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TEXT BOOKS

1. Rappaport,T.S., “Wireless communications”, Second Edition, Pearson

Education, 2010.

2. Andreas.F. Molisch, “Wireless Communications”, John Wiley – India, 2006.

REFERENCES
1. David Tse and Pramod Viswanath, “Fundamentals of Wireless Communication”,
Cambridge University press 2005
2. Upena Dalal, “ Wireless Communication”, Oxford University Press, 2009.
3. Van Nee, R. and Ramji Prasad, “OFDM for wireless multimedia
communications”, Artech House, 2000.

EC8652 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION L TP C 3003

1. COURSE OBJECTIVES:
The student should be made to:
 Know the characteristic of wireless channel
 Learn the various cellular architectures
 Understand the concepts behind various digital signaling schemes for fading
channels
 Be familiar the various multipath mitigation techniques
 Understand the various multiple antenna systems
2. NEED & IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT:
At the end of the course, the student should be able to:
 To Characterize wireless channels
 To Design and implement various signaling schemes for fading channels
 To Design a cellular system
 To Compare multipath mitigation techniques and analyze their performance
 To Design and implement systems with transmit/receive diversity and MIMO
systems and analyze their performance

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3. INDUSTRY CONNECTIVITY & RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

 Wireless Technology has become the most exciting area in
telecommunications & Networking
 The rapid growth of Mobile Communications & Satellite
Communications are generating tremendous changes in Wireless
 The course has to provide a detailed Approach of such Wireless like
Bluetooth,Wi-fi &etc
 The students are introduced to design the cellular system and they are about
to know the multipath mitigation & fading techniques
 The recent developments in Wireless is 4G & Beyond, Cognitive Radio
 The importance factor that students should consider in wireless is efficient
spectrum utilizing, Noise filtering & secured Transmissions and low power
consumption
 However students are experienced the wireless Tech by their Mobile,
Radio,Tv,,etc exposure naturally

4. DETAILED LESSON PLAN

S.No No. of Cummulative Text Page No

UNIT Topics to be Covered
Hours Hours

UNIT I : WIRELESS CHANNELS

1 Large scale path loss 1 1 T1 105

2 Path loss Models-Free space 1 2 107

T1
propagation model
3 Two Ray Models 1 3 T1 120

4 Link Budget design 1 4 T1 138-161

I
5 Small scale fading 1 5 T1 178-185

6 Parameters of mobile multipath 1 6 197

T1
channels
7 Time dispersion Parameters 1 7 T1 199

8 Coherence bandwidth 1 8 T1 202

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9 1 9 203
Doppler spread & Coherence time T1

10 Fading due to multipath time delay 1 10 205

T1
spread
11 1 11 205
Flat Fading T1

12 1 12 205
Frequency selective fading T1

13 1 13 208
Fading due to Doppler spread T1

14 1 14 208-209
Fast fading and slow fading T1

UNIT II : CELLULAR ARCHITECTURE

15 Multiple Access techniques 1 15 T1 447

16 FDMA,TDMA & CDMA 1 16 T1 448-459

17 Capacity calculations 1 17 T1 469-477

18 Cellular Concept and frequency 1 18 57-58

T1
reuse
19 Channel assignment and handoff 1 19 T1 62-65

20 Interference & System Capacity 1 20 T1 67-79

21 II Trunking & grade of service 1 21 T1 77-85

22 Coverage and capacity improvement. 1 22 T1 86-93

UNIT III: DIGITAL SIGNALING FOR FADING CHANNELS

23 Structure of a wireless 1 23 173-178

T2
communication link
24 Principles of Offset -QPSK 1 24 T2 196

25 P/4-DQPSK 1 25 T2 193

26 MSK and GMSK 1 26 T1,T2 202-206

27 III Error performance in fading channels 1 27 T1 340-346

28 OFDM principle 1 28 T2 399-400

29 Cyclic prefix 1 29 T2 402-404

30 Windowing 1 30 R3 155

31 PAPR 1 31 T2 411-412

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UNIT IV : MULTIPATH MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

