
5 10 50 42 8 Profit falls with
6 10 60 54 6 increase in output

According to Table 8.1, the maximum profit of Rs. 9 can be achieved by

producing either 3 units or 4 units. But, the producer will be at equilibrium at
4 units of output because at this level, both the conditions of producer’s
equilibrium are satisfied:

1. Producer is earning maximum profit of Rs. 9;

2. Total profit falls to Rs. 8 after 4 units of output.

In Fig. 8.1, Producer’s equilibrium will be determined at P OQ level of output

at which the vertical distance between TR and TC curves is the greatest. At
this level of output, tangent to TC curve (at point G) is parallel to TR curve and
difference between both the curves (represented by distance GH) is
maximum.

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At quantities smaller or larger than OQ, such as OQ1 or OQ2 units, the tangent
to TC curve would not be parallel to the TR curve. So, the producer is at
equilibrium at OQ units of output.

B. Producer’s Equilibrium (When Price Falls with rise in output):

When price falls with rise in output (like in case of imperfect competition),
each producer aims to produce that level of output at which he can earn
maximum profits, i.e. when difference between TR and TC is the maximum.
Let us understand this with the help of Table 8.2:

Table 8.2: Producer’s Equilibrium (When Price Falls with rise in output):

Output Price TR TC Profit = Remarks

(units) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) TR-TC
(Rs.)
0 10 0 2 -2 Profit rises
1 9 9 5 4 with increase
2 8 16 9 7 in output
3 7 21 11 10
4 6 24 14 10 Producer’s Equilibrium
5 5 25 20 5 Profit falls with
6 4 24 27 -3 increase in output

As seen in Table 8.2, producer will be at equilibrium at 4 units of output because

at this level, both the conditions of producer’s equilibrium are satisfied:

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Producer is earning maximum profit of Rs. 10;

Total profits fall to Rs. 5 after 4 units of

output.

In Fig. 8.2, producer’s equilibrium will be determined at OQ level of output at

which the vertical distance between TR and TC curves is the greatest. At this
level of output, tangent to TR curve (at point H) is parallel to the tangent to TC
curve (at point G) and difference between both the curves (represented by
distance GH) is maximum.

2. Marginal Revenue-Marginal Cost Approach (MR-MC Approach):

According to MR-MC approach, producer’s equilibrium refers to stage of that
output level at which:

1. MC = MR:-As long as MC is less than MR, it is profitable for the producer to

go on producing more because it adds to its profits. He stops producing more
only when MC becomes equal to MR.

2. MC is greater than MR after MC = MR output level:- When MC is greater

than MR after equilibrium, it means producing more will lead to decline in
profits.

Both the conditions are needed for Producer’s Equilibrium:-

1. MC = MR:-We know, MR is the addition to TR from sale of one more unit of
output and MC is addition to TC for increasing production by one unit. Every
producer aims to maximize the total profits. For this, a firm compares it’s MR
with its MC. Profits will increase as long as MR exceeds MC and profits will fall
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if MR is less than MC.

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So, equilibrium is not achieved when MC < MR as it is possible to add to
profits by producing more. Producer is also not in equilibrium when MC > MR
because benefit is less than the cost. It means, the firm will be at equilibrium
when MC
– MR.

2. MC is greater than MR after MC = MR output level:-MC = MR is a

necessary condition, but not sufficient enough to ensure equilibrium. It is
because MC = MR may occur at more than one level of output. However, out of
these, only that output level is the equilibrium output when MC becomes
greater than MR after the equilibrium.
It is because if MC is greater than MR, then producing beyond MC = MR output
will reduce profits. On the other hand, if MC is less than MR beyond MC = MR
output, it is possible to add to profits by producing more. So, first condition
must be supplemented with the second condition to attain the producer’s
equilibrium.

A. Producer’s Equilibrium (When Price remains Constant):- When price

remains constant, firms can sell any quantity of output at the price fixed by the
market. Price or AR remains same at all levels of output. Also, the revenue
from every additional unit (MR) is equal to AR. It means, AR curve is same as
MR curve. Producer aims to produce that level of output at which MC is equal
to MR and MC is greater than MR after MC = MR output level.

Let us understand this with the help of Table 8.3, where market price is fixed
at Rs. 12 per unit:

Table 8.3: Producer’s Equilibrium (When Price remains Constant)

Output Price TR TC MR MC Profit =
(units) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) TR-TC
(Rs.)
1 12 12 13 12 13 -1
2 12 24 25 12 12 -1
3 12 36 34 12 9 2
4 12 48 42 12 8 6
5 12 60 54 12 12 6
6 12 72 68 12 14 4

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According to Table 8.3, MC = MR condition is satisfied at both the output levels
of 2 units and 5 units. But the second condition, ‘MC becomes greater than MR’
is satisfied only at 5 units of output. Therefore, Producer’s Equilibrium will be
achieved at 5 units of output. Let us now discuss determination of equilibrium
with the help of a diagram:

Producer’s Equilibrium is determined at OQ level of output corresponding to

point K as at this point:- (i) MC = MR; and (ii) MC is greater than MR after MC
= MR output level.

In Fig. 8.3, output is shown on the X-axis and revenue and costs on the Y-axis.
Both AR and MR curves are straight line parallel to the X-axis. MC curve is U-
shaped. Producer’s equilibrium will be determined at OQ level of output
corresponding to point K because only at point K, the following two conditions
are met:

1. MC = MR; and
2. MC is greater than MR after MC = MR output level

Although MC = MR is also satisfied at point R, but it is not the point of

equilibrium as it satisfies only the first condition (i.e. MC = MR). So, the
producer will be at equilibrium at point K when both the conditions are
satisfied.

Relation between Price and MC at Equilibrium (When Price remains

Constant):
When price remains same at all levels of output, then Price (or AR) = MR. As
equilibrium is achieved when MC = MR, it means, price is equal to MC at the
equilibrium level. For, “Gross Profits are Maximum at Point of Producer’s
Equilibrium”, refer Power Booster Section.

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B. Producer’s Equilibrium (When Price Falls with rise in output):-When
there is no fixed price and price falls with rise in output, MR curve slope
downwards. Producer aims to produce that level of output at which MC is
equal to MR and MC curve cuts the MR curve from below. Let us understand
this with the help of Table 8.4:
Table 8.4: Producer’s Equilibrium (When Price Falls with rise in output):
Output Price TR TC MR MC Profit =
(units) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) TR-TC
(Rs.)
1 8 8 6 8 6 2
2 7 14 11 6 5 3
3 6 18 15 4 4 3
4 5 20 20 2 .5 0
5 4 20 26 0 6 -6

According to Table 8.4, both the conditions of equilibrium are satisfied at 3

units of output. MC is equal to MR and MC is greater than MR when more
output is produced after 3 units of output. So, Producer’s Equilibrium will be
achieved at 3 units of output. Let us understand the determination of
equilibrium with the help of a diagram:

Producer’s Equilibrium is determined at OM level of output corresponding to

point E as at this point: (i) MC = MR; and (ii) MC is greater than MR after MC =
MR output level.

In Fig. 8.4, output is shown on the X-axis and revenue and costs on the Y-axis.
Producer’s equilibrium will be determined at OM level of output
corresponding to point E because at this, the following two conditions are
met:

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1. MC = MR; and

2. MC is greater than MR after MC = MR output level.

So, the producer is at equilibrium at OM units of

output.

Relation between Price and MC at Equilibrium (When Price Falls with

rise in output):
When more output can be sold only by reducing the prices, then Price (or AR)
> MR. As equilibrium is achieved when MC = MR, it means, price is more than
MC at the equilibrium level.

RETURN TO SCALE
# MEANING OF RETURN TO SCALE
Law of Returns to Scale In the long run all factors of production are variable.
No factor is fixed. Accordingly, the scale of production can be changed by
changing the quantity of all factors of production.

“The term returns to scale refers to the changes in output as all factors change
by the same proportion.” Koutsoyiannis

“Returns to scale relates to the behaviour of total output as all inputs are
varied and is a long run concept”.Leibhafsky

# ASSUMPTIONS OF RETURN TO SCALE

1) All the factors of production are variable. (such as land, labour, capital)
2) Technology remains constant.
3) Outputs are measured in physical terms.
4) The market is perfectly competitive.

# EXPLANATION OF RETURN TO SCALE

In the long run, output can be increased by increasing all factors in the same
proportion. Generally, laws of returns to scale refer to an increase in output due
to increase in all factors in the same proportion. Such an increase is called

146 | P a g e
returns to scale.

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Suppose, initially production function is as follows:-P = f (L,

K) Now,

1) if both the factors of production i.e., labour and capital are increased in
same proportion i.e., x, product function will be rewritten as Production
Function P=𝒇(𝑳, 𝑪)
2) If both factors of production labour and capital are Increased in same
proportion i.e., x, production function will be rewritten as P1=𝒇(𝒙𝑳, 𝒙𝑪)
3) If 𝑷𝟏 increases in the same proportion as the increase in factors of
production i.e. 𝑷𝟏/𝑷 =x, it will be constant return to scale
4) If 𝑷𝟏 increases less than the proportionate increase in the factors of
production i.e. 𝑷𝟏/𝑷<x, it will be diminishing return to scale.
5) If 𝑷𝟏 increases more than proportionate increase in the factors of
production i.e., 𝑷𝟏 /𝑷<x, it will be increasing return to scale.

# EXAMPLE OF RETURN TO SCALE:-

Barry’s barbershop was experiencing what it thought was overwhelming

customer purchases. In one week the shop served 250 clients. To capitalize on
this market, Barry hired 2 additional barbers, which gave him a total of 10
barbers. In this case the barbers were the input of resource, increased by
25%.
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As a result, the barbershop experienced average weekly sales of 320 for the
next five weeks, an increase in output of 28%, increasing returns to scale. If
instead the barbershop had made 225 sales after the increase in input, it
would have experienced decreasing returns to scale.

# TYPES OF RETURN TO SCALE

TYPES OF RETURN TO SCALE

INCREASING RETURNSCONSTANT
TO SCALE RETURNS
DIMINISHING
TO SCALE RETURNS TO SCALE

1. Increasing Returns to Scale:-Increasing returns to scale or diminishing cost

refers to a situation when all factors of production are increased, output
increases at a higher rate. It means if all inputs are doubled, output will
also increase at the faster rate than double. Hence, it is said to be
increasing returns to scale. This increase is due to many reasons like division
external economies of scale. Increasing returns to scale can be illustrated
with the help of a diagram 8.

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In figure 8, OX axis represents increase in labour and capital while OY axis
shows increase in output. When labour and capital increases from Q to Q1,
output also increases from P to P1 which is higher than the factors of
production i.e. labour and capital.

 Causes of Increasing Returns to Scale

1) Technical and managerial indivisibilities
2) Higher degree of specialization
3) Dimensional relations.

2. Constant Returns to Scale:-Constant returns to scale or constant cost

refers to the production situation in which output increases exactly in the
same proportion in which factors of production are increased. In simple
terms, if factors of production are doubled output will also be doubled.

In this case internal and external economies are exactly equal to internal and
external diseconomies. This situation arises when after reaching a certain
level of production, economies of scale are balanced by diseconomies of scale.
This is known as homogeneous production function. Cobb-Douglas linear
homogenous production function is a good example of this kind.

150 | P a g e
 Causes of Constant Returns to Scale
1) Indivisibility of fixed factors.
2) When the factors of production are perfectly divisible, the production
function is homogenous of degree 1 showing constant returns to scale.

3. Diminishing Returns to Scale:- Diminishing returns or increasing costs

refer to that production situation, where if all the factors of production are
increased in a given proportion, output increases in a smaller proportion. It
means, if inputs are doubled, output will be less than doubled.

For Example:-If 20 percent increase in labour and capital is followed by 10

percent increase in output, then it is an instance of diminishing returns to
scale.

In this diagram 9, diminishing returns to scale has been shown. On OX axis,

labour and capital are given while on OY axis, output. When factors of
production increase from Q to Q1 (more quantity) but as a result increase in
output, i.e. P to P1 is less. We see that increase in factors of production is more
and increase in production is comparatively less, thus diminishing returns to
scale apply.

 Causes of Diminishing Returns to Scale

1) Size of the firms expands, managerial efficiency decreases.
2) Limited resources.

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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LAW OF RETURN AND RETURN TO SCALE

# IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:-

 Short Questions (2 marks)

Q1. Define Indifference Curve?

Q2. Productivity and Technology.

Q3. Consumer Equilibrium.

Q4. Define Production Function.
Q5. Define Return to Scale?
Q6. Define Producer Equilibrium?

152 | P a g e
Q7. Isoquant.

 Long Questions (10 marks)

Q1:- What Is Indifference Curve Analysis? Write Detailed Note On Consumer

Equilibrium?

Q2:- What Is Indifference Curve Analysis? Explain Its Assumptions, Properties,

and Importance& Limitations?

Q3:-What Is Production Function? Discuss Its Features, Classification & Why

Production & Technology Is Important?

Q4:-Define Isoquant Curve? Explain Its Properties & Limitations?

Q5:-Define Producer Equilibrium? Discuss Its Conditions & Methods?

Q6:-Write The Detailed Note On Least Cost Combination Of Production Function?

Q7:-Define Return To Scale? Discuss Its Types & Difference Between Laws Of
Return & Return To Scale?

===================================
UNIT-III
THEORY OF COST
# MEANING OF THEORY OF COST
CONCEPT OF COST:-Cost is defined as those expenses faced by a business in
the process of supplying goods and services to consumers.

The expenses incurred in the business activity of supplying goods and

services to consumers are defined as cost. In economics, the value of the price
of an object or condition is the cost of production which is determined by the
total cost of resources employed for producing it. The composition of the cost
is the

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factors of production that includes labour, land, capital and entrepreneur as
well as taxation.

According to Campbell,’’ Production costs are those which must be received

by resource owners in order to assume that they will continue to supply them
in a particular time of production.’’

# TYPES OF COST

1) Opportunity Cost And Actual Cost:- Opportunity Cost is the loss of

earnings due to lost opportunities. The opportunity cost may be defined as the
loss of expected returns from the second use of the resources foregone for
availing the gains from their best possible use.

Actual cost is those, which are actually incurred by the payment of labour,
material, plant building, machinery, etc. The total money expenses, recorded
in the books of accounts are the actual cost.

2) Direct Cost and Indirect Cost: Direct Costs are the costs that have direct
relationship with a unit of operation, i.e. , they can be easily and directly
identified or attributed to a particular product, operation or plant.

For Example: the salary for a branch manager is a direct cost when the
branch is a costing unit.

Indirect cost is those cost whose source cannot be easily and definitely
traced to a plant, a product, a process or a department. For example:
Stationery, depreciation on building, decoration expenses etc.

