FO130 LECTURE NOTES OF 6 TO 15 MAY 2013

UNIT 1 – CHEMISTRY AND MEASUREMENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Chemistry is an active and evolving science subject that is important in society. Its study started a
long time ago and still goes on. We will begin its study at the macroscopic level, that is, a level where
we see and measure materials which make up our world. The four things we will learn about
chemistry at this level are:
(a) the scientific method which provides a framework for research in chemistry or scientific fields.
(b) How scientists define and characterize matter.
(c) Systems of measurement used in the laboratory and
(d) Handling numerical results of chemical measurements.

At a later time, we will explore the microscopic world of atoms and molecules.

1.1 CHEMISTRY: A SCIENCE OF THE 21ST CENTURY

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Its basic knowledge is essential for
students of biology, physics, geology, ecology, etc. Without it we would have no automobiles,
electricity, computers, CDs, cell phones and many other modern conveniences. A few highlights
follow.

1.1.1 Health and Medicine

Three major advances in the past century have enabled us to prevent and treat diseases. They
are public measures establishing sanitation systems to protect a lot of people from infectious
diseases; surgery with anaesthesia enabling physicians to cure potentially fatal conditions such
as an inflamed appendix, and the introduction of vaccines and antibiotics that make it possible
to prevent diseases spread by microbes. Gene therapy promises to be the fourth revolution in
medicine. (A gene is the basic unit of inheritance.) Several thousand known conditions including
cystic fibrosis, haemophilia, are carried by inborn damage to a single gene. Many other ailments
such as cancer, heart disease, AIDS and arthritis result, to an extent, from impairment of one or
more genes involved in the body’s defences. In gene therapy, a selected healthy gene is
delivered to a patient’s cell to cure or ease such disorders. All the advances outlined above rely
on the use of chemical techniques.

1.1.2 Energy and the Environment

Energy is a by-product of many chemical processes. As the demand of energy continues to
increase, chemists are actively trying to find new energy sources. Current major sources of
energy are fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and natural gas) whose estimated reserves will only last
another 50 to 100 years at the present rate of consumption. So it is urgent that we find
alternative energy sources.

Potential future energy sources are solar and nuclear energy. When considering solar energy,
one option is the conversion of sunlight to electricity using devices called photovoltaic cells. The
other is to use sunlight to obtain hydrogen from water. The hydrogen can then be fed into a fuel
cell to generate electricity. Although scientific understanding of the scientific process of

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UNIT 1 – CHEMISTRY AND MEASUREMENTS

converting solar energy to electricity has advanced, the technology has yet to be improved to
the point where we can produce electricity on a large scale at an economically acceptable cost.
By 2050, however, it has been predicted that solar energy will supply over 50% of our power
needs.

When considering nuclear energy, nuclear fission is a proven large scale energy source but has
radioactive waste problems. As such, its future use is uncertain. Chemists can help to devise
better ways of disposing nuclear waste. Nuclear fusion is process used in the sun and other stars
to generate huge amounts of energy without dangerous radioactive waste. Technology is
needed to produce plants that can generate electricity from nuclear fusion. In another 50 years,
nuclear fusion will likely be a significant source of energy.

Energy production and energy utilization can negatively affect our environment. For example,
burning fossil fuels gives off carbon dioxide (CO2) which is a greenhouse gas (that is, promotes
heating of the earth’s atmosphere called global warming that results in climate change) along
with sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides which result in acid rain (famous for
environmental degradation) and smog. Chemists are working on Carbon Sequestration (that is,
capture or CS) technology for future thermal electricity generating plants and are producing
fuel-efficient automobiles and more effective catalytic converters to reduce harmful emissions
and improve air quality.

1.1.3 Materials and Technology

Chemical research and development in the 20th century provided us with new materials that
have improved the quality of our lives and helped to advance technology in many ways. A few
examples are
(i) Polymers (including rubber and nylon)
(ii) Ceramics (such as cookware)
(iii) Liquid crystals (like those in electronic displays)
(iv) Adhesives (used in your Post-It notes) and
(v) Coatings (for example, latex paint)

The near future may see the use of room-temperature superconductors to replace copper
cables with less of electrical energy during electricity transmission in power lines where loss
stands at 20% at the moment. The next 30 years will see high-temperature superconductors
being applied in nuclear fusion plants and other uses like large scale magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) equipment and levitated trains.