32 Equalisation 1 32 T1 355-356

33 Adaptive Equalization 1 33 T1 359

34 Linear and Nonlinear Equalisation 1 34 T1 366-370

35 Zero forcing and LMS Algorithms 1 35 T1 372-374

36 Diversity 1 36 T2 239-240

37 Micro and Macrodiversity 1 37 T2 240-248

38 Diversity combining techniques 1 38 T1 380-387

IV
39 Error probability in fading channels with 1 39 257-259
T2
diversity reception
40 Rake receiver 1 40 T1 391

UNIT V MULTIPLE ANTENNA TECHNIQUES

41 MIMO systems 1 41 T2 442

42 Spatial Multiplexing, system model and 1 42 444

T2
precoding
43 Beam forming 1 43 T2 440-442

44 Transmitter and Receiver diversity 2 45 T2,R1 442

45 Channel state information 1 46 T2 447

V
46 Capacity in fading channel and non 2 48 449-451
T2
fading channels

5. TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
S.NO TOPIC
NO
a Aim and Objective iii
b Detailed Lesson Plan iv
UNIT I WIRELESS CHANNELS
1. Part-A 1-2
2. Part-B 2-13
3. Challenges in wireless communication 3-15

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4. Free space attenuation and reflection 8-10

5. Two path Propagation model 10-12
6. Rayleigh fading & Ricean Distribution 12-13
7. Doppler Spread & Coherence Time 14-15
UNIT II CELLULAR ARCHITECTURE
8. Part-A 16-17
9. Part-B 18-33
10. Concept of cellular systems 18-21
11. Multiple Access 21-25
12. Coverage & capacity improvement 25-27
13. Interference limited systems 27-31
14. Trunking and Grade of service 31`-33
UNIT III DIGITAL SIGNALING FOR FADING SIGNALS
15. Part-A 34-35
16. Part-B 36-53
17. MSK 36-40
18. QPSK 41-44
19. GMSK 44-47
20. π/4 QPSK 47-50
21. OFDM Transceier 51-53
UNIT IV MULTIPATH MITIGATION TECHNIQUES
22. Part-A 54-55
23. Part-B 56-65
24. Linear Equalizer 56-57
25. DFE & MLSE Equalizer 57-59
26. Diversity technique to combat small scale fading 59-61
27. Signal combining techniques 62-63
28. Rake receiver in CDMA 64-65
UNIT V MULTIPLE ANTENNA TECHNIQUES
29. Part-A 66-67
30. Part-B 68-
31. MIMO systems 68-70

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32. Beam forming 70-71

33. Spatial Multiplexing 71-73
34. Capacity of Fading & Non-fading channels 73-80
35. Layered space time structure 80-82
UNIVERSITY QUESTION BANK
36. MAY/JUNE 2014 83
37. NOV/DEC 2014 85
38. APRIL/MAY 2015 87
39. NOV/DEC 2015 89
40. MAY/JUNE 2016(IT) 91
41. MAY/JUNE 2016(ECE) 93

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EC 8652 - WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

UNIT I WIRELESS CHANNELS
PART-A
1. What is meant by small and large scale fading? (June 2013)
The rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases; or multipath delays of a radio signal over
a short period of time or travel distance is known as small scale fading.
The rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays of a radio signal over
a long period of time or travel distance is known as large scale fading.
2. What are the basic requirements for wireless services?(may 2014)
Wireless communication is a process of transmitting & receiving voice and data using
electro-magnetic waves in free space. They are not physically connected. It is a Serial
communication
3. State the propagation effects in mobile radio. (May 2014)
When wavelength is less than the obstacle size, the in there is a chance of Blocking,
Reflection, Refraction
4. Interpret link budget equation. (May 2014)
In designing a system for reliable communications, it must to perform a link budge
calculation to ensure that sufficient power is available at the receiver to close the link and
to meet the SNR requirement. The basis for the link budget is the friis equation
5. List the different types of propagation mechanisms.(Dec 2014)
Multipath propagation often lengthens the time required for the baseband portion of the
signal to reach the receiver which can cause signal smearing due to inter- symbol
interference.
6. What are Rayleigh and Ricean fading? (June 2014)
Used to describe the statistical time varying nature of the received envelope of a flat fading
signal OR the envelope of an individual multipath component Sum of 2 quadrature
Gaussian noise signals obey Releigh distribution.
7. What are the different modules of a basic cellular system? (Dec 2014)

