Lecture, Handout, Class Example, Tutorial Problems-MEC 740

Week 1 Lecture Note: MEC740 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IN BUILDINGS
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Introduction
What can you deduce from the title of this course “environmental control in buildings”?
We want to artificially create and maintain an indoor environment to specific criteria by means of using
a heating, ventilating, air-conditioning and refrigeration (HVAC&R) system.
The primary function of a HVAC system is to maintain environment conditions in a space that are:
1. conducive to human comfort, and
2. required by a product or a process within a space.
In simple terms, the environmental conditions can be described by

1. temperature
2. humidity
3. air cleanliness and quality
4. air motion
5. noise
Environmental conditions in a space are affected by parameters such as:

1. Local atmospheric conditions (referred to as outdoor) (e.g. temperature, relative humidity, wind
speed and direction, precipitation, sun, etc.)
2. Physical characteristics of the building (e.g. high rise, materials, glazing, heat sources)
3. Ventilation requirements (e.g. contaminant generation)
To maintain the environmental conditions in a space within acceptable limits, HVAC equipment and
systems are installed, which provide: (see handout “Basic Terminology”)
• heating
• cooling
• humidification
• dehumidification
• ventilation (fresh air)
• cleaning
If the HVAC equipment is sized to provide the acceptable conditions under worst case conditions, i.e.
design load, below which, the equipment operates at part load. Therefore, automatic controls are
necessary to modulate the operation of the equipment.
The objective of this course is to develop proficiency in the following subjects:

1. learn about the HVAC systems, their characteristics, operation principles, selection and design
2. learn about HVAC system components
3. learn how to select indoor/outdoor design conditions
4. learn how to determine heating/cooling, associated humidification/dehumidification loads, and
ventilation requirements
5. learn about control of HVAC systems
6. learn about estimation of energy requirements of HVAC systems
7. use of computer software for load estimation and design
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Air-Conditioning Systems (Chapter 2)
Air-conditioning system ⇒ All of the equipment necessary to provide HVAC in a building or its parts
Selecting a system:
1. Provide the required performance
2. Fit in the available space
3. Give the owner the best combination of capital or 1st cost, operation cost, and reliability
The selection process of an air-conditioning system involves an exhaustive and quantitative analysis,
which may includes preliminary design, energy simulation analysis, and cost estimation.
An air-conditioning system can be a central system (more than one zone served) or a unitary (packaged)
system (usually one zone).
zone (definition): is a part of a building which is thermally independent (unique) from other such parts,
thus required its own thermostat and/or humidistat.
Space air conditioning requirements to be considered for system selection:

1. spaces with uniform loads
2. buildings with large interior cores
1 e.g. A building with 5 zones: Zone #5 is a large interior core, which may
have a thermostat range (dead band), e.g., 71 to 73ºF in order to maintain
4 5 2 an average of 72ºF.
3. spaces requiring precision control

4. large building
An air-conditioning system is comprised of (see Fig. 2-1 on pg. 23):

1. primary systems: to convert energy in a fuel to thermal energy for cooling and heating
2. secondary systems (air handler): to distribute heating and cooling as well as fresh (outdoor) air to
spaces
Primary systems
Primary system components:
1. Heating equipment:
Boilers – Steam, Hot water
Classification:
1. By working pressure/temperature:
Low pressure: maximum working pressure of 15 psig for steam, 160 psig for hot water,
with a maximum temperature of 250ºF.
Medium to high pressure: > 15 psig for steam

> 160 psig for hot water
2. Materials of construction:
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a) Cast iron (sectional)

b) Steel (tubes – water tube or fire tube)
3. Fuel used (oil, natural gas, coal, electricity, or waste material)
4. Construction (sectional, round, fire tube)
5. Type of combustion air handling system (natural draft, forced draft, induced draft)
6. By type of application (space heating, domestic hot water (DHW) heating, or both)
Boiler HP = 33475 Btu/hr = 9.81 kW (usually used to size boiler)
Warm air furnaces
Low boy: High boy: Horizontal:
Furnace
Furnace
Blower Furnace
Blower Blower
2. Refrigeration equipment or chiller:
1 ton of refrigeration = 12000 Btu/hr = 3.52 kW
1) Vapour compression ⇒ requires shaft work

• Reciprocating (1/16 to 150 hp or 50 W to 112 kW) (see Fig. 15-5 on pg. 541)
• Orbital scroll (1 to 15 tons or 3.5 to 5.3 kW) (see Fig. 15-11 on pg. 547)
• Helical rotary (100 to 1000 tons or 350 to 3500 kW) (see Fig. 15-10 on pg. 546)
• Centrifugal (100 tons or 350 kW to higher capacity depending of size)
(or turbo compressor)
2) Absorption refrigeration ⇒ requires heat
(available in large units from 50 to 1500 tons or 176 kW to 5 MW)
Chillers (which are either operating in the vapour compression, absorption or air cooled) – for
cooling water or other fluid that is circulated in the cooling system
Direct expansion (D-X) coil – a direct heat exchange between the refrigeration in evaporator coil
and the supply air
Cooling tower is used to remove the heat from the water-cooled condensers of air-conditioning
system by contacting the water with the atmosphere.
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3. Pumps: to pump chilled water, hot water, condenser water, steam condensate return, boiler feed
water, fuel oil
• in-line pumps (are supported by piping) (small centrifugal pump, quiet, and up to 1 hp and
1750 rpm)
• close-coupled pumps (impeller on the same shaft as the motor) (1/4 to 40 hp, and 1750 to
3450 rpm)
• based-mounted pumps (motor is connected to the impeller shaft by a flexible coupling,
speed can be changed by pulleys and belt drives (1/4 hp and up, 1750 to 3450 rpm)
4. Piping: • in the main equipment room – fuel lines, refrigerant piping, steam, water connections
• in the air-handling systems – hot water supply and return, chilled water supply and
return, steam supply line, condensate drainage
Week 1 Handout: MEC740 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IN BUILDINGS
Basic Terminology (more details in §1-3)

Heating is the transfer of heat to a space or to air supplied to the space by virtue of a difference
in temperature between the source and the space or air. Heat transfer, which results in a change
Q c p
in the air temperature, is called sensible heat transfer, qs = m c p (te − ti ) =
  (te − ti ) .
v
Humidifying is the transfer of water vapor to air. The heat transfer associated with the mass
transfer process, which results in an increase in the concentration of water in the air-water vapor
Q
mixture, is called latent heat transfer, ql = m w i fg = m a (We − Wi )i fg = a (We − Wi )i fg .
va
Cooling is the transfer of heat from the space or air supplied to the space by virtue of a
difference in temperature between the source and the space or air. Cooling usually denotes
sensible heat transfer, with a decrease in the air temperature.
Dehumidifying is the transfer of water vapor from air. Latent heat transfer is associated with
this process. The transfer of energy is from the air; as a consequence, the concentration of water
vapor in the air-water vapor mixture is lowered.
Cleaning of air usually implies filtering; additionally it may be necessary to remove contaminant
gases from the air. In combination with the introduction of outdoor air (or called ventilation),
source reduction, and good air distribution, cleaning, or filtration of the recirculated air can often
provide a cost-effective approach to the control of indoor air quality.
Air motion in the vicinity of the occupant should be sufficiently strong to remove energy
generated by the body but gentle enough to be unnoticed. The importance of air motion
especially where occupant comfort is required cannot be underestimated.
Noise produced by the fan, the air-distribution system and the air diffuser can be annoying to the
occupants of the conditioned space. The activity within the space is a major consideration in
determining an acceptable noise level.
Units
Both SI and US conventional units will be used, for examples:
SI US conventional
Mass flow rate (m ) kg/s or kg/h lbm/s or lbm/hr
Diameter (D ) or length (L ) m ft
Liquid volume flow rate Q( ) 3
m /s gal/min (gpm)

Air capacity or volume flow rate Q ( ) 3
m /s ft3/min (cfm)
Air pressure loss (∆P ) Pa in. wg
Cooling load or capacity (q ) W or kW Btu/hr or ton (1 ton = 12,000 Btu/hr)
Heating load (q ) W or kW Btu/hr
Heat transfer per unit mass (q ) J/kg or kJ/kg Btu/lbm
Power (W ) W or kW hp
Energy kWh Btu or ton-hr
Temperature (t ) or (T ) °C or K °F or °R
Week 1 Review Problem: MEC740 Environmental Control in Buildings
A Thermodynamic Problem
An air stream exchanges heat with a water stream in a heating coil. The hot water stream at a rate
of 10,000 pounds per hour (lbm/hr) enters the heating coil at 125 F and exits at 105F. The air
stream at a rate of 5000 cubic feet per minute (cfm) enters the heating coil at a temperature of
50F and pressure of 14.7 psia.
(a) At what temperature (in F) does the air leave the heating coil?
(b) What is the rate of heat exchange (in Btu/hr)?
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Air-Conditioning Systems (continued)
Secondary systems
Classification:
1. All-air systems: (see handout “Supplementary Information on All-Air Systems”)
 Heating and cooling provided by only conditioned air to the zones
 Types: A) Single path systems: cooling & heating coils in series, single duct air distribution to
all terminal units at a common supply-air temperature.
Examples: - constant volume (CV)
- terminal reheat
- variable air volume (VAV)
- variable volume, variable temperature (VVVT)
B) Dual path systems: separate cold and warm air ducts.
Example: dual duct
Example 1: Single-duct constant-volume (CV) system

A draw-through air handler is referred to the fan being located at downstream of the heating and cooling
coils. S/A
H C To other zones
F/A C C
Zone
AHU R/A T
Skin heating unit
(optional)
E/A Return from
other zones
A CV system with draw-through configuration (see Figs. 1-4 and 1-6)
Modulation of heating or cooling coil load:
H H
Note: A partially closed 2-way valve reduces
C C flow rate due to higher flow resistance
(see Fig. 10-14 on pg. 314) and lowers
T pump efficiency (see Fig. 10-11 on pg.
T
311).
3-way valve or 2-way valve
Example:
H C
Cooling control valve Controller:
Heating control valve
(signal: pneumatic,
C (normally open (NO) & C (normally closed (NC) &
electric, or
reverse acting (RA)) direct acting (DA))
10 – 14# electronic)
3 – 8#
C T
Sensor
(signal: voltage,
current, or
resistance)
Setting temperature is 72F.
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Note: 1. Direct acting (DA) of CCV means that an increase in zone temperature causes an increase in
the cooling (or valve opening).
2. Reverse acting (RA) of HCV means that an increase in zone temperature causes a decrease in
the heating (or valve closing).
Pneumatic signal (psi) Zone temperature Operation

14# 77F or hotter -The CCV starts to open when the air pressure
in the pneumatic line is at 10 lb, and at 14 lb,

10# 73F the valve is fully open.
9# 72F satisfied range -Both CCV and HCV are closed
8# 71F -The HCV starts to open when the air pressure
in the pneumatic line is at 8 lb, and at 3 lb,
3# 66F or colder the valve is fully open.
Space heating unit in the zone will provide necessary supplementary heating when zone temperature
drops below 66F. The average zone temperature is 72F.
Design Air Volume of a CV system

The air handler supplies constant volume of air flow continuously.
Design air handling unit (AHU) air volume =  Design air volume requirement of all zones
Central air handling unit
Air volume
Advantage: close control of space conditions

Disadvantage: expensive to operate (due to simultaneous heating and cooling)
Example 2: Single-duct variable-air-volume (VAV) system

A blow-through air handler is referred to the arrangement with fan upstream of the coils.
Supply fan
H C S/A (usually 55F or 13C)
F/A C C
Zone Zone
R/A T
E/A
Return fan
Heat Recovery System (optional)
(air-to-water type)
(read § 2-9)
A VAV system with blow-through configuration (see Figs. 1-3 and 1-7)
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Modulation of cooling load:

The air volume is varied to meet the required cooling load of the zone.
The VAV damper will not be completely closed (about 10 – 20% open) when heating is required.
(called minimum position)
Max. CFM
(regular position:
100% open) This amount of minimum air supply (10 – 20%
of max. CFM) is required to be reheated, and
thus, minimize reheat.
Min. CFM
(minimum position:
10-20% open) Max. cooling Start of heating Max. heating
requirement
Design Air Volume of a VAV system

The air handler supplies variable volume of air flow depending on the total volume calling by all
zones at a particular time period.
Design AHU air volume = Design air volume requirement considering the whole building as
a single entity (e.g. based on peak cooling load of the building)
Note: The peak building cooling load is usually less than or equal to the sum of peak cooling
loads of all zones. Thus a VAV system will have lower design AHU’s air volume than a
CV system for a building.
Other All-Air Systems: Dual-Duct, Multizone, and Bypass Multizone Systems

Hot Hot Hot
Deck Deck Deck
Cold Cold Neutral
Deck Deck Deck
Cold
Deck
Usually the hot- and cold-deck temperatures are about 130F and 55F (54C and 13C), respectively.
These systems are mainly operated as CV systems. They can also be operated as VAV systems with
greater flexibility, but adequate control systems are required.
2. Air-and-water systems:
 Both air and water distributed to each zone
 Savings in duct space
Examples: induction unit (§2-5), fan-coil unit (Fig. 2-13), unit ventilator (Fig. 2-14).
(see handout “Piping systems of heating and cooling coils at zone-level units”)
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Advantages:
 Less space required since specific heat and density of water >> air
 Pumping power requirement << fan power requirement
Quantity of air supplied to each zone = ventilation (fresh) air requirement

If the air is exhausted at zone level, no return ductwork is needed.
Components: 1. Central conditioning equipment for ventilation air

2. Duct system for ventilation air
3. Room terminal
PRIMARY AIR (from central unit or outdoor)
To other zones
SECONDARY AIR
(from zone)
E/A
H C Terminal unit
C C
ZONE
Two types of terminal unit: 1) forced (Fig. 2-13), and 2) induced (Fig. 2-14)
3. All-water systems:
 Only water distributed to the zones
Examples: fan-coil unit, unit ventilator, baseboard convector
4. Multi-package unitary systems:

 Factory matched components
Examples: window air conditioner, roof-top system (Fig. 2-16), heat pump system
Heat Pump Systems (or Reverse-Cycle Air Conditioning Systems)

A heat pump uses a vapor compression cycle for both heating and cooling purposes.
 Unitary heat pumps: 1.5 – 25 tons or 5 to 90 kW
 Central heat pumps: 30 – 1000 hp or 20 – 750 kW of compressor-motor rating
Types: 1) Air-to-air heat pump (requires supplemental heat)

2) Air-to-water heat pump – a closed-loop system for multiunit heat pumps
(see handout “Energy-conserving cooling and heating for any multi-room building”)
– open-loop ground- or aquifer-water system
– ground-coupled closed loop system
Advantages:
 dual functions (heating and cooling) of the system
 significant energy savings due to high performance of air-to-water heat pump
Disadvantages:
 high initial or capital cost for air-to-water systems due to drilling, trenching and piping
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 air-to-air systems are usually lower costs, but poorer performance

 open-loop water system may have problems due to water purity and disposal
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SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION ON ALL-AIR SYSTEMS
1 . In the following pages, simplified schematics and short descriptions for a number of most commonly used
all-air systems are given. This information is to supplement, NOT to replace, the information in the
textbook. Therefore, the text is to be understood as well.
2. The operational schemes given in the following pages represent basic approaches. Various modifications to
these schemes can be integrated into the designs to improve the performance or energy efficiency of the
systems, such as:
• intermittent fan operation, i.e. operate fans only when there is a load, otherwise shut off fans. (Care
should be exercised in designing with such an approach because when fans are off, ventilation (F/A)
is also off.)
• for unoccupied periods:
- shut-off ventilation
- shut-off cooling
- reduce heating setpoint (temperature setback)
- use intermittent fan operation
• discriminator control for setting supply air temperature so that at least one zone would not need
reheat
• economizer control for utilizing cold outdoor air to provide free cooling
• heat recovery from exhaust air
3. Components of an all-air system:

a) Fan(s) – centrifugal, axial
H
b) Heating coil (hot deck) – steam, hot water (HW), electrical C
c) Cooling coil (cold deck) – chilled water, direct expansion (D-X)

C
d) Filters
e) Dampers
f) Humidifier – steam, spray water, heated pan
g) Exhaust heat recovery
h) Ductwork
i) Automatic controls – e.g., thermostat T
Notations: F/A = O/A = fresh/outdoor air, S/A = supply air, R/A = return or recirculated air,
E/A = exhaust air
1. SINGLE-ZONE CONSTANT VOLUME
1.1 Cooling & Heating; Central Heating; Continuous Heating Fan

The supply fan runs continuously to provide a constant volume of air. When cooling or heating is called for, the
supply temperature is controlled to maintain the zone at the proper setpoint. When neither cooling nor heating is
called for, neutral air is provided. The air temperature in the zone floats between cooling and heating setpoints.
Figure 2-8 in the textbook shows a typical control schematic of a single-zone constant-volume system.
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1.2 Cooling & Heating; Space Heating

The supply fan runs continuously to provide a constant volume of air. When cooling is called for, the supply air
temperature is controlled to maintain the zone at the cooling setpoint. When heating is called for, neutral air is
provided. Space heating units in the zone provide the necessary heating. When neither cooling nor heating is
called for, the system provides neutral air. The air temperature in the zone floats between cooling and heating
setpoints. (P.S. Obviously, there is no central heating coil here!)
SUPPLY FAN H C S/A
DIRECT EXHAUST
F/A C C
(OPTIONAL)
ZONE
R/A T
SKIN HEATING UNIT

(OPTIONAL)
E/A
RETURN FAN
(OPTIONAL)
CONSTANT VOLUME SYSTEM
2. CONSTANT VOLUME WITH TERMINAL REHEAT

This multiple-zone system uses a central supply fan to provide a constant volume of conditioned air (i.e. supply
air) to zone terminals. Terminal heating coils are controlled by the individual zone thermostats to provide heat, in
order to maintain zone temperatures. Reheat is referred to the energy required to heat the supply air from cold
(e.g. 55°F) to thermostat heating setpoint (e.g. 70°F).
2.1 Constant Supply Temperature Cooling; Terminal Heating

The supply fan runs continuously. A constant volume of air at the design cooling supply temperature is provided
to the zones. Air flows and the supply temperature are sized for a design load condition. At all off-design
conditions, zones will be overcooled causing zone temperatures to float below the cooling setpoint. When zone
temperatures reach the occupied heating setpoint, terminal reheat coils provide heat to maintain each zone at the
heating setpoint. Wasting energy to cool and reheat again is the drawback of this system.
2.2 Variable Supply Temperature Control; Terminal Heating

The supply fan runs continuously. A constant volume of supply air is provided to zone terminals. When at least
one zone requires cooling, a discriminating control system is used to vary the supply air temperature so that at
least one zone reheat is always off. Terminal coils for the remaining zones provide reheat so that no zone
temperature falls below the occupied heating setpoint. When no zones require cooling, the system provides
neutral air to the zones. Terminal coils provide heat as necessary so that no zone temperature falls below setpoint.
Figure 2-9 in the textbook shows a simplified control schematic of a constant-volume reheat system.
SUPPLY AIR TO
SUPPLY FAN C S/A OTHER ZONES
F/A C
RH
DIRECT EXHAUST
(OPTIONAL)
ZONE
R/A T
RETURN FAN SKIN HEATING UNIT

(OPTIONAL) (OPTIONAL)
E/A
RETURN AIR FROM
OTHER ZONES
CONSTANT VOLUME WITH TERMINAL REHEAT SYSTEM

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3. MULTIZONE
This multiple-zone system uses a central two-deck blow-through air handler to provide a constant volume of
variable temperature air to zone terminals. Air is supplied to each zone by a separate duct to enable optimal
supply temperature control. Dampers at downstream of the deck coils are controlled by the zone thermostat to
modulate the flow of air over coils in the hot and cold deck. The mixing of hot and cold air streams depends on
the load of the zone and provides supply air at a temperature sufficient to maintain the zone temperature at the
proper thermostat setting. The hot and cold deck coil outlet temperatures are maintained at their design values.
C TO OTHER ZONES
SUPPLY FAN C
S/A
F/A
H
C TO OTHER ZONES
ZONE
R/A T
RETURN FAN
(OPTIONAL)
E/A
RETURN AIR FROM
OTHER ZONES
MULTIZONE SYSTEM
In some systems the heating coil is turned on and off seasonally. When the coil is off, neutral and chilled air are
mixed to provide supply air streams at the proper temperature. This control can generate considerable savings by
eliminating unnecessary heating during summer months. Figure 2-12 in the textbook shows a simplified
control schematic of a multizone system.
4. BYPASS MULTIZONE
This multiple-zone system uses a central three-deck blow-through air handler to provide a constant volume of
variable temperature air to zone terminals. Air is supplied to each zone by a separate duct to enable optimal
supply temperature control. Dampers downstream of the deck coils are controlled by the zone thermostat to
modulate the flow of air through the neutral deck and over coils in either the hot or cold deck. Air flow through
the neutral deck and only one other deck is permitted at any one time. The mixing of neutral and hot, neutral and
cold air streams provides supply air at a temperature sufficient to maintain the zone at the proper thermostat
setting. The hot and cold deck coil outlet temperatures are fixed at their design values.
C TO OTHER ZONES
C
TO OTHER
SUPPLY FAN
ZONES
N
F/A S/A
TO OTHER
H
ZONES
C
ZONE
R/A T
RETURN FAN
(OPTIONAL)
E/A
RETURN AIR FROM
OTHER ZONES
BYPASS MULTIZONE SYSTEM
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5. DOUBLE OR DUAL DUCT

This system operates similar to the multizone system, except the cold and hot air streams are mixed in zone
mixing boxes which are located close to the zones. When it is used as a constant-volume system, a regulator
should be incorporated to regulate the cold and hot air terminal dampers in order to provide proportional mixing
of the cold and hot air to meet the zone cooling or heating load with a constant flow of air to the zone. A
discriminator control can be used to vary the temperatures of cold and/or hot air streams so that, respectively, at
least one zone needs only cold air and/or at least one other zone needs only hot air.
OR: TWO SUPPLY FANS DUAL-DUCT-VAV
C OPERATION
C
H C % MAX. AIR
C FLOW
SUPPLY FAN C
100
TO OTHER ZONES
F/A
H 50
C 0
HEATING COOLING
MIXING
BOX 100
R/A ZONE
T
RETURN FAN 50
(OPTIONAL) HEATING COOLING
E/A RETURN AIR FROM 0
OTHER ZONES
DUAL-DUCT SYSTEM
One important variation of this system is Dual-Duct Variable-Air-Volume system. Here, air volume to each zone
can be varied at the box. Thus, instead of mixing to obtain a constant volume at all times, no mixing or limited
mixing can be had. Figure 2-11 in the textbook shows a simplified control schematic of a dual-duct system.
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of multizone, bypass multizone and dual-duct systems:
Advantages:
• 100% air ⇒ no water, steam, drain piping, electrical equipment, etc. at zone level
• Flexible
• Special zoning is not needed
Disadvantages:
• To make system mechanically stable, terminal units must adequately control volumetric delivery.
• Due to limited space, high pressure and high velocity ductwork may be needed.
• Cross-over and installation can be difficult and complicated.
• Not economical (high initial cost, high operating cost, due to reheat requirements).
6. VARIABLE AIR VOLUME

This multiple-zone system uses a central supply fan to provide a variable volume of conditioned air to zone
terminals. Thermostatically controlled terminal dampers regulate supply air flow to maintain each zone at the
required setpoint temperature. VAV system is primarily a cooling system for a major part of the year.
Advantages:
• Low initial cost
• High degree of simultaneous heating and cooling flexibility with minimal reheat
⇒ energy efficient
• Smaller air volumes – smaller ductwork, fans, etc.
• Virtually self balancing
• Easy to modify or subdivide into new zones
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• Easy to handle additional load if design building peak load is not exceeded
• Low fan operating costs
- variable inlet vanes
- variable speed drives
- variable pitch fans
• Considerably quieter operation at off-peak flow rates
• Special zoning is not needed
Design precautions for VAV systems:

• Install high entrainment type outlets to achieve high air velocities at minimum flow
• Evaluate the performance of the system, including the ductwork, coils, fans, etc. at minimum as well
as maximum air flow rates
• Comply with ventilation requirements at minimum flow
6.1 Constant Supply Temperature

Occupied Period Operation. The supply fan runs continuously for all hours in the occupied period. A variable
volume of constant temperature air is provided to zone terminals. Terminal dampers are used to regulate the air
flow to the zone in order to maintain the zone at the occupied cooling setpoint. Dampers close only to a specified
minimum position (at about 10–20% open) for a constant minimum volume of supplied air to meet minimum
ventilation. At minimum flow the zone may be over-cooled and the zone temperature will float below the cooling
setpoint. If the zone temperature reaches the heating setpoint, space baseboard or terminal reheat boxes or fan-
coil heating units will run to maintain the zone at the heating setpoint.
6.2 Variable Supply Temperature

Occupied Period Operation. The supply fan runs continuously for all hours in the occupied period. A variable
volume of variable temperature air is provided to zone terminals. Terminal dampers are used to regulate the flow
of air to zones in order to maintain each zone at the occupied cooling setpoint. When at least one zone requires
cooling, a discriminating control is used to vary supply air temperature. As zone load conditions vary, supply air
temperature is varied so that at least one terminal damper is fully open, i.e. no reheat is required in that zone.
Terminal dampers close only to a specified minimum position beyond which a constant minimum volume of air is
supplied for ventilation purpose. At minimum flow if the zone heating setpoint is reached, space baseboard or
fan-coil heating units provide heat to maintain the zone at the occupied heating setpoint. Figure 2-10 in the
textbook shows a simplified control schematic of a VAV system.
SUPPLY AIR TO
SUPPLY FAN S/A OTHER ZONES
C
F/A C
DIRECT EXHAUST
(OPTIONAL)
ZONE
R/A T
SKIN HEATING UNIT

E/A (OPTIONAL)
RETURN AIR FROM

RETURN FAN OTHER ZONES
(OPTIONAL)
VARIABLE VOLUME SYSTEM

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PIPING SYSTEMS OF HEATING AND COOLING COILS AT ZONE-LEVEL UNITS
1) 2-pipe system: (need to changeover)

Only one coil is used which provides heating and cooling by circulating hot water for heating in
winter, and circulating chilled water for cooling in summer.
HWR or CHWR
T COIL
HWS or CHWS
Winter: Primary air: cold from outdoor

Water: hot
Summer: Primary air: hot from outdoor

Water: cold
The coil is used seasonally for heating or cooling.