1.1.4 Food and Agriculture

Agricultural production has been improved by fertilizers, veterinary products, pesticides,
herbicides, fungicides and biotechnology. All of which depend on chemical technology

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UNIT 1 – CHEMISTRY AND MEASUREMENTS

1.2 THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY

Compared with other subjects, chemistry is commonly believed to be more difficult, at least, at the
introductory level. This is mostly because of its specialized vocabulary

1.2.1 Tips on studying introductory chemistry

(a) Use the glossary in chemistry introductory textbooks to get concise definitions of terms
arising in your course. The glossary also specifies the section of the textbook to read and
expand your class notes on particular terms/concepts
(b) Please note that relevant sections will have examples of how to solve chemistry problems.
You will need to carefully go through such problems or those given during lectures.
(c) Additionally, at the end of each chapter, there are some questions/problems whose
answers/solutions are given at the end of the book. It is helpful to solve some of these
problems that allow you to check your mastery/understanding of material you have studied.
(d) To help your prepare for tests and final examination, it is helpful to get past papers, answer
and check correctness of your answers to past paper questions well before your tests or
exam. Actually, correct and well written answers of past papers may be helpful brief
“revision notes” to cover course material a few days or indeed in some cases, a few hours
before a test or an exam.
(e) Finally, for a lot of students at concept of “today’s portion, today itself” may be helpful. This
is a mnenomic that advises a science student that what you learn today should be studied
today if possible. This allows you to ask for help on concepts that you have not understood
before the instructor moves on to the next topic that may use today’s lesson as foundation
for the next topic. This suggestion also allows you to devote time to understanding a topic
well before a test or an exam.

1.2.2 Purpose of the course

The course is to make you think like a chemist, that is, to look at the macroscopic world – the
things we can see, touch and measure directly – and visualize the particles and events of the
microscopic world that we cannot experience without modern technology and our imaginations.

It may be confusing to students when an instructor or a textbook seems to be continually

shifting back and forth between macroscopic and microscopic worlds. Just keep in mind that
data for chemical investigations often comes from observations of large-scale phenomena, but
the explanations frequently lie in the unseen and partially imagined microscopic world of atoms
and molecules. In other words, chemists often see one thing (in the macroscopic world) and
thing another in the microscopic world.

For example, when looking at a rusted car, roof or door frame, a chemist might think about the
basic properties of individual atoms of iron and how these units interact with other atoms and
molecules to produce the observed change.

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1.3 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

This is a systematic approach to research that has 5 steps, namely;
(a) Careful definition of the problem
(b) Performing experiments which consists of
(i) Doing the experiments
(ii) Making careful observations and
(iii) Recording information or data about the system (system is the part of the universe that
is under investigation).

Data obtained can be both qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative data consists of general
observations about the system. Quantitative data comprises numbers obtained by various
measurements of the system.

Scientists use standardized symbols and equations in recording measurements and

observations. This representation simplifies the process of keeping records and provides a
common basis for communication with other chemists and scientists.

(c) Interpretation of results. This follows completion of experiments and data recording when the
scientist attempts to explain phenomena. Based on the data gathered, the researcher
formulates a HYPOTHESIS, that is, a tentative explanation for a set of observations. Further
experiments are devised/done to test validity (truthfulness) of the hypothesis in as many ways
as possible and the process begins anew.
(d) After collection of lots of data, it often desirable to summarize information in a concise way as a
law. In science, a LAW, is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relationship between
phenomena that is always the same under the same conditions. For example, Newton’s Second
Law of motion says that force equals mass times acceleration (F=ma). This means increase in
mass or acceleration of a body will proportionately increase force, conversely, a decrease in
mass or acceleration will always decrease the force.
(e) Hypothesis that survive may experimental validation tests evolve into theories. A THEORY is a
unifying principle that explains a body of facts and/or those laws that are based on them.

Theories too, are constantly being tested. A disproved theory is discarded or modified to be
consistent with experimental observations. Proving or disproving a theory can take years, even
centuries, in part because technology may not be available. A good example is ATOMIC THEORY.
It took more than 2000 years to work out this fundamental principle of chemistry proposed by
the ancient Greek philosopher called Democritus. A more contemporary example is the Big Bang
Theory of the origin of the universe.

Scientific progress is seldom straight forward. Sometimes a law precedes a theory, sometimes it
is the other way round. Two scientists starting work on a project with the same objective may
take different approaches.