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It consist of Wireless wide-area networks (WWAN)

Wireless local area networks (WLAN)
Wireless personal area networks (WP AN
8. What are the different fading effects due to Doppler spread?(Dec 2014)(Dec
2013)
Depends on QOW fast the baseband signal changes compared to the rate of change of
the channel. Not due to propagation loss!!
9. State the difference between small-scale fading and large scale fading. (May
2015)(June 2013)
The rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases; or multipath delays of a
radio signal over a short period of time or travel distance is known as small
scale fading.
The rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays of a radio signal
over a long period of time or travel distance is known as large scale fading.
10. Interpret snell's law. (May 2015) (June 2013)
It is a formula used to describe the relationship between the angles of incidence and
refraction, when referring to light or other waves passing through a boundary between two
different isotropic media.

11. Define coherence time & coherence Bandwidth. (dec 2015)(May/June 2016)
Coherence time Tc is used to characterize the time varying nature of the frequency
depressiveness of the channel in the domain
Tc =1/fm Doppler spread and coherence time are inversely proportional Coherence
Bandwidth Bc is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which two
frequency components have a strong potential for amplitude correlation.
12. What is fading and Doppler spread. (May/June 2016)

Fading takes place in mobile signal propagation due to multi path time delay
spread.Doppler spread is denoted as BD and it is defined as a set of frequencies over
which the Doppler spread at the receiver end is non zero value.For example if a pure
sinusoidal tone of frequencyis transmitted and is denoted as fc and the

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received signal spectrum is called Doppler spectrum consisting of components in the

range from fc-fd to fc+fd, in which fd refers to Doppler shift in frequency .

Part B
1. Discuss about technical challenges faced by the wireless communication.
(June 2014)
Technical Challenges:
Multipath Propagation
For wireless communications, the transmission medium is the radio channel between
transmitter TX and receiver RX. The signal can get from the TX to the RX via a number of
different propagation paths. In some cases, a Line Of Sight (LOS) connection might exist
between TX and RX. Furthermore, the signal can get from the TX to the RX by being reflected
at or diffracted by different Interacting Objects (IOs) in the environment: houses, mountains
(for outdoor environments), windows, walls, etc. The number of these possible propagation
paths is very large. Each of the paths has a distinct amplitude, delay (runtime of the signal),
direction of departure from the TX, and direction of arrival; most importantly, the
components have different phase shifts with respect to each other. In the following, we discuss
some implications of the multipath propagation for system design.
Fading:
A simple RX cannot distinguish between the different Multi Path Components (MPCs); it
just adds them up, so that they interfere with each other. The interference between them can be
constructive or destructive, depending on the phases of the MPCs. The phases, in turn, depend
mostly on the run length of the MPC, and thus on the position of the Mobile Station (MS) and
the IOs. For this reason, the interference, and thus the amplitude of the total signal, changes
with time if TX, RX, or IOs is moving. This effect – namely, the changing of the total signal
amplitude due to interference of the different MPCs – is called small-scale fading. Obstacles
can lead to a shadowing of one or several MPCs. Imagine, e.g., the MS at first (at position A)
has LOS to the Base Station (BS). As the MS moves behind the high-rise building (at position
B), the amplitude of the component that propagates along the direct
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connection (LOS) between BS and MS greatly decreases. This is due to the fact that the MS is
now in the radio shadow of the high-rise building, and any wave going through or around that
building is greatly attenuated – an effect called shadowing. The MS has to move over large
distances (from a few meters up to several hundreds of meters) to move from the light to the
dark zone. For this reason, shadowing gives rise to large-scale fading.
Inter symbol Interference
The runtimes for different MPCs are different. We have already mentioned above that
this can lead to different phases of MPCs, which lead to interference in narrowband systems.
In a system with large bandwidth, and thus good resolution in the time domain,3 the major
consequence is signal dispersion: in other words, the impulse response of the channel is not a
single delta pulse but rather a sequence of pulses (corresponding to different MPCs), each of
which has a distinct arrival time in addition to having a different amplitude and phase. This
signal dispersion leads to InterSymbol Interference (ISI) at the RX.