“Changeover temperature” is defined as the outdoor temperature at which heat gain to every space
can be satisfied by the combination of cold primary air and the transmission heat loss. Below this
temperature, refrigeration is not required, but heating is required.
Limitation: since the whole building is changed over from cooling to heating and vice versa at the
same time, building zones with diversified loads cannot be satisfied.
2) 4-pipe system:
a) two separate coils at each zone-level unit
CHWR
C
C
CHWS
T HWR
H
C
HWS
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b) one common coil

CHWR
Sequence valve
T COIL
CHWS HWR
2-position automatic
diverting valve
HWS
The sequence valve controls hot and chilled water flow selectively and proportionately,
but doesn’t mix them.
3) 3-pipe system:
a) two separate coils
C
C
CHWS line
T Common return
line
HWS H
line C
b) one common coil
Sequence valve
T Common return
COIL
line
CHWS
line
HWS
line
It is wasteful to mix hot and chilled water at the common return line.
8/8
Week 2 Handout: MEC740 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IN BUILDINGS 8/8
Week 2 Example: MEC740 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IN BUILDINGS
Example on a HVAC System Analysis by an Approximate Equation

A single-duct constant-volume reheat system is used to serve three zones.
SUPPLY FAN C S/A (55ºF)
F/A C
RH RH RH
R/A ZONE 1 ZONE 2 ZONE 3
E/A
Design loads (Btu/hr)

Zone Heating (winter) Cooling (summer)
1 20,000 15,000
2 30,000 18,000
3 40,000 24,000
Thermostat setpoint = 72ºF for heating (tzone,H)

= 76ºF for cooling (tzone,C)
Design supply air temperature = 55ºF (tS/A)
Note: Usually the supply air (S/A) temperature = 130F for heating and = 55F for cooling. For this
system the S/A temperature is 55F all-year round.
Hint: Air flow rate for cooling is limited by the supply air temperature (i.e. 55ºF), so the air flow rate
requirement should be based on the design cooling load, if the design heating and cooling loads
have the same order of magnitude.
Based on the provided information, determine the following:

(a) Determine required zone air flow rates and the capacity of the air handler (AHU).
(b) Determine the required reheater or reheat-coil capacities.
(c) Determine reheater leaving-air temperature at design heating loads.
(d) On a day at a certain time, the intermediate conditions are given below:
Zone Heating load (Btu/hr) Cooling load (Btu/hr)
1 - 8,000
2 12,000 -
3 - 18,400
(i) Without discriminator control, determine the reheat required.
(ii) With discriminator control, determine the reheat required and the amount of savings compared to
part (i).
Week 2 Tutorial Problem
Dual-duct constant-volume system analysis:
C Cold air (55°F or 13°C)
C
F/A H Hot air

C
MIXING MIXING MIXING

BOX BOX BOX
T T T
R/A
ZONE 1 ZONE 2 ZONE 3
E/A
Design loads (Btu/hr) and CFMs

Zone Heating (winter) Cooling (summer) CFM*
1 20,000 15,000 660
2 30,000 18,000 790
3 40,000 24,000 1060
Thermostat setpoint = 72°F for heating (tzone,H)
= 76°F for cooling (tzone,C)
Design cold duct temperature (tC) = 55ºF
Based on the given information, determine the following:
(a) Determine the required capacity of the air handler (AHU).
(b) Determine the required design hot duct air temperature.
(c) On a day at a certain time, the intermediate conditions are given below:
Zone Heating load (Btu/hr) Cooling load (Btu/hr)
1 - 8,000
2 12,000 -
3 - 18,400
Without discriminator control, calculate the amounts of hot and cold air flows supplied to Zone 1
and 2, as well as the amounts of reheat provided by the hot air.
*Note: The design CFM of each zone is based on the design cooling load, e.g., Zone 1:
= 1.08Δt ) (15, 000 Btu
Q1 qC1 (= hr ) 
1.08 ( 76 −=
55 ) ° F  660 cfm
1/5
Moist Air Properties and Conditioning Processes (Chapter 3)
Fundamental moist air properties:

1) Dry-bulb temperature (t or tdb)
2) Relative humidity ( or RH)
3) Humidity ratio or specific humidity (W)
4) Dew point temperature (td)
5) Enthalpy of an air-water vapor mixture (i)
6) Specific volume (v)
7) Adiabatic saturation temperature or Thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature (t*)
(see handout “Fundamental Parameters of Psychrometry (A Review)”)
All these moist air properties can be found in a psychrometric chart. (see handout “Psychrometric Charts
for Regular, Cold and High Temperatures”)
Application of Thermodynamics to HVAC Processes

SPACE LOAD  Heating or cooling depending on the cumulative of heat gain and losses,
Humidifying or dehumidifying depending on the cumulative moisture transfer.
Space loads:
Space (A) Internal loads – people, equipment, lights, cooking, etc.
People generates sensible (S) and latent (L) loads
Equipment – S and/or L loads
Lights – S loads
Cooking – S and L loads
Internal loads are sensible and latent loads.
In sensible load (heating or cooling)  No change in moisture contents, i.e. W = constant.

In latent load (humidification or dehumidification)  Change in moisture contents, i.e. W  constant.
(B) External loads
- Transmission loads (heat gain if Tout > Tin, heat loss if Tout < Tin) – sensible only
- Infiltration loads  can be cooling or heating (depending on temperature difference), humidity
addition or removal (depending on inside and outside humidity)
- Ventilation – sensible and latent loads
- Solar – sensible load due to sun
External loads are sensible and latent loads.
SUPPLY FAN
H C S/A
F/A C C
Space
R/A
Fan loads  sensible heat gain
E/A
RETURN FAN
2/5
A typical problem: (calculated)

m w (net sum of all moisture gains & losses)
S/A (unknown) R/A (known)

m a Space m a
i1 i2
W1 W2
q s (net sum of all sensible heat gains & losses)
(calculated)
Steady-state 1st law: m a i1 + q s + m w iw – m a i2 = 0

Steady-state conservation of dry air: m a1 = m a 2 = m a
Steady-state conservation of moisture: m a W1 + m w – m a W2 = 0
With m w (calculated), q s (calculated) and R/A conditions (known), we can determine S/A conditions.
HVAC Processes:
1. Heating or Cooling with no change in W: This can be accomplished by using a heat exchanger.
(sensible heating or cooling)
Heating or cooling
m a m a
W1 W2 = W1
i1 i2
q s ()
m a i1 + q s – m a i2 = 0 (energy balance under steady-flow, steady-state conditions)
 q s = m a (i2 – i1)
where:
enthalpy of the moist air at 1:
enthalpy of the moist air at 2:
i1 = ia1 + W1 iv1
i2 = ia2 + W2 iv2
Process with sensible heat only: W2 = W1 = W } can be conveniently obtained from
psychrometric chart or Psych software
Or
Assume moist air to be a perfect gas: q s = m a cp (t2 – t1)

(for sensible heating and cooling)
where: cp = cpa + W cpv
Note: cpa = 0.24 Btu/(lbma-F) = 1.0 kJ/(kga-C); cpv = 0.45 Btu/(lbmv-F) = 1.86 kJ/(kgv-C).
For W in the order of 0.01 kgv/kga (typical): cp = 0.245 Btu/(lbma-F) = 1.02 kJ/(kga-C)
Heating (): W2 = W1 = constant, t2 > t1 and 2 < 1

Cooling (): W2 = W1 = constant, t2 < t1 and 2 > 1
3/5
2. Heating and humidifying: This can be accomplished by using a heating coil and humidifier.
1 H h 2
m a m a
i1 C i2
W1 m w W2
q s (+) iw
m a i1 + q s + m w iw – m a i2 = 0 (energy balance under SFSS conditions)
m a W1 + m w – m w W2 = 0 (water balance under SFSS conditions)
Combining the two equations gives:

i i i q s q
  2 1   iw  s  iw
W W2  W1 m a W2  W1  m w
Although the actual processes of heating and humidification are

i
parallel W 2 usually carried out separately (i.e. process 1-h and h-2), the
1 h
combined process may be represented by one line from 1 to 2.
i
If there is no heating (i.e. q s = 0):  iw  adiabatic humidification (AH)
W (see Fig. 3-8 for practical range of AH
processes)
i
 i w  i f @ 50 F  18.1 Btu lbw
W 1 2
i
 i w  i g @ 250 F  1164.1 Btu lbmv
W 13
2
1
3. Cooling and dehumidifying:

coil face temperature < dew point temperature of entering air
C
m a m a
i1 C i2
W1 W2
q m w (condensate)
iw (enthalpy of condensate leaving coil)
m a i1 – q – m w iw = m a i2
m a W1 – m w = m a W2 } q  m a i1  i 2   m w i w  m a i1  i 2   m a W1  W2  i w

energy of condensate
(In most applications, this term is negligible.
See Example 3-5 in text)
SHF
The actual process path (1-2) may vary considerably depending on
parallel 1
The type of coil surface, surface temperature, and flow conditions.
c
2
4/5
Total heat transfer: q = q s + q l = m a (i1 – i2) (also called coil refrigeration load)
Sensible heat transfer: q s = m a (ic – i2)
or q s = m a cp (t1 – t2)
Latent heat transfer: q l = m a (i1 – ic)
or q l = m a (W1 – W2) ifg = m w ifg
Note: The energy of the condensate has been neglected.
(see handout “Approximate equations of heat transfer”)
The sensible heat factor (SHF) is defined as:

Sensible heat transfer q
SHF = = s
Total heat transfer q
Note: The SHF for the cooling coil is called grand SHF or GSHF.
4. Moving of air:
Supply fan m a i1 + W fan = m a i2 (i2 > i1  t2 > t1)

1 2
m a m a W2 = W1
i1 W fan i2 Fan load is a sensible heat gain.
W1 W2
5. Adiabatic Mixing of Two Streams of Moist Air:
m a1
i1
W1 m a 3  m a1  m a 2
m a 2 i3
i2 W3
W2
Energy balance: Mass balance on vapour:
m a1 i1 + m a 2 i2 = m a1  m a 2  i3 m a1 W1 + m a 2 W2 = m a1  m a 2  W3
m a1 i3  i 2 W3  W2
Combining:  
m a 2 i1  i3 W1  W3
m a1
i1  i 2
m a 2 m a 2 m
which gives: i3   i3  i1  i 2  i1  or i3  i2  a1 i1  i2 
m a1 m a 3 m a 3
1
m a 2
m a1
W1  W2
m a 2 m a 2 m
and W3   W3  W1  W2  W1  or W3  W2  a1 W1  W2 
m a1 m a 3 m a 3
1
m a 2
5/5
This is also approximately true for the dry-bulb temperature:

m a1
t1  t 2
m a 2 m a 2 m
t3   t 3  t1  t 2  t1  or t 3  t 2  a1 t1  t 2 
m m a 3 m a 3
1  a1
m a 2
Presentation of adiabatic mixing on the psychrometric chart:
1 m a1 32 m a1 32 m a 2 13
 ,  , 
m a 2 13 m a 3 12 m a 3 12
3
13
m a1 m a 2
2
32  32   12 , 13   12
m a 3 m a 3
Example: 2 3
 a3 )
M/A (100% of m
 a3 )
O/A (30% of m 1
 a3 )
R/A (70% of m m a1 23 70 m a1
   23  12  0.7  12  0.7 L
m a 3 12 100 m a 3
L 1
Note: State 3 is closer to state 1 than state 2, due to higher m a1 than m a 2 . 3
2 13 = 0.3 L
23 = 0.7 L
1/5
Fundamental Parameters of Psychrometry (A Review)
1) Dry-bulb temperature (t or tdb) is the temperature registered by an ordinary thermometer.
2) Relative humidity ( or RH):

Mole fraction of water vapor in air x pv
  v 
Mole fraction of water vapor in saturated air at the same t and p x vs t, p
p vs t
Mass of water vapor mv

3) Humidity ratio or specific humidity (W): W  
Mass of dry air ma
4) Dew point temperature (td or tdp) is the te mperature at which air with a certain W becomes saturated at
constant p.
5) Enthalpy of an air-water vapor mixture (i): i  ia  W iv (energy per unit mass of dry air)
where: i is enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture
ia is enthalpy of dry air
W is humidity ratio of air-water vapor mixture
iv is enthalpy of water vapor
Eqn. (3-20a): i  0.240 t  W 1061.2  0.444 t  Btu / lbma, where t is in  F

Eqn. (3-20b): i  1.0 t  W 2501.3  1.86 t  kJ / kga, where t is in C
1 Ra T 3
6) Specific volume (v): v  ft / lbma or m 3 / kga
 pa
7) Adiabatic saturation temperature or Thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature (t*):

For a moist air, there exists a temperature t* at which water evaporates into the air to bring it to saturation
at exactly this temperature and pressure. Through this adiabatic saturation process, the humidity ratio (W)
of the moist air can be determined.
However, a practical device for measuring the wet-bulb tem perature (twb) is the psy chrometer. The
temperatures indicated by the psychrometer are called the wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures. The wet-
bulb temperature is an approximation to t*.
Layout of psychrometric chart:

2/5
Psychrometric Chart for Regular Temperature
3/5
Psychrometric Chart for Cold Temperature
4/5
Psychrometric Chart for High Temperature
5/5
Approximate Equations of Heat Transfer
i) Approximate equation of total heat transfer
Assume v = 13.33 ft3/lbma or  = 0.075 lbma/ft3

 considered as an industry standard density which corresponds to the dry air density at 70F DB
at 14.7 psia
 Another standard that given in the ASHRAE Handbook (see page 50 in text) based on the U.S.
Standard Atmosphere (29.921 in. Hg & 59F DB): v = 13.07 ft3/lbma or  = 0.0765 lbma/ft3
ASHRAE = American Society of Heating, Refrigeration & Air-conditioning Engineers
Equation 3-4: P  a  b H gives the atmospheric pressure as a function of elevation
Approximate total heat transfer corresponding to a change in enthalpy of i:

q  m a i  Q v i  Q   i
60 min
 q [Btu/hr] = Q [ft3/min]  (0.075 lbma/ft3)  i [Btu/lbma]
hr
 q [Btu/hr] = 4.5  Q [CFM]  i [Btu/lbma] for approximating total heat transfer
ii) Approximate equation of sensible heat transfer
Approximate sensible heat transfer corresponding to a change in dry bulb (DB) temperature of t:
q s  m a c p t  Q v c p t  Q  c p t
60 min
 q s [Btu/hr] = Q [ft3/min]  (0.075 lbma/ft3)  (0.24 + 0.45 W) [Btu/lbma]  t [F]
hr
We can take W = 0.01, as an approximately representative of common HVAC applications.
 q s [Btu/hr] = 1.1  Q [CFM]  t [F] for approximating sensible heat transfer
iii) Approximate equation of latent heat transfer
Approximate latent heat transfer corresponding to a change in humidity ratio of W:

q l  m a i fg W  Q v i g  i f  W  Q  i g  i f  W
60 min
 q l [Btu/hr] = Q [ft3/min]  (0.075 lbma/ft3)  i g  i f  [Btu/lbmv]  W [lbmv/lbma]
hr
where: ifg = ig – if, enthalpy of vaporization
ig = 1094 Btu/lbmv, enthalpy of vapor in most air at 75F and 50% RH (typical
summer indoor conditions)
if = 18 Btu/lbmv, enthalpy of water (condensate) at 50F (typical temperature
of dehumidifier)
 q l [Btu/hr] = 4840  Q [CFM]  W [lbmv/lbma] for approximating latent heat transfer

Example on Analysis of HVAC Processes

A building has a calculated design cooling load of 20 tons, of which 5 tons is latent load. The space
is to be maintained at 72FDB and 50%RH. Ten percent by volume of the air supplied to the space
is outdoor air at 100FDB and 50%RH. The air supplied to the space cannot be less than 55FDB.
Using a psychrometric chart, find the following:
(a) the return air (R/A) properties (enthalpy, humidity ratio, specific volume and wet-bulb
temperature),
(b) the minimum amount of air supplied to the space in lbma/hr, actual CFM (ACFM) and standard
CFM (SCFM), and the supply air (S/A) properties (enthalpy, humidity ratio, specific volume),
and
(c) the cooling coil load in tons.
Note: For part (b), please provide a rationale how you get the minimum amount of supply air. The
reason to attain minimum amount of supply air is to save on capital cost (due to smaller AHU) and
on operating cost (due to smaller fan power).
1/4
Off-Design Conditions
The HVAC equipment is usually sized to provide acceptable indoor conditions under worst case
conditions, i.e. the design load, below which, the equipment operates at part load or off-design load.
Therefore, automatic controls are necessary to modulate the operation of the equipment.
In most of the time, the space requires only a part of the designed capacity of the HVAC equipment.
One or more system parameters can be varied in order to match the required off-design space cooling or
heating load, for example:
 quantity of supply air (e.g. VAV systems)
 supply air temperature (e.g. bypass systems)
 coil surface temperature or coil capacity (e.g. water-temperature control or water-flow control)
By only varying one of the above parameters may result in a certain disadvantages (such as, off-design
humidity), therefore, operating in conjunction with the above three parameters may be necessary (e.g.
together varying quantity of supply air (VAV) and coil capacity).
During off-design conditions, we can reduce energy comsumption of a HVAC system by employing:
1. discriminator control on varying supply air temperature (see the Example in Week 2)
2. economizer control on utilizing cold outdoor air for cooling
Nowadays, in large and complex buildings, direct digital control (DDC) is often used to control HVAC
devices (e.g., valves, dampers, fans, etc.) using microprocessors or personal computers with software to
perform the control logic. Such systems include features such as: operation/maintenance schedules,
manual/temporary overrides, unoccupied setback limits, PID control algorithms, system-wide
monitoring, and operational alarms. Such systems may receive analog and digital inputs from the
sensors (e.g., temperature, pressure, flow, CO2, smoke, etc.) and devices throughout the HVAC system,
and provide analog or digital outputs to control the HVAC system devices. These systems may have a
software package that graphically allows operators to monitor, control, alarm and diagnose building
equipment remotely.
Outdoor Air Economizer Control

(see handout “Outdoor Air Economizer Control”)
Economizer controls the flow rates of O/A and R/A in order to obtain low temperature of M/A to reduce
or eliminate the coil refrigeration load of cooling coil.
1. Non-integrated dry bulb economizer:
For example: M/A (100% of m

 a3 )
70F C
S/A (100% of m
 a3 )
C
O/A (10% of m
 a3 ) 55F
50F R/A (90% of m a3 )
Say, minimum O/A flow is 10%: 75F
Normal condition or normal damper
position
2/4
Free cooling (i.e., no mechanical cooling)

Heating Coil cooling (i.e., mechanical cooling required)
Max.
(100%)
Ventilation (O/A)
Flow Rate
Min.
(10%)
tO/A = tS/A O/A Dry Bulb

No economizer control No economizer control
(normal position) (normal position)
Economizer control
is activated
2. Integrated dry bulb economizer:

Heating Reduced coil cooling
Coil cooling
Max.
(100%)
Ventilation (O/A)
Flow Rate
Min.
(10%)
tO/A = tS/A tO/A = tR/A O/A Dry Bulb

Economizer control
is activated
3. Integrated enthalpy economizer:

Integrated enthalpy economizer is used in where humidity problem arises.