3) Incremental Cost And Sunk Cost: Incremental cost denote the total
additional cost associated with the marginal batch of output. These costs are
addition to the costs resulting from a change in the nature and level of
business activity.

A sunk cost is a cost that an entity has incurred, and which it can no longer
recover by any means. Sunk costs should not be considered when making the
decision to continue investing in an ongoing project, since these costs cannot
be recovered.

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For Example : A company spends $20,000 to train its sales staff in the use of
new tablet computers, which they will use to take customer orders. The
computers prove to be unreliable, and the sales manager wants to discontinue
their use. The training is a sunk cost, and so should not be considered in any
decision regarding the computers.

4) Explicit Cost And Implicit Cost: Explicit costs are those payments that must
be made to the factors hired from outside the control of the firm. They are
mandatory payments made by the entrepreneur for purchasing or hiring the
services of various productive factors which do not belongs to him. Such
payment as rent, wages, interest, etc.

Implicit costs refers to the payment made to the self owned resources used
in production. They are the earnings of owner’s resources employed in their
best alternatives.

5) Historical Cost And Replacement Cost: The historical cost is the actual cost
of an asset incurred at the time the asset was acquired. It means the cost of plant
at a price originally paid for it.

In contrast, replacement cost means the price that would have be paid
currently for acquiring paid for it. So historical costs are the past costs and
replacement costs are present costs.

For Example, suppose that the price of a machine in 2003 was Rs. 200000
and its present price is Rs. 500000, the actual cost of Rs. 200000 is the
historical cost while Rs. 500000 is the replacement cost.

6) Urgent Cost and Postponable Cost: Urgent costs are those costs that are
necessary for the continuation of the firm’s activities. The cost of raw
materials, labour, fuel, etc., may be its examples which have to be incurred
if production is to take place.

The cost which can be postponed for some time, i.e., whose postponement
does not effect the operational efficiency of the firm are called Postponable
costs.

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For example: Maintenance costs can be postponed for the time being.

7) Shut down Costs and Abandonment Costs: Shut down costs may be those
which would be incurred in the event of a temporary cessation of business
activities and which could be saved if operations are continued. Shut down
cost, in addition to fixed cost, covers the additional expenses in looking after
the property till not disposed off.

Abandonment costs on the other hand, are the cost of retiring a fixed asset
from its use. If, for example, the costs related to discontinuance of a plant.
Therefore, abandonment, thus involves permanent cessation of activity.

8) Fixed Costs and Variable Costs: Fixed costs are those, which are fixed in
volume for a certain given output. Fixed cost does not vary with the variation
in the output between zero and a certain level of output. The costs that do not
vary for a certain level of output are known as fixed cost. The fixed costs
include: i)Cost of managerial and administrative staff, ii) Depreciation of
machinery iii) Maintenance of land etc.

Variable costs are those, which vary with the variation in the total output.
Variable costs include cost of raw materials, direct labour charges, etc.

9) Total Cost, Average Cost, and Marginal Cost:

Total Cost (TC) represents the value of the total resources requirements for
the production of goods and services.

Average Costs (AC) It is obtained by dividing the total costs (TC) by the total
output (Q), i.e. AC= TC/Q

Marginal Costs (MC) is the addition to the total cost on account of producing
and additional unit of the product or, marginal cost is the cost of marginal unit
produced. It may be defined as: MC= TC/ Q

10) Short Run Costs and Long Run Costs: Short run cost is the cost, which
vary with the variations in output, the size of the firm remains the same.

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Long run cost, in the other hand, are the cost, which are incurred on the
fixed asset, like plant, building, etc. such costs have long run implications, the
long run simply refers to a period of time during which all inputs can be
varied.

# COST FUNCTION

The concept of cost function refers to mathematical relation between cost of a

product and the various determinants of cost. In cost function the dependent
variable is unit cost or total cost and the independent variable are the price of
factor, the size of the output or nay other relevant phenomenon.

C = f (O, S, T, P,…)

C = Cost O = Level of Output S = Size of Plant T = Time under Consideration P =

Price of the factor of production

# DETERMINANTS OF COST FUNCTION

1. Level of Output: There is positive relationship between total output and

total cost. As the output increases the total cost also increases. The cost may
rise or fall by different rates in different periods of time.

2. Size of Plant: Size of plant or scale of operation is inversely related to cost.

As the scale of operation increases the cost declines but only up to a certain
point.

3. Price of Inputs: The cost also depends on the price of factors of production.
Any increase in prices of input will also increase the cost.

4. Managerial Efficiency: Managerial efficiency has direct bearing on cost

function. With the increase inefficiency the cost declines and productivity
increases, and economies the cost.

5. State of Technology: State of technology also influences the cost. Better

the technology better is the technological efficiency. How best we can produce
with the available technology determines the level of costs.

6. Time under Consideration:

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# COST OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP

The theory of cost deals with the behaviour of cost in relation to change in
output. In other words, the cost theory deals with the cost output relationship.
The basic principle of the cost behaviour is that the total cost increases with
the increase in output. But the specific form of cost function depends on
whether the time framework chosen for cost analysis is short – run or long –
run. It is important to know that some costs remain constant in the short run
while all costs are variable in the long run.

I. COST OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP IN THE SHORT - RUN

Short run is the period wherein only some of the factors are held constant and
some are variable. Therefore, the costs associated with both fixed and variable
inputs form part of the short period costs.

Short – Run Total Cost:- TC = TFC + TVC

The costs which are found in the short period:

1) Total Fixed Cost
2) Total Variable Cost
3) Total Cost
4) Average Cost: - a) Average Variable Cost b) Average Fixed Cost c) Average
Total Cost 5) Marginal Cost

1. TOTAL FIXED COST (TFC):-Total fixed cost is the sum of fixed cost which
remains same irrespective of the level of output. This is the expenditure
incurred by the firm on the fixed factors of production.
For example, the money incurred on land, building, machinery, etc. remains
the same whatever is the amount of output.
They are also called Overhead Costs.

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2. TOTAL VARIABLE COST (TVC):- Total variable costs are those costs of
production that change directly with output. They rises when output
increases, and falls when output declines. If there is no output the total
variable cost will be zero. They include expenses on raw materials, power,
taxes, advertising, etc.

Marshall has called variable cost as ‘Prime Cost’ or ‘Avoidable Cost’.

In the short run cost diagram shows that total variable cost varies directly
with the volume of output. TVC curve starts from the origin, upto a certain
range it remains concave from below and then it becomes convex. If taken
from a different angle we can say that initially the variable cost rises but with
diminished rate and later the variable cost rises with increased rate. This makes
the TVS curve inversely S-shaped.

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3. TOTAL COST (TC):-Total costs are the total expenses incurred by a firm in
producing a given quantity of a commodity. When we add TFC and TVC it
becomes total cost (TC).

They include payment for rent, interest, wages, and expenses on raw
materials, electricity, water, etc.

RELATION BETWEEN TFC, TVC AND TC

In order to determine the total costs of a firm, we aggregate fixed as well as

variable costs at different levels of output i.e.

1) TC = TFC + TVC
2) TFC = TC – TVC
3) TVC = TC – TFC

In the figure TFC is parallel to X-axis. This curve starts from the point on the Y-
axis meaning thereby that fixed cost will be incurred even if the output is zero.

On the other hand, total variable cost curve rises upward showing thereby
that as output increases, total variable cost also increases. This curve starts
from the origin which shows that when the output is zero, variable costs are
also nil.

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The total cost curve has been obtained by adding vertically total fixed cost curve
and total variable cost.

4. AVERAGE COST:- The concept of average cost is more relevant from the
point of view of a firm because per unit cost helps in explaining the pricing of
a product in a better way rather than the total cost.

The concept of average cost is divided in to two”

(a) Average Fixed Cost
(b) Average Variable Cost

(a) AVERAGE FIXED COST:- Average fixed cost is the total fixed cost divided
by the number of units of output produced. Thus:-

Since, total fixed cost is a constant quantity, average fixed cost will steadily fall
as output increases, thus, the average fixed cost curve slopes downward
throughout the length.

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In Figure the average fixed cost curve slopes downward with a view to touch
the horizontal axis. But it will not be so because AFC can never be zero. Thus,
it is clear that as output increases, average fixed costs go on diminishing.

(b) AVERAGE VARIABLE COST:- Average variable cost is the total

variable cost divided by the number of units of output produced.

AVC = TVC / Q

AVC = Average variable

costs. TVC = Total variable
costs
Q = Output
Generally, the AVC falls as output increases from zero to the normal capacity
output due to the law of increasing returns. But beyond the normal capacity
output, the AVC will rise steeply because of the operation of the law of
diminishing returns.

In Figure the average variable cost curve assumes the U- shape. Initially, the
AVC curve falls, after having the minimum point the curve starts rising.

AVERAGE TOTAL COST/ AVERAGE COST:- “The average cost of production

is the total cost per unit of output.” In other words average cost of production
is the total cost of production divided by the total number of units produced.

Suppose, the total cost of producing 500 units is Rs.

1000, the average cost will be:- AC=TC/Q

AC=1000/500= 2

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5. MARGINAL COST: -Marginal cost is an addition to the total cost caused by
producing one more unit of output. For instance, the total cost for the
production of 100 units is Rs. 5000. Suppose the production of one more unit
costs Rs. 5000. It will be called the marginal cost.

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 II. COST OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP IN LONG - RUN

Long run means time period long enough to make the entire productive
factors variable In the long run all factors of production become variable. The
entrepreneur has number of choices to change the plant size and level of output.
The long run cost curve is also known as planning curve. The long run average
cost curves is derived from short run average cost curves.

Long run average cost is also known as :-

1) Envelope Cost: It is also known as “envelope cost” because it encloses all

short run average cost curves. The curve is created as an envelope of an
infinite number of short-run average total cost curves.

2) Planning Curve: With the help of this curve a firm can plan as to which
plant it should use to produce different quantities, so that production is
obtained at the minimum cost.

The LRAC curve is U-shaped, reflecting economies of scale when it is negatively-

sloped and diseconomies of scale when it is positively sloped.

In some industries, the LRAC is L-shaped, and economies of scale increase

indefinitely. Initially the long-run average cost rapidly falls but after a point it
remains flat throughout or at its right-hand end it may even slope gently
downward.

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LONG RUN AVERAGE COST CURVE

if the anticipated rate of output is 200 units per unit of time, the firm will choose
the smallest plant It will build the scale of plant given by SAC1 and operate it
at point A. This is because of the fact that at the output of 200 units, the cost
per unit is lowest with the plant size 1 which is the smallest of all the four
plants.

In case, the volume of sales expands to 400, units, the size of the plant will be
increased and the desired output will be attained by the scale of plant
represented by SAC2 at point B.

If the anticipated output rate is 600 units, the firm will build the size of plant
given by SAC3 and operate it at point C where the average cost is $26 and also
the lowest The optimum output of the firm is obtained at point C on the medium
size plant SAC3.

If the anticipated output rate is 1000 per unit of time the firm would build the
scale of plant given by SAC5and operate it at point E.

If we draw a tangent to each of the short run cost curves, we get the long
average cost (LAC) curve. The LAC is U-shaped but is flatter than tile short run
cost curves. Mathematically expressed, the long-run average cost curve is the
envelope of the SAC curves.

In this figure , the long-run average cost curve of the firm is lowest at point C.
CM is the minimum cost at which optimum output OM can be, obtained.

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 MODERN THEORY OF COST
# MODERN THEORY OF COST

Modern economists including Stigler, Andrews and Friedman have questioned

the validity of U-shaped cost curves both theoretical as well as on empirical
grounds. Also the long run costs in modern theory are not U- shaped but L-
shaped.

The Modern theory suggests the existence of ‘built- in- reserve capacity ‘which
imparts flexibility and enables the plant to produce larger output without
adding to the costs. Built –in- reserve capacity are planned by firms.

The short-run cost curve has a saucer- type shape whereas the long-run
Average cost curve is either L-Shaped or inverse J-shaped.

The Modern theory of cost stresses on the role of economies of scale, which
significantly enables the firm to continue production at the lowest point of
average cost for a considerable period of time. The firm checks dis-economies
of scale by planning in advance and enjoys the gains of production in
comparison to the traditional theory where the average cost rises after the
firm reaches the optimal level of output.

# TYPES OF COSTS AS PER MODERN THEORY

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 A. SHORT RUN COST UNDER MODERN THEORY

1. AVERAGE FIXED COST:- The fixed costs include the costs for:-
1. The salaries and other expenses of administrative staff.
2. The wear and tear of machinery.
3. The expenses for maintenance of building.
4. The expenses for the maintenance of land on which the plant is installed
or operates.

As in the traditional theory of cost, the average fixed costs in modern

microeconomics, also plots as a rectangular hyperbola. This is shown as
follows:

2. AVERAGE VARIABLE COST:-In modern theory, Average variable cost is

not U shaped rather it is saucer shaped and has a flat stretch over a range
of output. This flat stretch represents the ‘built in reserve capacity’ of the
firm to meet seasonal and cyclical changes in the demand. The average
variable cost curve is as follows:

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3. AVERAGE COST:-The short-run Average costs consist of the Average fixed
costs and Average variable costs. The short-run average variable cost curve
at each level of output. The smooth and continuous fall in the average cost
curve is due to the fact that the AFC curve is a rectangular hyperbola and
the AVC curve first falls and then becomes horizontal within the range of
reserve capacity. Beyond that it starts rising steeply. The curve of average
cost is as follows:

4. MARGINAL COST:-Another concept to learn in short-run average costs is

Marginal Cost. Marginal cost is the addition made to the cost of production by
producing an additional unit of the output. In simpler words, it is the total cost
of producing t units instead of t-1 units.

Let’s look at an example to understand this better:

A firm produces 5 units at a total cost of Rs. 200. For some reasons, it is
required to produce 6 units instead of 5 and the total cost is Rs. 250.
Therefore, the marginal cost is Rs. 250 – Rs. 200 = Rs. 50.

A note about marginal costs: It is independent of fixed costs. This is because fixed
costs do not change with the output. On the other hand, in the short run, the
variable costs change with the output. Hence, marginal costs are due to
changes in variable costs. Therefore,

MC=ΔTCΔQMC=ΔTCΔQ… where ΔTC is the change in the total cost and ΔQ is

the change in the output. This equation can also be written as:
MCn = TCn – TCn-1

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In the Fig. 1 above, you can see that the MC curve falls as the output increases
in the beginning and starts rising after a certain level of the output. This is
because of the influence of the law of variable proportions. Since the marginal
product rises first, reaches a maximum and then declines, the marginal costs
decline first, reaches its minimum and then rises.