Spectrum Limitations
The spectrum available for wireless communications services is limited, and
regulated by international agreements. For this reason, the spectrum has to be used in a highly
efficient manner. Two approaches are used: regulated spectrum usage, where a single network
operator has control over the usage of the spectrum, and unregulated spectrum, where each
user can transmit without additional control, as long as (s)he complies with certain restrictions
on the emission power and bandwidth. In the following, we first review the frequency ranges
assigned to different communications services. We then discuss the basic principle of
frequency reuse for both regulated and unregulated access

Assigned Frequencies
The frequency assignment for different wireless services is regulated by the
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Nations. In its tri-annual conferences (World Radio Conferences), it establishes worldwide

guidelines for the usage of spectrum in different regions and countries. Further regulations are
issued by the frequency regulators of individual countries, including the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) in the U.S.A., the Association of Radio Industries and
Businesses (ARIB) in Japan, and the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications
Administrations (CEPT) in Europe.
While the exact frequency assignments differ, similar services tend to use the same frequency
ranges all over the world:
• Below 100 MHz: at these frequencies, we find Citizens’ Band (CB) radio, pagers, and
analog cordless phones.
• 100–800 MHz: these frequencies are mainly used for broadcast (radio and TV) applications.
• 400–500 MHz: a number of cellular and trunking radio systems make use of this band. It is
mostly systems that need good coverage, but show low user density.
• 800–1000 MHz: several cellular systems use this band (analog systems as well as
secondgenerationcellular). Also some emergency communications systems (trunking radio)
make use of this band.
• 1.8–2.1 GHz: this is the main frequency band for cellular communications. The current
(secondgeneration) cellular systems operate in this band, as do most of the third-generation
systems. Many cordless systems also operate in this band.
• 2.4–2.5 GHz: the Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band. Cordless phones, Wireless
Local Area Networks (WLANs) and wireless Personal Area Networks (PANs) operate in this
band; they share it with many other devices, including microwave ovens.
• 3.3–3.8 GHz: is envisioned for fixed wireless access systems.
• 4.8–5.8 GHz: in this range, most WLANs can be found. Also, the frequency range between
5.7 and 5.8 GHz can be used for fixed wireless access, complementing the 3-GHz band. Also
car-to-car communications are working in this band.
• 11–15 GHz: in this range we can find the most popular satellite TV services, which use 14.0–
14.5 GHz for the uplink, and 11.7–12.2 GHz for the downlink.

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Frequency Reuse in Regulated Spectrum

Since spectrum is limited, the same spectrum has to be used for different wireless
connections in different locations. To simplify the discussion, let us consider in the following
a cellular system where different connections (different users) are distinguished by the
frequency channel (band around a certain carrier frequency) that they employ. If an area is
served by a single BS, then the available spectrum can be divided into N frequency channels
that can serve N users simultaneously. If more than N users are to be served, multiple BSs are
required, and frequency channels have to be reused in different locations. For this purpose, we
divide the area (a region, a country, or a whole continent) into a number of cells; we also
divide the available frequency channels into several groups. The channel groups are now
assigned to the cells. The important thing is that channel groups can be used in multiple
cells. The only requirement is that cells that use the same frequency group do not interfere with
each other significantly. It is fairly obvious that the same carrier frequency can be used for
different connections in, say, Rome and Stockholm, at the same time. The large distance
between the two cities makes sure that a signal from the MS in Stockholm does not reach the
BS in Rome, and can therefore not cause any interference at all. But in order to achieve high
efficiency, frequencies must actually be reused much more often – typically, several times
within each city. Consequently, intercell interference.