Heating Reduced coil cooling
Coil cooling
Max.
(100%)
Ventilation (O/A)
Flow Rate
Min.
(10%)
tO/A = tS/A iO/A = iR/A O/A State
iO/A  iR/A iO/A  iR/A iO/A > iR/A

tO/A  tS/A tO/A > tS/A
Economizer control
is activated
3/4
Indoor Air Quality - Comfort and Health (Chapter 4)

A well-designed HVAC system attempts to keep comfort and health of occupants within specified limits
 ASHRAE Standard 62, "Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality", and Standard 55, "Thermal
Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy".
Indoor air quality or IAQ is referred to the maintenance of a clean, healthy, and odor-free indoor
environment, i.e., keeping gaseous and particulate contaminants below some acceptable level.
*sick building syndrome
Common contaminants:
A) Gases:
1. CO2 (non-toxic, unhealthy): Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)  maximum level of 1000
ppm (1.8 g/m3)  15 cfm of O/A per person (minimum) with 300 ppm (0.03%) CO 2 concentration
in O/A
2. CO (toxic, cumulative and fatal): incomplete combustion and smoking, maximum 2 g per day
3. Sulfur oxides (toxic, unhealthy): combustion
4. Nitrous oxides (maybe toxic, unhealthy): combustion
5. Radon (radioactive, unhealthy): decay of radium, maximum level of 4 picocuries/liter of air
B) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs):
organic chemical compounds (e.g. from combustion sources, building materials and finishes, etc.)
For example: formaldehyde gas  irritates eyes and mucus membranes; cause asthmatic and allergy;
may cause cancer, maximum level of 1 ppm (8-hour office) and 0.1 ppm (longer hours, e.g. at home)
C) Particulate matter and aerosol:
Soot, smoke (environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)), mold spores, bacteria, plant pollens, etc. sizes: 0.01
micron (10-6 m) and up (see Fig. 4-5 text, also types of cleaning methods)
Methods to control contaminants for health:

1. Source elimination or modification  most effective (e.g. no smoking)
2. Use of outdoor air  for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality (see Table 4-2 text)
3. Air cleaning  gas removal (such as: absorption, physical adsorption, chemisorption, catalysis,
combustion) and particulate filtering
4. Space air distribution  control of air motion by the creation of pressure differentials
Outdoor Design Conditions

Given in ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook. Some given in Table B-1a (English) or B-1b (SI) for cities
in US, Canada and the World.
(see handout "Supplementary Information on Climatic Conditions for Canada (Outdoor Design
Conditions)")
Winter Outdoor Design Conditions

 Winter Design DB temperature (Heating DB):
99.6% 99%
99.6% of the year (i.e., 8760 hrs  0.996 = 8725 hrs) has outdoor temperature equal to or above
the outdoor design temperature. (If occupants are expected during the coldest period (i.e., early
morning), use this outdoor design DB temperature.)
4/4
99.6%  0.4% (i.e., 35 hrs) below the outdoor design temperature

99%  87.6 hours below the outdoor design temperature
The outdoor design temperature should generally be the 99% value.
In winter, minimum temperature usually occurs between 06:00 – 08:00 suntime on clear days.
Residential system  use 99.6% or 99% design conditions

Office – occupied between 09:00 – 17:00  use 99% design conditions or use a temperature
above design conditions may be acceptable
However, for lightweight structure (low heat capacity), poorly insulated, building with
considerable glass, or if space temperature control is critical  use 99.6% design conditions
 Winter Design relative humidity:

Use 80-90% for most places
 Winter Design mean wind speed and mean/principal wind direction:

Use 99.6% design value (coincident with Design DB temperature)
Summer Outdoor Design Conditions

 Summer Design DB and Coincident WB:
0.4% 1% 2%
0.4% of the year (i.e., 35 hrs) has outdoor temperature equal to or above the outdoor
design temperature
In summer, maximum temperature occurs between 14:00 – 16:00.
Office – modern and good quality building  use 2% or 1%

– average and aged good quality building  use 1%
– low quality building  use 0.4%
 Design Wet Bulb and Mean Incident DB:

0.4% 1% 2%  Same definition as the summer design DB
This set of design conditions is used when there is humidity problem for a building.
 Daily Range of DB  the temperature difference between the average max. and average min.
for the warmest month.
The temperature range in a day, e.g.: for Tmax = 45F & Tmin = 23F, daily range = 45 – 23 = 22F
 The daily range has an effect on the energy stored by the building structure (for cooling load
calculation).
 Summer Design mean wind speed and mean/principal wind direction:

Use 0.4% design value (coincident with Design DB temperature)
Supplementary Information on Climatic Conditions for Canada (Outdoor Design Conditions)
Example on Off-Design Analysis

In an hour of a spring day, a constant-air-volume air handling system operates at an off-design condition
to provide an intermediate cooling load to a building, as shown in the schematic. The design supply air
flow rate and conditions are marked on the schematic. The indoor design conditions, i.e., of the return
air, are also marked on the schematic. The minimum fresh air requirement is 20% of the supply air by
volume.
(a) If discriminator control and integrated dry-bulb economizer control are used, determine the
cooling coil load for outdoor conditions of 50ºFDB and 50%RH.
(b) Can the indoor design conditions be maintained due to the controls in part (a)?
M/A C H S/A = 10,000 cfm @ 55ºFDB, 90%RH
F/A C C
Circulated Building q s  63,000 Btu / hr

R/A q l  7,000 Btu / hr
R/A @ 77ºFDB, 60%RH
E/A
Specification of Outdoor Design Conditions:
Specify a suitable (with justification, i.e., based on your reasonable assumptions) set of outdoor design
conditions for summer and winter for a house in Calgary, Alberta.
Week 5 Lecture Note: MEC740 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IN BUILDINGS 1/3
Use of Outdoor Air for Ventilation

Besides providing necessary oxygen for occupants, outdoor air is also used to dilute contaminants within a space.
Considering the following steady-state, steady-flow case for a space with an ideally well-mixed concentration Cs
of the contaminant of interest within the space, i.e. 100% ventilation efficiency (Ev = 1):
Entering air, with a Space Cs Leaving air, with the

concentration Ce of the concentration Cs of the
N
contaminant of interest contaminant of interest
Source of a contaminant, with a generation rate of N
Applying the conservation of mass to the space as a control volume gives:

Mass of the air:
dma ,CV 0
 m a ,in  m a ,out  m a ,in  m a ,out  a ,in Q in  a ,out Q out  Q in  Q out assume a ,in  a ,out 
dt
Mass of the contaminant:
dmc ,CV 0
 m c ,in  c , g N  m c ,out  m c ,in  c , g N  m c ,out  c ,in Q in Ce   c , g N  c ,out Q out Cs 
dt
 Q t Ce  N  Q t Cs assume c ,in  c , g  c ,out and Q in  Q out  Q t  Eq. (4-5)
A person typically breathes out CO2 at the rate of 0.30 L/min (5.0 ml/s) or 0.0106 ft3/min at sedentary conditions.
Example 4-2 demonstrates the use of Eq. (4-5) to obtain the minimum outdoor-air rate of 7.1 L/s or 15 cfm per
person in order to maintain a maximum indoor level for CO2 of 1000 ppm. Table 4-2 can be considered to be the
minimum outdoor-air rate requirements for ventilation of various commercial facilities.
However, if some of the entering air bypasses the contaminant source and leaves without mixing with the
generated contaminant in the space, i.e. 0 < S < 1, where S is the bypass factor, the ventilation efficiency Ev will
be less than 100%. In this situation, more entering air will be required:
Q t , E 1 Q t , E 1
Q t , E 1  
Ev 1 S
v v
If a fraction R of the return air will be cleaned to remove the contaminant and then recirculated back to the
system, the outdoor-air rate requirement can be reduced, depending on the location of the cleaning device with a
cleaning efficiency of Ef , as follows:
N  Ev RQ r E f Cs
Location A: Q o  Eq. (4-11)
Ev Cs  Co 
N  Ev RQ r E f Cs
Location B: Q o  Eq. (4-12)
Ev Cs  1  E f Co 
 
If the cleaning device is a filter for removing particulates from an air-flow, it will cause pressure loss. The
pressure loss at any required rate of flow Q can be determined by
 Q 
2
p  pr  
 Eq. (4-10)
 Q  r
where the subscript r stands for rated conditions.

Indoor Design Conditions – comfort and physiological considerations

Comfort from HVAC point of view:
- air temperature
- relative humidity The final media to achieve a comfortable environment:
- air motion - Air (temperature, RH, ventilation, and air motion)
- noise - Surfaces surrounding the occupant (mean radiant temperature (MRT))
e.g., in a square room:
T2 = 85F Occupant (O)
Floor: T5 = 60F
T1 = 72F T3 = 100F Ceiling: T6 = 72F
T4 = 40F
Each wall has one-sixth of the total wall area.
Assuming that all walls have the same emissivitiy or “black” surfaces.
 eff Tmrt
4
  1Fo 1T14   2Fo  2T24   3Fo 3T34   4Fo  4T44   5Fo 5T54   6Fo 6T64
F
N
Note: o j  1 , where N = 6 in this case. Fo  j is view factor of the occupant seeing the surface j.
j 1
  72  460    85  460    100  460 

1 1 1
 MRT 4  Tmrt
4 4 4 4
6 6 6
  40  460    60  460    72  460 

1 4 1 4 1 4
 
6  
6  
6

 MRT  Tmrt  8.04  1010 
14
 532.5 R  72.5 F
Clothed and nude subjects feel comfortable at the same skin temperature of 91.5  2.5F (33  1.5C).
Therefore, clothing is used to maintain skin temperature in this range.
Clothing is measured by its clothing insulation (CLO) value:

1 CLO = 0.880 Fft2hr/Btu (or 0.155 m2C/W)
(see handout “Clothing Insulation Values”)
CLO
For example: light short-sleeve shirt 0.19
men's underwear 0.04
thick trousers 0.24
ankle length socks 0.02
Total: 0.49
Light clothing = 0.5 clo

Medium clothing = 1.0 clo
Fig. 4-2 shows the range of clothing insulation at a given operative temperature for met  1.2.
Metabolic rate expressed in terms of MET units: 1 MET = 18.4 Btu/(hrft2) = 58.2 W/(m2 of body
(see handout “Typical Metabolic Heat Generation for Various Activities”) surface area)
Sedentary (seated quietly) = 1.0 met
Light activity  1.2 met
Medium activity = 2.0 met
The skin surface area (m2) of a body was given by DuBois in 1916 as: As  0.202m 0.425 h 0.725
where m is the mass of the body in kg and h is the height in m.
To evaluate the sensation of comfort, we use several indices (§4-1 in text):

1. The direct indices – DB, WB, dew point, etc.
2. Rationally derived indices
 Tg4  CV 1 2 Tg  Ta 
– Mean Radiant Temperature:
Tmrt
4
where C = 0.103109 (English units) = 0.247109 (SI units)

– Operative Temperature:
h t  hc t a t mrt  t a
t o  r mrt  (see Example 4-1)
hr  hc 2
For active persons (with 1.2 < met < 3):
t o ,active  t o ,sedentary  5.4 1  clo met  1.2  for F
t o ,active  t o ,sedentary  3.0 1  clo met  1.2  for C
where to,sedentary can be obtained from Fig. 4-1.
to,active in low-air-movement environment can be obtained graphically from Fig. 4-4.
The minimum allowable to,active for the above equations is 59F (15C).
– etc.
3. Empirical indices – Effective temperature
(based on – Black globe temperature
measurements) – etc.
Thermal comfort: that state of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment.
Winter Indoor Design Conditions

A common design temperature of 70F or 21C is used with RH  30% when occupant’s activity is light and
dress is medium.
Summer Indoor Design Conditions

A common design temperature of 75F or 24C is used with RH = 50% when occupant’s activity and dress are
light.
Note:
1. The above common indoor design conditions are typical values. Appropriate design conditions should be
properly evaluated in accordance with thermal indices, such as using the operative temperature and Fig.
4-1.
2. Fig. 4-1 indicates the comfort zones for people in typical summer and winter clothing with met  1.2. Left
parts of comfort zones can be used for people doing medium activity. For infants and elders, right parts of
comfort zones can be used.
3. A sedentary person usually required low-air-movement environment (i.e. V  30 ft min or 0.15 m/s) to
avoid discomfort due to drafts, but active persons are less sensitive to drafts. See Fig. 4-3.
4. Figs. 17 and 18 (i.e. Fanger charts) can be used as a first approximation to determine the indoor design
conditions. (see handout “Fanger Charts for Thermal Comfort”)
CLOTHING INSULATION VALUES
Clothing insulation value is expressed in clo units. In order to avoid confusion, the symbol I is
used with the clo unit instead of the symbol R. The relationship between the two is:
R  0.88 I
or 1.0 clo = 0.88 ft  hr   F Btu = 0.155 m 2  C W .
2
A simple way to estimate the clothing insulation for the entire ensemble is:
I cl   I clu ,i
i
th
where I clu ,i is the effective insulation of i garment, which can be obtained from Table 8 below.
If the entire ensemble of clothing has Icl = 0.5 clo, it is considered as light clothing.
If the entire ensemble of clothing has Icl = 1.0 clo, it is considered as medium clothing.
If the entire ensemble of clothing has Icl = 2.0 clo or higher, it is considered as heavy clothing.
Figure 4-2 in the text provides the lower and upper acceptability operative temperature limits at
certain clothing insulation (Icl) during light and primarily sedentary activities (< 1.2 met) in a
space with 50% RH and V  30 ft min 0.15 m s  . The operative temperature is the average of
the mean radiant temperature and the air temperature, weighted by their respective heat transfer
coefficients. But a good estimate of the operative temperature is:
t t
t o  mrt a .
2
Typical Metabolic Heat Generation for Various Activities
Note: Please also refer to Table 8-2 on page 222 in the textbook to obtain typical metabolic
rates of people in terms of Btu/hr or W for various activities.
Fanger Charts for Thermal Comfort
Example on Specifying Indoor Design Conditions

Using the operative temperature method, specify comfortable summer indoor design conditions (DB and
RH) for a machine shop with low air movement ( V  30 fpm ) where people in light clothing will be
engaged in active work such as standing, walking, lifting, and performing various light machining tasks.
(a) If tmrt = ta (this is a usual situation in a room inside a building without heat sources).
(b) If tmrt = 80F (this situation may be due to heat sources or warm walls).
(c) Repeat parts (a) and (b), if there is draft of 100 ft/min in the machine shop.
Design of Radiant Panel for Thermal Comfort:
A room has 500 ft2 of surface area, 120 ft2 of which is to be utilized as a radiant panel heating system.
The remaining surface area has an average surface temperature of 65ºF. The air temperature in the room
is maintained at 70ºF. The room is occupied by medium clothed adults at sedentary conditions.
Determine the surface temperature of the radiant panel necessary to produce thermal comfort if the air
velocity is 20 ft/min. Comment on your finding. Assume the view factors are weighted according to the
surface areas, and all surface emissivities are same. Use Fanger charts in the handout “Supplementary
Information On Thermal Comfort”.
Heat Transmission in Building Structures (Chapter 5)

Three modes of heat transmission:
conduction, convection and radiation
(see handout “Thermal Resistances (A Review)”)
(A) Heat transmission through walls and roofs:
 A multilayer plane wall
tout k1 k2 k3 tin
x1 x2 x3

1. There is convective and radiative heat transfer from inside of building to the inside surface of the
wall.
2. Conductive heat transfer takes place in the wall.
3. Convective and radiative heat transfer from outside wall surface to atmosphere.
two twi
tout tin
Rout Rcomposite wall Rin
x1 x 2 x3 x wall

Rcomposite wall  R1  R2  R3    
k1 A k 2 A k 3 A k eff . wall A
R-value or R-factor  the thermal resistance of a unit area of a building material

 unit thermal resistance, unit resistance
x 1  hr  ft 2   F m 2  C 
R   or 
k C  Btu W 
where: R = unit thermal resistance (or R-value)
C = unit thermal conductance
Unit thermal conductance C and thermal conductivity k for many building materials are given in Tables
5-1a (English) and 5-1b (SI).
 Ri = C
1 n n
1
The overall R-value of a composite wall: Rw = =
Cw i 1 i 1 i
where: Ri = R-value of i layer
th
n = no. of layers in series
The combined values of convective and radiative heat transfer coefficient for inside and outside surfaces
of different surface emittances and surface orientations are given in Table 5-2a for different air
velocities.
 surface unit conductance (C or h) and unit resistance (R).
For inside surfaces  use still air

For outside surfaces  use 15 mph (24 km/h) wind for winter
 use 7½ mph (12 km/h) wind for summer
   i 
1 n
1 1 1 n
x 1 1
Roverall = Rin + Rw + Rout or Roverall    U overall 
hin i 1 C i hout hin i 1 k i hout Roverall
The heat flow rate per unit area = Uoverallt = Uoverall(tin – tout)
where: tin = indoor design temperature
 determined based on
o comfort criteria (e.g., operative temperature and Fig. 4-1)
o process requirement
tout = outdoor design temperature
 ASHRAE tables (e.g., Table B-1 and Table 2A in Week 5 Handout)
Heat flow rate for a given wall area: q  U overall  A  t
See Table 5-4a for an example or handout about how to calculate overall thermal resistance (or overall
heat transfer coefficient) of a wall.
(see handout “Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients U of Some Typical Walls, Roofs and Ceilings and
Floors”)
Note: For roofs, use the same way to determine the Uroof or Rroof. Make sure to use the correct
orientation. See Table 5-4b for an example.
(B) Heat transmission through a roof-ceiling combination with an air space (ceiling space):
(see Example 5-3)
Flat Roof Roof assembly (concrete, insulating material, etc.)

RR (between ceiling space and outdoor air)
Steel truss
Ceiling air space
Side wall
RSW Ceiling
(between RC (between conditioned space and ceiling space)
Heat
ceiling and
(from conditioned space)
outdoor air)
tout 1
R SW & R 
 1   1  
  ASW    AR 
 RSW   RR  
RSW RR Total thermal 1
resistance of the 
Total thermal C SW ASW  C R AR
resistance of the roof including
side wall including tcs surface resistances
and
surface resistances
RC Roverall  RSW & R  RC
1 1
 
tin C SW ASW  C R AR C C AC
1

U o AC
where AC = area of ceiling
Overall heat transmission through ceiling: q  U o AC t
(C) Heat transmission through windows (Table 5-5a or 5-5b for winter conditions with 15 mph or 24
km/h wind):
The design wind speed in summer is about 7½ mph  use Table 5-7 to correct
The heat transmission through windows: q  U w Aw t
(D) Heat transmission through doors (Table 5-5a or 5-5b for sliding or swinging glass/plastic doors,
Table 5-8 for wood or steel doors with or without storm door):
The heat transmission through doors: q  U d Ad t
(E) Heat transmission through concrete floors below grade and walls below grade (Table 5-9 for below-
grade basement walls without insulation or with insulation, Table 5-10 for below-grade (5 ft or
more) basement floors):
Grade Concrete floor above, on or below grade down to

about 3 ft (90 cm) (See (F) below)
Uninsulated
or R-4.17 (1” fiberglass) and up
Earth Concrete floor below grade
(more than 3 ft (90 cm) below)
The heat transmission through concrete floors and walls below grade: q  U A t  U A t in  t g 
where: t g  t avg  Amp
tavg = average annual ground surface temp.
= average annual air temp. (assumed)
(Table 5-11)
Amp = amplitude of ground temp. variation
about tavg (Fig. 5-7)
(F) Heat transmission through concrete floor slabs close to grade level (Fig. 5-8):
Grade Heating duct (in or below concrete floor slab)
Concrete floor above, on or below
grade down to about 3 ft (90 cm)
d
Earth d
The heat transmission through concrete floor slabs close to grade level: q  U  P t  U  P t in  t out 
where: P = perimeter of slab
Note: 1) If heating duct is present near the perimeter in or below the concrete floor slab, it can cause
30 to 50% more heat loss than the case without heating duct.
2) If a concrete floor slab is insulated at slab edge and above grade with a basement or crawl
Btu W
space below it, use U   0.5  0.87 for the perimeter loss.
hr  ft   F m  C
3) If a concrete floor slab is insulated at slab edge and on grade or below grade down to about
3 ft with earth below it, use Fig. 5-8.
4) For summer conditions, the heat transfers due to (E) and (F) are usually neglected.
Thermal Resistances (A Review)
x 1  hr  ft 2   F m 2  C  concrete
Unit conduction resistance: Rcond    or 
k C  Btu W  tout wall tin
where: Rcond = unit thermal conduction resistance (or R-value) k
C = unit thermal conductance
x = layer thickness [in. or m] x
 Btu  in. W 
k = thermal conductivity of layer  or 
 hr  ft   F
2
m  C 
1  hr  ft 2   F m 2  C 
Unit convection resistance: Rconv   or 
h  Btu W 
where: Rconv = unit thermal convection resistance
h = convection heat transfer coefficient
1  hr  ft 2   F m 2  C 
Unit radiation resistance: Rrad   or 
hr  Btu W 
where: Rrad = unit thermal radiation resistance

hr = radiation heat transfer coefficient hr   Ts  Tsur  Ts2  Tsur
2
 
Resistance in series:
A composite wall with n layers: tout k1 k2 … kn tin
x1 x2 xn

n n
1 n
x x wall
R wall   Ri    i 
i 1 i 1 C i i 1 k i k eff . wall
where: Rwall = unit thermal resistance of the composite wall (or wall R-value)
 n

xwall = total thickness of the wall  x wall   xi 
 i 1 
keff. wall = effective thermal conductivity of the wall
1 n
1 1 1 n
x 1 1
Roverall = Rin + Rwall + Rout or Roverall      i   U  ,
hin i 1 C i hout hin i 1 k i hout Roverall
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient
Resistance in parallel: For example: Heat transmission through a framed wall

1) one path through “between-frame” section with an overall
thermal resistance of Rbtw. frame
2) another path through “at-frame” section with an overall
thermal resistance of Rat frame
Abtw. frame Aat frame
U  U btw. frame  U at frame
Atotal Atotal 1
 Then, Roverall 
Fraction of " between frame" area Fraction of " at frame" area U
 
Rbtw. frame Rat frame
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients U of Some Typical Walls, Roofs, Ceilings and Floors
Example on Wall Thermal Resistance

A house located in Toronto has exterior frame walls with wood studs at 16” o.c., as depicted in the
diagram below.
(a) If the 3½” gap is air, determine the overall wall thermal resistance and heat loss per unit area of
the wall.
(b) If the 3½” gap is filled with R-11 insulation, determine the overall wall thermal resistance and
heat loss per unit area of the wall.
At framing
5 Btw. framing
3½”
7
6
4
1 3
2
Construction: 1) Outside surface, 2) Aluminum siding (hollow-backed), 3) Plywood sheathing (¾”
thick), 4) Non-reflective air space (3½” thick), 5) 2”4” wood stud, 6) Gypsum wallboard (½” thick),
and 7) Inside surface (still air).
Ventilation and Filtration Analysis:
A pharmacy work space is required to keep clean with a dust level below 0.08 mg/m 3. A filter will be
located in the mixed-air (M/A) duct (location B in Fig. 4-9). A filter efficiency of at least 70% for
filtering dust (mean size of 3 µm) is to be used to clean the air. It is estimated that, due to the condition
of the placements of outlet diffusers and return grilles in the space, the occupied zone bypass factor is S
= 0.2 (see Figs. 4-7 and 4-9). Assuming that an average person produces about 1.3 mg/hr of dust (dead
skin) and the outdoor air has 0.3 mg/m 3 of dust, determine the following:
(a) If the ventilation efficiency is 100%, i.e., the supply air is completely mixed well in the occupied
zone, determine the outdoor air requirement for ventilation per person.
(b) Determine the actual outdoor air requirement for ventilation per person.
(c) Determine the minimum rate of recirculated air.
(d) Based on Fig. 4-8, select a filter that will have a gravimetric efficiency of at least 70% for filtering
the dust.
Ventilation and Filtration Analysis:
A pharmacy work space is required to keep clean with a dust level below 0.08 mg/m 3. A filter will be
located in the mixed-air (M/A) duct (location B in Fig. 4-9). A filter efficiency of at least 70% for
filtering dust (mean size of 3 µm) is to be used to clean the air. It is estimated that, due to the condition
of the placements of outlet diffusers and return grilles in the space, the occupied zone bypass factor is S
= 0.2 (see Figs. 4-7 and 4-9). Assuming that an average person produces about 1.3 mg/hr of dust (dead
skin) and the outdoor air has 0.3 mg/m 3 of dust, determine the following:
(a) If the ventilation efficiency is 100%, i.e., the supply air is completely mixed well in the occupied
zone, determine the outdoor air requirement for ventilation per person.
(b) Determine the actual outdoor air requirement for ventilation per person.
(c) Determine the minimum rate of recirculated air.
(d) Based on Fig. 4-8, select a filter that will have a gravimetric efficiency of at least 70% for filtering
the dust.
Space Heat Load (Chapter 6)

Heat losses are:
1. Transmission heat loss  through walls, ceiling, roof, windows, floor, and doors are sensible heat
transfer, as presented in Chapter 5: q  U A t and q  U  P t
2. Heat loss due to infiltration  cold dry outside air being heated to inside design temperature:
q s  m ao c p t in  t out   sensible heat loss
 and humidified to inside design humidity:
q l  m ao Win  Wout i fg  latent heat loss
Total building heat loss = Heat loss due to transmission through building structure + Heat loss due to
infiltration
Infiltration
Three factors cause infiltration: 1) Wind pressure
2) Stack effect (usually occurs for more than 3 storeys)
3) Building pressurization (in building with mechanical ventilation)
Infiltration can be considered as a continuous air flow coming into a building.
There are two methods to estimate infiltration:

1) Air-Change Method
A Building volume = Vol = ABC
# of Air Changes
B Air flow rate due to infiltration = Q =  Vol
 hour
 
C
ACH
0.4 – 0.5 ACH  low infiltration building (new or well-built building)

2.0 – 2.5 ACH  high infiltration building (old or poorly-built building)
Some modern office buildings  as low as 0.1 ACH
(see handout “Supplementary Information on Infiltration”)

An empirical model of infiltration: I  K 1  K 2 t  K 3 v (See Eqn. (18) and Table 6 in handout)
where: I = ACH
K1, K2 and K3 = empirical constants (for tight, medium and loose construction)
t = indoor-outdoor temperature difference
v = wind speed
In handout: See Table 2 for ACH under average conditions in residences for different kinds of room.
Windows on two sides of the room

Steps to calculate heat transfer due to infiltration by air-change method:

1) Find ACH for each room.
2) Find the equivalent infiltration air flow rate for each room:
Q  ACH  Volume of the room 
 
e.g.: Q  1 ACH   800 ft  800
3
 ft 3
hr
of infiltration
3) Add all equivalent air flow rates for all rooms to obtain infiltration rate for the building.
 ft 3 
  X of infiltration   60 = CFMinfiltration
 hr 
4) Calculate the sensible heat transfer due to infiltration.
 q s  c p t i  t o  or use approximate equation: q s  1.1CFM infiltrati on t i  t o 
Q
vo
5) Calculate the latent heat transfer due to infiltration.
 q l  Wi  Wo  i fg or use approximate equation: q l  4840 CFM infiltrati on Wi  Wo 
Q
vo
2) Crack Method
11
e.g.: A double-hung window
6 If bottom window is movable (or operable), then the crack length at window:
5 7 1) with top window fixed and sealed, crack length of the window = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
8 10 2) with top window movable (or operable) too, crack length of the window =
4 1+2+3+4+5+6+7
Window frame 1 3
2 and the crack length in between frame and wall = 8 + 9 + 10 + 11
A Present-day Window (The picture below shows the lower right corner of a typical present-day window)
1 Glass-glass frame (potential leakage, if