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UNIT 1 – CHEMISTRY AND MEASUREMENTS

Great discoveries are usually the result of the cumulative contributions and experience of many
workers though credit for formulating a theory or a law is usually given to only one individual.

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

One simple definition of chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is
anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter includes visible and touchable things (water,
earth and trees) as well as invisible things (air). Chemists distinguish among several subcategories of
matter based on composition and properties. The organization/classification of matter is shown in
the figure below.
Figure 1.1 Classification of Matter

Matter

Heterogeneous mixtures Physical methods Homogeneous mixtures

(solutions)

Substances

Elements Chemical methods Compounds

Molecules
Atoms

Electrons Nucleus

Protons Neutrons

Quarks Quarks

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UNIT 1 – CHEMISTRY AND MEASUREMENTS

The classification consists of mixtures and pure substances that may be compounds or elements.
Compounds have molecules or formula units made of at least two elements. Using chemical methods
compounds can be separated into their constituent elements. Elements have atoms. Each atom consists
of particles namely electrons and nucleons (protons and neutrons). The nucleons make up the atomic
nucleus and are made up of subatomic particles called quarks.

1.4.1 Substances and mixtures

A substance is a form of matter that has a definite (constant) composition and distinct properties
like water, ammonia, table sugar (sucrose), gold or oxygen. A substance cannot be separated into
other kinds of matter by physical processes. Substances differ in composition and are identifiable
by appearance, smell taste and other properties

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which substances retain their distinct
identities. For example air, soft drinks, milk and cement. Mixtures do not have constant
composition. They are either homogeneous or heterogeneous.

A homogeneous mixture is one in which composition is the same throughout. For example, sugar
dissolved in water. A homogeneous mixture is a solution.

A heterogeneous mixture is one in which the composition is not uniform. For example, sand
mixed with iron filings in which sand grains and iron filings remain separate.

Mixtures can be separated by physical methods. For example, sugar and water can be separated
by evaporation to dryness while iron filings and sand can be separated by magnetic removal of
iron filings. After separation, the components of the mixture will have the same composition and
properties.

1.4.2 Substances and Compounds

Substances can either be elements or compounds. An element is a substance that cannot be
separated into simpler substances by chemical means. To date there 115 elements 83 of which
occur naturally on earth and 32 have been created by scientist via nuclear processes that will be
learnt later on in the course.
Chemists use symbols of one or two letters to represent elements. The first letter is always
capitalized but any following letters are not. For example Co is a symbol for the element cobalt
whereas CO is the formula for carbon monoxide. Symbols of some elements are derived from
Latin names. For example, Au is from aurum (gold), Fe is from ferrum (iron) and Na is from
natrium (sodium). See also Appendix 1 of Chemistry by Raymond Chang 10th Edition.

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UNIT 1 – CHEMISTRY AND MEASUREMENTS

Atoms of most elements can interact to form compounds. A compound is a substance composed
of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions. Compounds unlike mixtures can
be separated only by chemical means into their pure components.

1.4.3 The Three States of Matter

There are three states of matter. These are solid, liquid and gas.

1.4.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

A physical property can be measured and observed without changing the composition of a
substance. E.g. boiling point, melting point, etc.
A chemical property is observed if there is a chemical change. An example is the burning of
hydrogen to form water from which we cannot recover hydrogen by physical processes.

We measure properties of matter in one of the two categories, namely,

(a) Extensive properties or

(b) Intensive properties

An extensive property depends on how much matter is being considered. Mass, the quantity of
matter in a given sample of substance is an extensive property. More matter means more mass.
Values of extensive properties can be added together. Volume of a substance is another extensive
property.

An intensive property does not depend on how much matter is being considered. Examples of
intensive properties are density (mass divided by its volume) and temperature. Intensive
properties like temperature are not additive as can be seen from the fact that the temperature of
water in two beakers(T1 and T2) is not summed to determine the temperature of water when the
contents of the two beakers are combined.

1.5 MEASUREMENT
Chemists measure properties of substances using different instruments. These measurements are
often used in calculations to obtain other related quantities. Examples of simple instruments for
measuring macroscopic properties (that is, properties which can be measured directly) likely to be
used in a general chemistry course are shown in the table below.