Frequency Reuse in Unregulated Spectrum

In contrast to regulated spectrum, several services use frequency bands that are
available to the general public. For example, some WLANs operate in the 2.45- GHz band,
which has been assigned to “ISM” services. Anybody is allowed to transmit in these bands, as
long as they (i) limit the emission power to a prescribed value, (ii) follow certain rules for the
signal shape and bandwidth, and (iii) use the band according to the (rather broadly defined)
purposes stipulated by the frequency regulators. As a consequence, a WLAN receiver can be
faced with a large amount of interference. This interference can either stem from other
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microwave ovens, cordless phones, and other devices that operate in the ISM band. For this
reason, a WLAN link must have the capability to deal with interference. That can be achieved
by selecting a frequency band within the ISM band at which there is little interference, by
using spread spectrum techniques, or some other appropriate technique.
Limited Energy
The requirement for small energy consumption results in several technical
imperatives:
• The power amplifiers in the transmitter have to have high efficiency. As power amplifiers
account for a considerable fraction of the power consumption in an MS, mainly amplifiers with
an effi- ciency above 50% should be used in MSs. Such amplifiers – specifically, class-C or
class-F amplifiers – are highly nonlinear. As a consequence, wireless communications tend to
use modulation formats that are insensitive to nonlinear distortions. For example, constant
envelope signals are preferred.
• Signal processing must be done in an energy-saving manner. This implies that the digital
logic should be implemented using power-saving semiconductor technology like
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS), while the faster but more power-hungry
approaches like Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL) do not seem suitable for MSs. This restriction
has important consequences for the algorithms that can be used for interference suppression,
combating of ISI, etc.
• The RX (especially at the BS) needs to have high sensitivity. For example, Global System for
Mobile Communications (GSM) is specified so that even a received signal power of −100 dBm
leads to an acceptable transmission quality. Such an RX is several orders of magnitude more
sensitive than a TV RX. If the GSM standard had defined −80 dBm instead, then the transmit
power would have to be higher by a factor of 100 in order to achieve the same coverage. This
in turn would mean that – for identical talktime – the battery would have to be 100 times as
large – i.e., 20 kg instead of the current 200 g. But the high requirements on RX sensitivity
have important consequences for the construction of the RX (low-noise amplifiers,

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sophisticated signal processing to fully exploit the received signal) as well as for network
planning.
• Maximum transmit power should be used only when required. In other words, transmit
power should be adapted to the channel state, which in turn depends on the distance between
TX and RX (power control). If the MS is close to the BS, and thus the channel has only a
small attenuation, transmit power should be kept low. Furthermore, for voice transmission, the
MS should only transmit if the user at the MS actually talks, which is the case only about 50%
of the time (Discontinuous Voice Transmission (DTX)).
• For cellular phones, and even more so for sensor networks, an energy-efficient “standby” or
“sleep” mode has to be defined.
Several of the mentioned requirements are contradictory. For example, the requirement to build
an RX with high sensitivity (and thus, sophisticated signal processing) is in contrast to the
requirement of having energy-saving (and thus slow) signal processing. Engineering tradeoffs
are thus called for.

2.(i) Explain how signal propagates against free space attenuation and reflection. (16)(June

Free Space Propagation

For propagation distances d much larger than the square of the antenna size divided by
the wavelength, the far-field of the generated electromagnetic wave dominates all other
components (in the far-field region the electric and magnetic fields vary inversely with distance).
In free space, the power radiated by an isotropic antenna is spread uniformly and without
loss over the surface of a sphere surrounding the antenna. An isotropic antenna is a hypothetical
entity. Even the simplest antenna has some directivity. For example, a linear dipole has uniform
power flow in any plane perpendicular to the axis of the dipole (omnidirectionality) and the
maximum power flow is in the equatorial plane.