Window construction: 2 sealant is peeled or broken)
1. Glass/pane/glazing Glass frame-window frame (noticeable
2. Glass frame 3 leakage, especially operable window)
3. Window frame Window frame-wall frame (potential
4. Wall frame leakage, if not caulked)
5. Wall 4
Wall frame-wall (potential leakage, if
5 the wall frame is extended to outside)
The pressure difference across the crack is P  Pw  Ps  Pp
Wind pressure Pw  :
Wind
+ve gage -ve gage
pressure pressure

The pressure difference due to wind: Pw  C p Vw2  C p Pwt [lbf/ft2 or Pa]
2 gc
where: Cp = pressure coefficient (Fig. 6-2 for low-rise buildings (sides),

Fig. 6-3 for tall buildings (H > 3W) (sides),
C p ,roof  0.5 for a low-rise building with roof inclined less than 20 from horizontal
 Fig. 6-4 for a tall building)
 = outdoor air density [lbm/ft3 or kg/m3]
Vw = average wind speed [ft/s or m/s]
lbm  ft kg  m
g c  32.17 or 1
lbf  s 2 N  s2
Pwt = maximum pressure difference due to stagnation of the wind [lbf/ft2 or Pa]
Stack effect Ps  :
In winter
Balance Point or Neutral Pressure Level (usually at

middle of building if the distribution of cracks is
symmetric)
– +
0
Inside gage pressure
Po h g  1 1 
The pressure difference due to stack effect: Ps  C d     C d Pst [lbf/in2 or Pa]
Ra g c  To Ti 
where: Cd = draft coefficient (1.0 for no doors in the stairwells and elevator shafts,
0.65 – 0.85 for modern office buildings)
Po = outside pressure [psia or Pa(a)]
h = vertical distance from neutral pressure level [ft or m]
ft  lbf J
Ra  53.352  287
lbm   R kg  K
ft m
g  32.17 2 or 9.81 2
s s
lbm  ft kg  m
g c  32.17 or 1
lbf  s 2
N  s2
To = outside temperature [R or K]
Ti = inside temperature [R or K]

Pst = maximum pressure difference due to stack effect without internal
separations [lbf/ft2 or Pa]
Ps
Note: The values of [in. of wg or Pa] can be obtained from Fig. 6-5 as a function of t and h.
Cd
Building pressurization Pp  :

Supply fan
F/A
+ve gage exfiltration

R/A
pressure
Return fan
E/A
E/A  F/A
F/A > E/A in most mechanical ventilated buildings  building under positive gage pressure (i.e. Pp < 0)
 F/A = exfiltration + E/A
Sign convention: P is positive when it causes flow of air to the inside of the building: P  Po  Pi
Calculation aids for crack method:

 Fig. 6-1 for infiltration at closed window and door
 Q L (cfm/ft, cfh/ft or L/(sm)) = f(P, K), where K is leakage coefficient (Table 6-1 for windows, Table
6-3 for doors, Table 4 (in handout) for standard windows & sliding glass doors and Table 3 (in handout)
for double-hung wood window)
 Table 3 (in handout) for infiltration between double-hung wood window frame and wall (frame-wall
leakage)
 Q L (cfh/ft or L/(sm)) = f(P, construction)
 Fig. 6-6 for infiltration at curtain wall for one room or one floor
 Q A (cfm/ft2 or L/(sm2)) = f(P, K), where K is leakage coefficient (Table 6-2)
Note: There is an editing error in Fig. 6-6. In the vertical axis, 0.8 cfm/ft 2 should be 0.08 cfm/ft2.
 Table 5 (in handout) for infiltration through walls
 Q A (cfh/ft2 or L/(sm2)) = f(P, construction)
 Fig. 6-7 for a closed commercial swinging door (no traffic)
 Q L (cfm/ft or L/(sm)) = f(P, Crack width), where K is leakage coefficient
 Fig. 6-8 for a commercial swinging door with traffic
 Q door (cfm/door or L/(sdoor)) = f(P, C), where C is traffic coefficient depending on traffic rate
and door arrangement (single-bank and vestibule type) obtained from Fig. 6-9
Note:
1. If the window or door has storm sash or storm door, respectively, the storm sash or storm door with crack
length and K-coefficient equal to the prime window or door reduces infiltration by about 30 – 35 percent.
2. Exhaust fans, chimneys, and flues can increase infiltration dramatically or necessitate the introduction of
outdoor air.
Steps to calculate heat transfer due to infiltration by crack method: Wind

1) Determine the types of windows and doors.
1st side
2) Determine the total crack length on:
if the wind direction is known:
(i) the side(s) facing the wind. 2nd side
if the wind direction is unknown:
(ii) overall crack length on all sides divided by 2.
(iii) the side with most crack length.
(iv) overall crack length on all sides (i.e., double the total crack length of (i)) (see Example 6-4).
Normally, choose either (ii) or (iii), whichever is the greater. Option (iv) is very conservative.
3) Determine the pressure differences due to the wind, stack and pressurization.
 P  Pw  Ps  Pp
Note: P  Po  Pi
If the wind direction is unknown, Pw is usually based on normal wind.
4) Find the infiltration rate ( Q L and/or Q A ) based on P.
 
5) Calculate the infiltration amount based on the crack length and/or area and infiltration rate from step 4.
 Q  Q L  L (if all cracks are similar)
 Q   Q L   L
i
i i (if cracks are different)
6) Calculate the sensible and latent heat transfer as steps 4 and 5 in the air-change method.
See Example 6-1 (for calculating Pw, Ps and P), Example 6-2 (for calculating air leakage at closed and traffic
vestibule-type doors), Example 6-3 (for calculating air leakage at the top floor of a high-rise building), and
Example 6-4 (for calculating air leakage of a low-rise building).
Supplementary Information on Infiltration
.
.
Table 4
Window and door specifications
Week 8 Example: MEC740 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IN BUILDINGS 1/1
Example on the Crack Method for Determining Infiltration

A 10 10 ft room with 8 ft ceiling is located at the northwest corner of a house in Grindstone Island,
Quebec. The following are information about the room:
Walls: Table 4A, construction 2 (from Week 6 handout “Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients U of
Some Typical Walls, Roofs, Ceilings and Floors”)
Windows: Each wall has one average-fitting, horizontal-sliding window: 4  4 ft, double-insulating
glass, weatherstripped, wood frame.
(a) Determine the infiltration rate (cfm) for the room in the winter using the crack method.
(b) Determine the infiltration heat loss (Btu/hr) for the room in the winter.
The Air-change Method for Determining Infiltration:
A 10 10 ft room with 8 ft ceiling is located at the northwest corner of a house in Grindstone Island,
Quebec. The following are information about the room:
Walls: Table 4A, construction 2 (from Week 6 handout “Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients U of
Some Typical Walls, Roofs, Ceilings and Floors”)
Windows: Each wall has one average-fitting, horizontal-sliding window: 4  4 ft, double-insulating
glass, weatherstripped, wood frame.
(a) Determine the infiltration rate (cfm) for the room in the winter using the air-change method.
(b) Determine the infiltration heat loss (Btu/hr) for the room in the winter using the approximate
equations of sensible and latent heat transfer.
Heat Losses from Air Ducts (Read §6-5 in the textbook)

It is common to cover the duct with 1 to 2 in. of fibrous glass insulation with a reflective covering.
If heat loss is from:

 Supply air ducts  considered as part of space heat load and should be summed with transmission
and infiltration heat losses.
 Return air ducts  not part of space heat load but should be added to the heating equipment load.
Note:
1. Table 6-4 on page 175 provides required duct insulation depending on the temperature difference
between the air in the duct and the surroundings (from ASHRAE Standard 90.1 Energy Standard
for Sites and Buildings).
2. Study Example 6-5 about how to estimate heat loss from an air duct, if the duct is insulated.
Auxiliary Heat Sources (Read §6-6 in the textbook)

The heat from auxiliary heat sources, such as people, lights, motors and equipment, may be substituted
for part of the heating requirement, if they are significant.
Beware that sufficient heating equipment must still be provided to prevent freezing of water pipes
during periods when a facility is shut down.
Intermittently Heated Structures (Read §6-7 in the textbook)

To conserve energy it is common to set back thermostats or to completely shut down equipment during
the late evening, early morning, and weekend hours.
Supply Air for Space Heating (Read §6-8 in the textbook)

Normally the supply air temperature is less than 100F or 55C above indoor winter design temperature.
Residential or light commercial equipment  60 to 80F or 33 to 44C above tin
Total supply air quantity: If the building’s sensible heat load dominates, say 70 – 100%:
q s v S / A q s
 Q S / A  or CFM  (approximate)
c p t S / A  t in  1.1 tS / A  tin 
Otherwise (recommended):
q v S / A q
 Q S / A  or CFM  (approximate)
iS / A  i R / A 4.5 i S / A  i R / A 
Supply air quantity for each zone in the building: Q z  Q S / A q z q 

Source Media for Space Heating (Read §6-9 in the textbook)

q
Hot water: m w 
c p t1  t 2 
where: m w = mass flow rate of hot water
q = heating required
cp = specific heat of water
t1 = water temperature entering coil
t2 = water temperature leaving coil
q
Simplified forms: 1) Q w  , where Q w is in gpm, q is in Btu/hr, and t is in F.
500 t1  t 2 
q
2) Q w  , where Q w is in L/s, q is in W, and t is in C.
4.2 t1  t 2 
Note: As a common practice, t1  t 2  20 F 11C  .
q
Steam: m v 
i1  i2
where: m v = mass flow rate of steam
i1 = specific enthalpy of steam entering coil
t2 = specific enthalpy of steam leaving coil
When saturated vapor is supplied and condensate (saturated liquid) is returned, i1  i2  i fg (enthalpy
of vaporization).
q
Hot-Air Furnace: m f 
 HV 
where: m f = mass flow rate of fuel supplied
 = furnace efficiency
HV = heating value of the fuel on mass basis
q
If HV is given on volume basis as for natural gas: Q f 
 HV 
Computer Calculation on Heating Loads (Read §6-10 in the textbook)

Hourly heating loads for the coldest day (24 hours) in a year can be conveniently calculated using
HvacLoadExplorer provided by the textbook. Important guidelines of using HvacLoadExplorer to
calculate heating load are given in the section.
But we will use eQUEST to calculate the hourly heating and cooling loads (8760 hours) in a year for our
project.
The Cooling Load (Chapter 8)
For heating, q h  U At is quite accurate because the outdoor conditions are quite stable during the
winter period. However, for cooling, a dynamic approach is needed, due to thermal capacitance (i.e.,
 V c p or m c p ) of a structure.
Heat gain  rate at which energy is transferred to or generated within a space (sensible (S) and latent
(L) components).
Components:
1. Solar radiation through openings (S)
2. Heat transmission through boundaries: conduction, convection and radiation (S)
3. Sensible heat convected and radiated from internal objects (S)
4. Latent heat gains from internal objects (L)
5. Ventilation and infiltration heat gains (S & L)
Cooling load  the rate at which energy must be removed from a space to maintain the temperature
and humidity at the design values.
Heat gain  Cooling load

Reasons:
1. Solar radiation and radiation from interior objects do not heat the air directly. [Because the solar and
radiation from objects will heat objects in the space first, then the heat transfers to air by convection]
2. Variation in the solar radiation and outdoor temperature combined with the thermal inertia (thermal
mass) of the building components.
Heat extraction rate  rate at which energy is removed from the space by the cooling and
dehumidifying equipment.
When heat extraction rate = cooling load, space temperature is maintained

> cooling load, space temperature is decreasing
< cooling load, space temperature is increasing
There are two calculation methods for determining the dynamic cooling load of a building, namely:
1. The heat balance method  comprehensive method which requires the simultaneous solution of a
large number of equations
2. The radiant time series method  simplified approximation of the heat balance method (use of
spreadsheet)
The Heat Balance Method

This method ensures that all energy flows in each zone are balanced. The solution of a set of energy
balance equations is sought for each hour over a day through an iterative procedure, involving:
 ,os
1. energy balance at outside surfaces of walls, roofs and floors  tos, q cond
 ,is
2. energy balance at inside surfaces of walls, roofs and floors  tis, q cond
3. energy balance on windows and transmitted solar heat gain  tos, tis

4. energy balance of thermal mass (furnishings)  ttm, q tm
5. energy balance of zone air  ti, q system
The energy balances at outside and inside surfaces of walls and roofs are linked together by the transient
heat conduction through the walls and roofs. Algorithms and design conditions are also required in
seeking solution of the set of energy balance equations.
For details of the heat balance method, you may read sections 8-5 to 8-12.
There are some useful data and information, as follows:

1. Design Conditions (section 8-3):
This section provides useful information regarding design conditions, particularly outdoor design
conditions. The hourly outdoor temperature for cooling load calculation can be evaluated using Eq.
(8-2) and Table 8-1 on page 221 for the summer special boundary temperature schedule.
2. Internal Heat Gains (section 8-4):
This section provides useful information regarding internal heat gains from people (Table 8-2 on
page 222), lights and equipment.
3. Recommended radiative and convective fractions for different types of heat gains can be obtained
from Table 8-20 on page 263.
4. Cooling load calculation using HvacLoadExplorer program (section 8-12):
This section provides some useful information regarding the use of HvacLoadExplorer program to
calculate cooling loads.
5. Equipment Selection and Supply Air Quantities (section 8-15):
This section provides some basic information regarding selection of light commercial unitary
cooling equipment and specification of supply air quantity.
Week 9 Tutorial Problem #1
Natural-Gas Fuel Flow Rate & Hot-Water Flow Rate Calculations:
A building has a design heating load of 20,000 Btu/hr.
(a) If a forced-air natural gas furnace with 90% efficiency is used to provide heating, what are the
required design fuel flow rate (cfm) of the furnace and the design hot-air supply flow rate (cfm)?
(b) If a hot-water heating coil is used to provide heating through the supply air, what is the required
hot water flow rate (gpm)?
Week 9 Tutorial Problem #2
Instantaneous Heat Gain from People:
There are three hundred people watching a movie in a theater in the evening. What are the
instantaneous sensible and latent cooling loads for the theater due to the people?
Fans and Building Air Distribution (Chapter 12)
1. Proper design of the duct system and the selection of appropriate fans and accessories are essential.
2. A poorly designed system may be noisy or inefficient or lead to discomfort of occupants.
3. Correction of a poorly designed duct system is expensive and sometimes practically impossible.
4. In some HVAC systems the energy costs for moving the air approaches that of the chiller system.
Fans
The functions of a fan are:
1. to move air through ducts, and
2. to induce air motion in the space.
There are three basic types of fans:

1. centrifugal  impeller rotates in a casing shaped like a scroll to impart energy to the air by
centrifugal force (Fig. 12-1)
 air enters axially, turns at right-angles through the impeller, and is discharged radially.
 purpose of scroll casing (or volute) is to convert the high velocity pressure at the blade tips into
static pressure.
 most widely used because it can efficiently move large or small quantities of air over a wide
range of pressures.
 impeller blades may be radial, forward-curved, or backward-curved. Each has different
characteristics.
Radial Forward-curved Backward-curved
2. axial  impeller with blades of aerofoil cross-section rotating in a cylindrical casing (Fig. 12-2)
 vaneaxial – axial flow with guide vanes before and after the fan to reduce rotation of the air
stream.
 Tubeaxial – similar to vaneaxial fans, but without the guide vanes.
 not capable of producing pressures as high as the centrifugal fans, but can move large quantities
of air at low pressure.
 noiser than centrifugal fans.
 typical efficiencies are 70-80%.
3. propeller  for low flow resistance, such as: desk and ceiling fans, exhaust fan – move air through a
hole in a wall
Fan Performance
 The pressure, efficiency, and power (brake horsepower) are generally given in graphical form as a
function of flow capacity, as shown in Figs. 12-3 to 12-6.
 The total pressure is the sum of static pressure and velocity pressure. They are often expressed in
inches of water gage (in. wg).
 Fan laws can be used to scale the performance of fans as the fan speed changes:
Q rpm 2
1. flow capacity  fan speed, i.e. 2 

Q1 rpm1
2
P  rpm 2 
2. pressure (static, velocity and total pressures)  (fan speed) , i.e. 2  
2 
P1  rpm1 
W 2  rpm 2 
3
3. power  (fan speed) , i.e.

3
 
W1  rpm1 
4. efficiency does not change with speed.
 Fan performance is rated at standard conditions (i.e., at Tstd = 530R (70F) and Pb,std = 14.7 psia (1
atm)  std = 0.075 lbm/ft3 = 1.202 kg/m3). When there is a change in air density due to significant
change in temperature and/or pressure (such as for elevations greater than 2500 ft or 750 m), the
rated pressure and power must be adjusted, for examples, as follows.
 P Tstd
total pressure raised by a fan: P0  P0, std  P0, std
 std Pb , std T
 P Tstd
shaft power required by a fan: W sh  W sh, std  W sh, std
 std Pb , std T
Fan Selection
1. Backward-tip blade fans are used for general HVAC systems of all pressures, because of its high
efficiency, power savings and low noise. It is stable, and has a load-limiting horsepower
characteristics.
80-86% (typical efficiency)
2. Forward-tip blade fans are used in low-pressure HVAC systems, such as domestic furnaces. It has
medium efficiency and fair noise. It can be unstable when flow is low, and has no load-limiting
horsepower characteristics.
62-72%
3. Radial-tip blade fans are not commonly used in HVAC systems, as it has high noise. Its efficiency is
medium, and has no load-limiting horsepower characteristics.
68-76%
4. Vaneaxial fans are becoming more commonly used in HVAC systems of all pressures. Operation to
the left of peak pressure should be avoided due to dynamic stall. Controllable blade angle provides
good control for VAV systems.
70-80%
5. It is important that the fan be quiet. Generally, peak efficiency  least noise.
6. The design system total pressure loss (TPL) and flow capacity are required to select a fan. As a
general guide:
   
(P0)fan peak pressure = P0 design 0.8 ; and Q fan @ P design  1.1 Q design at peak fan efficiency
TPL 0
TPL
P0
(P0)fan peak pressure

(P0)design TPL = 0.8 (P0)fan peak pressure
Q
Q  fan @  P 
0 design TPL

 1.1 Q design 
Read Examples 12-2, 12-3 and 12-4 for selecting appropriate fans.
Field Testing and Balancing

A pitot tube and an inclined manometer can be used to measure capacity and total pressure.
The logarithmic plot of fan performance is convenient to indicate proper operation of system and fan.
See Fig. 12-16.
Corrective action, such as increasing or decreasing fan speed, changing any undesirable fan inlet and or
outlet effects, while maintaining a high fan efficiency, should be taken. If the fan speed has to be
increased, ascertain that the motor can handle the required fan power because the fan power  (rpm)3.
Flow Control
For VAV systems, flow control is required.
 A variable-speed electric motor is ideal; best is the adjustable frequency control system.
 Use dampers at fan inlet, such as variable inlet vanes (see Fig. 12-17).
 Using dampers in ducts to control flow without fan control will cause the system static pressure to
rise, lower fan efficiency, wasted fan power, and may cause unstable fan operation.
Air Flow in Ducts and Total Pressure Losses

The basic theory for air flow in ducts is same as the one for water flow in pipes.
For air flow in a duct, neglecting changes in elevation and constant density, the energy balance, in units
of pressure, is:
V2 V2 g
P1   1  P2   2   lf Eq. (12-9c)
2 gc 2 gc gc
where: P1, P2 = static pressure at inlet and outlet
V1 , V2 = average velocity at inlet and outlet V1  V2
 = density of air
lf = lost head in units of feet or meters 1
2
Eq. 12-9c can also be expressed in the following notations:

Ps1  Pv1  Ps 2  Pv 2  Pf Eq. (12-9d)
or
P01  P02  Pf Eq. (12-9e)
where:
Ps = static pressure
V2
Pv   = velocity pressure
2 gc
P0  Ps  Pv = total pressure
g
P f   l f  P01  P02 = total pressure loss (due to system effect factors, friction, and fittings, etc.)
gc
For air at standard conditions (i.e., at 70F and 1 atm  s = 0.075 lbm/ft3 = 1.202 kg/m3):
 the velocity pressure in English units:
2 2
 V   V 
Pv        Eq. (12-10)
 1097   4005 
where Pv is in in. wg, V is in ft/min, and  is in lbm/ft3.
 the velocity pressure in SI units:

2 2
 V   V 
Pv        Eq. (12-11)
 1.414   1.29 
where Pv is in Pa, V is in m/s, and  is in kg/m3.
System Total Pressure Losses

System total pressure losses include the following total pressure losses at
- fan inlet and outlet  called system effects factors
- ductwork (friction loss)
- fittings (dynamic losses)
- dampers
- filters (Eq. (4-10) and Table 4-3 as an example)
- diffusers and return grille (Tables 11-3, 11-4, 11-5, and 11-6 for typical linear diffuser, typical
round ceiling diffuser, adjustable-type high sidewall diffuser, and T-bar diffusers, respectively,
and Table 11-7 for one type of return grille)
- heating and cooling coils
- other process equipment, e.g. humidifier.
See handout (Summary of System Total Pressure Losses in Ductwork) for more details about the first
four ductwork losses. An example of the system total pressure loss is given in Fig. 12-26.
Summary of System Total Pressure Losses in Ductwork
1. System Effects Factors:

Duct connections to the fan should be such that the air may enter and leave the fan as uniformly as
possible with no sudden changes in direction or velocity.
System effect factors are the pressure losses due to the fan inlet and outlet effects.
The Air Movement and Control Association, Inc. (AMCA) and ASHRAE have published these
factors in terms of total pressure loss in their Fan Application Manual and Duct Fitting Database.
Fan outlet:
The pressure loss due to fan outlet condition:
P0  C 0  Pv Eq. (12-7)
where: C0 = loss coefficient based on discharge duct area
(Table 12-5 with Table 12-3 for blast area ratio and Figure 12-13 for
outlet-duct elbow position; Table 12-2 for effective duct length)
Ab
Blast Area Ratio =
A0
“One effective duct length” is

given in Table 12-2, which is the
required length from fan outlet to
establish uniform flow. If the duct
is rectangular, the equivalent duct
diameter is: D  4ab / 
a
b
If a centrifugal fan discharges into a plenum, losses should also be accounted. (Table 12-4)
Fan inlet:
Elbow at the fan inlet creates losses. Table 12-6  inlet duct elbow loss coefficient C0 for
configuration shown in Figure 12-14.
Reduce flow restrictions:
- any wall or obstruction be at least one inlet diameter away from fan inlet and housing.
- A space of at least two inlet diameters be provided between fan inlets.
Read Example 12-5 for calculation of system effect factors.