The following table outlines the behaviour of all these costs:

Units Tota Averag

Total Tota Averag Averag
of l e Margina
variabl l e fixed e total
outpu fixed variabl l cost
e cost Cost cost cost
t cost e cost

0 150 0 150 – – – –

50/6 =
6 150 50 200 25.0 8.33 33.33
8.33

50/10 =
16 150 100 250 9.38 6.25 15.63
5.0

50/13 =
29 150 150 300 5.17 5.17 10.34
3.85

50/15 =
44 150 200 350 3.41 4.55 7.95
3.33

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 50/11 =
55 150 250 400 2.73 4.55 7.27
4.55

50/5 =
60 150 300 450 2.50 5.0 7.50
10.0

From the table, we can make the following observations:

1. Since the fixed cost does not change with the output, the average fixed
cost decreases as the output increases.
2. The average variable cost does not always increase in proportion to
an increase in the output.
3. Marginal costs also come down until 44 units are produced after
which they start rising.
B. LONG RUN COST UNDER MODERN THEORY

1. LONG RUN AVERAGE COST:-Modern economists divide long run costs into
production costs and managerial costs/ In the long run, all costs are
variable and they given rise to a long run average cost curve which is
roughly L- shaped. This curve rapidly slopes downwards in the beginning
but later remains flat or slopes gently downwards at its right-hand cost.
The long run average cost curve is as follows:

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The Long run average costs curve has two main features:-

1. It does not rise at every large scale of output.

2. It does not envelope the Short run Average Cost but intersects them.

2. LONG RUN MARGINAL COST:-According to modern theory, shape of long-

run marginal cost curve corresponds to the shape of long-run average cost
curve. The given figure shows that when LAC is L- shaped and LAC curve is
falling then LMC curve will also be falling and its falling portion will be below
the falling portion of LAC curve.

# RELATION BETWEEN PRODUCTION AND COST

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The economists frequently assumes that the problem of optimum input
combinations has been solved and conducts his analysis of the firm in terms of
its revenues and costs expressed as functions of output. The cost function of
the firm gives the functional relationship between total cost and total output.
If C represents total cost and Q represents the level of the output, then the cost
functions is represented as C=C (Q). The same level of output can be produced
with the help of different cost combinations. The cost function gives the least
cost combinations for the production of different levels of output.

Cost functions are derived functions. They are derived from the production
functions, which describes the available efficient methods of production at
any particular point of time. The cost function can be deduced from the inputs
combinations of the firm. The input prices of the two inputs of production
labor
(L) and capital (K) are given to be constant as the wage rate and rent (r),
respectively. If L and K are the amounts of the two inputs that are used for the
production of the output level Q, the firm will always select those
combinations of the two inputs, which lie on the expansion path. Along any
expansion path the level of output increases as we gradually depart from the
origin. Within the non-inferior zone of the factors of production, their total
employment will also increase as we move along the expansion path.
Therefore we can say that along any expansion path the demand for any factor
of production will depend on the level of output to be produced. So, if L and K
are the amounts of the factors of production and Q is the level of output then it
can be said that L and K are functions of Q.

That is,

L = g1(Q)
And, K = g2(Q)
Now, following the equation of the costs line, the total cost (C) for producing
the output level Q is given by

C = L. w + K.r

or C = w. g1(Q) + r.
g2(Q) or C = C(Q).

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Since, w and r are constant C is only a function of Q. This function is called the
total cost functions of the firm. The function shows that the total cost of the
firm depends on the output to be produced. The costs function is deduced
from the expansion path of the firm.

The cost function derived from the expansion path of the firm represents the
cost function in its long run nature as in this case we have assumed that both
the factors of production are variable.

A firm’s cost curves are linked to its product curves. Overt the range of rising
marginal product marginal; cost if falling. When marginal product is a
maximum, marginal; cost is a minimum. Over the rang4e of rising average
product, average variable cost is falling. When average product is a maximum,
average variable cost is a minimum. Over the range of diminishing marginal
product, marginal cost is rising. And over the range of diminishing marginal
product, average variable cost is rising.

REVENUE
# MEANING OF REVENUE
The amount of money that a producer receives in exchange for the sale
proceeds is known as revenue.
For example, if a firm gets Rs. 16,000 from sale of 100 chairs, then the
amount of Rs. 16,000 is known as revenue.
Revenue refers to the amount received by a firm from the sale of a given
quantity of a commodity in the market. Revenue is a very important concept
in economic analysis. It is directly influenced by sales level, i.e., as sales
increases, revenue also increases.

# FEATURES OF REVENUE

1) Revenue arises from the normal trading activities of a business.

2) Revenue eventually creates an inflow of funds into the business.
3) Revenue is measured in monetary terms.
4) Revenue must be allocated to a particular accounting period.

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5) Revenue is earned as a result of revenue generating activities
typically expressed as expenses.

# CONCEPT OF REVENUE:- The concept of revenue consists of three

important terms; Total Revenue, Average Revenue and Marginal Revenue.

1. Total Revenue (TR):- Total Revenue refers to total receipts from the sale
of a given quantity of a commodity. It is the total income of a firm. Total
revenue is obtained by multiplying the quantity of the commodity sold
with the price of the commodity.

Total Revenue = Quantity × Price

For example, if a firm sells 10 chairs at a price of Rs. 160 per chair, then the
total revenue will be: 10 Chairs × Rs. 160 = Rs 1,600

2. Average Revenue (AR):- Average revenue refers to revenue per unit of

output sold. It is obtained by dividing the total revenue by the number of
units sold.

Average Revenue = Total Revenue/Quantity

For example, if total revenue from the sale of 10 chairs @ Rs. 160 per chair is
Rs. 1,600, then:

Average Revenue = Total Revenue/Quantity

AR= 1,600/10 = Rs 160

AR and Price are the Same:- We know, AR is equal to per unit sale receipts
and price is always per unit. Since sellers receive revenue according to price,
price and AR are one and the same thing.This can be explained as under:
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TR = Quantity × Price …

(1) AR = TR/Quantity ……

(2)

Putting the value of TR from equation (1) in equation (2), we get

AR = Quantity × Price /

Quantity AR = Price

AR Curve and Demand Curve are the Same:- A buyer’s demand curve
graphically represents the quantities demanded by a buyer at various prices.
In other words, it shows the various levels of average revenue at which
different quantities of the good are sold by the seller. Therefore, in economics,
it is customary to refer AR curve as the Demand Curve of a firm.

3. Marginal Revenue (MR):- Marginal revenue is the additional revenue

generated from the sale of an additional unit of output. It is the change in
TR from sale of one more unit of a commodity.

MRn = TRn-TRn-1

Where:

MRn = Marginal revenue of nth

unit; TRn = Total revenue from n

units;

TR n-1 = Total revenue from (n – 1) units; n = number of units sold

For example, if the total revenue realised from sale of 10 chairs is Rs. 1,600
and that from sale of 11 chairsis Rs. 1,780, then MR of the 11th chair will be:

MR11 = TR11 – TR(11-

1=10) MR11=TR11-TR10

MR11 = Rs. 1,780 – Rs. 1,600 = Rs. 180

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One More way to Calculate MR:

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We know, MR is the change in TR when one more unit is sold. However, when
change in units sold is more than one, then MR can also be calculated as:

MR = Change in Total Revenue/ Change in number of units = ∆TR/∆Q

Let us understand this with the help of an example: If the total revenue
realised from sale of 10 chairs is Rs. 1,600 and that from sale of 14 chairs is Rs.
2,200, then the marginal revenue will be:

MR = TR of 14 chairs – TR of 10 chairs / 14 chairs -10 chairs = 600/4 = Rs. 150

TR is summation of MR:

Total Revenue can also be calculated as the sum of marginal revenues of all
the units sold.

It means, TRn = MR1 + M2 + MR3 +..........MRn

or, TR = ∑MR

The concepts of TR, AR and MR can be better explained through Table 7.1.

Table 7.1: TR, AR and MR:

Marginal
Total Average Revenue
Units Price Revenue Revenue (Rs.)
Sold (Rs.) (Rs.) TR (Rs.) AR MRn=TRn-
(Q) (P) = = TRn-1
QxP TR+Q = P
1 10 10=1×10 10 =10 + 1 10 =10-0
2 9 18 =2×9 9 =18 + 2 8 =18-10
3 8 24 =3×8 8 =24 + 3 6 =24-18
4 7 28 = 4×7 7 =28 + 4 4 =28-24
5 6 30 = 5×6 6 =30 + 5 2 =30-28
6 5 30 = 6 x 5 5 =30 + 6 0 =30-30

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 7 4 28 = 7×4 4 =28 + 7 -2 =28-30
# SHAPES OF REVENUE CURVE

1. Total Revenue curve:- TR is obtained by multiplying amount of output

sold by the given price determined in the market by intersection of market
demand and market supply curve.
i.e. TR = Q × P
Where, Q= amount of product sale
P= Market Price which is
constant.
TR increases at the same rate because, every additional unit of the commodity
is sold at the same price. In this type of market firms are price taker not price
maker.
It can be explained with the help of following table and graph.

In above table total revenue (TR ) is obtained by multiplying output (Q) and
Price (P). When output is zero TR also zero. TR is Rs. 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50for
the 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 units of sale respectively, where price is constant at Rs. 10.

In the above table as increase in sell of output total revenue also increasing,
but the rate of increase in total revenue is constant.

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2. Average Revenue curve:- Average Revenue (AR):Per unit revenue
obtained by a seller by selling product at market price in the market in
certain time period is known as AR for that time period of that seller or
producer.

It is calculated by dividing total revenue (TR) by corresponding quantity sold

(Q) in the market at market price (P).

i.e. AR = TR/Q

i.e. AR =( P×Q)/Q

i.e. AR = P

Therefore, another name of AR is the average market price of the product. Since,
price is constant in perfect competition market and hence, AR is also constant
.

It can be explained with the help of following table;

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In the above table as increase in sells of output of the product Average
Revenue (AR) remains constant i.e. Rs. 10 for first unit to fifth unit of output.

Above information shows that AR is constant and equal to the price for all
level of output.

In the following figure average revenue curve is found by plotting the

combination of points of the quantity sold on the horizontal axis and
corresponding AR on the vertical axis.

AR curve is a horizontal straight line at the different level of output sold at

given price. It shows that AR is constant and equal to the price for all level of
output, i.e. AR = P.

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3. Marginal Revenue curve:- Marginal revenue is the change in total
revenue in response to the change in quantity sold. It is calculated by
dividing the change in total revenue (ΔTR) by the change in quantity sold
(ΔQ).

In case of perfectly competitive market marginal revenue (MR) remains

constant and equal to the market price for all level of output sold, i.e. MR = P.

It can be explained with the help of following table and graph.

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In the above table as increase in output sold at market price TR increases at
constant rate. But MR remains constant i.e. Rs. 10. which is equal to price.

Form above table we conclude that Price, AR and MR are same i.e. Rs. 10. that
means P = AR = MR.

In the above figure MR is the slope of the TR. The MR curve is found by
plotting the MR on y-axis and quantity sold on x-axis.
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The MR curve is also horizontal to the x-axis as of the AR. It shows that AR and
MR are overlapped and equal to the price in perfectly competitive market.

# SIGNIFICANCE OF REVENUE CURVE

The main points of significance of revenue curves are as under:

1. Estimation of Profits and Losses:- A producer aims at maximizing his

profits. His profits will be maximum where he finds AR > AC.

The maximum difference between AR and AC will show maximum profits. A

producer finds out whether he is making supernormal profits, normal profits
or sustaining losses.

2. Equilibrium:- The second point of the importance of AR and MR curves is

to know how much a producer should produce. In this case, the concept of MR
is very important. The firm will be in equilibrium at that point where MR =
MC. This is a general condition for the firm under all market situations. MR =
MC determines output, price, profits or loss.

3. Capacity Utilization:- It is through revenue curves that we come to know

whether a firm is producing at its full capacity or not. In other words, the firm
will be producing at its full capacity, if AR curve is tangent to AC curve at its
minimum point. It is possible only under perfect competition but not under
imperfect competition like monopoly, monopolistic competition etc.

4. Price Changes:- The concepts of AR and MR are also useful to the factor
services in determining their price. In factor pricing like rent, wages, interest
and profits, they become inverted U-shaped. The AR and MR curves become
ARP and MRP (Average Revenue productivity and Marginal Revenue
Productivity). It is an important tool in explaining the equilibrium of the firm
under different market conditions.

# RELATIONSHIP OF TOTAL REVENUE, AVERAGE REVENUE AND

MARGINAL REVENUE
The relation of total revenue, average revenue and marginal revenue can be
explained with the help of table and fig.
Table Representation:

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The relationship between TR, AR and MR can be expressed with the help of a
table 1.

From
the table 1 we can draw the idea that as the price falls from Rs. 10 to Re. 1, the
output sold increases from 1 to 10. Total revenue increases from 10 to 30, at 5
units. However, at 6th unit it becomes constant and ultimately starts falling at
next unit i.e. 7th. In the same way, when AR falls, MR falls more and becomes
zero at 6th unit and then negative. Therefore, it is clear that when AR falls, MR
also falls more than that of AR: TR increases initially at a diminishing rate, it
reaches maximum and then starts falling.
The formula to calculate TR, AR and MR is as under:
TR = P x q
Or TR = MR1 + MR2 + MR3 + MR3 +….. MR„
TR
AR = TR/q MR = TRn – TRn _ x
In fig. 1 three concepts of revenue have been explained. The units of output have
been shown on horizontal axis while revenue on vertical axis. Here TR, AR,
MR are total revenue, average revenue and marginal revenue curves
respectively. In figure 1 (A), a total revenue curve is sloping upward from the
origin to point
K. From point K to K’ total revenue is constant. But at point K’ total revenue is
maximum and begins to fall. It means even by selling more units total revenue
is falling. In such a situation, marginal revenue becomes negative.
Similarly, in the figure 1 (B) average revenue curves are sloping downward. It
means average revenue falls as more and more units are sold.
In fig. 1 (B) MR is the marginal revenue curve which slopes downward. It
signifies the fact that MR with the sale of every additional unit tends to
diminish. Moreover, it is also clear from the fig. that when both AR and MR are
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falling, MR is less than AR. MR can be zero, positive or negative but AR is
always positive.