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The surface area of a sphere of radius d is 4 d2, so that the power flow per unit area
w(power flux in watts/meter2) at distance d from a transmitter antenna with input accepted
power pT and antenna gain GT is

Transmitting antenna gain is defined as the ratio of the intensity (or power flux) radiated
in some particular direction to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power
accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically. When the direction is not stated, the
power gain is usually taken in the direction of maximum power flow. The product GT pT is
called the effective radiated power (ERP) of the transmitter. The available power pR at the
terminals of a receiving antenna with gain GR is

where A is the effective area or aperture of the antenna and

The wavelength = c / fc with c the velocity of light and fcthe carrier frequency.

While cellular telephone operator mostly calculate in received powers, in the planning of
the coverage area of broadcast transmitters, the CCIR recommends the use of the electric field
strength E at the location of the receiver. The conversion is

Reflection
Snell’s Law

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The reflection and transmission coefficients are different for TE and for TM waves. For TM
polarization:

and for TE polarization:

The d−4Power Law

3. Explain in detail two path model propagation mechanisms. (June 2014)

Derive the expressions for the total Electric field,ETOT(d) and received power atdistance ,Pr(d

2015),(May/June 2014)

A single line-of-sight path between two mobile nodes is seldom the only means of
propagation. The two-ray ground reflection model considers both the direct path and a ground
reflection path. It is shown that this model gives more accurate prediction at a

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long distance than the free space model. The received power at distance is predicted
by

(1)

The two ray Ground reflection model is a useful progation mode based on both the
direct path and the ground refelected path between the transmitter and receiver.

In most of mobile systems,the maximum T-R separation is about few 10’s of km and the
earth is assumed to be flat.

The total received E-field ETOT,is the result of direct Line-of-sight component ELOS and
the grond reflected components Eg

ETOT= ELOS+ Eg

From figure

ht—height of Transmitter

hr—height of receiver.

1.1 Two ray ground reflection model

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If Eo is the free space electric field at a distance do from the transmitter, then at the distance
d>do , the free space electric field is given by

E(d,t)= )) for d>do

Where represent the envelope of the electric field at ‘d’ meter from the
transmitter.

Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver.

1)The direct wave that travels at a distance d’ and

2)The reflected wave that travels a distance d’’

Finally,we can get the total electric field is the sum of above two components and is given
by

Path loss:

For large values of d ,path loss is independent of frequency.It depends upon antenna heights ht
and hr

PL(dB)=40 logd-[10log Gt+10log Gr+20 loght+20 log hr]

4. i) Discuss in detail Two Ray Rayleigh Fading model (8)

ii) Describe on Rician distribution. (8)(Dec 2014)

Rayleigh fading model

Rewriting this in terms of in-phase and quadrature-phase components in real passband

notation,we obtain

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A zero-mean Gaussian random variable has the pdf:

and a pdf for r – namely, a Rayleigh distribution:

Properties of the Rayleigh Distribution

Pdf of a Rayleigh distribution.

Ricean Distribution
The pdf of the amplitude is given by the Rice distribution

I0(x) is the modified Bessel function of the first kind, zero order.
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5. Explain in Detail-Doppler spread and coherence time.

Doppler shift: A receiver is moving toward the source. Zero crossings of the signal appear
faster therefore the received frequency is higher The opposite effect occurs if the receiver
is moving away from the source.For example just as a train whistle or car horn appears
to have a different pitch, depending on whether it is moving
towards or away from one’s location, radio waves demonstrate the same phenomenon.

Illustration of Doppler effect

j2πfot,
For complex envelope emitted by transmitter is Ae with the A(x) is the amplitude and c
is the speed of light, then the signal at a points along the x-axis is given by

(2.39)

If x represents the position of the constant velocity receiver, then we may write

(2.40)

Where xo is the receiver' s initial position and v is its velocity. Substituting Eq. (2.40) into (2.39)
the signal at the receiver is

(2.41)

If we focus on the frequency term in the last exponent of equation the received
frequency is given by
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(2.42)

The Doppler shift is given by

(2.43)

Relationship between Doppler frequency and velocity

(2.44)

If the terminal motion and the direction of radiation are at an angle ψ, shift can be
expressed as