Table 1.1: Examples of simple instruments for general chemistry measurements

Instrument Measured property in common units

Burette, pipette, graduated cylinder, volumetric flask Volume in millilitres (ml)
Balance Mass in grams
Stopwatch Time in seconds
Thermometer Temperature in kelvin or degrees celsius

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Microscopic properties on the atomic or molecular scale are determined by indirect methods. The
measurement result in both macroscopic and microscopic a number with an appropriate unit.

1.5.1 SI Units
Chemists use metric units that are related decimally, that is, by powers of 10. The metric system is
used by present day chemists is called the International System of Units that is abbreviated as SI
units from the French title – Systeme Internationale d’Unites.
The table below shows the seven SI base units of measurements.

Table 1.2: Table of SI base Units

Base Quantity Name of Unit Symbol

1. Length metre (meter) m
2. Mass kilogram kg
3. Time second s
4. Electrical current ampere A
5. Temperature kelvin K
6. Amount of substance mole mol
7. Luminous intensity candela cd

All other units of measurements are derived from base units. Like metric units, SI units are
modified in decimal fashion by a series of prefixes shown below.

Table 1.3: Table of prefixes of SI units

Prefix Symbol Meaning Example

Tera T 1,000,000,000,000 or 1012 1 terameter (Tm) = 1  1012 m
Giga G 1,000,000,000 or 109 1 gigameter (Gm) = 1  109 m
Mega M 1,000,000 or 106 1 megameter (Mm) = 1  106 m
kilo k 1,000 or 103 1 kilometer (km) = 1  103 m
deci d 1 1 decimeter (dm) = 0.1 m
or 10-1
10
centi c 1 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 m
or 10-2
100
milli m 1 1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 m
or 10-3
1,000
micro µ 1 1 micrometer (µm)= 1  106 m
or 10-6
1,000,000
nano n 1 1 nanometer (nm)= 1  109 m
or 10-9
1,000,000,000
pico p 1 1 picometer (nm)= 1  10 12 m
or 10-12
1,000,000,000,000

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1.5.2 Mass and Weight

These two terms, though often used interchangeably, are different quantities.
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object which is constant and does not depend on
location.

Weight is the force that gravity exerts on an object. It depends on the location from and on the
celestial body attracting an object. For example, objects on the moon weigh a sixth of their weight
on earth. Also, the further a body is from the centre of the attracting body, the lighter it is.

Chemists are primarily interested in mass which can be determined with a balance. The process of
measuring mass, oddly, is called weighing

1.5.3 Volume
Since the SI unit of length is metre (m), the SI derived unit for volume is cubic metre (m3).
Generally, chemists work with much smaller volumes such as cubic centimetre (cm3) and the cubic
decimetre (dm3).

1 cm3 = 1  10  2 m 
3
 1  10 6 m 3 and


1 dm3 = 1  10 1 m 3
 1  103 m 3

Another come unit of volume is the litre (L). A litre is the volume occupied by one cubic decimeter.

1 litre of volume is equal to 1,000 millilitres (mL) or 1,000 cm3, that is,

1 L= 1,000 mL = 1,000 cm3 = 1 dm3

and one milliliter is equal to one cubic centimetre, that is,

1 mL = 1 cm3

1.5.4 Density
The equation for density is
mass m
density  or d 
volume v

The SI derived unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3). This unit is too large for
chemical applications. Usually chemists use density units of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm 3) or
its equivalent, grams per milliliter (g/mL) for solids and liquids, respectively.

Gas density can be expressed in units of grams per litre (g/L):

1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m3

1 g/L =0.001 g/mL

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Example 1.2: A piece of platinum metal with density of 21.5 g/cm3 has a volume of 4.49 cm3.
What is its mass?

m
d m  d  V  4.49 cm3  21.5 g/cm3  96.5 g
v

Example 1.3: The density of ethanol, a colourless liquid that is commonly known as grain
alcohol is 0.798 g/mL. Calculate the mass of 17.4 mL of the liquid.

m
d m  d  V  0.798 g/mL 17.4 mL  13.9 g
v

Example 1.4: The density of sulphuric acid in a certain car battery is 1.41 g/ml. Calculate the
mass of 242 mL of the liquid.

m
d m  d  V  1.41 g/mL  242 mL  341 g
v

1.5.5 Temperature scales

Three common temperature scales are
(i) degrees Fahrenheit (oF)
(ii) degrees Celcius (oC) and
(iii) kelvin (K)
The scale that is commonly used outside the laboratory in Zambia is he Celcius or centigrade scale.
In the USA, the scale commonly used outside the laboratory is the Fahrenheit. The Fahrenheit
scale defines the freezing and boiling points of water. The table below compares the three
temperature scales.