The relationship between TR, AR, and MR

In order to understand the basic concepts of revenue, it is also important to
pay attention to the relationship between TR, AR, and MR. When the first unit is
sold, TR, AR, and MR are equal.
Therefore, all three curves start from the same point. Further, as long as MR is
positive, the TR curve slopes upwards.
However, if MR is falling with the increase in the quantity of sale, then the TR
curve will gain height at a decreasing rate. When the MR curve touches the X-axis,
the TR curve reaches its maximum height.
Further, if the MR curve goes below the X-axis, the TR curve starts sloping
downwards.
Any change in AR causes a much bigger change in MR. Therefore, if the AR
curve has a negative slope, then the MR curve has a greater slope and lies
below it.
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Similarly, if the AR curve has a positive slope, then the MR curve again has a
greater slope and lies above it. If the AR curve is parallel to the X-axis, then the
MR curve coincides with it.
Here is a graphical representation of the relationship between AR and MR:

In the left half, you can see that AR has a constant value (DD’). Therefore, the
AR curve starts from point D and runs parallel to the X-axis. Also, since AR is
constant, MR is equal to AR and the two curves coincide with each other.
In the right half, you can see that the AR curve starts from point D on the Y-
axis and is a straight line with a negative slope. This basically means that as
the number of goods sold increases, the price per unit falls
at a steady rate.
Similarly, the MR curve also starts from point D and is a straight line as well.
However, it is a locus of all the points which bisect the perpendicular distance
between the AR curve and the Y-axis. In the figure above, FM=MA.

# THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELASTICITY OF DEMAND AND REVENUE

The proper estimation of price elasticity is of great significance for business
decision making. A firm’s revenue changes as a result of the change in price.

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Total revenue (TR) earned from sales by a firm is obtained by multiplying
average unit price with the total quan•tity sold, i.e., TR = P x Q.

In Figure 8, the total revenue obtained from OQ quantity sold at OP price

is OPCQ. Here, three things are clear:-

The total revenue obtained from OQ quantity sold at OP price is OPCQ

(1) If the demand price is elastic, with an increase in price, there is a large
fall in sales so that the total rev•enue decreases. On the other hand, if the price
falls, the sales increase so much that the total revenue rises.

(2) If the elasticity of demand is equal to unity,there is no change in total

revenue earned from sales even with the change in price. For example, with
the fall in price by 5%, the sales will increase by 5% whereby the total
revenue will remain unchanged.

(3) If the demand price is inelastic, the sales will fall with the increase in price
but the Total Revenue will rise. On the other hand, with the fall in price, the
sales will increase but the total revenue will fall.

In general, unity elasticity is not found in practice. When price changes in a

certain ratio, the sales normally change in a high or low ratio.

Thus, if the management wants to increase sales, it has to reduce the price.
But if the reduction in price is compensated by the additional sales, the total
revenue will increase or remain the same. Similarly, the management can
raise the price of product for increasing revenue.

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But if the fall in revenue as a result of sales reduction is not compensated by
the increased price, the total revenue will fall. Hence, the effect of a change in
price on the sales determines the effect of the change in price on total revenue.
Moreover, the firm often remains in a fix as to whether the sales should increase
or decrease. In such a situation, the concept of the marginal revenue is
decisive.

# IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:-

 Short Questions (2 marks)

Q1. Average Cost.

Q2. Marginal Cost.

Q3. Total Cost.

Q4. Define Cost.

Q5. Define Revenue.

Q6. Total Revenue.
Q7. Average Revenue.
Q8. Marginal Revenue.
Q9. Relationship between TC, AC & MC.
Q10. Relationship between TR, AR & MR.

 Long Questions (10 marks)

Q1:- Define Theory Of Cost? Explain Its Types &

Determinants? Q2:- Define Modern Theory? Discuss Its Types

& Importance?

Q3:- Discuss Relationship Between Cost And Production Function?

Q4:- Define Revenue? Explain Its Types, Shapes And Curves?

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Q5: - Explain Relationship Between Marginal Revenue & Elasticity Of Demand?

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====================================

UNIT-IV

MARKET STRUCTURE

# MEANING AND DEFINITION OF MARKET

Market generally means a place or a geographical area, where buyers with

money and sellers with their goods meet to exchange goods for money. In
Economics market refers to a group of buyers and sellers who involve in the
transaction of commodities and services.

# CHARACTERISTICS OF A MARKET

1. Existence of buyers and sellers of the commodity.

2. The establishment of contact between the buyers and sellers. Distance is

of no consideration if buyers and sellers could contact each other through
the available communication system like telephone, agents, letter
correspondence and Internet.

3. Buyers and sellers deal with the same commodity or variety. Since the
market in economics is identified on the basis of the commodity,
similarity of the product is very essential.

4. There should be a price for the commodity bought and sold in the market.

# CLASSIFICATION OF MARKETS

A) Market according to Area:- Based on the extent of the market for any
product, markets can be classified into local regional, national and international
markets.

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1. Local Market:- A local market for a product exists when buyers and sellers
of commodity carry on business in a particular locality or village or area
where the demand and supply conditions are influenced by local conditions
only. E.g. Perishable goods like milk and vegetables and bulky articles
like bricks and stones.

2. National Market:- When commodities are demanded and supplied

throughout the country, there is national market e.g. wheat, rice or cotton

3. Regional Market:- Commodities that are demanded and supplied over a

region have regional market.

4. Global Market:- When demand and supply conditions are influenced at the
global level, we have international market. e.g. gold, silver, cell phone etc.
On the basis of demand and supply, this geographical classification is made.
With improved transport facilities and communications, even goods of local
markets can become international goods.

B) Market according to time:- Marshall classified market based on the time

element. In economics 'time' does not mean clock time. It means only the
division of time based on extent of adjustability of supply of a commodity for a
given change in its demand. The major divisions are very short period, short
period and long period.

1. Very Short Period:- Very short period refers to the type of competitive
market in which the supply of commodities cannot be changed at all. So in a
very short period, the market supply is perfectly inelastic. The price of the
commodity depends on the demand for the product alone. The perishable
commodities like flowers are the best example.

2. Short-period:- Short period refers to that period in which supply can be

adjusted to a limited extent by varying the variable factors alone. The short
period supply curve is relatively elastic. The short period price is determined
by the interaction of the short-run supply and demand curves.

3. Long Period:- Long period is the time period during which the supply
conditions are fully able to meet the new demand conditions. In the long run,
all (both fixed as well as variable) factors are variable. Thus the supply curve
in

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 the long run is perfectly elastic. Therefore, it is the demand that influences price
in the long period.

C) Market according to competition:- These markets are classified

according to the number of sellers in the market and the nature of the
commodity. The classification of market according to competition is as
follows.

# MEANING OF MARKET STRUCTURE

The Market Structure refers to the characteristics of the market either

organizational or competitive, that describes the nature of competition and
the pricing policy followed in the market.

Thus, the market structure can be defined as, the number of firms producing
the identical goods and services in the market and whose structure is
determined on the basis of the competition prevailing in that market.

The term “ market” refers to a place where sellers and buyers meet and
facilitate the selling and buying of goods and services. But in economics, it is
much wider than just a place, It is a gamut of all the buyers and sellers, who
are spread out to perform the marketing activities.

# TYPES OF MARKET STRUCTURE

1. Perfect Competition Market Structure

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2. Monopolistic Competition Market Structure
3. Oligopoly Market Structure
4. Monopoly Market Structure

# DETERMINANTS OF THE MARKET STRUCTURE

1. The number of sellers operating in the market.

2. The number of buyers in the market.
3. The nature of goods and services offered by the firms.
4. The concentration ratio of the company, which shows the largest market
shares held by the companies.
5. The entry and exit barriers in a particular market.
6. The economies of scale, i.e. how cost efficient a firm is in producing the goods
and services at a low cost. Also the sunk cost, the cost that has already been
spent on the business operations.
7. The degree of vertical integration, i.e. the combining of different stages of
production and distribution, managed by a single firm.
8. The level of product and service differentiation, i.e. how the company’s
offerings differ from the other company’s offerings.
9. The customer turnover, i.e. the number of customers willing to change their
choice with respect to the goods and services at the time of adverse market
conditions.

Thus, the structure of the market affects how firm price and supply their
goods and services, how they handle the exit and entry barriers, and how
efficiently a firm carry out its business operations.

PERFECT COMPETITION
# MEANING OF PERFECT COMPETITION

The Perfect Competition is a market structure where a large number of

buyers and sellers are present, and all are engaged in the buying and selling of
the homogeneous products at a single price prevailing in the market.

In other words, perfect competition also referred to as a pure competition,

exists when there is no direct competition between the rivals and all sell
identically the same products at a single price.

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 # FEATURES OF PERFECT COMPETITION

1. Large number of buyers and sellers: - In perfect competition, the buyers

and sellers are large enough, that no individual can influence the price and the
output of the industry. An individual customer cannot influence the price of
the product, as he is too small in relation to the whole market. Similarly, a
single seller cannot influence the levels of output, who is too small in relation
to the gamut of sellers operating in the market.
2. Homogeneous Product:- Each competing firm offers the homogeneous
product, such that no individual has a preference for a particular seller over
the others. Salt, wheat, coal, etc. are some of the homogeneous products for
which customers are indifferent and buy these from the one who charges a
less price. Thus, an increase in the price would let the customer go to some
other supplier.
3. Free Entry and Exit:- Under the perfect competition, the firms are free to
enter or exit the industry. This implies, If a firm suffers from a huge loss due to
the intense competition in the industry, then it is free to leave that industry
and begin its business operations in any of the industry, it wants. Thus, there
is no restriction on the mobility of sellers.
4. Perfect knowledge of prices and technology:- This implies, that both the
buyers and sellers have complete knowledge of the market conditions such as
the prices of products and the latest technology being used to produce it. Hence,
they can buy or sell the products anywhere and anytime they want.

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5. No transportation cost:- There is an absence of transportation cost, i.e.
incurred in carrying the goods from one market to another. This is an
essential condition of the perfect competition since the homogeneous product
should have the same price across the market and if the transportation cost is
added to it, then the prices may differ.
6. Absence of Government and Artificial Restrictions:- Under the perfect
competition, both the buyers and sellers are free to buy and sell the goods and
services. This means any customer can buy from any seller, and any seller can
sell to any buyer. Thus, no restriction is imposed on either party. Also, the prices
are liable to change freely as per the demand-supply conditions. In such a
situation, no big producer and the government can intervene and control the
demand, supply or price of the goods and services.

Thus, under the perfect competition, a seller is the price taker and cannot
influence the market price.

# ASSUMPTIONS
The model of perfect competition is based on the following assumptions.

1. Large numbers of sellers and buyers:- The industry or market includes a

large number of firms (and buyers), so that each individual firm, however
large, supplies only a small part of the total quantity offered in the market. The
buyers are also numerous so that no monopolistic power can affect the
working of the market. Under these conditions each firm alone cannot affect
the price in the market by changing its output.
2. Product homogeneity:- The industry is defined as a group of firms
producing a homogeneous product. The technical characteristics of the
product as well as the services associated with its sale and delivery are
identical. There is no way in which a buyer could differentiate among the
products of different firms. If the product were differentiated the firm would
have some discretion in setting its price. This is ruled out ex hypothesis in
perfect competition.
The assumptions of large numbers of sellers and of product homogeneity
imply that the individual firm in pure competition is a price-taker: its demand
curve is infinitely elastic, indicating that the firm can sell any amount of
output at the prevailing market price (figure 5.1). The demand curve of the
individual firm is also its average revenue and its marginal revenue curve (see

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page 156).

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3. Free entry and exit of firms:- There is no barrier to entry or exit from the
industry. Entry or exit may take time, but firms have freedom of movement in
and out of the industry. This assumption is supplementary to the assumption
of large numbers. If barriers exist the number of firms in the industry may be
reduced so that each one of them may acquire power to affect the price in the
market.

4. Profit maximization:- The goal of all firms is profit maximization. No other

goals are pursued.

5. No government regulation:- There is no government intervention in the

market (tariffs, subsidies, rationing of production or demand and so on are
ruled out). The above assumptions are sufficient for the firm to be a price-
taker and have an infinitely elastic demand curve. The market structure in
which the above assumptions are fulfilled is called pure competition. It is
different from perfect competition, which requires the fulfillment of the
following additional assumptions.

6. Perfect mobility of factors of production:- The factors of production are

free to move from one firm to another throughout the economy. It is also
assumed that workers can move between different a job, which implies that
skills can be learned easily. Finally, raw materials and other factors are not
monopolized and labour is not unionized. In short, there is perfect
competition in the markets of factors of production.

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7. Perfect knowledge:- It is assumed that all sellers and buyers have
complete knowledge of the conditions of the market. This knowledge refers
not only to the prevailing conditions in the current period but in all future
periods as well. Information is free and costless. Under these conditions
uncertainty about future developments in the market is ruled out. Under the
above assumptions we will examine the equilibrium of the firm and the
industry in the short run and in the long run.
# EXPLANATION & DIAGRAMS:-

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# TYPES OF PERFECT COMPETITION

TYPES OF PERFECT COMPETITION

SHORT RUN LONG RUN

NO PROFIT NO LOSS
ABNORMAL PROFIT (NORMAL PROFIT) LOSSES NORMAL PROFIT

1. SHORT RUN PERFECT COMPETITION

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200 | P a g e
# LONG RUN PERFECT COMPETITION

# DEMAND CURVE AND REVENUE CURVES UNDER

PERFECT COMPETITION

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(a) As we know, in perfect competition homogeneous goods are produced. So,
price remains constant, which makes the demand curve perfectly elastic.

(b) In perfect competition, homogeneous goods are produced, that is why

price remains constant, as price = AR, it means AR remains constant. And
if,
AR remains constant, then AR = MR as per the

# DEMAND CURVE UNDER IN PERFECT COMPETITION, industry is the price

maker and firm is the price taker.
(a) As we know, in Perfect competition, homogeneous goods are produced.
So, industry cannot charge different price from different firms.
(b) So, industry will give that price to the firm where industry is
in equilibrium,
i. e., where Demand = Supply. Any movement from that point would be
unstable.
(c) In the above diagram, price, revenue and Cost is measured on vertical
axis and units of commodity on horizontal axis. Industry will give OP price to
the firm as at that point Demand = supply, i.e., industry is in equilibrium.
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The firms will follow the same price and charges same from the consumer.

MONOPOLY

# MONOPOLY MARKET
Definition: The Monopoly is a market structure characterized by a single
seller, selling the unique product with the restriction for a new firm to enter
the market. Simply, monopoly is a form of market where there is a single
seller selling a particular commodity for which there are no close substitutes.

# FEATURES OF MONOPOLY MARKET

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1. Under monopoly, the firm has full control over the supply of a product. The
elasticity of demand is zero for the products.
2. There is a single seller or a producer of a particular product, and there is no
difference between the firm and the industry. The firm is itself an industry.
3. The firms can influence the price of a product and hence, these are price
makers, not the price takers.
4. There are barriers for the new entrants.
5. The demand curve under monopoly market is downward sloping, which
means the firm can earn more profits only by increasing the sales which are
possible by decreasing the price of a product.
6. There are no close substitutes for a monopolist’s product.