2. Duct Friction Loss

The total pressure loss due to friction in straight, constant-area ducts:
Figures 12-21 (English units) and 12-22 (SI units) for smooth galvanized steel ducts
o The charts are based on standard air (s = 0.075 lbm/ft3) and fully developed flow
o No correction for viscosity and density for air temperature ranging from 50F (10C) to
100F (38C), and for elevations below about 2000 ft.
o For air at other actual conditions (a) than the standard conditions (s), the actual pressure
loss is corrected by:
P0 a  C P0 s Eq. (12-13)
where C is a correction factor for density and viscosity with respect to the standard
conditions
0.9 0.1
   
C   a   a  Eq. (12-12)
 s   s 
o For ducts rougher than the smooth galvanized steel duct (e = 0.0005 ft), a correction
factor C for roughness effect can be obtained from Figure 12-23 as a function of e and
velocity.
o For the same cross-sectional area and flow rate, a rectangular duct has greater friction
pressure loss than a circular duct. For a rectangular duct to have the same friction
pressure loss, length and flow rate as a circular duct, the circular equivalent of the
rectangular duct is:
b
D e  1 .3
a b
58
Eq. (12-15)
a a  b 1 4
 given in Table 12-7 as a function of a and b
o For an oval duct to have the same friction pressure loss, length and flow rate as a circular
duct, the circular equivalent of the oval duct is:
1.55 A 0.625 a
a D e  0.25
for 2   4 Eq. (12-16a)
P b
b2
b where: A  b a  b  , P  b  2 a  b 
4
3. Duct Fitting Losses

Total pressure losses can happen when:
- a change in duct area (e.g., expansion, contraction, transition)
- a change in flow direction (e.g., elbow)
- dividing or diverging into a branch
- combining or converging branches
- inlet and outlet
These losses are usually of greater magnitude than the friction losses and are referred to as dynamic
losses: P0  C Pv , where C is the loss coefficient, and Pv is the velocity pressure.
Fittings are classified as either constant flow, e.g. an elbow or transition, or as divided flow, e.g. wye
and tee.
When different upstream and downstream areas are involved, either the upstream or downstream
velocity may be used to calculate Pv and C will be different in each case, e.g.:
A0
V1  = 20 V0  2.00
A1
1
0
From Table 12-9B (Transition, Rectangular, Two Sides Parallel): C0 = 0.60 (with reference to Pv0)
However, if the Total Pressure Loss (TPL) Coefficient is required to be referenced to section 1, then
the TPL coefficient is:
P0  C 0 Pv 0  C1 Pv1 Eq. (12-17b)
2
P V 
 C1  C 0 v 0  C 0  0  Eq. (12-18)
Pv1  V1 
2
A 
or C1  C 0  1  (if Q1 = Q2, i.e. no change in density and no leakage)
 A0 
 C1 = (0.60)(1/2.00)2 = 0.15
General notes:
– Losses at an elbow can be minimal when the turn is gradual. (Tables 12-8A and 12-8C) (Read
Example 12-7)
– Losses at an abrupt turn in rectangular duct can be reduced significantly if turning vanes are
used. (Table 12-8B)
– Losses at duct entrances (such as, from plenum) can be reduced by using a tapered or bellmouth.
(Table 12-10A or 12-10B, respectively)
– The loss in the straight-through section and the loss through the branch outlet must be considered
in a divided flow fitting. Diverging flow (Table 12-11) differs from converging flow (Table 12-
12) (Read Example 12-8)
– The angle between the branches should be kept small for minimum losses.
– The velocity may increase, decrease, or remain constant through a fitting. There will always be
some loss in total pressure.
4. Losses at Dampers
Dampers are necessary to balance a system and to control the makeup (fresh air) and the exhaust air
(such as economizer control).
The damper may be a single blade on a shaft or a multiblade arrangement as shown in Figure 12-25.
The damper causes a pressure loss even in full open position, such as: (1) multiblade arrangement in
rectangular duct, C0 = 0.52, (2) butterfly damper in round duct, C0 = 0.19, (3) butterfly damper in
rectangular duct, C0 = 0.04. The table below shows the loss coefficients of round butterfly dampers.
Note: For more data on other duct fitting losses and losses at dampers (at different opening positions),
please refer to ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook.
Equivalent length of a fitting loss

The lost effect of fittings can be expressed in terms of equivalent length of duct as friction loss:
C
Le  D
f
where: Le is the equivalent length of duct for friction loss
D is the diameter of duct
C is the loss coefficient of fitting
f is the friction factor (obtained from Table 12-13 for galvanized steel ducts)
1  12 e 2.51 
or  2 log10    (Colebrook function) Eq. (12-14)
f  3.7 D Re D f 
With the equivalent length Le, the equivalent friction loss of the fitting can be calculated using Figures
12-21 (English units) or 12-22 (SI units) for galvanized steel ducts. If other than galvanized steel duct,
correction factor C in Figure 12-23 should be applied to Eq. (12-13).
Table 12-14 provides approximate equivalent lengths for selected fittings in circular ducts.
For example: The equivalent length of an 8-in. diameter pleated 90 elbow can be approximated using
Table 12-14 as follows:
i) from 1st column: Le/D = 15  Le = (15)D = (15)(8/12 ft) = 10 ft
or ii) from 3rd column: 8 (20), i.e. D = 8 in. (20 cm)  Le is 10 ft (3.1 m)
Read Example 12-9 for calculation of Le of an entrance from plenum to duct, a wye, a 45 elbow, and a
90 elbow.
Example 12-10 shows the calculation of the total pressure loss for each branch of a simple duct system
using the equivalent length approach.
Graphical Interpolation in Log Scale for Figs. 12-21 and 12-22
Interpolation between Point 1 and Point 2 in log scale to obtain a required value between Point 1 and
Point 2:
 L1 req       
  log   Po    log   Po     log   Po   
 Po   L1 2 
  L  2    L 
1     L 1  
   10  
 L  req
 P 
where  o  is the required total pressure loss per unit length between pressure losses per unit length
 L  req
 P   P   P 
at Point 1 and Point 2, i.e.  o    o    o  , L1-req is the distance between Point 1 and the
 L 1  L  req  L  2
Required point, and L1-2 is the distance between Point 1 and Point 2.
Example
Let’s say we want to determine the total pressure loss due to friction for a flow rate of 200 cfm and a
duct size of 7 in. The following is a zoom-in view of a portion of Fig. 12-21 showing the required total
pressure loss:
Point 2
L1-2
Required point
L1-req
Point 1
Point 1’
7 in. 200 cfm

Therefore: Point 1 < Required point < Point 2
 Po   P 
   0.1 in. wg per 100 ft,  o   0.2 in. wg per 100 ft,
 L 1  L 2
L1-req  5.5 mm, L1-2  11.5 mm (as measured from Fig. 12-21)
 5.5 
 P   log 0.2  log 0.1 log 0.1
  o   10 11.5 
 10 0.856  0.1393 in. wg per 100 ft
 L  req
Or, we may use another point, such as Point 1’, instead of Point 1,
i.e. Point 1’ < Required point < Point 2
 Po   P 
   0.08 in. wg per 100 ft,  o   0.2 in. wg per 100 ft,
 L 1'  L 2
L1’-req  9.4 mm, L1’-2  15.4 mm (as measured from Fig. 12-21)
 9.4 
 P   log 0.2  log 0.08  log 0.08 
  o   10 15.4 
 10 0.854  0.140 in. wg per 100 ft
 L  req
Graphical Interpolation in Log Scale for Figs. 12-21 and 12-22 (cont’d)
The formula can be reversed to obtain the position of a required flow rate, Q req , between flow rate 1 Q1
and flow rate 2 Q 2 :
L1req  L12 
 
log Q req  log Q1  
 
log Q 2  log Q1  
where L is the position measured from the position of Q between Q and Q , i.e. Q  Q  Q ,
1 req 1 1 2 1 req 2
L1-2 is the distance between Q1 and Q 2 .
Example
Let’s say we want to determine the position of 160 cfm and a duct size of 10 in. The following is a
zoom-in view of a portion of Fig. 12-21 showing the required Q req  160 cfm :
10 in.
L1-req
L1-2
Q1 Q 2
Q req
Therefore: Q1  Q req  Q 2

Q1  100 cfm , Q 2  200 cfm , Q req  160 cfm ,
L1-2  11.8 mm (as measured from Fig. 12-21)
log160   log100 
 L1req  11.8 mm    8.00 mm
log200   log100 
Then we can determine the total pressure loss due to friction for Q req  160 cfm and D = 10 in., as
indicated on the diagram as a black dot:
 7.5 
 P   log 0.02 log 0.01log 0.01
  o   10  11.2 
 10 1.7984  0.0159 in. wg per 100 ft
 L  req
Example on Total Pressure Loss of Ductwork

A dedicated ventilation system is shown below. Using the loss coefficient approach, determine the total
pressure differential that the axial fan must develop for providing an air flow rate of 650 cfm through the
duct system.
Vaneaxial fan:
Hub ratio = 0.7
Pleated 90 elbow, r/D = 1.5:
0 1 2 3 4 D = 12 in.
Inlet grille: 5
open to Discharge duct:
atmospheric Transition:
D = 12 in. 6
pressure Inlet duct: A0/A1 = 0.694
L = 300 ft
D = 12 in. 7  = 45
L = 150 ft
Straight duct: 8
D = 10 in. Round ceiling diffuser:
open to atmospheric
Drawing not to scale L = 150 ft
pressure
Fan Analysis:
A vaneaxial fan is delivering 650 cfm of outdoor air at a total pressure differential of 1.12 in. wg at
standard air conditions via a dedicated ventilation system as shown below, while it is operating at 1000
rpm.
(a) Determine the minimum power (hp) required to run the vaneaxial fan.
(b) Determine a possible actual shaft power (hp) required to run the vaneaxial fan.
(c) Determine the static pressure differential (in. wg) raised by the vaneaxial fan.
(d) If the fan speed is increased to 1500 rpm, determine the new fan flow rate, fan total pressure rise, fan
static pressure rise, and fan power required.
(e) Sketch the total pressure, power and efficiency characteristic for both speeds on the same graph with
a system characteristic.
Vaneaxial fan:
Hub ratio = 0.7
0 1 2 3 4 D = 12 in.
Inlet grille: 5
D = 12 in. 6
L = 300 ft
D = 12 in. 7  = 45
L = 150 ft
Straight duct: 8
Drawing not to scale open to atmospheric
L = 150 ft
pressure
1/6
Duct Design
1. The purpose of duct system is to deliver a specified amount of air to each diffuser in the conditioned
space at a specified total pressure.
Specified amount of air  determined by required ventilation (fresh air) and space load
Specified total pressure  to provide proper pressurization and air motion within the space
2. Low noise in ductwork can be achieved by:

 limiting air velocity
 using sound-absorbing duct materials or liners such as fibrous glass duct (maximum 2400 ft/min)
 avoiding drastic restrictions in the duct, such as, nearly closed dampers
 insulating the duct (besides for reducing heat transfer)
3. A low-velocity duct system usually has pressure loss of 0.05 – 0.15 in. wg per 100 ft (or 0.41 –
1.22 Pa per m) with maximum velocities less than about 1200 ft/min (6 m/s).
4. A high-velocity duct system usually has pressure loss of 0.4 – 0.7 in. wg per 100 ft (or 3.3 – 5.7 Pa
per m) and may have velocities as high as 4500 ft/min (23 m/s).
Note: i) The total pressure (P0) is used in duct design because it accounts for all of the flow energy.
ii) Noise generation is a problem in high-velocity duct system. The table below gives
recommended and maximum velocities in low-velocity duct system.
2/6
Design of low-velocity duct systems:

1. Equal-friction Method:
 The principle is to make the pressure loss per foot of duct length the same for the entire system.
 This method may be used for all types of systems including small light commercial as well as large
VAV systems.
 This method works well to produce a good balanced design, if all duct runs from fan to diffusers
have about the same length. Usually dampers must be installed throughout the system for any
necessary adjustment, especially be installed at the short runs. Noise due to the restriction of
dampers in the short runs may become an annoying problem.
Design procedure #1: If a fan will be selected later and the fan total pressure is not known yet:
1. Establish a duct size and a design lost pressure per unit length of the main duct adjacent to the fan
in accordance with the criteria of pressure loss of less than 0.15 in. wg per 100 ft (or 1.23 Pa/m) and
acceptable velocity based on the flow rate in the main duct, using Fig. 12-21 or 12-22.
2. Then, size all ducts throughout the system in accordance with the same design lost pressure per
unit length and acceptable velocities based on the respective flow rates, using Fig. 12-21 or 12-22.
3. After sizing all the ducts in the system, calculate the total pressure losses for the main and branches
sections from junction-to-junction/fan/terminals. Compute the total pressure loss of the longest run
(which has presumably the largest flow resistance) from fan to diffuser (i.e. outlet), taking care to
include all losses due to duct friction and fittings.
4. After the total pressure loss of the longest run is obtained, it will be added to other total pressure
losses (due to system effect factors, return duct (if no return fan to be used), filters, heating and
cooling coils, etc.), and the overall total pressure loss will be used to select a fan for the system.
5. If necessary, balance the system using dampers at sections of runs with lower total pressure losses.
Otherwise, the system will balance by itself which results in higher flows at these sections.
Design procedure #2: If a fan is already selected and the net available fan total pressure is known:
1. Assume reasonable duct sizes (with the guide of flow rates and acceptable velocities) and estimate
the total equivalent length of the longest run (which has presumably the largest flow resistance)
from fan to diffuser (i.e. outlet), taking care to include all physical duct lengths and equivalent
lengths of fittings, using Table 12-14.
2. Divide the net available fan total pressure by the total equivalent length of the longest run to obtain
the design lost pressure per unit length in unit of “in. wg per 100 ft” or “Pa/m”.
3. Then, size all ducts throughout the system using the same design lost pressure per unit length and
acceptable velocities based on the respective flow rates, using Fig. 12-21 or 12-22.
sections from junction-to-junction/fan/terminals. Compute the actual total pressure loss of the
longest run (which has presumably the largest flow resistance) from fan to diffuser (i.e. outlet),
taking care to include all losses due to duct friction and fittings.
5. Compare the total pressure loss of the longest run with the net available fan total pressure. If the
total pressure loss of the longest run is greater than the net available fan total pressure, we must
use larger duct sizes. If the total pressure loss of the longest run is much less than the net available
fan total pressure, smaller duct sizes or a damper may be used in order to increase the total pressure
loss.
6. If necessary, balance the system using dampers at sections of runs with lower total pressure losses.
3/6
Notes:
1. The handout “Graphical Interpolation in Log Scale for Figs. 12-21 and 12-22” provides examples
how to interpolate in log scale in order to get the correct friction loss value.
2. See Example 12-11 for applying the equal-friction method using the design procedure #2.
2. Balanced-capacity Method:
 The principle is to make the loss in total pressure equal for all duct runs from fan to outlet when the
required amount of air is flowing in each run.
 This method is particularly good for constant flow systems where balance of air to each space is
critical. In systems where the equivalent lengths of the various runs vary considerably, the
balanced-capacity method is superior to the equal-friction method.
 In general, all runs will have a different equivalent length and the pressure loss per unit length for
each run will be different.
Design procedure #1: If a fan will be selected later and the fan total pressure is not known yet:
1. Establish a duct size and a design lost pressure per unit length of the main duct adjacent to the fan
in accordance with the criteria of pressure loss of less than 0.15 in. wg per 100 ft (or 1.23 Pa/m) and
acceptable velocity based on the flow rate in the main duct, using Fig. 12-21 or 12-22.
2. Then, size the remaining duct sections of the longest run based on the same design lost pressure per
unit length and acceptable velocities based on the respective flow rates, using Fig. 12-21 or 12-22.
Once all duct sections of the longest run are sized, the actual total pressure loss of the longest run
will be calculated as the design total pressure loss P0 design for the duct system, including the total
pressure loss of the diffuser  P0  diffuser .
3. A net available total pressure P0 net for a duct branch is determined and it is then divided by an
estimated equivalent length of the duct branch in order to obtain an estimated total pressure loss per
unit length for sizing the duct of the duct branch:
 P0 net  
D, V  f  , Q  using Fig. 12-21 or 12-22
 L e 
where D and V are the duct diameter and average velocity to be sought for the duct branch, as a
P0 net
function of the estimated total pressure loss per unit length and the required flow Q of the
Le
duct branch. The net available total pressure P0 net and the estimated equivalent length for a duct
branch are calculated as follows:
 P0 net   P0 design   P0 from fan or plenum to the beginning of the duct branch   P0 diffuser
Le   Le , i , where Le ,i is an ith equivalent length of a piece of duct fitting (which can be
i
C
determined as Le  D (Eq. (12-20)) or using Table 12-14) plus the duct length of the duct
f
branch. A guessed duct size is needed in order to obtain  P0  diffuser and the loss coefficient C or Le
from Table 12-14.
4. Calculate the actual total pressure loss of the duct branch in step 3. If the actual total pressure loss
of the duct branch is too low or too high compared to the net available total pressure P0 net , a
4/6
smaller or larger duct size can be tested to see whether the actual total pressure loss of the duct
branch will be closer to the P0 net .
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all duct branches are sized.
sections from junction-to-junction/fan/terminals. Compute the total pressure loss of the longest run
(which has presumably the largest flow resistance) from fan to diffuser (i.e. outlet), taking care to
include all losses due to duct friction and fittings.
7. After the total pressure loss of the longest run is obtained, it will be added to other total pressure
losses (due to system effect factors, return duct (if no return fan to be used), filters, heating and
cooling coils, etc.), and the overall total pressure loss will be used to select a fan for the system.
8. If necessary, balance the system using dampers at branches of runs with lower total pressure losses.
Design procedure #2: If a fan is already selected and the available fan/plenum total pressure P0  fan
is known:
1. Assume reasonable duct sizes (with the guide of flow rates and acceptable velocities) and estimate
the total equivalent length of the longest run (which has presumably the largest flow resistance)
from fan to diffuser (i.e. outlet), taking care to include all physical duct lengths and equivalent
C
lengths of fittings, using Le  D (Eq. (12-20)) or Table 12-14.
f
2. Divide the P0  fan by the total equivalent length of the longest run to obtain the design lost
pressure per unit length in unit of “in. wg per 100 ft” or “Pa/m”.
3. Then, size the main duct using the design lost pressure per unit length and acceptable velocity
based on its flow rate, using Fig. 12-21 or 12-22.
4. A net available total pressure P0 net for a duct branch is determined and it is then divided by an
estimated equivalent length of the duct branch in order to obtain an estimated total pressure loss per
unit length for sizing the duct of the duct branch:
 P0 net  
D, V  f  , Q  using Fig. 12-21 or 12-22
 Le 
where D and V are the duct diameter and average velocity to be sought for the duct branch, as a
P0 net
function of the estimated total pressure loss per unit length and the required flow Q of the
Le
duct branch. The net available total pressure P0 net and the estimated equivalent length for a duct
branch are calculated as follows:
 P0 net   P0  fan   P0 from fan or plenum to the beginning of the duct branch   P0 diffuser
Le   Le , i , where Le ,i is an ith equivalent length of a piece of duct fitting (which can be
i
C
determined as Le  D (Eq. (12-20)) or using Table 12-14) plus the duct length of the duct
f
branch. A guessed duct size is needed in order to obtain  P0  diffuser and the loss coefficient C or Le
from Table 12-14.
5. Calculate the actual total pressure loss of the duct branch in step 3. If the actual total pressure loss
of the duct branch is too low or too high compared to the net available total pressure P0 net , a
5/6
smaller or larger duct size can be tested to see whether the actual total pressure loss of the duct
branch will be closer to the P0 net .
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until all duct branches are sized.
sections from junction-to-junction/fan/terminals. Compute the actual total pressure loss of the
longest run (which has presumably the largest flow resistance) from fan to diffuser (i.e. outlet),
taking care to include all losses due to duct friction and fittings.
8. Compare the total pressure loss of the longest run with the P0  fan . If the total pressure loss of the
longest run is greater than the P0  fan , we must use larger duct sizes. If the total pressure loss of
the longest run is much less than the P0  fan , smaller duct sizes or a damper may be used in order
to increase the total pressure loss.
9. If necessary, balance the system using dampers at branches of runs with lower total pressure losses.
Note: See Examples 12-12 and 12-13 for applying the balanced-capacity method.
The computer program DUCT uses both the equal-friction and balanced-capacity methods for sizing duct
systems. It uses the loss coefficient method for fittings, rather than the equivalent length method. The
equivalent length method is only suitable for small low-velocity systems. However, for large low-velocity
systems, the loss coefficient method is more accurate.
Design of high-velocity duct systems:

The use of high velocities reduces the duct sizes (or space) dramatically, but may bring some problems:
 Noise: A sound absorber, like car’s muffler, may be installed just downstream of the fan. And a device
called terminal box located in the vicinity of the conditioned space is used to throttle the air to a low
velocity, control of flow rate, and attenuate the noise.
 High fan power requirements: Minimize total pressure losses by using the most efficient fittings and
duct layout. Total pressure losses for fittings must be estimated carefully using the loss-coefficient
method because it is more reliable at high velocities than equivalent-length method.
 Duct leakage due to high static and total pressures: Spiral duct with either a round or oval cross section
should be used. Caution: proper engineering data for pressure losses in spiral duct should be obtained
from manufacturer.
Static Regain Method:

 The principle of the method is to systematically reduce the air velocity in the direction of flow in such a
way that the increase (regain) in static pressure in each transition just balances the pressure losses in the
following section.
 This method is suitable for high-velocity, constant-volume systems having long runs of duct with many
takeoffs.
 With this method, approximately the same static pressure exists at the entrance to each branch.
 Disadvantages: 1. very low velocities and large duct sizes at the end of long runs.
2. tedious bookkeeping and trial-and-error aspects of the method.
3. total pressure requirements of each part of the duct system are not readily
apparent.
4. the method does not always yield a balanced system.
6/6
Procedure:
1. Select a velocity for the main duct attached to the fan or supply plenum.
2. Establish the size of the main duct with the known flow rate using Fig. 12-21 or 12-22.
3. First, design the run of duct that appears to have the largest flow resistance. The velocity for the next
section in the run must be obtained by trial-and-error, balancing between the static pressure regain and
the lost pressure of that section.
section 1 usi dsi section 2 usii dsii section 3
transition i transition ii
For example, section 2 is to be designed. The static pressure regain through transition i is calculated by
 
the equation below: Ps ,i  Ps ,dsi  Ps ,usi  Pv ,usi  Pv ,dsi  Po ,usi usii , where Ps is the static pressure, Pv is
the velocity pressure, Po is the total pressure loss, and us and ds are the upstream and downstream
points of a transition.
The objective is to obtain Ps ,i  0 , i.e. the static pressure regain through transition i just balances the
pressure losses in the following section 2. If Ps ,i  0 , it means that there is an over-regained static
pressure. If Ps ,i  0 , it means that there is an under-regained static pressure.
4. After the largest-flow-resistance run of duct is designed, design the rest of the branches following the
step 3.
Note: See Example 12-14 for applying the static regain method.
At the end, make sure that the noise level of each outlet diffuser (obtained from Tables 11-3, 11-4, 11-5 or
11-6) meets the acceptable noise criterion (NC) (as given in the handout “Acceptable HVAC Noise Levels
for Various Applications”).
Design of return air systems

The design of the return air system may be carried out using the above-described methods. In this case, the
air flows through the branches into the main return duct and back to the fan. The loss coefficients or
equivalent lengths of converging-type fittings must be used. The total pressure requirement of the return air
system is determined as discussed for supply air systems. In large commercial systems a separate return air
fan is usually required.
Acceptable HVAC Noise Levels for Various Applications
Note: NC (noise criterion) levels below 30 are considered to be quiet, whereas NC levels
above 50 are considered noisy.
Example on Duct Design

A dedicated supply ductwork is proposed for two patient recovery rooms in a hospital. The ductwork is
depicted in the diagram below with the required fittings, diffusers and flow rates.
(a) Size the ductwork using the equal-friction method and the equivalent length approach.
(b) Determine the total pressure loss (in. wg) and noise criterion (NC) of each round ceiling diffuser.
Are the noise criterions of diffusers acceptable?
(c) Calculate the total pressure loss (in. wg) from plenum to each diffuser outlet, including the diffuser
loss. Is damper necessary for balancing the system? Explain. If yes, where should it be placed and
can a butterfly damper be used without introducing excessive total pressure loss?
Notes:
 The duct sizes must conform to the sizes given in Figure 12-21.
 Use Table 12-14 for equivalent lengths.
L1 = 7 ft
plenum
L2 = 30 ft
abrupt entrance round L3 = 1 ft
1 diverging tee 2 90 pleated elbow,
r/D = 1.5
90 pleated elbow,
r/D = 1.5 3
round ceiling diffuser, round ceiling diffuser,
120 cfm 470 cfm
same size as the duct same size as the duct
Room 1 Room 2
Note: Drawing not to scale
Total Pressure Loss of Ductwork using the Equivalent Length Approach:
A dedicated ventilation system is shown below. Using the equivalent length approach, determine the
total pressure differential that the axial fan must develop for providing an air flow rate of 650 cfm
through the duct system.
Vaneaxial fan:
Hub ratio = 0.7
0 1 2 3 4 D = 12 in.
Inlet grille: 5
D = 12 in. 6
L = 300 ft
D = 12 in. 7  = 45
L = 150 ft
Straight duct: 8
Drawing not to scale open to atmospheric
L = 150 ft
pressure
Space Air Distribution (Chapter 11)

The object of air distribution in HVAC systems is to create the proper temperature, humidity, air motion,
noise, and air quality in the occupied portion of the conditioned room.
For practical purposes, a region within 1 ft of the wall and above about 6 ft from the floor is considered as
unoccupied portions of a conditioned room.
Discomfort of an occupant in a space can be caused by the following factors:

1. excessive room air temperature variations (horizontally, vertically, or both), such as a gradient of
more than 4F or 2C
2. excessive air motion (draft)
3. failure to deliver or distribute the air according to the load requirements at the different locations
4. rapid fluctuation of room temperature or air motion (gusts)
One of the standards to establish the comfort conditions is the effective draft temperature (EDT):
EDT  t x  t r   M V x  V r  Eq. (11-4)
where: tr = average room dry bulb temperature, F or C