Table 1.4: Comparison of three common temperature scales

Scale Water freezing Room temperature Normal body Water boiling

point temperature point
Fahrenheit 32oF 77oF 98.6oF 212oF
Celcius 0oC 25oC 37oC 100oC
kelvin 273K 298K 310K 373K

As shown in Table 2, the kelvin is the SI base unit of temperature. It is the absolute scale. This
means the zero on the Kelvin Scale, denoted as 0K, is the lowest temperature that can be attained
theoretically. On the other hand 0oF and 0oC are based on the behavior of an arbitrarily chosen
substance, water. The conversion equation for degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celcius is

? C
o
 o
5o C
F  32 F  o .
o

9 F
The conversion equation for degrees Celcius to degrees Fahrenheit is

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UNIT 1 – CHEMISTRY AND MEASUREMENTS

 C 59 CF  32
o
?o F  o
o
o
F.

Both Celcius and Kelvin Scales have units of equal magnitude, that is, 1oC =1K. Absolute zero of 0K
= -273.15oC. Therefore the conversion equation for degrees Celcius to kelvin is

?K   o

C  273.15o C 
1K
1o C

Example 1.5:

(a) Solder is an alloy of tin and lead whose melting point is 224oC. What is its melting point
in degrees Fahrenheit?
(b) Helium has the lowest boiling point of all the elements at -452oF. Convert this
temperature to degrees Celcius.
(c) Mercury, the only liquid metal at room temperature, melts at -38.9oC. Convert its
melting point to kelvin.
Solutions:
9o F
(a) Conversion is carried out by writing o
 224o C  32o F  435o F .
5C

  5o C
(b) Here, conversion is obtained by writing  452o F  32o F o  269o C
9 F
(c) The melting point of mercury in kelvin is  38.9o C  273.15o C o  234.3K
1K
1C

Practice Exercise: Convert

(a) 327.5oC (the melting point of lead) to degrees Fahrenheit.

(b) 172.9oF (the boiling point of ethanol) to degrees Celcius; and
(c) 77 K (the boiling point of liquid nitrogen) to degrees Celcius.
(d) Helium has the lowest boiling point of all the elements at -452oF. Convert this
temperature to degrees Celcius.
(e) Mercury, the only liquid metal at room temperature, melts at -38.9oC. Convert its
melting point to kelvin.

1.6HANDLING OF NUMBERS OF SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS

There are two important techniques of handling numbers associated with chemical measurements,
namely,
(a) scientific notation and
(b) significant figures

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1.6.1 Scientific notation

Scientific notation is used when chemists handle extremely large or extremely small numbers. For
example, 1 g of the element hydrogen has roughly 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. Each
hydrogen atom has a mass of 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 00166 g.
Handling such numbers is cumbersome and mistakes of an extra or a missed zero are easily made.
Therefore, when working with very large and/or very small numbers, a system called scientific
notation is used. In this system, regardless of their magnitude, all numbers are expressed in the
form N  10n where N is a number between 1 and 10 and n, the exponent, is a positive or negative
integer.

Given a certain number, being asked to express it in scientific notation means finding n. We count
the number of places that the decimal point must be moved to give the number N (which is
between 1 and 10).

If the decimal point has to be moved to the left, then n is a positive integer; if it has to be moved to
the right, n is a negative integer.

Example 1.6:

(a) Express 568.762 in scientific notation

568.762 = 5.68762x102. The decimal point moved two places to the left  n = +2.

(b) Express 0.000 00772 in scientific notation

0.0 00772 =7.72x10-6. The decimal point moved six places to the right  n = -6.

1.6.1.1 Arithmetic operations of addition and subtraction using scientific notation

Addition and subtraction using scientific notation requires writing each quantity say N1 and N2,
with the same exponent. Then we combine N1 and N2 while ensuring that the exponents remain
the same. For example
(i) 7.4 103  2.1103  7.4  2.1 103  9.5 103
   
(ii) 4.31104  3.9 103  4.31104  0.39 104  4.31  0.39 104  4.70 104

(iii) 2.22 10 2
  4.10 10   2.22 10   0.4110   2.22  0.4110
3 2 2 2
 1.81102

1.6.1.2 Arithmetic operations of multiplication and division using scientific notation

To multiply numbers expressed in scientific notation ( A  N1 10n1 and B  N 2  10n 2 ), the
parts N1 and N2 of A and B, respectively, are multiplied in the usual way but we add the
exponents of A and B together, that is, we add n1 and n2 as shown below.
   