Under a monopoly market, new firms cannot enter the market freely due to
any of the reasons such as Government license and regulations, huge capital
requirement, complex technology and economies of scale. These economic
barriers restrict the entry of new firms.

# CAUSES FOR MONOPOLY

1. Natural: A monopoly may arise on account of some natural causes. Some
minerals are available only in certain regions. For example, South Africa has
the monopoly of diamonds; nickel in the world is mostly available in Canada
and oil in Middle East. This is natural monopoly.
2. Technical: Monopoly power may be enjoyed due to technical reasons. A
firm may have control over raw materials, technical knowledge, special
know-how, scientific secrets and formula that enable a monopolist to
produce a commodity. e.g., Coco Cola.
3. Legal: Monopoly power is achieved through patent rights, copyright and
trade marks by the producers. This is called legal monopoly.
4. Large Amount of Capital: The manufacture of some goods requires a
large amount of capital or lumpiness of capital. All firms cannot enter the
field because they cannot afford to invest such a large amount of capital.
This may give rise to monopoly. For example, iron and steel industry,
railways, etc.

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5. State: Government will have the sole right of producing and selling some
goods. They are State monopolies. For example, we have public utilities
like electricity and railways. These public utilities are undertaken by the
State.
# PRICE AND OUTPUT DETERMINATION
A monopolist like a perfectly competitive firm tries to maximise his profits.
A monopoly firm faces a downward sloping demand curve, that is, its average
revenue curve. The downward sloping demand curve implies that larger
output can be sold only by reducing the price. Its marginal revenue curve will
be below the average revenue curve.
The average cost curve is 'U' shaped. The monopolist will be in equilibrium
when MC = MR and the MC curve cuts the MR curve from below.
In figure, AR is the Average Revenue Curve and MR is the Marginal revenue
curve. AR curve is falling and MR curve lies below AR. The monopolist is in
equilibrium at E where MR = MC. He produces OM units of output and fixes
price at OP. At OM output, the average revenue is MS and average cost MT.
Therefore the profit per unit is MS-MT = TS. Total profit is average profit (TS)
multiplied by output (OM), which is equal to HTSP. The monopolist is in
equilibrium at point E and produces OM output at which he is earning
maximum profit. The monopoly price is higher than the marginal revenue and
marginal cost.
# METHODS OF CONTROLLING MONOPOLY
1. Legislative Method: Government can control monopolies by legal actions.
Anti-monopoly legislation has been enacted to check the growth of monopoly.
In India, the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act was passed in
1969. The objective of this Act is to prevent the unwanted growth of private
monopolies and concentration of economic power in the hands of a small
number of individuals and families.

2. Controlling Price and Output: This method can be applied in the case of
natural monopolies. Government would fix either price or output or both.
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(i) Taxation: Taxation is another method by which the monopolistic power can
be prevented or restricted. Government can impose a lump-sum tax on a
monopoly firm, irrespective of its level of output. Consequently, its total profit
will fall.
(ii) Nationalisation: Nationalising big companies is one of the solutions.
Government may take over such monopolistic companies, which are
exploiting the consumers.
(iii) Consumer's Association: The growth of monopoly power can also be
controlled by encouraging the formation of consumers associations to
improve the bargaining power of consumers.
# ADVANTAGES OF MONOPOLY

1. Monopoly avoids duplication and hence avoids wastage of resources.

(We have to understand that duplicate and fake products are a real
problem in many countries).
2. A monopoly enjoys economies of scale as it is the only supplier of
product or service in the market. The benefits can be passed on to the
consumers.
3. Due to the fact that monopolies make lots of profits, it can be used
for research and development and to maintain their status as a
monopoly.
4. Monopolies may use price discrimination which benefits the
economically weaker sections of the society.
5. Monopolies can afford to invest in latest technology and machinery in
order to be efficient and to avoid competition.
6. Source of revenue for the government- the government gets revenue
in form of taxation from monopoly firms.

# DISADVANTAGES OF MONOPOLY

1. Poor level of service.

2. No consumer sovereignty. A monopoly market is best known for
consumer exploitation. There are indeed no competing products and as a
result the consumer gets a raw deal in terms of quantity, quality and pricing.
3. Consumers may be charged high prices for low quality of goods
and services.
4. Lack of competition may lead to low quality and out dated goods
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and services.

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 MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION
Definition: Under, the Monopolistic Competition, there are a large number
of firms that produce differentiated products which are close substitutes for
each other. In other words, large sellers selling the products that are similar,
but not identical and compete with each other on other factors besides price.

# FEATURES OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

1. Product Differentiation: This is one of the major features of the firms

operating under the monopolistic competition, that produces the product
which is not identical but is slightly different from each other. The products
being slightly different from each other remain close substitutes of each other
and hence cannot be priced very differently from each other.
2. Large number of firms: A large number of firms operate under the
monopolistic competition, and there is a stiff competition between the
existing firms. Unlike the perfect competition, the firms produce the
differentiated products which are substitutes for each other, thus make the
competition among the firms a real and a tough one.
3. Free Entry and Exit: With an intense competition among the firms, the entity
incurring the loss can move out of the industry at any time it wants. Similarly,
the new firms can enter into the industry freely, provided it comes up with the
unique feature and different variety of products to outstand in the market and
meet with the competition already existing in the industry.
4. Some control over price: Since, the products are close substitutes for each
other, if a firm lowers the price of its product, then the customers of other
products will switch over to it. Conversely, with the increase in the price of the
product, it will lose its customers to others. Thus, under the monopolistic

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 competition, an individual firm is not a price taker but has some influence
over the price of its product.
5. Heavy expenditure on Advertisement and other Selling Costs: Under the
monopolistic competition, the firms incur a huge cost on advertisements and
other selling costs to promote the sale of their products. Since the products
are different and are close substitutes for each other; the firms need to
undertake the promotional activities to capture a larger market share.
6. Product Variation: Under the monopolistic competition, there is a variation
in the products offered by several firms. To meet the needs of the customers,
each firm tries to adjust its product accordingly. The changes could be in the
form of new design, better quality, new packages or container, better
materials, etc. Thus, the amount of product a firm is selling in the market
depends on the uniqueness of its product and the extent to which it differs
from the other products.

The monopolistic competition is also called as imperfect competition

because this market structure lies between the pure monopoly and the pure
competition.

# DIAGRAM OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION SHORT RUN

In the short run, the diagram for monopolistic competition is the same as for a
monopoly.

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The firm maximises profit where MR=MC. This is at output Q1 and price P1,
leading to supernormal profit

# DIAGRAM OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION LONG RUN

Demand curve shifts to the left due to new firms entering the market.

In the long-run, supernormal profit encourages new firms to enter. This

reduces demand for existing firms and leads to normal profit.

# EFFICIENCY OF FIRMS IN MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

1. Allocative inefficient. The above diagrams show a price set above

marginal cost
2. Productive inefficiency. The above diagram shows a firm not producing
on the lowest point of AC curve
3. Dynamic efficiency. This is possible as firms have profit to invest in
research and development.
4. X-efficiency. This is possible as the firm does face competitive pressures to
cut cost and provide better products.

# EXAMPLES OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

1. Restaurants – restaurants compete on quality of food as much as price.

Product differentiation is a key element of the business. There are
relatively low barriers to entry in setting up a new restaurant.
2. Hairdressers. A service which will give firms a reputation for the quality
of their hair-cutting.

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3. Clothing. Designer label clothes are about the brand and product
differentiation
4. TV programmes – globalisation has increased the diversity of tv
programmes from networks around the world. Consumers can choose
between domestic channels but also imports from other countries and new
services, such as NETFLIX.

# WASTAGES OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

1. Unemployment: Under monopolistic competition, the firms produce less

than optimum output. As a result, the productive capacity is not used to the
fullest extent. This will lead to unemployment of resources.

2. Excess capacity: Excess capacity is the difference between the optimum

output that can be produced and the actual output produced by the firm. In
the long run, a monopolistic firm produces an output which is less than the
optimum output that is the output corresponding to the minimum average
cost. This leads to excess capacity which is regarded as waste in monopolistic
competition.

3. Advertisement: There is a lot of waste in competitive advertisements

under monopolistic competition. The wasteful and competitive
advertisements lead to high cost to consumers.

4. Too Many Varieties of Goods: Introducing too many varieties of a good is

another waste of monopolistic competition. The goods differ in size, shape,
style and colour. A reasonable number of varieties would be desirable. Cost
per unit can be reduced if only a few are produced.

5. Inefficient Firms: Under monopolistic competition, inefficient firms charge

prices higher than their marginal cost. Such type of inefficient firms should be
kept out of the industry. But, the buyers' preference for such products enables
the inefficient firms to continue to exist. Efficient firms cannot drive out the
inefficient firms because the former may not be able to attract the customers
of the latter.

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 # LIMITATIONS OF THE MODEL OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

1. Some firms will be better at brand differentiation and therefore, in the real
world, they will be able to make supernormal profit.
2. New firms will not be seen as a close substitute.
3. There is considerable overlap with oligopoly – except the model of
monopolistic competition assumes no barriers to entry. In the real world,
there are likely to be at least some barriers to entry
4. If a firm has strong brand loyalty and product differentiation – this itself
becomes a barrier to entry. A new firm can’t easily capture the brand loyalty.
5. Many industries, we may describe as monopolistically competitive are very
profitable, so the assumption of normal profits is too simplistic.

# MERITS OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

1. An important merit of monopolistic competition is that it is much closer to

reality than several other models of market structure. Firstly, it incorporates
the facts of product differentiation and selling costs. Secondly, it can be easily
used for the analysis of duopoly and oligopoly.

2. Under monopolistic competition it is possible to see that even when each

individual firm produces under conditions of increasing returns, not only the
firm under consideration but also the entire group of firms can be in
equilibrium.

3. Moreover, monopolistic competition is able to show that even when each

individual firm is producing under increasing returns, it still earns only
normal profit in the long run.

4. The theory of monopolistic competition helps us in bringing in the concept

of market share of an individual firm. This opens up the possibility of
considering those situations in which a firm may be pursuing a goal other than
profit maximization.

5. In monopolistic competition we are able to consider the interaction

between several interdependent variables on the basis of which a firm takes
its decisions.

# DEMERITS OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

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1. The biggest conceptual difficulty with monopolistic competition is the
concept of age group of firms. There is no standard theoretical foundation for
deciding the boundaries of a group.

2. Related with the concept of a group of firms, we face the difficulty of

defining the meaning of a ‘close substitute’. We are not told at what values of
cross elasticity, two products become close substitutes of each other.

3. The theory of monopolistic competition fails to take into account the fact
that the demand by final consumers is largely influenced by the retail dealers
because the consumers themselves are not fully aware of the technical
qualities of the product.

4. Similarly, the theory fails to fully account for the determination of

equilibrium quantities and prices of goods like raw materials and other
inputs. To a large extent, their demand is governed by a combination of the
technical quality, price and timely availability rather than by brand name, etc.
Given the technical quality of an input, its demand is governed more by its
price and availability than its brand name

OLIGOPOLY
# Oligopoly Market Definition:- The Oligopoly Market characterized by few
sellers, selling the homogeneous or differentiated products. In other words,
the Oligopoly market structure lies between the pure monopoly and
monopolistic competition, where few sellers dominate the market and have
control over the price of the product.
 Under the Oligopoly market, a firm either produces:

1. Homogeneous product: The firms producing the homogeneous products

are called as Pure or Perfect Oligopoly. It is found in the producers of
industrial products such as aluminum, copper, steel, zinc, iron, etc.
2. Heterogeneous Product: The firms producing the heterogeneous
products are called as Imperfect or Differentiated Oligopoly. Such type of
Oligopoly is found in the producers of consumer goods such as
automobiles, soaps, detergents, television, refrigerators, etc.

# FEATURES OF OLIGOPOLY MARKET

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1. Few Sellers:- Under the Oligopoly market, the sellers are few, and the
customers are many. Few firms dominating the market enjoys a considerable
control over the price of the product

2. Interdependence:- it is one of the most important features of an Oligopoly

market, wherein, the seller has to be cautious with respect to any action taken
by the competing firms. Since there are few sellers in the market, if any firm
makes the change in the price or promotional scheme, all other firms in the
industry have to comply with it, to remain in the competition.

Thus, every firm remains alert to the actions of others and plan their
counterattack beforehand, to escape the turmoil. Hence, there is a complete
interdependence among the sellers with respect to their price-output policies.

3. Advertising:- Under Oligopoly market, every firm advertises their products

on a frequent basis, with the intention to reach more and more customers and
increase their customer base.This is due to the advertising that makes the
competition intense.

If any firm does a lot of advertisement while the other remained silent, then
he will observe that his customers are going to that firm who is continuously
promoting its product. Thus, in order to be in the race, each firm spends lots
of money on advertisement activities.

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 4.Competition:- It is genuine that with a few players in the market, there will
be an intense competition among the sellers. Any move taken by the firm will
have a considerable impact on its rivals. Thus, every seller keeps an eye over
its rival and be ready with the counterattack.

5. Entry and Exit Barriers:- The firms can easily exit the industry whenever
it wants, but has to face certain barriers to entering into it. These barriers
could be Government license, Patent, large firm’s economies of scale, high
capital requirement, complex technology, etc. Also, sometimes the
government regulations favor the existing large firms, thereby acting as a barrier
for the new entrants.

6. Lack of Uniformity:- There is a lack of uniformity among the firms in terms

of their size, some are big, and some are small.

Since there are less number of firms, any action taken by one firm has a
considerable effect on the other. Thus, every firm must keep a close eye on its
counterpart and plan the promotional activities accordingly.

# TYPES OF OLIGOPOLY MARKET

1. Open Vs Closed Oligopoly: This classification is made on the basis of

freedom to enter into the new industry. An open Oligopoly is the market
situation wherein firm can enter into the industry any time it wants, whereas,
in the case of a closed Oligopoly, there are certain restrictions that act as a
barrier for a new firm to enter into the industry.