Vr = 30 ft/min or 0.15 m/s
tx = local airstream dry bulb temperature, F or C
V x = local airstream velocity, ft/min or m/s
M = 0.07 F-min/ft or 7.0 C-s/m (i.e., a change in velocity of 15 ft/min is equivalent to one
degree F temperature change)
For a person in sedentary conditions, he or she will mostly feel comfortable when -3F < EDT < 2F
(or -1.7C < EDT < 1.1C) and V x < 70 ft/min (or 0.36 m/s). These conditions are used as criteria for
developing the Air Distribution Performance Index (ADPI).
Conditioned air is normally supplied to air outlets at velocities much higher than would be acceptable in
the occupied space. The conditioned air temperature may be above, below, or equal to the temperature of
the air in the occupied space. Proper air distribution causes entrainment of room air by the primary air
stream (such as from a round opening, grille, perforated panel, ceiling diffuser, and other outlets) and the
resultant mixing reduces the temperature differences to acceptable limits before the air enters the
occupied space. It also counteracts the natural convection and radiation effects within the room.
Behavior of Jets
Considering a horizontal neutral jet: Induced air or entrained air
V0 , Q 0 , t 0 Zone 4
Jet degradation
Primary air D0 Vx (flow velocity
quickly becomes
x < 50 fpm)
Zone 2
transition zone
Zone 1 Zone 3
25D0 to 100D0
~4D0 (initial zone) (the flow is fully
established and enters the
occupied space)
The jet center-line velocity at a distance x from the outlet is related to the initial velocity as follows:
Vx D A0 1.13KQ 0
 K 0  1.13K or Vx 
V0 x x x A0
where A0 is the jet cross-sectional area at the outlet, K is a proportional constant (values 5 to 6 for free
jets, 1 for ceiling diffusers, 4.5 to 5.5 for slots with aspect ratios less than 40).
The throw is defined as the distance from the outlet to where the center-line velocity in the jet has
decreased to some specified value such as 50, 100 or 150 ft/min (0.25, 0.5 or 0.75 m/s). For example, the
throw of a jet for V x  V50  50 ft / min is given by
0.0226 KQ 0
x50  0.0226 K V0 A0 or x50 
A0
where A0 is in ft2, V0 is in ft/min, Q 0 is in ft3/min. The aim is to achieve x50 in Zone 4 inside the occupied
space, so that the occupants will not feel the air motion under 50 ft/min. Region with less 15 ft/min is
considered to be a stagnant region.
The jet center-line temperature at a distance x from the outlet is related to the velocities as follows:
t x t x  t r V A0
  0.8 x  0.904 K Eq. (11-3)
t 0 t 0  t r V0 x
Therefore, for the throw of x50 , the temperature difference between the local stream temperature and the
room is
t
t 50  40 0
V0
where V0 is in ft/min. An ideal condition would be uniform room temperature from the floor to about 6 ft
above the floor; however, a gradient of about 4F (2C) should be acceptable to about 85% of the
occupants.
Type of Diffusers
Diffusers have been classified into five groups:
Group A: diffusers mounted in or near the ceiling that discharge air horizontally (e.g. round ceiling
diffuser (Fig. 11-4, Table 11-4), high sidewall diffuser (Fig. 11-4, Table 11-5), linear or T-bar
diffuser (Fig. 11-5, Table 11-6, good for VAV systems))
Group B: diffusers mounted in or near the floor that discharge air vertically in a nonspreading jet (Fig.
11-3, Table 11-3)
Group C: diffusers mounted in or near the floor that discharge air vertically in a spreading jet (Fig. 11-2,
Table 11-5)
Group D: diffusers mounted in or near the floor that discharge air horizontally (Fig. 11-6, Table 11-5)
Group E: diffusers mounted in or near the ceiling that project air vertically (Fig. 11-7, Table 11-3)
For specific applications of different diffusers, please read "Basic Flow Patterns" section in the textbook
(pages 369-373).
Air-Distribution System Design

General design guidelines for the selection and placement of the air outlets:
1. For spaces with exterior walls and cold climates, particularly when the floor is over unheated
space or a slab and considerable glass in the walls: the perimeter type of system (Group C) with
vertical spreading discharge of the supply air is preferred  excellent for heating and satisfactory
for cooling when adequate throw is provided. However, a nonspreading jet (Group B) is
satisfactory for cooling.
2. For spaces with exterior walls, mild climates and warm floor: High sidewall outlet (Group A) with
horizontal discharge toward the exterior wall  acceptable for heating and quite effective for
cooling. Ceiling diffuser (Group A) enables high-momentum jet to diffuse quickly  quite
effective for cooling but generally poor for heating, unless the floor is warm over a heated space.
3. For spaces with exterior walls and very mild climates: overhead ceiling outlet or high sidewall
diffuser (Group A) are recommended because cooling is the predominant mode.
4. For interior spaces: overhead systems (Group A) is usually preferred because cooling is required
most of the time.
5. The total pressure loss of a diffuser should be compatible with the pressure characteristics of the
system. For example, a small commercial system may have a fan that produces only about 0.6 in.
wg of total pressure while a large commercial system may be operated at 2-5 in. wg total pressure.
The diffuser total pressure loss should be no more than about 10% of the fan total pressure.
The Air Distribution Performance Index (ADPI) is defined as the percentage of measurements taken at
many locations in the occupied zone of a space that meet the -3F < EDT < 2F criteria. (ADPI is based
only on air velocity and EDT, and is not directly related to the level of dry bulb temperature or relative
humidity and other factors such as MRT.)
The objective is to select and place the air diffusers so that an ADPI approaching 100% is achieved. There
are no specific criteria for selection of a particular type of diffuser except as discussed before in the
general design guidelines, but within a given type the ADPI is the basis for selecting the throw.
Each type of diffuser has a characteristic room length (L) as defined in the Table 11-1 below:
Then the recommended ratio of throw to characteristics length ( x50 / L ) that should maximize the ADPI is
given in the Table 11-2 below:
Note:
1. A range of throw-to-length ratios are also shown that should give a minimum ADPI.
2. The throw is based on a terminal velocity of 50 ft/min for all diffusers except the ceiling slot type.
The general procedure for use of the table above is as follows:

1. Determine the air flow requirements and the room size.
2. Select the number, location, and type of diffuser to be used.
3. Determine the room characteristic length using Table 11-1.
4. Select the recommended throw-to-length ratio from Table 11-2.
5. Calculate the throw.
6. Select the appropriate diffuser from catalog data such as those in Tables 11-3 to 11-6.
7. Make sure any other specifications are met (noise, total pressure, etc.)
Read the Examples 11-1 to 11-3 in textbook.

SECTION EG
Engineering Guide
Air Distribution
Please refer to the Price Engineer’s HVAC Handbook
for more information on Air Distribution.
Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Space Air Diffusion
Proper selection of air diffusion devices

requires basic knowledge of the mechanics Figure 1: Space air diffusion with overhead cooling
of room air distribution. Figures 1 and 2 Temperature
illustrate the interactions of the major 0
factors influencing room air distribution. RETURN Coanda Effect SUPPLY
AIR DISTRIBUTION ENGINEERING GUIDE
Primary Air
Primary air is defined as the conditioned
Drop
air discharged by the supply outlet. This 6 ft [1.8 m]
Height, ft [m]
air provides the motive force for room air Natural Convection Throw
motion.
Total Air Induced Occupied
Room Air Zone
Total air is defined as the mixture of primary
air and entrained room air which is under
the influence of supply outlet conditions.
This is commonly considered to be the air
within an envelope of 50 fpm [0.25 m/s] (or Primary Air Total Air
greater) velocity.The temperature difference
between the total air and the room air
creates buoyant effects which cause cold
supply air to drop and warm air to rise. Figure 2: Space air diffusion with overhead heating
Throw Temperature
Throw is the distance from the center 0
of the outlet face to a point where the Coanda Effect SUPPLY
velocity of the air stream is reduced to
a specified velocity, usually 150 [0.75],
Height, ft [m]
100 [0.50] or 50 fpm [0.25 m/s] (Figure 3).
6 ft [1.8 m]
T h e s e v e l o c i t i e s a r e r e f e rr e d t o
Natural Convection
as terminal velocity and therefore Stagnant Air

indicated as T150 [T0.75], T100 [T0.50], Occupied
T50 [T0.25] respecti vely. Throw is Induced Zone
primarily a function of mass flow and Room Air
RETURN
outlet velocity and therefore can be

reduced by decreasing either of these
values.
Primary Air Total Air
Drop
The drop of cool total air, as shown in Figure 1,
is the result of vertical spread of the air
stream due to entrainment of room air, Figure 3: Throw/spread
and the buoyancy effect due to the density
differences between the total air package
and the surrounding primary room air. The 10
term density is very important as drop is
primarily dependent upon the mass flow 5
of the total air. Drop can be minimized by 50 fpm
Spread, Feet
spreading air uniformly over the ceiling 22½º

surface, thus reducing the mass flow per 0 Typical 100 fpm
0º
unit surface area. Envelope
22½º
Spread 150 fpm
5
The spread of an outlet is defined as the
divergence of the air stream in a horizontal
or vertical plane and is a function of the 221/2° 10
outlet geometry (Figure 3). Deflection 0 10 20 30 40
Throw, Feet
Surface Effect
Drop can also be effectively reduced by
use of the surrounding ceiling surface. Handbook for a more detailed explanation. occupancy, it is desirable to avoid excessive
When supply air velocity is sufficiently Good air distribution design makes use of draft velocities and temperature differences
high, a negative or low pressure area is room surfaces to help keep the supply air within this space.
created between the moving air mass and outside the occupied zone.
the ceiling at or near the supply air outlet.
This low pressure area causes the moving Occupied Zone
air mass to cling to and flow close to the The occupied zone is usually defined as the
ceiling surface. This principle is known as area within 6 ft [1.8 m] of the floor and not
the Coanda effect. See Chapter 2—Fluid within 1 ft [0.3 m] of the boundaries of the
Mechanics in the Price Engineer's HVAC space (walls, etc.). As this is the area of
EG-2 All Metric dimensions ( ) are soft conversion.

Imperial dimensions are converted to metric and rounded to the nearest millimetre.
© Copyright Price Industries Limited 2011.
Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Space Air Diffusion

Stratification Room air movement is created by its gradual as possible also minimizes radiation heat
Mixing ventilation systems generally supply induction toward the primary and total air transfer potential between the surface
air in a manner such that the entire room streams. It is this constant mixing that and the occupants, resulting in improved
volume is fully mixed. The cool supply air provides the mechanisms for heat transfer comfort response. Note that increasing the
between the supply and room air. When perimeter surface temperature will also
ENGINEERING GUIDE - AIR DISTRIBUTION

exits the outlet at a high velocity, inducing
room air to provide mixing and temperature air movement does not occur (usually as a increase the building heat loss and should
equalization. Since the entire room is fully result of insufficient outlet velocities or poor be considered in the load calculations.
mixed, temperature variations throughout outlet location), a stagnant layer of room Return
the space are small. See the temperature air is formed. Above that layer (or below in
the case of overhead heating), proper heat The return air inlet has very little effect on
gradient curve in Figure 1. This variation in room air diffusion, regardless of inlet type or
room air temperature from floor to ceiling transfer does not exist and temperature
stratification occurs. This is illustrated by location. However, return air inlets should be
is known as stratification. When warm air located a sufficient distance from the supply
is introduced with a ceiling diffuser, some the temperature gradient curves shown in
Figure 2. It is always desirable to keep the outlet so that short-circuiting of supply air
stratification can be expected due to the does not occur. It may also be desirable to
lower density of the warm supply air (see stagnation layer above the occupied zone in
cooling and as near to the floor as possible locate the returns in the stagnant zone to
temperature gradient curve in Figure 2). remove unwanted warm or cool air. For
If the stratification can be limited to occur when heating from above.
cooling, a high sidewall or ceiling return will
above the occupied zone, it is not of concern Convection Currents remove warm air from the space (Figure 1).
from a comfort standpoint. Stratification The total air package can easily be For heating a low sidewall return will remove
in the occupied zone must be limited in influenced by several factors within the warm stagnant air (Figure 2).
accordance with ASHRAE Standard 55. See space. One of these factors that occurs in
Chapter 4—Indoor Environmental Quality exterior zones of buildings is the natural
in the Price Engineer's HVAC Handbook convection currents resulting from a hot
for an explanation of how temperature GREEN TIP
outside wall during cooling (Figure 1) or a
stratification affects comfort. cold outside wall during heating (Figure 2). Location of supply and return outlets
Room Air The upward movement of air in the vicinity to eliminate short circuiting will
of the hot surface tends to oppose the total increase the ventilation effectiveness.
Finally, we come to the medium through
which all metabolic heat transfer occurs air movement in overhead cooling. This
and therefore is the most critical factor in can act to reduce the outlet throw values
controlling human comfort ‑ the room air. or even cause the colder total air to leave
The room air consists of all the other air the ceiling and create drop into the space.
within the space which is not included in The downward movement of cold air in
the total air package. Proper air distribution the vicinity of a cold surface (Figure 2)
attempts to condition the room air to can create cold drafts within the occupied
maintain draft velocities and temperatures space. In the case of overhead heating, the
within the comfort range as defined in only effective way to minimize these drafts
Chapter 4—Indoor Environmental Quality in is to direct a high velocity jet of warm
the Price Engineer's HVAC Handbook. This air over the wall surface to reduce the
velocity of air within the occupied zone is difference between the temperature of the
known as Room Velocity. surface and that of the room air. Maintaining
surface temperatures as close to the space
Selection Fundamentals - Performance Factors
Air Pattern Throw Drop

Air outlets are available with a variety of Throw is, by definition, the distance the air Whenever cool supply air is introduced into
air pattern options. Some ceiling diffusers is projected out from the center of the outlet a warmer space its natural tendency will be
can be selected with either a 1, 2, 3 or 4 face. When discussing throw, we must downward movement.The vertical distance
way horizontal pattern (Figure 4). The reference it to a specific air velocity, which which the air jet extends below the ceiling
layout of the room and available location is called the terminal velocity. Most often, is called the drop (Figure 5). Similar to the
of the diffuser determines which pattern is throw is referenced to terminal velocities throw, we discuss the drop referenced to a
selected. Some ceiling outlets also offer a of 150 [0.75], 100 [0.50] and 50 fpm [0.25 specific terminal velocity. For simplicity we
vertical pattern option for high ceiling or m/s]. These velocities are indicated as use the same three terminal velocities as
heating applications. Plenum slot diffusers T150 [T0.75], T100 [T0.50] and T50 [T0.25] for throw: 150 [0.75], 100 [0.50] and 50 fpm
are often available with 1 or 2 way horizontal respectively. Throw is primarily a function [0.25 m/s]. If the supply air projects into the
as well as vertical air pattern. Sidewall grilles of the air volume being discharged by the occupied space uncomfortable drafts will
can be set for straight or spread pattern, air outlet and the induction rate of the air occur. Drop can be minimized by utilizing the
while linear bar grilles are available in several outlet. The throw can therefore be reduced surface effect of the ceilings. Outlets located
angular pattern options.The performance of by decreasing the air flow from the outlet in or near the ceiling will exhibit less drop
the air outlet and the resultant comfort level or by selecting an air outlet with a high than outlets located on exposed ductwork.
in the space are greatly influenced by the induction rate. Typically, the drop will increase as the air
type of air pattern selected. volume, and subsequently the outlet throw,
is increased. The vertical spread of the air jet
EG-3
© Copyright Price Industries Limited 2011. All Metric dimensions ( ) are soft conversion.
Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Selection Fundamentals - Performance Factors

increases with distance travelled. Reducing
the supply air volume and increasing the Figure 4: Air patterns
supply air temperature will reduce the drop.
One caution regarding reducing air volume
too low is that the air jet may detach from
Plan View Plan View Plan View Plan View
the ceiling and fall into the occupied zone. Plan View Plan View Plan View Plan View
This condition is known as 'dumping' and
should be avoided.
Plan View Plan View Plan View Plan View
Spread
Spread is the horizontal width of the air Diffuser
Diffuser
jet being discharged by the air outlet.
Delivering the air in a spread pattern tends
to reduce both the throw and the drop of an Diffuser
air outlet. As with the throw and drop, the 4 Way 3 Way 2 Way 1 Way
same three terminal velocities are used to 4 Way 3 Way 2 Way 1 Way
discuss spread: 150 [0.75], 100 [0.50] and 50 Plan View Section View Section View Section View
fpm [0.25 m/s]. Dissipating the air stream Plan View Section View Section View Section View
4 Way 3 Way 2 Way 1 Way
over a wider area increases entrainment and
reduces the mass flow per unit surface area
Plan View Section View Section View Section View
(Figure 5).
Pressure Drop
Every air outlet produces a pressure loss
when air is passed through it. The magnitude
of the pressure loss will vary depending Circular Horizontal Vertical Plenum Slot, 2 Way Plenum Slot, 1 Way
on the model, size and geometry of the Circular Horizontal Vertical Plenum Slot, 2 Way Plenum Slot, 1 Way
air outlet, and is measured in in. w.g. [Pa].
Plan View Plan View Section View Section View
Pressure drop will increase proportionally Plan View Plan View SectionSlot,
View SectionSlot,
View
Circular Horizontal Vertical Plenum 2 Way Plenum 1 Way
with air flow. The pressure drop of the air
outlet must be taken into account when
calculating the system pressure when Plan View Plan View Section View Section View
selecting the supply fan.
Noise Level
Typically, the noise level of an air outlet
is rated with a Noise Criteria (NC) sound
pressure value based on an industry Sidewall Straight Sidewall Spread Floor 0° Deflection Floor 30° Deflection
Sidewall Straight Sidewall Spread Floor 0° Deflection Floor 30° Deflection
standard 10 dB default for room absorption.
This NC value assumes an average room
and approximate distance of 5 ft [1.5 m] from Sidewall Straight Sidewall Spread Floor 0° Deflection Floor 30° Deflection
a single source. For a detailed explanation
of the NC rating method see Chapter 7—
Basics of Acoustics in the Price Engineer's
HVAC Handbook.
An air outlet's noise level (NC rating) is
directly proportional to the air volume
supplied through the outlet, with the sound Figure 5: Drop (left), spread (right)
increasing as more air is supplied. Larger
size outlets generally are quieter at the Vertical Cross Section Plan View
same air flow than smaller sizes of the same
model due to higher free area and/or lower
inlet velocity. Outlets should be selected so Angle of Discharge
that the resultant NC level does not exceed
the ASHRAE recommended values for the
particular space being considered.
Terminal
Velocity
Envelope Spread
Drop Throw
Vertical Spread
Throw

Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Air Outlets
An important step in efficient space comfort

conditioning is the proper selection of air Figure 6: Double deflection supply grille Figure 7: Return grille
outlets. This section presents generalized
descriptions and characteristics of the
types of grilles, registers and diffusers com

monly used in commercial air distribution
applications today.
Grilles and Registers
The term grille is commonly applied to any
air outlet or intake that consists of a square
or rectangular face and neck and whose
facial appearance is made up of stationary
or adjustable louvers which may be used to
deflect the air.
A register is simply a grille which incorporates Figure 8: Upward deflection
an integral damper for air volume control.
Supply grilles and registers usually have
adjustable louvers and are available in single
or double deflection models.
The single deflection type includes one
set of blades in the horizontal or vertical
orientation. Air pattern is adjustable in one 20º Upward Deflection
plane only.
The double deflection type includes two
sets of blades in both the horizontal
and vertical orientation (Figure 6), with
air pattern being adjustable in both the Figure 9: Linear bar grille, 1/4 in. Figure 10: Linear bar grille, 1/2 in.
horizontal and vertical planes. Adjustment [6mm] spacing [13 mm] spacing
of the vertical blades provides spread
control of the air pattern, reducing both
throw and drop (Figure 3). Adjustment of
the horizontal blades provides control over
the deflection of the air pattern (Figure 8).
Air can be directed up or down to suit the
application.
Supply grilles or registers are most
commonly mounted in the sidewall within
2 ft [610 mm] of a ceiling. Return grilles or
registers (Figure 7) usually have a fixed
blade or core and can be located in the
sidewall or ceiling. Figure 11: Sidewall application Figure 12: Sidewall application
Linear Bar Grille
The linear bar grille is normally used where
an architectural blend of the grille to its
surroundings is required (Figure 9 and
Figure 10). These grilles may be mounted
in the sidewall, sill or floor, and may be used Sidewall Application Sill Application
for supply or return. Louvers are fixed with 30º Upward Deflection 15º Deflection
1/4 in. [6 mm] or 1/2 in. [13 mm] bar spacing
and 0°, 15° or 30° deflection. See Figure
11 and Figure 12 for mounting examples.
Linear Slot Diffuser
Linear slot diffusers incorporate adjustable
pattern controllers in a multi‑slot configuration. Figure 13: Linear slot diffuser
Slot sizes are available in ½ in. [13 mm],
¾ in. [19 mm] or 1 in. [25 mm] widths with
a choice of one to ten slots. Adjustable
pattern controllers allow horizontal left,
horizontal right or vertical discharge for
maximum flexibility. Typically used in
ceiling installations, the linear slot diffuser is
architecturally appealing, particularly when
supplied in continuous lengths.
EG-5
Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Air Outlets
Round Ceiling Diffuser

Figure 14: Figure 15: Figure 16:
Round ceiling diffusers consist of several
Round ceiling diffuser Square ceiling diffuser Louvered face diffuser
concentric cones suspended below the
ceiling line by an outer cone (Figure 14).
Neck sizes are available from 6 to 36 in.
[152 to 914 mm], allowing a wide range of

air volume selections. Adjustable models
are available to provide either horizontal
or vertical air pattern. The round diffuser’s
excellent horizontal pattern makes it ideal for
variable air volume applications or exposed
duct applications. Due to the availability of Figure 17: Figure 18: Figure 19:
large neck sizes, the round ceiling diffuser Round plaque diffuser Square plaque diffuser Perforated ceiling diffuser
is often used where high flow capacities are
required (e.g. supermarkets, gymnasiums,
halls, industrial applications).
Square Ceiling Diffuser
Square ceiling diffusers consist of several
concentric square cones and a round neck
(Figure 15). Air pattern is a uniform 360°
horizontal pattern which is maintained at
extremely low flows, making it ideal for
variable air volume applications. Sizes are Figure 20: Figure 21: Figure 22:
available to suit standard ceiling modules Round Twist Diffuser Plenum slot diffuser Light troffer diffuser
12 in. x 12 in., 20 in. x 20 in., 24 in. x 24 in.
[300 mm x 300 mm, 500 mm x 500 mm, 600
mm x 600 mm]. Adjustable pattern models
are available for horizontal or vertical air
pattern setting.
Louver Face Diffuser
Louver face diffusers are available with
a square or rectangular face composed
of a fixed modular core (Figure 16). This Perforated Ceiling Diffuser Plenum Slot Diffuser
modular design allows for the selection of 1,
2, 3 or 4 way air pattern. Available neck sizes Perforated ceiling diffusers are available These diffusers consist of a factory
are square or rectangular. In addition to the with a square or rectangular face supplied fabricated plenum with integral pattern
design flexibility, the louver face diffuser is through a round or square neck (Figure controllers for vertical or horizontal air
popular with architects because the louvers 19). Horizontal air pattern is achieved with pattern adjustment. Plenum slot diffusers
do not protrude below the ceiling line. deflection vanes located at the diffuser face are easy to install as they are designed
or in the neck. The vanes can be configured to lay-in on suspended ceiling grids. This
Round Plaque Diffuser to achieve 1, 2, 3 or 4 way air pattern. The feature also provides flexibility for future
Round plaque diffusers consist of a plaque perforated face blends in very well with tenant revisions. Diffusers are available in
mounted inside an outer frame with a round the acoustical tiles of typical suspended lengths ranging from 2 ft to 5 ft [610 mm
inlet (Figure 19). Standard round inlet sizes ceiling systems, and is therefore preferred to 1524 mm] and offer a choice of multiple
are available: 8 in. [203 mm], 10 in. [254 by architects. Perforated return units (both slot widths ranging from 1/2 in. [13 mm] to
mm], 12 in. [305 mm], and 14 in. [356 mm]. ducted and non-ducted) are also available 1½ in. [38 mm].
There are three available field adjustable to match the supply units. Light Troffer Diffuser
plaque positions that allow this diffuser to Radial/Twist Diffusers
go from a fully horizontal throw to a fully Light troffer diffusers are designed to
vertical throw. This adjustability makes this Radial/twist diffusers consist of a circular integrate with commercially available
diffuser ideal for VAV as well as cooling and or square face with multiple air vanes, light fixtures in suspended ceiling systems
heating applications. The horizontal pattern either fixed or adjustable, and a round (Figure 22).The troffer consists of a plenum
is discharged in a 360° circular pattern. neck. Diffusers produce a horizontal or section, air slot and pattern controller.
vertical twisting pattern for rapid mixing of Troffers are available as single- or double-
Square Plaque Diffusers the room air in heating or cooling modes. sided (saddle) units. Light troffer diffusers
Square plaque diffusers are comprised of A distribution plenum or the outer cone produce an excellent horizontal air pattern,
a square plaque situated in a backpan with can be connected directly to a round duct. ideal for VAV applications. This is also the
a round inlet (Figure 18). The air pattern Diffusers can be installed in a T-bar ceiling most efficient diffuser in terms of producing
produced is a uniform 360° circular pattern or exposed mounted to the ductwork. optimum comfort conditions. Since the air
which is maintained even at very low Adjustable air patterns can be manually, slot is very narrow and integrated with the
velocities, making it ideally suited for VAV thermally or electronically controlled light fixture, it is also appealing from an
systems. Sizes are available to suit standard depending on a room thermostat signal. architectural standpoint.
ceiling modules: 12 in. x 12 in., 20 in. x 20 Models are available for both commercial
in., 24 in. x 24 in. [300 mm x 300 mm, 500 and industrial applications.
mm x 500 mm, 600 x 600 mm]. Panels are
also available to fit in different grid sizes.

Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Selection Procedures
Throw
Figure 23: Throw of outlet
Achieving the proper throw for a specific application is critical to
proper outlet selection.Throw data is usually presented at terminal
velocities of 150 [0.75], 100 [0.50] and 50 fpm [0.25 m/s]. Generally
Throw = A + B

outlets should be selected so that the throw at 50 fpm [0.25 m/s]
terminal velocity equals the distance from the outlet to the boundary
of the conditioned space. In most cases this criteria will produce B
acceptable results.
A
When an air stream strikes a surface it tends to spread and follow
the surface until the velocity dissipates. The total horizontal and
vertical distance travelled by the air stream is equal to the tabulated Occupied Zone
throw of the outlet (Figure 23). For high ceiling applications it may
be desirable for the throw to exceed the space boundary (ceiling)
and travel down the wall toward the occupied zone. However,
penetration of the occupied zone should usually be avoided.
In addition to physical boundaries created by walls or partitions,
boundaries can be created by the collision of two air patterns
(Figure 24). Where two patterns will meet, the outlets should be Figure 24: Boundaries created by two air patterns
selected so that the throw is equal to one half the distance between
the outlets. For high ceiling applications it may be desirable for
the throw to travel downward toward the occupied zone. Throw
is again equal to the horizontal and vertical distance travelled by
the air stream. B
It should be noted that most catalog throw data is presented for
isothermal conditions (i.e., supply air temperature equals room A
temperature). During cooling the denser supply air will shorten the
horizontal throw to approximately 75% of tabulated values (multiply Occupied Zone
by 0.75), assuming a temperature differential of approximately
15 °F [7.5 °C].
The cataloged throw data for most diffusers and grilles is developed
with the outlet mounted in or adjacent to a ceiling. The ceiling or
Coanda effect allows the supply air jet to be in contact with the
ceiling longer, reducing induction of room air and consequently
resulting in a longer throw than if the outlet was mounted in free Figure 25: Ceiling diffuser free space mounting
space. If an air outlet is mounted in free space or more than 2 ft [610
mm] from a surface, the cataloged throw data should be reduced by
approximately 30% (multiply by 0.70) (Figure 25 and Figure 26). Suspended Ceiling
When selecting outlets for VAV application, both minimum and

Greater than
maximum air quantities must be considered for throw. Although 2 ft [610 mm]
many models of outlets provide excellent horizontal air pattern at
extremely low flows, throws may be reduced below acceptable
limits.
In many applications it is desirable to limit the throw due to ceiling
layout, walls, partitions or other boundaries which may obstruct
the air pattern and cause unacceptable velocities in the occupied
zone. There are several methods which may be used to minimize
throw from outlets, including spreading the air pattern, reducing
air volume per inlet and selecting the appropriate air pattern.
More information on these methods will be presented on the
following pages.
Figure 26: Sidewall outlet free space mounting
PRODUCT TIP Suspended Ceiling
Slot diffusers and light troffer diffusers tend to maintain

Greater than
reasonable throws at low air volumes, and are therefore 18 in [457 mm]
a good choice for VAV applications.
EG-7
Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Spread
Figure 27: Plan view of spread vs. throw
Spreading the air pattern dissipates the air stream over a wider
area and increases entrainment. This reduces the mass flow per 0°Deflection
unit surface area, which in turn reduces throw. Some outlets are 22.5°Deflection
designed to produce a spread pattern due to their geometry, while
others such as supply grilles have adjustable vanes (Figure 27). 45°Deflection
Spreading the air is an effective way of reducing throw to avoid air
pattern collisions with boundaries or other air jets. 8 ft [2.4 m]
14 ft [4.3 m]
15 ft [4.6 m]
PRODUCT TIP
modelsof of
Some models plenum
plenum slot diffusers
slot diffusers andslot
and linear linear slot
plenums
plenums
are are constructed
constructed with ashoulder
with a sloped sloped shoulder
plenum.plenum. The
The sloped
sloped plenum
plenum createscreates a natural
a natural spreading
spreading of of theair
the air pattern,
pattern,
substantially reducing the throw.
Figure 28: Continuous grille
PRODUCT TIP
Louvered face supply grilles with adjustable blades provide a
measure of flexibility for the designer and building operator
as the throw and spread of the outlet can be field adjusted
Throw
to account for changes in air volume, occupancy or ceiling
layout.
Air Volume
Throw is directly related to mass flow, therefore a reduction
in air volume per outlet will reduce the throw. This can be
achieved by utilizing more outlets with less air volume Figure 29: Active and inactive sections
per outlet. For linear diffusers or grilles, the same thing
can be achieved by dividing the outlet into active and
inactive sections (Figure 29). Each active section handles
a smaller quantity of air, thereby reducing the throw. In order to
effectively separate the air pattern, the outlet should be divided by Throw
minimum inactive length (Table 1).
Air Pattern
The outlet air pattern has a large influence on the throw. 1 way
patterns tend to have the longest throw, while 4 way or round
patterns have the shortest. The diffuser model will also affect the Active/Inactive Sections
throw. SeeTable 2 for a comparison of ceiling diffuser throw at equal
air volume for various diffuser models and air patterns. The layout
of the ceiling and availability of installation location will determine
the optimum air pattern for the application.
Mapping Table 1: Plan view of active and inactive sections
One method of selecting outlets based on throw is known as 10 [3]
Length of Active Sections, ft [m] 1 [0.3] 5 [1.5]
'mapping.' The cataloged throw is referenced and corrected for
cooling if conditioned air is supplied.The corrected throw is plotted Length of Inactive Sections, ft [m] 1 [0.3] 2 [0.6] 3 [0.9]
on the reflected ceiling plan and checked for interference with
obstructions, walls or other air jets. Table 2: Ceiling DiffuserThrow Comparison - 24 in. x 24 in. module
[610 mm x 610 mm], 380 cfm, 700 fpm neck velocity, isothermal
conditions, 50 fpm [0.25 m/s] terminal velocity
Diffuser Type Throw Distance, ft [m]

Square Cone 10 [3.0]
Round Cone 9 [2.7]
Perforated 4 way 14 [4.3]
Perforated 1 way 33 [10.1]
Modular Core 4 way 24 [7.3]
Modular Core 1 way 36 [11]

Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Example 1
A Model 520 size 6 in. x 5 in. supply grille operating at 150 cfm has been selected to supply a 10 ft x 15 ft room as illustrated in Figure 27.
What is the best deflection setting of the diffuser blades if conditioned cool air is supplied?

9 ft 10 ft
Supply Grille
SMALL OFFICE
15 ft
Referring to the catalog page we determine the 50 fpm throw to be :

0° deflection - 22 ft isothermal or (22 x .75) = 17 ft cooling
As seen from the pattern diagrams in Figure 25, the 22° deflection provides the best coverage and would be the optimum selection.
Table 3: Model 520 series, 6 in. x 5 in. supply grille performance data
Performance Data - Model 520 Series, 6 in. x 5 in. Supply Grille

NC 20 30
Core Velocity, fpm 500 600 700 800 1000 1200
Velocity Pressure .016 .022 .030 .040 .062 .090
0 .038 .052 .071 0.94 .146 .212
Size Total Pressure 22½ .045 .063 .085 .114 .176 .256
45 .067 .093 .0126 .168 .261 .379
cfm 75 90 105 120 150 180
Ac = NC - - 15 19 26 31
0.15 ft2
0 7-10-16 8-12-17 9-13-19 11-14-20 13-16-22 14-17-24
7x4
6x5 Throw, ft 22½ 6-8-13 6-10-14 7-10-15 9-11-16 10-13-18 11-14-19
45 3-5-8 4-6-9 5-7-9 5-7-10 6-8-11 7-9-12
EG-9
Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
ADPI Figure 30: Comfort criteria - draft temperature

Extensive studies have resulted in
relationships between local temperatures,
velocities and comfort reactions. On the Local Air Temp. - Ambient Temp., ˚F (T - Tc)˚C
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
basis of the temperature and velocity at a

specific point, an effective draft temperature 80 0.04
can be calculated for that location. The draft
temperature is calculated by the equation:
70 0.35
ϴed = (Tx - Tc ) - 8(Vx - 0.15) Eq.1
60 0.30
where:
ϴ 50 0.25
Velocity, fpm
Velocity, m/s
= draft temperature
-3
2
0
= local temperature
ɵ=
ɵ=
Tx
ɵ=
40 0.20
Tc = control temperature
Vx = local velocity 30 0.15
Research indicates that a high percentage of
people are comfortable when the effective
20 0.10
draft temperature difference is between -3 °F
[-2 °C] and +2 °F [+1 °C] and the air velocity 10 0.05
is less than 70 fpm [0.36 m/s]. This comfort
zone is illustrated as the shaded area in 0 0
Figure 30. -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Using this draft temperature as our criteria,
Local Air Temp. - Ambient Temp., ˚F (T - Tc)˚F
the quality of room air diffusion can be
determined based on the Air Diffusion
Performance Index (ADPI). ADPI is defined
as the percentage of locations in the Table 4: Characteristic length for various diffuser types
occupied space which meet the comfort
criteria based on velocity and temperature
measurements taken at a given number Diffuser Type Characteristic Length, L
of uniformly distributed points. This ADPI
value has proven to be a valid measure of
an air diffusion system. High Sidewall Grille Distance to wall perpendicular to jet
The ADPI rating of an air diffusion system
depends on a number of factors: Circular Ceiling Diffuser Distance to closest wall or intersecting air jet
• Outlet type
• Room dimensions and diffuser layout
Sill Grille Length of room in the direction of the jet flow
• Room load
• Outlet throw
When properly selected, most outlets can Ceiling Slot Diffuser Distance to wall or midplane between outlets
achieve an acceptable ADPI rating.
The higher the ADPI rating, the higher the Distance to midplane between outlets, plus
quality of room air diffusion within the Light Troffer Diffusers
distance from ceiling to top of occupied zone
space. Generally an ADPI of 80 is considered
acceptable. Perforated, Louvered Ceiling
Distance to wall or midplane between outlets
Through extensive testing, relationships Diffusers
have been developed between ADPI
and the ratio of throw over characteristic
It should be noted that Table 4 is based on a standard 9 ft [2.7 m] ceiling height. For rooms
length (T/L). Throw is the isothermal
with ceiling heights lower or higher, the characteristic length should be corrected down
throw at a selected terminal velocity taken
or up by the difference from 9 ft [2.7 m].
from catalog performance charts. The
characteristic length is the distance from For example, a 20 ft [6.1 m] long room with a 12 ft [3.7 m] ceiling height and high sidewall
the outlet to the nearest boundary. Table grille:
4 provides definition of characteristic length Distance from grille to perpendicular wall = 20 ft [6.1 m], height correction: 12 - 9 = 3 ft
for various outlet types. See Figure 31 for (3.7 - 2.7 = 1 m] , characteristic length: 20 + 3 = 23 ft [6.1 + 1 = 7.1 m].
further clarification.
Note that the ADPI is applicable only for cooling mode conditions and can be field or lab
measured using the test method described in ASHRAE Standard 113.

Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Heating mode conditions can be evaluated

using ASHRAE Standard 55 guidelines and Figure 31: Characteristic length illustration
the test method of ASHRAE Standard 113.
Table 5 illustrates the range of T/L values

which will result in optimum ADPI values for
various outlet types at several room loads.
By selecting a throw from the catalog data L L L L
which produces the required T/L ratios, an L
acceptable ADPI rating can be achieved.
By studying Table 5, we can make several
observations which are valuable to consider High Sidewall Grill Ceiling and Slot Diffusers
when selecting air outlets for maximum
ADPI:
1. Generally, the higher the room load,
the more difficult it is to achieve a high
ADPI.
2. A value of T/L = 1.0 generally will L L
L
produce an acceptable ADPI.
3. Some air outlets are better than others at
achieving high ADPI values. For example,
Occupied Zone
a sidewall grille has a maximum ADPI value
Sill Grill Light Troffer Diffusers
of 85, while the circular ceiling diffuser
can achieve an ADPI value of 93.
4. A wideT/L range allows the designer more
flexibility in selecting the air outlet for
optimum ADPI. Table 5: Air diffusion performance index (ADPI) selection guide
5. Outlets with a wide T/L range are more
applicable to VAV systems as they T0.25/L ADPI
Room Load Max. Range of
can maintain a high ADPI even when Terminal Device for Max. Greater
W/m2 ADPI T0.25/L
turned down to low air volume. At 20 ADPI Than
Btu/h/ft2 [63 W/m2] a ceiling slot diffuser 250 1.8 68 - -
has a turn-down ratio of 20% while 190 1.8 72 70 1.5 to 2.2
maintaining an ADPI of greater than 80.
High Sidewall Grilles 125 1.6 78 70 1.2 to 2.3
At the same condition the high sidewall
grille has a turn-down ratio of approximately 65 1.5 85 80 1.0 to 1.9
50%. Light troffer diffusers have the largest < 30 1.4 90 80 0.7 to 2.1
T/L range of all outlets, making them an 250 0.8 76 70 0.7 to 1.3
excellent choice for VAV applications. 190 0.8 83 80 0.7 to 1.2
Circular Ceiling
125 0.8 88 80 0.5 to 1.5
Diffusers*
ALL-IN-ONE TIP 65 0.8 93 80 0.4 to 1.7
< 30 0.8 99 80 0.4 to 1.7
Price All-In-One selection software
includes an ADPI calculation tool for 250 1.7 61 60 1.5 to 1.7
automated calculation of ADPI for Sill Grille 190 1.7 72 70 1.4 to 1.7
all outlet models. Straight Vanes 125 1.3 86 80 1.2 to 1.8
65 0.9 95 90 0.8 to 1.3
250 0.7 94 90 0.6 to 1.5
Sill Grille 190 0.7 94 80 0.6 to 1.7
PRODUCT TIP Spread Vanes 125 0.7 94 - -
Although not fully supported by 65 0.7 94 - -
research it is generally accepted 250 0.3 85 80 0.3 to 0.7
that a high ADPI rating will produce Ceiling Slot Diffusers 190 0.3 88 80 0.3 to 0.8
a correspondingly high ventilation
(for T100/L) 125 0.3 91 80 0.3 to 1.1
effectiveness, (i.e. approaching 1.0).
If the supply air is well mixed and 65 0.3 92 80 0.3 to 1.5
evenly distributed in the space, 190 2.5 86 80 < 3.8
then any contaminants will also Light Troffer Diffusers 125 1.0 92 90 < 3.0
be evenly distributed, providing 65 1.0 95 90 < 4.5
maximum indoor air quality.
Perforated & Louvered 35 to 160 2.0 96 90 1.4 to 2.7
Ceiling Diffusers 35 to 160 2.0 96 80 1.0 to 3.4
*Includes square cone diffusers and square plaque diffusers
EG-11
Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
VAV Applications
Figure 32: Ceiling diffuser
When selecting air outlets forVAV applications it is important to analyze
the ADPI at both the maximum and reduced flow conditions. For
most outlets the throw, and consequently the T/L ratio, drops off as SPi
the air flow through the diffuser is decreased. If the T/L ratio drops
too low ADPI can be compromised. Selecting an outlet for high VPi
ADPI at maximum flow does not ensure acceptable air distribution
in the space when the load is reduced. Since ADPI is a measure of
the air diffusion quality in the space, we are not concerned with
the ADPI value when the space is unoccupied with the air outlet
at minimum volume. We should, however, review the selection at
low load conditions, such as when occupancy is reduced and/or
external loads are at minimum.
Refer to Chapter 9—Mixing Ventilation in the Price Engineer's HVAC
Handbook for examples that provide a step-by-step procedure for
selection of air outlets using ADPI.
Pressure Drop
Supply air outlets produce both a static pressure loss and a velocity Figure 33: Slot diffuser
pressure loss. The static pressure loss is equal to the difference
between the inlet static pressure (SPi) and the room pressure
(usually atmospheric). The static pressure loss is dependent on
outlet geometry and/or free area and must be derived by test. Static SPi
pressure loss is directly proportional to the volume of air supplied VPi
through the outlet. The velocity pressure loss is equal to the velocity
pressure at the inlet (VPi) and the room velocity pressure (zero).
See Figure 32 and Figure 33.
The inlet velocity, and subsequently the velocity pressure loss, can
be calculated from equations 2 and 3. The total pressure loss of an
outlet is equal to the sum of the static and velocity pressure losses
(equation 4).
Most catalog data lists the total pressure loss for a given air volume.
If velocity pressure is provided, the static pressure can be derived
from equation 4; however, if velocity pressure is not provided, it
can be calculated based on the inlet velocity. For ceiling diffusers
and plenum slot diffusers the inlet velocity is based on the inlet
area. For sidewall grilles and registers the inlet velocity is based
on the grille core area.
Velocity Eq.2
Velocity Pressure Eq.3
Total Pressure Eq.4

Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Example 2
A model SDB 100 2 slot, 60 in. diffuser with Table 6: Model SDB 100, 2-slot, 60 in. diffuser - 8 in. round inlet performance data
8 in. round inlet is selected for 280 cfm. What
is the pressure loss? Performance Data - Model SDB 100, 2-slot, 60 in. diffuser - 8 in. Round Inlet
From Table 6 performance data, the total
Capacity, cfm 160 190 220 250 280 310

pressure = 0.122 in. w.g. at 280 cfm.
Projection, ft H 7-14-20 11-15-22 13-16-23 14-17-24 15-19-26 16-19-27
Neck Area Eq.5 36 in.
V 17 19 21 23 24 25
(6 in.
Tp 0.122 0.171 0.229 0.293 0.368 0.452
Inlet)
NC 24 29 34 37 41 44
Projection, ft H 5-13-20 7-16-23 10-17-24 12-18-26 16-19-28 17-20-29
48 in.
V 17 19 22 23 24 26
Neck Velocity Eq.6 (7 in.
Tp 0.060 0.087 0.114 0.150 0.188 0.228
Inlet)
NC - - 23 27 30 33
Projection, ft H 4-9-20 5-14-22 7-17-23 9-18-25 10-20-26 13-20-29
Velocity Pressure Eq.7 60 in. V 14 17 20 22 23 25
(8 in.
Tp 0.040 0.055 0.076 0.098 0.122 0.149
Inlet)
NC - - - 21 24 27
Static Pressure Eq.8
EG-13
Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Noise Criteria Table 7: Diffuser sound comparison - 24 in. x 24 in. module [610 mm x 610 mm], 380 cfm
The first step in selection of an air outlet [180 L/s], 700 fpm [3.6 m/s] neck velocity
is defining the actual model type. A Diffuser Type NC Level
large variety of outlet styles, shapes and
configurations are available. In many cases Square Cone 17
the outlet model selection is based on Square Plaque 18

architectural or economic considerations. Round Cone 22
This decision on outlet type or model
Modular Core 26
has significant influence on the resultant
noise levels of the application since noise Perforated Curved Vane 28
generation of air outlets depends on Louvered Face 31
their design and geometry. Outlets with Perforated Face Deflector 33
aerodynamic components and high free
area will generally have lower noise levels Perforated Neck Deflector 37
at the same air flow.
Table 8: Plenum slot diffuser sound comparison - 1 in. slot, 4 ft [1.2 m], 270 cfm [127 L/s],
Table 7 lists the NC level for several ceiling 8 in. [203 mm] neck, 800 fpm [4.1 m/s] neck velocity
diffusers at the same air volume and neck
velocity. The resultant NC level varies from Diffuser Type NC Level
a barely perceptible NC 17 for the square Linear Slot 31
cone to a marginally acceptable NC 37 for Linear Fixed Curved 36
the PDN. The table illustrates several points
to consider when selecting air outlets. Linear Ice Tong 39
Linear Wiper Blade 46
1. The square plaque and square cone
diffuser are an excellent choice for
acoustically sensitive applications or
when high air volumes per outlet are
desired. This is due to the aerodynamic
cones and high free area.
2. Perforated diffusers tend to be noisier than
other available models at the same air
volume. This is due to the restricted free
area of the perforated face and pattern
deflectors in the air stream.
3. There is a fairly large variation in generated
noise levels, even between various
perforated diffuser types. The curved
pattern controllers of the perforated curved
diffuser generates less sound than the
less aerodynamic neck deflectors of the
perforated neck deflector diffuser.
4. Selecting outlets based on neck
velocity is a poor indication of acoustic
performance.
5. To ensure predictable sound levels it is
essential to reference the manufacturers’
cataloged sound levels for the specified
product.
Table 8 illustrates a similar noise level
comparison for several models of plenum
slot diffusers selected at the same
conditions. Again, a wide range of acoustic
performance is seen as a result of the
diffuser design. The linear slot diffuser can
be seen as the obvious choice for high
capacity, noise-sensitive applications.

Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Guidelines to Minimize Noise in an Air Table 9: Design guidelines for HVAC system noise in unoccupied spaces
Distribution System
• Size the ductwork and duct elements for Room Types RC / NC
low air velocity. Private Residences 25-35

• Avoid abrupt changes in duct cross- Hotels/Motels
sectional area or direction. Individual rooms or suites 25-35
• Provide smooth air flow at Meeting/banquet rooms 25-35
all duct elements, including Corridors, lobbies 35-45
branches, elbows, transitions Service/support areas 35-45
and air outlets.
Office Buildings
• When flexible duct is used it should be
Executive and private offices 25-35
pulled taught and installed as straight as
possible. Conference rooms 25-35
• Provide straight ductwork (preferably Teleconference rooms < 25
five to ten duct diameters) between duct Open-plan offices < 40
elements. - With sound masking < 35
• Use equalizing grids when non ideal Corridors and lobbies 40-45
inlets cannot be avoided. Hospitals and Clinics
• Balance the duct system for lowest Private rooms 25-35
reasonable fan speed with dampers Wards 30-40
generally open. Operating rooms 25-35
• Locate volume control dampers a Corridors and public areas 30-45
minimum of three (preferably five
Performing Arts Spaces c
to ten) duct diameters away from air
outlets. Drama theaters 25
Selection Procedure Music teaching studios 25
Table 9 illustrates the ASHRAE recommended Music practice rooms 30-35
space NC values for many commercial air Schools d
conditioning applications. Outlets should be Classrooms 25-30
selected so that the tabulated NC levels are
Large lecture rooms 25-30
within these design goals.
Large lecture rooms, without speech amplification 25
Refer to Chapter 9—Mixing Ventilation in the
Laboratories (with Fume Hoods)
Price Engineer's HVAC Handbook for noise
selection procedures and examples. Testing/research, minimal speech communication 45-55
Research, extensive telephone use, speech communication 40-50
Group teaching 35-45
Church, Mosque, Synagogue
General assembly 25-35
With critical music programs c
Libraries 30-40
Courtrooms
Un-amplified speech 25-35
Amplified speech 30-40
Indoor Stadiums, Gymnasiums
Gymnasiums and natatoriumse 40-50
Large seating-capacity spaces with speech amplificatione 45-55
a The values and ranges are based on judgment and experience, not quantitative evaluations of human reactions.
They represent general limits of acceptability for typical building occupancies. Higher or lower values may be
appropriate and should be based on a careful analysis of economics, space use and user needs.
b When quality of sound in the space is important, specify criteria in terms of RC(N). If the quality of the sound in
the space is of secondary concern, the criteria may be specified in terms of NC or NCB levels of similar magnitude.
c Anexperienced acoustical consultant should be retained for guidance on acoustically critical spaces (below
RC 30) and for all performing arts spaces.
d Some educators and others believe that HVAC-related sound criteria for schools, as listed in previous editions
of this table, are too high and impede learning for affected groups of all ages. See ANSI Standard S12.60-2002
for classroom acoustics and a justification for lower sound criteria in schools. The HVAC component of total
noise meets the background noise requirement of that standard if HVAC-related background sound is RC 25(N).
e RC or NC criteria for these spaces need only be selected for the desired speech.
Reference • 2007 ASHRAE Applications Handbook, Table 42, page 47.34
• AHRI Standard 885-2008, Table 15, page 31
EG-15
Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Low Temperature Systems
Description
Figure 34: Low temperature air outlets
Low temperature air distribution systems
Linear Outlet Swirl Outlet
typically supply conditioned air at nominal
temperatures of between 42 °F [6 °C] and
47 °F [8 °C], as compared to conventional
systems which supply air at temperatures

between 55 °F [13 °C] and 59 °F [15 °C]. Low
temperature air distribution systems have
been applied mainly in conjunction with ice
storage systems to take advantage of the
low temperature chilled water produced by
these systems.
Ice storage systems have been applied Supply Air Induced Room Air
to reduce electrical demand during peak
periods. Electric chillers are used to freeze
water at night when utility rates are low. Figure 35: Variable volume supply with low temperature air outlets
During the day the ice is used to cool the
building, reducing operation of the electric
chiller during peak periods. Electric utilities 44
in some areas also offer incentives to owners
installing ice storage systems.
Design Considerations
11
Several design considerations must be yA
ir
taken into account when considering a low ppl
Su
temperature air distribution system. Some
common concerns include condensation, 33
comfort and indoor air quality. 22 55
Low Temperature Air Outlets
If low temperature air is to be supplied
directly to the space, supply air outlets
Cold Primary Air
6
6
must be designed and tested to provide

good mixing and maintain a horizontal air
pattern at low flow conditions. In addition,
the diffuser must be properly insulated
and sealed to prevent condensation from
forming on the diffuser surface. 1. LowTemperature Perforated Face Diffuser 5. Low Temperature Square Plaque Diffuser
• Induction chamber aids rapid mixing • Induction chamber aids rapid mixing
Low temperature air outlets have been
of low temperature air. of low temperature air.
developed specifically for the supply of
low temperature air. All outlets feature • Aerodynamic shape of backpan • Flush face of plaque provides architectural
high induction jets which rapidly mix supply ensures excellent horizontal air pattern. appeal.
and room air as well as maintain a good • Perforated face blends well with • Factory insulated and sealed to prevent
horizontal air pattern at low flow conditions. suspended ceiling tiles. condensation.
These features ensure comfort conditions • Factory insulated and sealed to prevent • Aerodynamic shape of backpan
are provided in the space. condensation. ensures excellent horizontal air pattern.
When supplying low temperature air 2. Hot Water Coil 6. Low Temperature Radial Vane Diffuser
directly to the space, the terminal unit and • Factory insulated and sealed with • High induction vortex air pattern provides
accessories such as reheat coils, attenuators, external foil faced insulation to prevent rapid mixing of low temperature air.
etc., must also be specifically constructed to condensation. • Factory insulated and sealed to prevent
prevent condensation.
• Available with insulated access door. condensation.
Variable Volume Supply with Low • One or two row coils available.
Temperature Air Outlets
3. Single Duct Terminal with Low PRODUCT TIP
Some manufacturers have developed Temperature Supply Option
various air distribution components which Low temperature outlets are available
• Factory insulated and sealed to prevent with cataloged performance data
can provide a supply of low temperature air
condensation. at reduced supply air temperature,
to the space while maintaining comfortable
conditions under variable air volume • Isolated and insulated inlet duct foil ensuring proper selection.
operation. faced internal insulation.
Figure 35 presents various low temperature 4. Low Temperature Linear Diffuser
PRODUCT TIP
diffuser options utilized in conjunction with • Induction chamber aids rapid mixing
a single duct VAV reheat terminal designed of low temperature air. Low temperature construction for
for low temperature operation. • 1 or 2 way horizontal air pattern. single duct terminals include internal
vapor barrier, thermally isolated inlet
• Factory insulated and sealed to prevent valves and insulated inlet collar.
condensation.

Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Industrial Ventilation
The purpose of an industrial ventilation

system is to reduce the exposure to excess Figure 36: Figure 37: Drum louver Figure 38: Nozzle
heat and contaminants generated in an Industrial supply grille
industrial environment. The most effective
method of removing excess heat and

contaminants is at the source with a local
exhaust system. Another method is dilution
with general ventilation by either a fan
system, natural draft or a combination of
the two. In some cases cooling is required to
maintain acceptable space conditions, either
for people or processes. Many industrial Figure 39: Figure 40:
applications require a combination of local Industrial return grille Security grille
exhaust, general ventilation supply and
general exhaust to handle simultaneous
removal of heat and contaminants. This
section will focus on general ventilation
supply air systems.
Air Supply Methods
Similar to commercial spaces, there are
several methods of supplying air to an
industrial space. The following are the most
common: single or double deflection; however, the aluminum with welded frame. Options
Mixing Air Distribution louvers are deeper (up to 3 in. [76 mm]) include stainless steel construction and heavy
Supply air exits the outlet at a high velocity, and spaced wider. The deeper louver is duty balancing damper (Figure 39).
inducing room air to provide mixing and stronger and more effective for pattern Security Grilles
temperature equalization before the air jet deflection. Construction is generally
extruded aluminum louvers and heavy Due to their heavy duty construction, security
reaches the occupied zone. Since the air jet grilles are a good option for severe industrial
induces the surrounding air, the contaminant duty aluminum or steel frame. The heavy
duty construction of the industrial supply environments in addition to institutional
concentration in the space is diluted. applications (Figure 40).
grilles and registers withstands frequent
Displacement Ventilation adjustment, high velocity and air volumes, Construction Features
Introduces air into the space at low velocities, turbulent supply air, and contaminants in the When selecting outlets for industrial
which causes minimal induction and mixing. air stream. Options include gang operators, applications there are several construction
Displacement outlets may be located almost quick-release trunk latch frame and heavy and functional features to consider. Supply
anywhere within the space, but have been duty balancing damper (Figure 36). grilles or nozzles should include a means
traditionally located at or near floor level.The Drum Louver of adjusting the direction of air flow to
system utilizes buoyancy forces generated facilitate changes to the work area layout
by heat sources such as people or processes Drum louvers consist of adjustable vanes
mounted in a rotating drum which is or changes due to seasonal variations. On
to remove contaminants and heat from the multi-blade grilles a gang operator option
occupied zone. See Volume 4, Section J for adjustable up or down to provide directional
control of the air pattern.The deep adjustable simplifies blade adjustment. Often the air
Displacement Ventilation Outlets. outlets are subjected to high velocities and
vanes can be used to achieve varying
Localized Ventilation amounts of spread pattern. The depth of turbulent flow conditions. Vibration of the
Introduces the air directly to a specific area of the drum and vanes produces a long air ductwork due to close coupled fans or other
a space or toward the breathing zone of an projection and high degree of directional equipment can also be present. To prevent
occupant to provide comfort conditions and/or control. Construction can be heavy gauge grille blades or the nozzle drum from moving
control of contaminants.The close proximity of steel or extruded aluminum. Options include under the influence of these conditions, a
the outlet to the source prevents entrainment pole operator bracket, motorized drum and locking mechanism is recommended.
of contaminants, providing a much cleaner heavy duty balancing damper (Figure 37). Other options to consider are:
work area than the surrounding space. Nozzle • Quick-release fastening frame for easy
Unidirectional or Plug Flow Similar to the drum louver, the nozzle removal and replacement for cleaning
Introduces non turbulent or laminar supply achieves a very long air projection due to • Filter frame for return grilles
air to the space to control contaminants and its depth and geometry. Generally round in • Stainless steel construction for corrosive
obtain a high level of cleanliness. shape, nozzles are available in a variety of environments
Air Outlets models including adjustable versions which • Heavy duty industrial grade balancing
allow directional control of the air pattern.
Due to the unique and extreme conditions dampers with locking mechanism
Construction can be steel or aluminum.
experienced in the industrial environment, Options include motorized direction control • Heavy duty gym grilles or security
specific air outlet models have been and twist elements for throw and spread grilles for return applications to prevent
developed for this application. Several are adjustment (Figure 38). damage in low areas
presented below:
Industrial Return Grilles or Registers Air Outlet Selection
Industrial Supply Grilles and Registers
Grilles or registers have fixed blades of Refer to Chapter 9—Mixing Ventilation in the
Similar to commercial models, the grille various deflection and blade spacing and are Price Engineer's HVAC Handbook for Industrial
or register has adjustable louvers in constructed of heavy gauge steel or extruded Outlet selection procedures and examples.
EG-17
Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
Conversion Factors
Item To Convert From To SI Units Multiply By

Imperial Units
Length inches millimetres mm 25.4
inches metres m 0.0254
feet metres m 0.3048

Area square inches square millimetres mm2 645.16
square inches square centimetres cm2 6.4516
square inches square metres m2 0.000 645 16
square feet square metres m2 0.092 903 04
Volume — Air std. cubic feet per minute cubic metres per second m3/s 0.000 471 947
Flow std. cubic feet per minute cubic metres per hour m3/h 1.699
std. cubic feet per minute litres per second L/s 0.471 947
Under 1m3/s use L/s
Volume — Liquid gallon (Can.) litre L 4.546 090
& Liquid Flow gallon (U.S.) liter L 3.785 412
gallons per minute (Can.) litre per second L/s 0.075 768
gallons per minute (U.S.) liter per second L/s 0.063 09
gallons per hour (Can.) litre per second L/s 0.001 263
gallons per hour (U.S.) liter per second L/s 0.001 051
Velocity feet per second metres per second m/s 0.3048
feet per minute metres per second m/s 0.005 080
Pressure inches of water (60 °F) pascal (20 °C) Pa 248.84
foot of water (39.2 °F) pascal (20 °C) Pa 2 988.98
inches of mercury (60 °F) pascal Pa 3 376.85
lb force per square inch (psi) pascal Pa 6 894.757
lb force per square foot pascal Pa 48.880 26
Energy btu joule J 1 055.056
Power Horsepower watt W 746
kilowatts KW 0.746
Temperature Rankin kelvin K 5/9
(see next page) Fahrenheit Celsius, Centigrade C (F-32) (5/9)
Heat flow rate btu per hour watt W 0.293 071
kilowatt KW 0.000 293 071
Weight ounce gram g 28.350
pound kilogram kg 0.4536
Density pounds per kilograms per kg/m3
16.018
cubic foot cubic meter kg/m3
Temperature Example The conversion data presented in this

1. To convert from degree Fahrenheit to A) Grilles & Registers catalog is based on the following reference
standards:
degree Celsius, subtract 32 and divide Price 20 in. x 4 in. 22/C/S at 550 cfm,
by 1.8. 0.156 in. w.g. total pressure, core 1. National Standard of Canada, “Metric
2. To convert from degree Celsius to degree velocity = 1200 fpm will be described in Practice Guide" CAN3-Z234. 1-76
Fahrenheit, multiply by 1.8 and add 32. SI units as follows: (Canadian Standards Association, 178
3. To convert from degree Fahrenheit to Price 508 mm x 102 mm, 22/C/S at 275 Rexdale Boulevard, Rexdale, Ontario
Kelvin, add 459.67 and divide by 1.8. L/s. 39 Pa total pressure, core velocity M9N 1R3).
4. To convert from Kelvin to degree = 6 m/s. 2. “ASHRAE SI Metric Guide for Heating,
Fahrenheit, multiply by 1.8 and subtract B) Diffusers Refrigerating, Ventilating, and Air
459.67. Conditioning” (ASHRAE Inc., 1791 Tullie
Price 24 in. x 24 in., 10 in. round inlet
Circle, NE, Atlanta, Georgia, 30329.
5. To convert from degree Celsius to Kelvin, SCD at 490 cfm, .098 in. w.g. total
add 273.15. pressure neck velocity = 900 fpm will be 3. “Supplementary Metric Practice Guide
described in SI units as follows: for Heating, Ventilating, Air Con
6. To convert from Kelvin to degree Celsius,
ditioning, Refrigeration, Plumbing
subtract 273.15. Price 600 mm x 600 mm, 250 mm round
and Air Pollution Equipment Manu
7. To convert from degree Rankin to Kelvin, inlet SCD at 231 L/s, 25 Pa total pressure,
facturing Industries” (Heating,
divide by 1.8. neck velocity = 5 m/s.
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning
Note:
Institute of Canada; 385 The West
Dimensions are 'soft' conversion, and Mall, Suite 267, Etobicoke, Ontario
rounded to the nearest millimetre. M9C 1E7)

Air Distribution
Engineering Guide
References
ACGIH (2004). Industrial ventilation manual of recommended practice.
AHRI. Standard 855—Procedure for estimating occupied space sound levels in the application of air terminals and
air outlets.

ASHRAE (1991). Chapter 42. ASHRAE handbook—HVAC applications. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration, Air-Conditioning Engineers.
ASHRAE (2009). Chapter 8. ASHRAE handbook—Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigeration,
Air-Conditioning Engineers.
ASHRAE (2009). Chapter 20. ASHRAE handbook—Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA:American Society of Heating, Refrigeration,
Air-Conditioning Engineers.
Kirkpatrick, A. T., & Elleson, J. S. (1996). Cold air distribution system design guide. Atlanta, GA: American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
Nevins, R. G. (1976). Air diffusion dynamics, theory, design and application. Birmingham, MI: Business News Publishing
Company.
EG-19
39 SERIES ENGINEERING GUIDELINES
Sound Power, Sound Pressure, and Octave

Bands Explained
Sound pressure is dependent on the indicates the amount of heat released by a

acoustic environment. The factors involved piece of equipment, the sound power
include the effects of nearby reflecting indicates the power radiated from a piece of
surfaces, receiver distance, type of space, equipment.
the amount and location of absorption in
the space, the location in the space, the
presence of barriers, and the intrusion of
ambient sounds.
Sound Power and Sound Pressure are
also different in that Sound Power is a
measure of total energy per unit time
Sound
emitted by the source in all directions.
Power
Sound pressure is a measure of the pressure
Defined at the receiver’s location.
Typically, manufacturers provide
What is equipment sound power data, in decibels
Sound (dB) per octave band. The quietest sound
Pressure ? we might measure, such as a whisper about
10 feet away, represents 0.000000000001,
Why use or 10-12, watt. The loudest regularly
Octave measured noise, the space shuttle on
Bands? takeoff, is 100,000,000, or 108, watts. To
avoid dealing with all these zeros,
A-weighting engineers use a logarithmic convention,
labeled Lw, to express the watts in a
NC curves decibel (dB) scale:
Lw = 10*log(W/Wref), where Wref=10-12 watt
So, the shuttle rates at 200 dB, the Light bulb – A 100 watt light bulb has a
whisper is 0 dB, and a large AHU with 1 source electrical power level of 100 watts.
watt of acoustic power rates at 120 dB. We can use the power rating as a relative
Two of these AHUs would double the indicator, but what we are really interested
sound energy, and with logarithmic in is the brightness, or lumens, produced by
addition, the total sound power would be the bulbs. And that depends on many
123 dB. things such as the size of the room, the
To understand the relationship between reflectivity of the walls, and how far away
sound power and sound pressure, we can we are from the light source.
look at two analogies common to HVAC Similarly, with building HVAC noise
applications: we are concerned about the sound pressure
Electric Heater – To represent power, a sensed by the occupant’s ears. Although
number expressed in BTUs or kilowatts is we use the dB scale for both power and
used to rate the heat release of the pressure, they are very different
equipment. Just as the number of BTUs parameters. Sound pressure is the
Sound Power, Sound Pressure, and Octave Bands Explained (page 2 of 3)
phenomenon we sense; it is also the physical represent the threshold of hearing, and it is evident
property that we can measure with microphones. that at lower levels our ears are less receptive to the
The sound pressure resulting from a given AHU- lowest frequencies.
generated sound power depends on: With this in mind, a sound measurement scheme
– A-weighting – is sometimes used to filter
• Distance from the AHU to the room microphone sound pressure readings to reflect
• The size of the room human sensitivity, and give an overall sound
• The absorptive properties of interior furnishings pressure readings, in dB(A).
• Attenuating elements such as silencers, duct
liner, duct branches, elbows, etc. 5
0
Propagating sound creates pressure fluctuations -5
63
0
in the air, which vibrate the microphone diaphragm
12
25
50
0
10
20
40
80
-10
and cause it to make a voltage output proportional to -15
the pressure. We use an RMS (Root Mean Square) -20
value of the pressure fluctuations to obtain a -25
logarithmic measure, expressed as Lp. -30
Sound energy can occur over a broad frequency A-WEIGHTING CURVE
range, and the human ear is sensitive from about 20
Hertz (Hz) to 20,000 Hz. We can measure the This suggests that noise at 125 Hz would sound
overall level, the sum across all these frequencies, 15 dB quieter than 1000 Hz noise at the same sound
but it is usually helpful to break this down into pressure level, to most listeners.
frequency bands. As in music, an octave band Again considering the analogy relating sound
convention was chosen. Each progressive band has power to BTUs and sound pressure to degrees, we
double the bandwidth of the previous. The center are fully aware that temperature is only one measure
frequencies assigned for the bands for the full range of comfort. We use the temperature-humidity-index,
of human hearing are: 31.5, 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000, THI, as a measure of humidity and temperature;
2000, 4000, 8000, and 16000 Hz. Usually, we further, ventilation flow patterns and on/off cycling
disregard the last band. also affect our comfort.
We can show the range of human hearing in a Similarly, our perception of noise depends on a
plot of sound pressure against octave band combination of sound level, spectral content, and
frequencies. modulation. Sometimes the overall level is just too
loud, but generally, if the noise has a balanced
1000
2000
4000
8000
31.5
contour with energy in all bands, we don’t find it too

125
250
500
63
120 objectionable. Unfortunately, the noise from the

HVAC system usually has certain components that
Sound Pressure (dB)
100
are emphasized. These are often defined as:
80 *Rumble – when the 31.5, 63 and 125 Hz bands
60 are especially loud. The effect of this is to induce
40 fatigue. The “6-o’clock” phenomenon is the
20
sensorial relief we sometimes experience when the
HVAC system shuts off for the day.
0
*Hiss – when the 2000, 4000, and 8000 Hz
-20 bands are emphasized. Typically caused by
Octave Band Frequency (Hz) undersized diffusers. This sound is rather irritating.
*Tonality – when a particular octave band is
RANGE OF HUMAN HEARING more than 5 dB above its adjacent bands, often
caused by the blade pass frequency of the fan in the
At the highest levels, noise above 120 dB can AHU. Most people find this particularly annoying.
cause instant hearing damage. The lowest levels
Sound Power, Sound Pressure, and Octave Bands Explained (page 3 of 3)
With regard to the frequency-dependent

nature of hearing response, Noise Criterion
(NC) curves were developed to plot octave
band sound pressure level data measured in
rooms.
On the NC curves to the right, four
different noise spectra are shown. Three have
the same overall dB(A) level. The green and
black spectra have similar overall sound
pressure levels to the blue one, but do not have
a nice balanced character. The NC rating,
which is determined by looking for the highest
tangent point on the background curves, is a
good indicator that the blue spectrum is much
more desirable.
NC ratings must be used cautiously. Note
that the red spectrum has the lowest dB(A)
and NC rating, but would actually be
perceived as the most annoying, because of
the prominence of a discrete tone.
Of course each piece of HVAC equipment
can contribute to the overall room sound in
various ways, and to make predictions is a
complicated process. But it is important to
understand the acoustical goals and concerns
of building design engineers, and what effect Spectrum dB(A) NC-rating Quality / Perception
our equipment can have. Blue 44 35 Balanced - Pleasant
Green 44 40 Rumbly - Fatiguing
Black 44 41 Hissy - Irritating
Red 39 35 Tonal – Annoying
For more information on our 39M Air Handlers, contact your local Carrier
representative, call 1-800-CARRIER, or visit our website, http://www.carrier.com/
2004 Carrier Corporation, Syracuse, NY Printed in U.S.A. GUD-04-002
Example on Air-Distribution System Design

A small office building is located in Toronto and has a layout as depicted below. The office has design
heating and cooling loads of 50,000 Btu/hr and 60,000 Btu/hr, respectively, and a design air supply
rate of 2800 cfm.
(a) What type of air-distribution system would be best for the office?
(b) Lay out and select appropriate diffusers for the office.
(c) Select and locate return grilles for the office. Limit the NC to less than 30.
45’
w w w
w w
40’ w 10 ft ceiling d
w w
Note: Drawing not to scale; d = door; w = window
w w w
Each window is 5 ft wide and 4 ft high.
d
Air distribution and diffuser selection:
A room with 8 ft ceiling is located at the northwest corner of a house in Toronto, Ontario. There is one
window on each exterior wall. The design cooling load of the room is 60 Btu/(hr∙ft 2) and the design
supply air to the room is 100 cfm. Select a suitable type of outlet diffuser(s) for the room and locate
them in the room. According to the provided performance data for 420/421 floor diffuser, what is the
total pressure loss of the diffuser(s)? Also, will noise be a concern for the diffuser(s)?

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Week 1 Lecture Note: MEC740 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IN BUILDINGS

In simple terms, the environmental conditions can be described by

Environmental conditions in a space are affected by parameters such as:

The objective of this course is to develop proficiency in the following subjects:

Air-Conditioning Systems (Chapter 2)

Space air conditioning requirements to be considered for system selection:

3. spaces requiring precision control

An air-conditioning system is comprised of (see Fig. 2-1 on pg. 23):

Medium to high pressure: > 15 psig for steam

a) Cast iron (sectional)

Boiler HP = 33475 Btu/hr = 9.81 kW (usually used to size boiler)

Warm air furnaces

Low boy: High boy: Horizontal:

2. Refrigeration equipment or chiller:

1 ton of refrigeration = 12000 Btu/hr = 3.52 kW

1) Vapour compression ⇒ requires shaft work

Basic Terminology (more details in §1-3)

Air-Conditioning Systems (continued)

Example 1: Single-duct constant-volume (CV) system

Modulation of heating or cooling coil load:

3-way valve or 2-way valve

Pneumatic signal (psi) Zone temperature Operation

Design Air Volume of a CV system

Central air handling unit

Advantage: close control of space conditions

Example 2: Single-duct variable-air-volume (VAV) system

Modulation of cooling load:

Design Air Volume of a VAV system

Other All-Air Systems: Dual-Duct, Multizone, and Bypass Multizone Systems

Quantity of air supplied to each zone = ventilation (fresh) air requirement

Components: 1. Central conditioning equipment for ventilation air

4. Multi-package unitary systems:

Heat Pump Systems (or Reverse-Cycle Air Conditioning Systems)

Types: 1) Air-to-air heat pump (requires supplemental heat)

 air-to-air systems are usually lower costs, but poorer performance

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION ON ALL-AIR SYSTEMS

3. Components of an all-air system:

c) Cooling coil (cold deck) – chilled water, direct expansion (D-X)

1. SINGLE-ZONE CONSTANT VOLUME

1.1 Cooling & Heating; Central Heating; Continuous Heating Fan

1.2 Cooling & Heating; Space Heating

SKIN HEATING UNIT

CONSTANT VOLUME SYSTEM

2. CONSTANT VOLUME WITH TERMINAL REHEAT

2.1 Constant Supply Temperature Cooling; Terminal Heating

2.2 Variable Supply Temperature Control; Terminal Heating

RETURN FAN SKIN HEATING UNIT

CONSTANT VOLUME WITH TERMINAL REHEAT SYSTEM

5. DOUBLE OR DUAL DUCT

6. VARIABLE AIR VOLUME

Design precautions for VAV systems:

6.1 Constant Supply Temperature

6.2 Variable Supply Temperature

SKIN HEATING UNIT

RETURN AIR FROM

VARIABLE VOLUME SYSTEM

PIPING SYSTEMS OF HEATING AND COOLING COILS AT ZONE-LEVEL UNITS

1) 2-pipe system: (need to changeover)

Winter: Primary air: cold from outdoor

Summer: Primary air: hot from outdoor