A  B  N1 10n1  N 2 10n 2  N1  N 2  10n1 n 2

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To divide the numbers A and B using numbers expressed in scientific notation ( A  N1 10n1
and B  N 2  10n 2 ), we divide the parts N1 and N2 of A and B, respectively, as usual and
subtract the exponents n1 and n2 as shown below.

N 
   
A  B  N1  10 n1  N 2  10 n 2   1   10 n1  n 2
 N2 

The examples below clearly shows the above statements

(i) 8.0 10  5.0 10   8.0  5.010

4 2 4 2
 40 106  4.0 107
(ii) 4.0 10  7.0 10   4.0  7.0 10
5 3 53
 28 102  2.8 101

(iii) 6.9  10   3.0  10   

5  6.9   7  ( 5 )
  10  2.3  1012
7

 
3.0

  
(iv) 8.5  10 4  5.0  109   
 8.5  4 9
  10  1.7  10
5

 5.0 

1.6.2 Significant figures

Only integers are exact. Measurement quantities, which are not integers have a margin of error in
the measurement. This is clearly shown by having a number of significant figures, which are the
meaningful digits in a measured or calculated quantity. When significant figures are used, the last
digit is understood to be uncertain.

1.6.2.1 Guidelines for determining significant figures

There are five guidelines for determining significant figures of a given number. These are
(i) Any non-zero digit is significant. Thus 845 cm has three significant figures,1.234 kg has four
significant figures, etc.
(ii) Zeros between non-zero digits are significant. Thus 606 m contains three significant figures,
40501 kg contains five significant figures and so on.
(iii) Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. Their purpose is to indicate the
placement of the decimal point. For example, 0.08 L contains one significant figure,
0.000034 g contains three significant figures and so on.
(iv) If a number is > 1 then all the zeros written to the right of the decimal point count as
significant figures. Thus 2.0 mg has two significant figures; 40.062 has five significant figures;
and 3.040 dm has four significant figures.
If a number is <1, then only the zeros that are at the end of the number and the zeros that
are between non-zero digits are significant. This means 0.090 kg has two significant figures,
0.3005 has four significant figures, 0.00420 min has three significant figures and so on.
(v) In numbers that do not contain decimal points the trailing zeros (that is, zeros after the last
non-zero digit) may or may not be significant. Thus, 400 cm may have one significant figure
(the digit 4), two significant figures (40) or three significant figures (400). We cannot know

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UNIT 1 – CHEMISTRY AND MEASUREMENTS

the correct number of significant figures without more information. By using scientific
notation, however, we avoid this ambiguity. In this particular case we can express the
number 400 as
4  102 for one significant figure
4.0 102 for two significant figures
4.00  102 for three significant figures

Example 1.7:
Determine the number of significant figures in the following measurements
(a) 478 cm (b) 6.01 g (c) 0.825 m (d) 0.043 kg (e) 1.310 1022 atoms (f) 7000 mL

Answers

(a) Three
(b) Three
(c) Three
(d) Two
(e) Four and
(f) Ambiguous case. The number of significant figures may be 4 (7.000 x 103), 3 (7.00x103),
2 (7.0 x 103) or1 (7 x 103).

1.6.2.2 Rules for handling significant figures during addition and subtraction calculations
In addition and subtraction, the answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal
point than either of the original numbers. Consider these examples.
(i) 89.332
+ 1.1 one digit after the decimal point
=90.432 round off to 90.4
(ii) 2.097
- 0.12 two digits after the decimal point
= 1.977 round off to 1.98

The rounding procedure is as follows.

(a) To round off a number at a certain point we simply drop off the digit that follow if the first
of them is less 5. Thus 8.724 rounds too 8.72 if we want only two digits after the decimal
point.
(b) If the first digit following the point of rounding off is equal to or greater than 5 we add 1 to
the preceding digit. Thus, 8.727 rounds off to 8.73 and 0.425 rounds off to 0.43.