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2. Partial Vs Full Oligopoly: This classification is done on the basis of price
leadership. The partial Oligopoly refers to the market situation, wherein one
large firm dominates the market and is looked upon as a price leader.
Whereas in full Oligopoly, the price leadership is conspicuous by its absence.
3. Perfect (Pure) Vs Imperfect (Differential) Oligopoly: This classification is
made on the basis of product differentiation. The Oligopoly is perfect or pure
when the firms deal in the homogeneous products. Whereas the Oligopoly is
said to be imperfect, when the firms deal in heterogeneous products, i.e.
products that are close but are not perfect substitutes.
4. Syndicated Vs Organized Oligopoly: This classification is done on the basis
of a degree of coordination found among the firms. When the firms come
together and sell their products with the common interest is called as a
Syndicate Oligopoly. Whereas, in the case of an Organized Oligopoly, the firms
have a central association for fixing the prices, outputs, and quotas.
5. Collusive Vs Non-Collusive Oligopoly: This classification is made on the
basis of agreement or understanding between the firms. In Collusive
Oligopoly, instead of competing with each other, the firm come together and
with the consensus of all fixes the price and the outputs. Whereas in the case
of a non- collusive Oligopoly, there is a lack of understanding among the firms
and they compete against each other to achieve their respective targets.

Thus, oligopoly market is a market structure that lies between the monopolistic
competition and a pure monopoly.

# LIST OF ADVANTAGES OF OLIGOPOLY

1. It offers simple choices.- With only a few businesses offering products or

services, it will be easy for consumers to compare and choose the best option
for their needs. In other types of market, it can be very challenging to
thoroughly look into all the things offered by a huge group of companies and
then compare prices.

2. It generates high profits.-Because there is only little competition in

oligopoly, the businesses involved in it enjoy the benefit of bringing in huge
amounts of profits. Generally, the products and services controlled through
this type of market are highly needed by a large majority of consumers.

3. It offers better information, products and services.- Along with fair

price competition, competition among products also plays a huge role in this
market structure, where every business would scramble to come out with
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best and

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latest items to attract consumers. The same goes to the amount of
information, advertising and support offered to consumers.

4. It creates competitive prices.- As already implied, the ability to easily

compare prices coerces business to keep their prices in competition with their
competitors. This is a great perk for consumers, as prices could continually go
down.

# LIST OF DISADVANTAGES OF OLIGOPOLY

1. It offers fewer choices.-In many cases, choosing the best brand in an

oligopoly is like going for the least evil. This means that consumers would
have very limited options for the products or services they are looking for.

2. It makes it difficult for smaller entities to establish a spot in the

market.- For smaller enterprises and creatives, their outlook for business in
this type of market is grim, as only the extremely advanced and large companies
have complete control over market. This makes it nearly impossible for
smaller and new entities to break into the market.

3. It eliminates motivation to compete.- Generally, companies in oligopoly

become very settled with their ventures, as their operations and profits are
guaranteed. This means that they would no longer feel the necessity to create
new innovative ideas.

4. Its fixed prices can be bad for consumers.- While competitive prices are
good, they are rarely far apart from those of other companies they could go
with, as businesses agree to fix prices, where there is a set limit for how low
prices could go.

Given the nature of an oligopoly form of market and the size of the businesses
that participates in it, it definitely has some benefits and drawbacks. By
weighing down the pros and cons listed above, you will be able to come up
with a well-informed opinion whether it is good to engage in or not.

# PRICE AND OUTPUT DETERMINATION UNDER COLLUSIVE & NON-

COLLUSIVE OLIGOPOLY

1. PRICE AND OUTPUT DETERMINATION UNDER OLIGOPOLY:

(a) If an industry is composed of few firms each selling identical or
homogenous products and having powerful influence on the total market,
the
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price and output policy of each is likely to affect the other appreciably, therefore
they will try to promote collusion.
(b) In case there is product differentiation, an oligopolistic can raise or
lower his price without any fear of losing customers or of immediate reactions
from his rivals. However, keen rivalry among them may create condition
of monopolistic competition.
There is no single theory which satisfactorily explains the oligopoly behaviour
regarding price and output in the market. There are set of theories like
Cournot Duopoly Model, Bertrand Duopoly Model, the Chamberlin Model, the
Kinked Demand Curve Model, the Centralised Cartel Model, Price Leadership
Model, etc., which have been developed on particular set of assumptions about
the reaction of other firms to the action of the firm under study.

 PRICE DETERMINATION MODELS OF COLLUSIVE OLIGOPOLY:

The degree of imperfect competition in a market is influenced not just by the
number and size of firms but by how they behave. When only a few firms
operate in a market, they see what their rivals are doing and react. ‘Strategic
interaction’ is a term that describes how each firm’s business strategy
depends upon its rivals’ business behaviour.

When there are only a small number of firms in a market, they have a choice
between ‘cooperative’ and ‘non-cooperative’ behaviour:

1. Firms act non-cooperatively when they act on their own without any
explicit or implicit agreement with other firms. That’s what produces ‘price
wars’.
2. Firms operate in a cooperative mode when they try to minimise
competition between them. When firms in an oligopoly actively cooperate
with each other, they engage in ‘collusion’. Collusion is an oligopolistic
situation in which two or more firms jointly set their prices or outputs,
divide the market among them, or make other business decisions jointly.

A ‘cartel’ is an organisation of independent firms, producing similarproducts,

which work together to raise prices and restrict output. It is strictly illegal in
Pakistan and most countries of the world for companies to collude by jointly
setting prices or dividing markets. Nonetheless, firms are often tempted to
engage in ‘tacit collusion’, which occurs when they refrain from competition
without explicit agreements. When firms tacitly collude, they often quote

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identical (high) prices, pushing up profits and decreasing the risk of doing
business. The rewards of collusion, when it is successful, can be great. It is
more illustrated in the following diagram:

The above diagram illustrates the situation of oligopolistic A and his demand
curve DaDa assuming that the other firms all follow firm A’s lead in raising
and lowering prices. Thus the firm’s demand curve has the same elasticity as
the industry’s DD curve. The optimum price for the collusive oligopolistic is
shown at point G on DaDa just above point E. This price is identical to the
monopoly price, it is well above marginal cost and earns the colluding
oligopolists a handsome monopoly profit.

 PRICE DETERMINATION MODELS OF OLIGOPOLY (NON-COLLUSIVE):

1. Kinky Demand Curve: The kinky demand curve model tries to explain that
in non-collusive oligopolistic industries there are not frequent changes in the
market prices of the products. The demand curve is drawn on the assumption
that the kink in the curve is always at the ruling price. The reason is that a
firm in the market supplies a significant share of the product and has a
powerful influence in the prevailing price of the commodity. Under oligopoly,
a firm has two choices:

(a) The first choice is that the firm increases the price of the product. Each
firm in the industry is fully aware of the fact that if it increases the price of the
product, it will lose most of its customers to its rival. In such a case, the upper
part of demand curve is more elastic than the part of the curve lying below the
kink.
(b) The second option for the firm is to decrease the price. In case the firm
lowers the price, its total sales will increase, but it cannot push up its sales
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very

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much because the rival firms also follow suit with a price cut. If the rival firms
make larger price cut than the one which initiated it, the firm which first started
the price cut will suffer a lot and may finish up with decreased sales. The
oligopolists, therefore avoid cutting price, and try to sell their products at the
prevailing market price. These firms, however, compete with one another on
the basis of quality, product design, after-sales services, advertising, discounts,
gifts, warrantees, special offers, etc.

In the above diagram, we shall notice that there is a discontinuity in the

marginal revenue curve just below the point corresponding to the kink.
During this discontinuity the marginal cost curve is drawn. This is because of
the fact that the firm is in equilibrium at output ON where the MC curve is
intersecting the MR curve from below.

The kinky demand curve is further explained in the following diagram:

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In the above diagram, the demand curve is made up of two segments DB and
BD’. The demand curve is kinked at point B. When the price is Rs. 10 per unit,
a firm sells 120 units of output. If a firm decides to charge Rs. 12 per unit, it
loses a large part of the market and its sales come down to 40 units with a loss
of 80 units. In case, the producer lowers the price to Rs. 4 per unit, its
competitors in the industry will match the price cut. Its sales with a big price
cut of Rs. 6 increases the sale by only 40 units. The firm does not gain as its
total revenue decreases with the price cut.

PRICE LEADERSHIP MODEL

2. Price Leadership Model: Under price leadership, one firm assumes the
role of a price leader and fixes the price of the product for the entire industry.
The other firms in the industry simply follow the price leader and accept the
price fixed by him and adjust their output to this price. The price leader is
generally a very large or dominant firm or a firm with the lowest cost of
production. It often happens that price leadership is established as a result of
price war in which one firm emerges as the winner.

In oligopolistic market situation, it is very rare that prices are set independently
and there is usually some understanding among the oligopolists operating in
the industry. This agreement may be either tacit or explicit.

# Types of Price Leadership: There are several types of price leadership.

The following are the principal types:

(a) Price leadership of a dominant firm, i.e., the firm which produces the
bulk of the product of the industry. It sets the price and rest of the firms
simply accepts this price.
(b) Barometric price leadership, i.e., the price leadership of an old,
experienced and the largest firm assumes the role of a leader, but undertakes
also to protect the interest of all firms instead of promoting its own interests
as in the case of price leadership of a dominant firm.
(c) Exploitative or Aggressive price leadership, i.e., one big firm built its
supremacy in the market by following aggressive price leadership. It compels
other firms to follow it and accept the price fixed by it. In case the other firms
show any independence, this firm threatens them and coerces them to follow
its leadership.

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# Price Determination under Price Leadership: There are various models
concerning price-output determination under price leadership on the basis of
certain assumptions regarding the behaviour of the price leader and his
followers. In the following case, there are few assumptions for determining
price-output level under-price leadership:

(a) There are only two firms A and B and firm A has a lower cost of
production than the firm B.
(b) The product is homogenous or identical so that the customers are
indifferent as between the firms.
(c) Both A and B have equal share in the market, i.e., they are facing the
same demand curve which will be the half of the total demand curve.

In the above diagram, MCa is the marginal cost curve of firm A and MCb is the
marginal cost curve of firm B. Since we have assumed that the firm A has a
lower cost of production than the firm B, therefore, the MCa is drawn below
MCb.

Now let us take the firm A first, firm A will be maximising its profit by selling
OM level of output at price MP, because at output OM the firm A will be in
equilibrium as its marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue at point
E. Whereas the firm B will be in equilibrium at point F, selling ON level of output
at price NK, which is higher than the price MP. Two firms have to charge the
same price in order to survive in the industry. Therefore, the firm B has to
accept and follow the price set by firm A. This shows that firm A is the price
leader and firm B is the follower.
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Since the demand curve faced by both firms is the same, therefore, the firm B
will produce OM level of output instead of ON. Since the marginal cost of firm
B is greater than the marginal cost of firm A, therefore, the profit earned by
firm B will be lesser than the profit earned by firm A.

# Difficulties of Price Leadership: The following are the challenges faced by

a price leader:

(a) It is difficult for a price leader to correctly assess the reactions of his
followers.
(b) The rival firms may secretly charge lower prices when they find that the
leader charged unduly high prices. Such price cutting devices are rebates,
favorable credit terms, money back guarantees, after delivery free services,
easy installment sales, etc.
(c) The rivals may indulge in non-price competition. Such non-price
competition devices are heavy advertisement and sales promotion.
(d) The high price set by the price leader may also attract new entrants into
the industry and these new entrants may not accept his leadership.

SUPPLY

# MEANING OF SUPPLY:- In economics, supply during a given period of time

means, the quantities of goods which are offered for sale at particular prices.
The supply of a commodity is the amount of the commodity which the sellers
or producers are able and willing to offer for sale at a particular price, during
a certain period of time.

In other-words, we can say that supply is a relative term. It is always referred

to in relation of price and time. A statement of supply without reference to
price and time conveys no economic sense. For instance, a statement such as
“the supply of milk is 1,000 litres” is meaningless in economic analysis.

One must say, “the supply at such and such a price and during a specific
period.” Hence, the above statement becomes meaningful if it is said—”at the
price of Rs. 12 per litre; a diary farm’s daily supply of milk is 1000 litres.
Here both price and time are referred with the quantity of milk supplied.”

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Further, elasticity of supply explains to us the reaction of the sellers due to a
particular change in the price of a commodity. If due to a little rise in the price,
supply increases considerably we will call it elastic supply. On the other-hand,
supply changes a little or negligibly, it is less elastic.

# DEFINITION OF SUPPLY:
According to J. L. Hanson – “By supply is meant that amount that will come
into the market over a range of prices.”
In short supply always means supply at a given price. At different prices, the
supply may be different. Normally the higher the price, the greater the supply
and vice-versa.

According to Prof. Thomas – “The supply of a commodity is said to be elastic

when as a result of a change in price the supply changes sufficiently as a quick
response. Contrary, if there is no change or negligible change in supply or
supply pays no response, it is inelastic.”

Prof. Thomas’s definition tells us proportionate changes in price and quantity

supplied is the concept of elasticity of supply. If as a result of small change in
price change in supply is more proportionately it will be higher elastic supply.

# ASSUMPTIONS

1. Price of factors of production. If there is a change in prices of the factors

of production then supply of a commodity may change at same constant
price e.g. an increase in wages of labour may cause of decrease in supply of
a commodity at the same price.
2. Change in Technology. When advance technology is available then it
became possible to increase the supply of a commodity at the same
constant price, because with improvement of technology the cost of
production usually decreases.
3. Change in Weather. Supply of agricultural products usually changes with
change in weather. When weather is suitable for agriculture then more
output is obtained and therefore, supply of an agricultural goods increase
otherwise decrease.

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4. Government Taxes. Production activities and supply of different goods
very much depends upon the system of taxation. If heavy taxes are
imposed on production of different goods then their supply my decrease. On
the other hand concession in tax may help to increase supply at the same
price.

# SUPPLY AND STOCK RELATIONSHIP

Supply and stock are related to each other in distinct terms:-

1. Stock is the Determinant of Supply:- Supply is what the seller is able and
willing to offer for sale. The ability of a seller to supply a commodity depends
on the stock available with him. Thus, stock is the determinant of supply. Supply
is the amount of stock offered for sale at a given price. Therefore, stock is the
basis of supply. Without stock supply is not possible.

2. Stock Determines the Actual Supply:- Actual supply is the stock or

quantity actually offered for sale by the seller at a particular price during a
certain period. The limit to maximum supply, at a time, is set by the given
stock. Actual supply may be a part of the stock or the entire stock at the most.
Thus, the stock can exceed supply but supply cannot exceed the given stock at
a time.

3. Stock can be said as the Outcome of Production:- It is very common to

understand that by increasing production as well as the potential supply, the
stock can be increased. Sometimes, an increase in the actual supply can exceed
the increase in current stock, when along with the fresh stock, old
accumulated stock is also released for sale at the prevailing price.

In this way, supply can exceed the current stock, but it can never exceed the
total stock (old + new stock taken together) during a given period.

# FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY

There are a number of factors influencing the supply of a commodity. They are
known as the determinants of supply.

1. Price of the Commodity:- Price is the most important factor influencing

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the supply of a commodity. More is supplied at a lower price and less is
supplied at a higher price.