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UNIT 1 – CHEMISTRY AND MEASUREMENTS

1.6.2.3 Rules for handling significant figures during multiplication and division calculations
In multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in the final product or quotient is
determined by the original number that has the smallest number of significant figures. The
following examples illustrate this rule.
(i) 4.5039
x 2.8 one digit after the decimal point
=12.60192 round off to two significant figures 13
6.85
(ii)  0.00611388789 round off to three significant figures = 0.00611
112.04
Three significant figures

It should be kept in mind that the exact numbers obtained from definitions or by counting
numbers of objects can be considered to have an infinite number of significant figures. If an
object has a mass of 0.2786 g, then the mass of eight such objects is 0.2786 8  2.229 g . We
do not round off this product to one significant figure because the number 8 is 8.0000… by
definition.

Similarly, to take the average of two measured lengths 6.64 cm and 6.68 cm, we write
6.64 cm  6.68 cm
 6.66 cm.
2

Example 1.8:

Carry out the following operations to the correct number of significant figures.

(i) 11,254.1 g + 0.1983 g

(ii) 66.59 L – 3.113 L
(iii) 8.16 m  5.1355
(iv) 0.0154 kg  88.3 mL
(v) 2.64103 cm  3.27 102 cm

Answers:

(i) 11, 254.1 g one decimal

+ 0.1983 g
= 11,254.2983 g round off to one decimal =11,254.3 g
(ii) 66.59 L two decimals
- 3.113 L
=63.477 L round off to two decimals = 63.48 L
(iii) 8.16 mthree significant figures
- 5.1355
=41.90568 m round off to three significant figures = 41.9 m

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UNIT 1 – CHEMISTRY AND MEASUREMENTS

0.0154 kg
(iv)  0.000174405436 kg/mL round off to 3 sig figs = 0.000174 kg/mL
88.3 mL
Three significant figures or 1.74 x 10-4 kg/mL
(v) 2.64 103 cm  3.27 102 cm  2.64  3.27103 2 cm2  8.6328105 cm2

Three sig figs for both numbers round off to 3 sig figs = 8.63 x 105 cm2

NB: when using electronic machines you round off the answer of a chain of
calculations at the end of your calculations.

1.7MEASUREMENT ERROR
The numbers associated with a measurement is obtained by using a measurement device. Table 3
shows examples of such devices used by chemistry students. A measurement that results from use
of device always has some degree of uncertainty. Uncertainty in the measurement is indicated by
recording certain digits and the first uncertain digit. These digits are called significant figures of a
measurement.

1.7.1Precision and accuracy

Accuracy tells how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity that was measured.

Precision refers to how closely two or more measurements of the same quantity are with one
another.

When doing target practice at the range or in a game of darts, hitting the bull’s eye consistently as
shown in Figure 1a is considered high accuracy. Normally, highly accurate scores/measurements
like the ones shown in this figure are usually precise too.

However highly precise measurements (or scores) do not necessarily guarantee accurate results as
shown in Figure 1b.

Figure 1c shows measurements (or scores) that are inaccurate and imprecise.

1.7.2Random and Systematic Errors

In a measurement process, the difference between the true value and the measurement is called
the measurement error. There are two types of measurement error, namely,

(i) Random errors and

(ii) Systematic errors.

A random error (also called indeterminate error) means that a measurement has an equal chance
of being high or low.

A systematic error (or determinate error) occurs in the same direction each time; it is either
always high or always low.

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UNIT 1 – CHEMISTRY AND MEASUREMENTS

Figure 1.2a shows small random errors and essentially no or small systematic errors. Figure 1.2b
shows small random errors but large systematic errors. Figure 1.2c shows large random errors
(poor technique) and most likely large systematic errors.

In the laboratory large random errors or poor technique usually comes from lack of measurement
skill – plainly speaking failing to master experimental activities and equipment. Large systematic
error are often associated with faulty experimental laboratory operating procedures or poorly
calibrated equipment. Ultimately large systematic errors also reflect poor laboratory skill of the
laboratory manager who do are probably uncertified analysts operating laboratories that do not
participate in proficiency analytical testing (PAT). Of necessity, such laboratories are not
internationally accredited.

In quantitative measurements some people often use precision to indicate accuracy. In this
situation, one assumes that the average of a series of precise measurements is accurate or close
to the true value. As shown in Figures 1.2a and 1.2b, this assumption is only valid if systematic
errors are absent!

Figure 1.2: Accuracy versus Precision

(c) (d)

(b) (a)

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