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2. Seller’s Expectations about the Future Price:- Seller’s expectations about
the future price affect the supply. If a seller expects the price to rise in the
future, he will withhold his stock at present and so there will be less supply
now. Besides change in price, change in the supply may be in the form of
increase or decrease in supply.

3. Nature of Goods:- The supply of every perishable goods is perfectly

inelastic in a market period because the entire stock of such goods must be
disposed of within a very short period, whatsoever may be the price. If not,
they might get rotten. Further, if the stock of goods can be easily stored its
supply would be relatively elastic and vice-versa.

4. Natural Conditions:- The supply of some commodities, such as agricultural

products depends on the natural environment or climatic conditions like—
rainfall, temperature etc. A change in the natural conditions will cause a
change in the supply.

5. Transport Conditions:- Difficulties in transport may cause a temporary

decrease in supply as goods cannot be brought in time to the market place. So
even at the rising prices, quantity supplied cannot be increased.

6. Cost of Production:- If there is a rise in the cost of production of a

commodity, its supply will tend to decrease. Similarly, with the rise in cost of
production the supply curve tends to shift downward. Conversely, a fall in the
cost of production tends to decrease the supply.

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7. The State of Technology:- The supply of a commodity depends upon the
methods of production. Advance in technology and science are the most
powerful forces influencing productivity of the factors of production. Most of
the inventions and innovations in chemistry, electronics, atomic energy etc.
have greatly contributed to increased supplies of commodities at lower costs.

8. Government’s Policy:- Government’s economic policies like—industrial

policy, fiscal policy etc. influence the supply. If the industrial licensing policy
of the government is liberal, more firms are encouraged to enter the field of
production, so that the supply may increase.
Import restrictions and high customs duties may decrease the supply of
imposed goods but it would encourage the domestic industrial activity, so that
the supply of domestic products may increase. A tax on a commodity or a
factor of production raises its cost of production, consequently production is
reduced. A subsidy on the other-hand provides an incentive to production and
augments supply.

# TYPES OF SUPPLY
There are five types of supply:

1. Market Supply:- Market supply is also called very short period supply.
Another name of market supply is ‘day-to-day supply or ‘daily supply’. Under
these goods like—fish, vegetables, milk etc., are included. In this supply is not
made according to the demand of purchasers but as per availability of the
goods.

2. Short-term Supply:- In short period supply, the demand cannot be met as

per requirements of the purchaser. The demand is met as according to the
goods available.

3. Long-term Supply:- In this, if demand has been changed the supply can
also be changed because there is sufficient time to meet the demand by
making manufacturing goods and supplying them in the market.

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4. Joint Supply:- Joint supply refers to the goods produced or supplied jointly
e.g., cotton and seed; mutton and wool. In joint supplied products one is the
main product and the other is the by-product of its subsidiary. By-product is
mostly the automatic outcome when the main product is produced.
For example:- When the sheep is slaughtered for mutton wool is obtained
automatically.

5. Composite Supply:- In this, the supply of a commodity is made from

various sources and is called the composite supply. When there are different
sources of supply of a commodity or services, we say that its supply is
composed of all these resources. We normally get light from electricity, gas,
kerosene and candles. All these resources go to make the supply of light. Thus,
the way of supplying the light is called composite supply.

# SUPPLY SCHEDULE
Supply schedule shows a tabular representation of law of supply. It presents
the different quantities of a product that a seller is willing to sell at different
price levels of that product.

A supply schedule can be of two types, which are as follows:

1. Individual Supply Schedule: Refers to a supply schedule that represents

the different quantities of a product supplied by an individual seller at
different prices.

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Table-8 shows the supply schedule for the different quantities of milk
supplied in the market at different prices:

2. Market Supply Schedule:- Refers to a supply schedule that represents the

different quantities of a product that all the suppliers in the market are willing
to supply at different prices. Market supply schedule can be drawn by
aggregating the individual supply schedules of all individual suppliers in the
market.
Table-9 shows the market supply schedule of a product supplied by
three suppliers. A, B, and C:

# SUPPLY CURVE

The graphical representation of supply schedule is called supply curve. In a

graph, price of a product is represented on Y-axis and quantity supplied is
represented on X-axis. Supply curve can be of two types, individual supply
curve and market supply curve. Individual supply curve is the graphical
representation of individual supply schedule, whereas market supply curve is
the representation of market supply schedule.

Figure-14 shows the individual supply curve for the individual supply
schedule (represented in Table-8):

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In Figure-14, the supply curve is showing a straight line and an upward slope.
This implies that the supply of a product increases with increase in the price
of a product.

Figure-15 shows the market supply curve of market supply schedule

(represented in Table-9):

The slope of market supply curve can be obtained by calculating the supply of
the slopes of individual supply curves. Market supply curve also represents
the direct relationship between the quantity supplied and price of a product.

Refers to a supply schedule that represents the different quantities of a

product supplied by an individual seller at different prices.

# EXCEPTIONS OF LAW OF SUPPLY

i. Speculation:- Refers to the fact that the supply of a product decreases instead
of increasing in present when there is an expected increase in the price of the
product. In such a case, sellers would not supply the whole quantity of the

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product and would wait for the increase in price in future to earn high profits.
This case is an exception to law of demand.

ii. Agricultural Products:- Imply that law of supply is not valid in case of
agricultural products as the supply of these products depends on particular
seasons or climatic conditions. Thus, the supply of these products cannot be
increased after a certain limit in spite of rise in their prices.

iii. Changes in Other Situations:- Refers to the fact that law of supply ignores
other factors (except price) that can influence the supply of a product. These
factors can be natural factors, transportation conditions, and government
policies.
# LIMITATIONS OF LAW OF SUPPLY

i. Future Prices: When the price rises and the seller expects the future price
to rise further, supply will decline as the seller will be induced to withhold
supplies so as to sell later and earn larger profits then.

ii. Agricultural Output: Law of supply ma y not apply in case of agricultural

commodities as their production cannot be increased at once following price
increase.

iii. Subsistence Farmers: In underdeveloped countries where agriculture is

characterised with subsistence farmers, law of supply may not apply.

iv. Factors other than Price not Remaining Constant: The law of supply is
stated on the assumption that factors other than the price of the commodity
remain constant.

PRICING PRACTICES

# MEANING OF PRICING

 Pricing is one of the most important elements of the marketing, as it is the

only factor which generates a turnover for the organization. It can be defined
as "Activities aimed at finding a product’s optimum price, typically
including overall marketing objectives, consumer demand, product

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 attributes,

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 competitors' pricing, and market and economic trends." It costs to produce
and design a product; it costs to distribute a product and costs to promote
it.

 Price must support these elements of the mix. Pricing is difficult and must
reflect supply and demand relationship. Pricing a product too high or too
low could mean a loss of sales for the organization.

 It is the value that is put to a product or service and is the result of a

complex set of calculations, research and understanding and risk taking
ability.

 THE INFLUENCING FACTORS FOR A PRICING DECISION CAN BE

DIVIDED INTO TWO GROUPS:
(A) Internal Factors (B) External Factors.

(A) Internal Factors:

1. Organizational Factors:- Pricing decisions occur on two levels in the

organisation. Over-all price strategy is dealt with by top executives. They
determine the basic ranges that the product falls into in terms of market
segments. The actual mechanics of pricing are dealt with at lower levels in the
firm and focus on individual product strategies. Usually, some combination of
production and marketing specialists are involved in choosing the price.

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2. Marketing Mix:- Marketing experts view price as only one of the many
important elements of the marketing mix. A shift in any one of the elements
has an immediate effect on the other three—Production, Promotion and
Distribution. In some industries, a firm may use price reduction as a
marketing technique.
Other firms may raise prices as a deliberate strategy to build a high-prestige
product line. In either case, the effort will not succeed unless the price change
is combined with a total marketing strategy that supports it. A firm that raises
its prices may add a more impressive looking package and may begin a new
advertising campaign.

3. Product Differentiation:- The price of the product also depends upon the
characteristics of the product. In order to attract the customers, different
characteristics are added to the product, such as quality, size, colour,
attractive package, alternative uses etc. Generally, customers pay more prices
for the product which is of the new style, fashion, better package etc.

4. Cost of the Product:- Cost and price of a product are closely related. The most
important factor is the cost of production. In deciding to market a product, a
firm may try to decide what prices are realistic, considering current demand
and competition in the market. The product ultimately goes to the public and
their capacity to pay will fix the cost, otherwise product would be flapped in
the market.

5. Objectives of the Firm:- A firm may have various objectives and pricing
contributes its share in achieving such goals. Firms may pursue a variety of
value-oriented objectives, such as maximizing sales revenue, maximizing
market share, maximizing customer volume, minimizing customer volume,
maintaining an image, maintaining stable price etc. Pricing policy should be
established only after proper considerations of the objectives of the firm.

(B) External Factors:

1. Demand:- The market demand for a product or service obviously has a big
impact on pricing. Since demand is affected by factors like, number and size of
competitors, the prospective buyers, their capacity and willingness to pay,
their preference etc. are taken into account while fixing the price.
A firm can determine the expected price in a few test-markets by trying
different prices in different markets and comparing the results with a

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controlled market in which price is not altered. If the demand of the product is
inelastic, high prices may be fixed. On the other hand, if demand is elastic, the
firm should not fix high prices, rather it should fix lower prices than that of
the competitors.

2. Competition:- Competitive conditions affect the pricing decisions.

Competition is a crucial factor in price determination. A firm can fix the price
equal to or lower than that of the competitors, provided the quality of
product, in no case, be lower than that of the competitors.

3. Suppliers:- Suppliers of raw materials and other goods can have a significant
effect on the price of a product. If the price of cotton goes up, the increase is
passed on by suppliers to manufacturers. Manufacturers, in turn, pass it on to
consumers.
Sometimes, however, when a manufacturer appears to be making large profits
on a particular product, suppliers will attempt to make profits by charging more
for their supplies. In other words, the price of a finished product is intimately
linked up with the price of the raw materials. Scarcity or abundance of the raw
materials also determines pricing.

4. Economic Conditions:- The inflationary or deflationary tendency affects

pricing. In recession period, the prices are reduced to a sizeable extent to
maintain the level of turnover. On the other hand, the prices are increased in
boom period to cover the increasing cost of production and distribution. To
meet the changes in demand, price etc.

 Several pricing decisions are available:

(a) Prices can be boosted to protect profits against rising cost,

(b) Price protection systems can be developed to link the price on delivery to
current costs,

(c) Emphasis can be shifted from sales volume to profit margin and cost
reduction etc.

5. Buyers:- The various consumers and businesses that buy a company’s

products or services may have an influence in the pricing decision. Their
nature and behaviour for the purchase of a particular product, brand or
service etc. affect pricing when their number is large.

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6. Government:- Price discretion is also affected by the price-control by the
government through enactment of legislation, when it is thought proper to
arrest the inflationary trend in prices of certain products. The prices cannot be
fixed higher, as government keeps a close watch on pricing in the private sector.
The marketers obviously can exercise substantial control over the internal
factors, while they have little, if any, control over the external ones.

 WHILE SETTING THE PRICE, THE FIRM MAY AIM AT THE FOLLOWING
OBJECTIVES:

(i) Price-Profit Satisfaction:- The firms are interested in keeping their prices
stable within certain period of time irrespective of changes in demand and
costs, so that they may get the expected profit.
(ii) Sales Maximization and Growth:- A firm has to set a price which assures
maximum sales of the product. Firms set a price which would enhance the sale
of the entire product line. It is only then, it can achieve growth.
(iii) Making Money:- Some firms want to use their special position in the
industry by selling product at a premium and make quick profit as much as
possible.
(iv) Preventing Competition:- Unrestricted competition and lack of planning
can result in wasteful duplication of resources. The price system in a
competitive economy might not reflect society’s real needs. By adopting a
suitable price policy the firm can restrict the entry of rivals.
(v) Market Share:- The firm wants to secure a large share in the market by
following a suitable price policy. It wants to acquire a dominating leadership
position in the market. Many managers believe that revenue maximisation
will lead to long run profit maximisation and market share growth.
(vi) Survival:- In these days of severe competition and business
uncertainties, the firm must set a price which would safeguard the welfare of
the firm. A firm is always in its survival stage. For the sake of its continued
existence, it must tolerate all kinds of obstacles and challenges from the rivals.
(vii) Market Penetration:- Some companies want to maximise unit sales. They
believe that a higher sales volume will lead to lower unit costs and higher long
run profit. They set the lowest price, assuming the market is price sensitive.
This is called market penetration pricing.
(viii) Marketing Skimming:- Many companies favour setting high prices to
‘skim’ the market. DuPont is a prime practitioner of market skimming pricing.
With each innovation, it estimates the highest price it can charge given the
comparative benefits of its new product versus the available substitutes.

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(ix) Early Cash Recovery:- Some firms set a price which will create a mad
rush for the product and recover cash early. They may also set a low price as a
caution against uncertainty of the future.
(x) Satisfactory Rate of Return:- Many companies try to set the price that
will maximise current profits. To estimate the demand and costs associated
with alternative prices, they choose the price that produces maximum current
profit, cash flow or rate of return on investment.

# TYPES OF PRICING
A. COST BASED PRICING METHOD
1. Cost plus pricing: Product unit’s total cost + percentage of profit.
Commonly followed in departmental stores. Does not consider the
competition factor.
2. Marginal cost pricing: Also called break-even pricing. Selling price is fixed
in such a way that it covers fully the variable or marginal cost.

B. COMPETITION-ORIENTED PRICING
1. Sealed bid Pricing: This method is more popular in tenders & contracts.
Each contracting firm quotes its price in a sealed cover called ‘tender’. All the
tenders are opened on a scheduled date and the person who quotes the lowest
price is awarded the contract.
2. Going rate Pricing: Price is charged in tune with the price in the industry
as a whole. When one wants to buy or sell gold, the prevailing market rate at a
given point of time is taken as the basis to determine the price

C. DEMAND-ORIENTED PRICING
1. Price discrimination: Practice of charging different prices to customers
for the same good. It is also called differential pricing. Prices are discriminated
on the basis of customer requirements, nature of product itself, geographical
areas, income group etc.
2. Perceived value pricing: price fixed on the basis of the perception of the
buyer of the value of the product. For example: Mobile phones without touch
screens these days.

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D. STRATEGY-BASED PRICING
1. Market Skimming: When the product is introduced for the first time in the
market, the company follows this method. Under this method, the company
fixes a very high price for the product. The idea is to charge the customer
maximum possible. Mostly found in technical products.
2. Market Penetration: Opposite to the market skimming method. Here the
product is fixed so low that the company can increase its market share.
3. Two-part pricing: A firm charges a fixed fee for the right to purchase its
goods, plus a per unit charge for each unit purchased. Organizations such as
country clubs, golf courses charge membership fee and offer their products &
services cost- to-cost.
4. Block Pricing: Block pricing is another way a firm with market power can
enhance its profits. We see block pricing in our day-to- day life. Six lux soaps
in a single pack or Maggi noodles in a single pack illustrate this pricing
methods. By selling certain number of units of a product as one package, the
firm earns more than by selling unit wise.
5. Commodity bundling: Commodity bundling refers to the practice of
bundling two or more different products together and selling them at a single
‘bundle price’. For example: The package deals offered by the tourist
companies, airlines etc.
6. Peak load Pricing: During seasonal period when demand is likely to be
higher, a firm may enhance profits by peak load pricing. The firm’s philosophy
is to charge a higher price during peak times than is charged during off- peak
times
7. Cross subsidization: In cases where demand for two products produced
by a firm is interrelated through demand or costs, the firm may enhance the
profitability of its operation through cross subsidization. Using the profits
generated by established products, a firm may expand its activities by
financing new product development and diversification into new product
market. For example, A computer selling both hardware & Software.

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8. Transfer Pricing: Transfer pricing is an internal pricing technique. It refers
to a price at which inputs of one department are transferred to another, in order
to maximize the overall profits of the company.
9. Price Matching: A firm promises to match a lower price offered by any
competitor, while announcing its own price. It is necessary that one should be
confident, before adopting this strategy.
10. Promoting Brand Loyalty: This is an advertising strategy where the
customers are frequently reminded by the brand value of a given product or
service. Conviction is to retain the brand loyalty, so that customers will not
slip away when the competitors come up with lower prices. For example:
Pepsi and Coke spend huge amounts on advertising campaigns to draw the
attention of consumers.
11. Time-to-time Pricing: This is also called randomized pricing strategy
where the firm varies its price from time-to-time, say hour-to- hour or day-to-
day. Customers cannot learn from experience which firm charges the lowest
price in the market. For ex: Markets of bullion, currency and bank deposits.
12. Promotional Pricing: Promoting the product by intentionally charging
lower price to attract the customer
13. Target Pricing: This is a strategy where company fixes a price keeping in
view a targeted profit in mind.

# PRICING PRACTICES AND STRATEGY

It takes into account segments, ability to pay, market conditions, competitor

actions, trade margins and input costs, amongst others. It is targeted at the
defined customers and against competitors.
1. Cost-plus pricing :- It Refers to the simplest method of determining the price
of a product. In cost-plus pricing method, a fixed percentage, also called mark-
up percentage, of the total cost (as a profit) is added to the total cost to set the
price. For example, XYZ organization bears the total cost of Rs. 100 per unit
for

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producing a product. It adds Rs. 50 per unit to the price of product as’ profit.
In such a case, the final price of a product of the organization would be Rs.
150.
Cost-plus pricing is also known as average cost pricing. This is the most
commonly used method in manufacturing organizations.
 In economics, the general formula given for setting price in case of cost-
plus pricing is as follows:
P = AVC + AVC (M)
AVC= Average Variable Cost
M = Mark-up percentage
AVC (m) = Gross profit margin
Mark-up percentage (M) is fixed in which AFC and net profit margin (NPM) are
covered.
AVC (m) = AFC+ NPM
i) For determining average variable cost, the first step is to fix prices. This is
done by estimating the volume of the output for a given period of time. The
planned output or normal level of production is taken into account to estimate
the output.
ii) The second step is to calculate Total Variable Cost (TVC) of the output.
TVC includes direct costs, such as cost incurred in labor, electricity, and
transportation. Once TVC is calculated, AVC is obtained by dividing TVC by
output, Q. [AVC= TVC/Q]. The price is then fixed by adding the mark-up of
some percentage of AVC to the profit [P = AVC + AVC (m)].
 Advantages of cost-plus pricing method are as follows:
a. Requires minimum information
b. Involves simplicity of calculation
c. Insures sellers against the unexpected changes in costs
 Disadvantages of cost-plus pricing method are as follows:
a. Ignores price strategies of competitors
b. Ignores the role of customers
2. Markup Pricing:- It Refers to a pricing method in which the fixed amount
or the percentage of cost of the product is added to product’s price to get the
selling price of the product. Markup pricing is more common in retailing in
which a retailer sells the product to earn profit.
For example, if a retailer has taken a product from the wholesaler for Rs. 100,
then he/she might add up a markup of Rs. 20 to gain profit.It is mostly
expressed by the following formulae:
a. Markup as the percentage of cost= (Markup/Cost) *100
b. Markup as the percentage of selling price= (Markup/ Selling Price)*100

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c. For example, the product is sold for Rs. 500 whose cost was Rs. 400. The mark
up as a percentage to cost is equal to (100/400)*100 =25. The mark up as a
percentage of the selling price equals (100/500)*100= 20.

3. Demand-based Pricing:- Demand-based pricing refers to a pricing method

in which the price of a product is finalized according to its demand. If the
demand of a product is more, an organization prefers to set high prices for
products to gain profit; whereas, if the demand of a product is less, the low
prices are charged to attract the customers. The success of demand-based
pricing depends on the ability of marketers to analyze the demand. This type
of pricing can be seen in the hospitality and travel industries

4. Competition-based Pricing:- Competition-based pricing refers to a

method in which an organization considers the prices of competitors’
products to set the prices of its own products. The organization may charge
higher, lower, or equal prices as compared to the prices of its competitors.
The aviation industry is the best example of competition-based pricing where
airlines charge the same or fewer prices for same routes as charged by their
competitors. In addition, the introductory prices charged by publishing
organizations for textbooks are determined according to the competitors’
prices.

5. Value Pricing:- Implies a method in which an organization tries to win

loyal customers by charging low prices for their high- quality products. The
organization aims to become a low cost producer without sacrificing the
quality. It can deliver high- quality products at low prices by improving its
research and development process. Value pricing is also called value-
optimized pricing.
6. Target Return Pricing:- It Helps in achieving the required rate of return on
investment done for a product. In other words, the price of a product is fixed
on the basis of expected profit.

7. Going Rate Pricing:- It implies a method in which an organization sets the

price of a product according to the prevailing price trends in the market. Thus,
the pricing strategy adopted by the organization can be same or similar to other
organizations. However, in this type of pricing, the prices set by the market
leaders are followed by all the organizations in the industry.

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8. Transfer Pricing:- It involves selling of goods and services within the
departments of the organization. It is done to manage the profit and loss
ratios of different departments within the organization. One department of an
organization can sell its products to other departments at low prices.
Sometimes, transfer pricing is used to show higher profits in the organization
by showing fake sales of products within departments

9. Market Skimming Pricing:- Skimming is adopted where a new product is

launched and the seller has little information on the acceptable price in the
market. The seller, therefore, starts by setting a high price on the launch of the
product and then, over a period of time, lowers the price to meet the varying
price elastic ties of demand.
This enables gradual expansion in capacity by the seller. This practice is
followed in the consumer durables market. The seller chooses to start by
setting at a high price to avoid the risk of losing on customers who are willing
to pay a high price.

10. Penetration Pricing:- Penetration pricing is a strategy employed by

businesses introducing new goods or services into the marketplace. With this
policy, the initial price of the good or service is set relatively low in hopes of
‘penetrating’ into the marketplace quickly and securing significant market
share.
 A penetration policy is even more attractive if selling larger quantities
results in lower costs because of economies of scale. Penetration pricing may
be wise if the firm expects strong competition very soon after introduction.
 A low penetration price may be called a ‘stay out’ price. It discourages
competitors from entering the market. Once the product has secured a
desired market share, its producers can then review business conditions and
decide whether to gradually increase the price.
 Penetration pricing involves the setting of lower, rather than higher prices
in order to achieve a large, if not dominant, market share.
This strategy is most often used in businesses wishing to enter a new market
or build on a relatively small market share.

This will only be possible where demand for the product is believed to be highly
elastic, i.e., demand is price-sensitive and either new buyers will be attracted
or existing buyers will buy more of the product as a result of a low price.

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11. Bundling Pricing:- It is a pricing practice when two or more products are
sold as bundle. Also, the constituent products of the bundle are not sold
individually.
Price bundling is a strategy whereby a seller bundles together many different
goods/items being sold and offers the entire bundle at a single price.
There are two forms of price bundling—pure bundling, where the seller
does not offer buyers the option of buying the items separately, and mixed
bundling, where the seller offers the items separately at higher individual
prices. Mixed bundling is usually preferable to pure bundling, both because
there are fewer legal regulations forbidding it, and because the reference price
effect makes it appear even more attractive to buyers.

Suppose there are two buyers, A and B, and two products, X and Y. Suppose
buyer A values product X at 20 units above the cost of production, and values
7 at 15 units above the cost of production. Suppose buyer B values Y at 20
units above the cost of production, and X at 15 units above the cost of
production.
The ideal thing for the seller would be to practice price discrimination: charge
each buyer the maximum that buyer is willing to pay. However, this may be
forbidden by law or otherwise difficult to implement.
Instead, the seller can pursue the following bundling strategy- charge slightly
under 35 units above production cost for the combination of X and Y. Since
both buyers value the combination at 35 units, this deal appeals to both
buyers. This allows the seller to obtain the entire social surplus as producer
surplus.
The seller can even make this a mixed bundling strategy – offer both X and Y
individually for 20 units, and offer the combination for slightly less than 35
units.

12. Peak Load Pricing:- It is a pricing practice where price varies with time
of the day. When demand for a commodity or service varies at different
periods of time, it has been generally suggested that higher price of a
commodity or service be charged for the peak period when demand is greater
and lower price be charged for off-peak period when demand is lower. This
dual pricing, that is higher price for peak period and lower price for off-peak
period is known as peak-load pricing.

For example. In India charges for trunk or STD calls during day time which is
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the peak period is higher and charges for the off-peak period from 9 P.M. to 6
A.M. are lower. In many countries, electric companies are permitted to charge

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higher rates during the day time which is the peak period for the use of
electricity and lower rates for the night which is off-peak period for the use of
electricity. Similarly, airlines often follow peak-load pricing; in off season they
often lower their rates as compared to the peak periods of travel.

13. Limit Pricing:- Limit pricing refers to the pricing by incumbent firm(s) to
deter or inhibit the entry or the expansion of fringe firms.
Limit pricing implies that firms sacrifice current profits in order to deter entry
of new firms and earn future profits. It is not clear whether this strategy is
always superior to one where current prices (and profits) are higher, but
decline over time as an entry occurs.
Limit pricing thus involves charging prices below the monopoly price in order
to make entry appear unattractive (to limit entry). A low price would
discourage entry if prices had a commitment value. But they do not, because
prices can be changed quickly. Hence, if a potential entrant has complete
information about the incumbent, limit pricing would be useless.
It is the policy adopted by firms already in a market to reduce their prices so
as to make it unprofitable for other firms to try to enter the market. The price
so established is called an entry forestalling price.

14. Prestige Pricing:- Prestige pricing is a marketing strategy where prices

are set higher than normal because lower prices will hurt instead of helping
sales, such as for high-end perfumes, jewelry, clothing, cars, etc. It is also
called image pricing or premium pricing.
It is a price system that implies added value of a product because of its
location at the higher end of the price scale. Prices within this type of financial
modeling are artificially elevated for a psychological marketing advantage.
This type of pricing aims to capitalize on buyers' notions that one brand's
high-priced item is superior in quality to a similar item that could be
purchased for significantly less.
The strategy behind prestige pricing is not tied to its quality but more to its
image.

# ADVANTAGES OF PRICE PRACTICES

1. Firms will be able to increase revenue. Price discrimination will enable

some firms to stay in business who otherwise would have made a loss. For
example price discrimination is important for train companies who offer

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different prices for peak and off-peak. Without price discrimination, they may
go out of business or be unable to provide off-peak services.

2. Increased investment. These increased revenues can be used for research

and development which benefit consumers

3. Lower prices for some. Some consumers will benefit from lower fares. For
example, old people benefit from lower train companies; old people are more
likely to be poor. Also, customers willing to spend time in researching ‘special
offers’ and travelling at awkward times will be rewarded with lower prices.

4. Manages demand. Airlines can use price discrimination to encourage

people to travel at unpopular times (early in the morning) This helps avoid
over-crowding and helps to spread out demand.

# DISADVANTAGES OF PRICING PRACTICES

1. Higher prices for some. Under price discrimination, some consumers will
end up paying higher prices (e.g. people who have to travel at busy times).
These higher prices are likely to be allocatively inefficient because P > MC.

2. Decline in consumer surplus. Price discrimination enables a transfer of

money from consumers to firms – contributing to increased inequality.

3. Potentially unfair. Those who pay higher prices may not be the poorest.
For example, adults paying full price could be unemployed, senior citizens can
be very well off.

4. Administration costs. There will be administration costs in separating the

markets, which could lead to higher prices.

5. Predatory pricing. Profits from price discrimination could be used to

finance predatory pricing.

# IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:-

 Short Questions (2marks):-

Q1:- Oligopoly
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Q2:- Monopoly
Q3:- Price Leadership model.
Q4:- Monopolistic
Competition Q5:-Supply
Q6:- Join Supply
Q7:- Composite
Supply Q8:- Cost Plus
Pricing Q9:- Pricing
Q10. Market.
Q11. Perfect Competition

 Long Questions (10marks):-

Q1:- What Is Market Structure? Discuss Its Types & Determinants?

Q2:- Discussed The Concept Of Perfect Competition Under
Equilibrium? Q3:- Define Monopoly? Explain Its Features & Types?
Q4:- Define Monopolistic Competition? Discuss It’s Under Short & Long Run?
Q5:- Discuss Price And Output Determination Under Collusive & Non-Collusive
Oligopoly?
Q6:- Write the detailed Note on Pricing?
Q7:- Write the detailed Note on Oligopoly?
Q8:- Define Pricing? Discuss its features, factors & Types?
Q9:- Define Pricing? Explain its types, Advantages & limitations?

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Last page

Reference/Source:

1. Managerial Economics, TR Jain, V.K Publications

2. Managerial Economics, P.N Chopra, Kalyani Publishers

3. Micro Economics, H.L Ahuja, S.C Chand

4. Micro Economics, Kalyani Publishers, R.K Lekhi, S.L Aggarwal &Charanjit

Kaur

5. https://www.investopedia.com

6. http://www.economicsdiscussion.net

7. https://www.slideshare.net

8. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com

9. https://www.economicshelp.org

10. https://www.vedantu.com

11. https://www.brainkart.com

12. https://www.learncbse.in

13. https://www.topperlearning.com

14. https://byjus.com

15. https://www.tutorialspoint.com

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