(2.45)

For operating frequencies between 100MHz and 2GHz and for speeds up to 100Km/hr, the
Doppler shift can be as large as 185 Hz

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UNIT II CELLULAR ARCHITECTURE

PART-A
1. What are the effects of multi path propagation on CDMA? (May 2015,2016)(Dec
2014)
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a surface that is large relative to the wavelength
of the signal.
Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to
wavelength of radio wave.
2. State advantages of CDMA over FDMA? (Dec 2014)
This is the best & required wireless access method. Many wireless users are employed in
the CDMA along with Various bandwidth needs, Switching methods, Technical
characteristics.
3. Mention a few techniques used to expand the capacity of a
cellular system.(May 2015)
Increasing the amount of spectrum used, more efficient modulation format and coding,
discontinuous transmission, multi user detection, reduction of cell radius, use of sector
cells and multiple antennas.
4. Define frequency reuse distance. (Dec 2012)
It is defined as the distance between two cells that can use the same frequency channels.
5. What is meant by frequency reuse or frequency planning? (June 2013)(May
/June 2016)
By limiting the coverage area to within the boundaries of a cell, the same group of
channels may be used to cover different cells that are separated from one another by
distances large enough to keep interference levels within tolerable limits. This design
process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of the cellular base stations
within a system is called frequency reuse.
6. What are the different methods available to increase the capacity of
the system? (May 2012)

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Increasing the amount of spectrum used, more efficient modulation format and coding,
discontinuous transmission, multi user detection, reduction of cell radius, use of sector
cells and multiple antennas.
7. What is handoff? (Dec 13)
When the person is Moving from one BS to other without interrupting connection.
8. What is Signal-to-Noise Ratio?
Wireless systems are required to provide a certain minimum transmission quality This
transmission quality in turn requires a minimum Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) at the
receiver (RX).
9. Define signal to self-interference ratio.
The signal-to-interference ratio (S / I or SIR), also known as the carrier-to- interference
ratio (CII, CIR), is the quotient between the average received modulated - carrier power S
or C and the average received co-channel interference power.
10. What is channel assignment.
It is responsible for channel assignment, maintenance of link quality and handover, power
control, coding, and encryption
11. Define Grade of service(GOS). (dec 2015)
It is a measure of the ability of a user to access a trunked system during the busiest
hour
12. Define co-channel reuse ratio (Dec 2015).
co-channel reuse ratio(Q) is a function of the radius of the cell(R)and distance
between the centres of the nearest co-channel cells(D)
Q=D/R co-channel reuse ratio(Q)
By increasing the ratio (Q),the spatial separation between co-channel cells relative to the
coverage distance of a cell is increased.

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Part - B
1. Explain the principle of cellular networks and various types of
Handoff techniques. (Dec 13)
(
Cellular Systems:
Most commercial radio and television systems are designed to cover as much area as
possible. These systems typically operate at maximum power and with the tallest antennas
allowed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The frequency used by the
transmitter cannot be reused again until there is enough geographical separation so that one
station does not interfere significantly with another station assigned to that frequency. There may
even be a large region between two transmitters using the same frequency where neither signal
is received. The cellular system takes the opposite approach. It seeks to make an efficient use of
available channels by employing low-power transmitters to allow frequency reuse at much
smaller distances. Maximizing the number of times each channel may be reused in a given
geographic area is the key to an efficient cellular system design. Cellular systems are designed to
operate with groups of low-power radios spread out over the geographical service area.

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Each group of radios serve mobile stations located near them. The area served by each
group of radios is called a cell. Each cell has an appropriate number of low-power radios to
communicate within the cell itself. The power transmitted by the cell is chosen to be large
enough to communicate with mobile stations located near the edge of the cell. The radius of each
cell may be chosen to be perhaps 28 km (about 16 miles) in a start-up system with relatively few
subscribers, down to less than 2 km (about 1 mile) for a mature system requiring considerable
frequency reuse. As the traffic grows, new cells and channels are added to the system. If an
irregular cell pattern is selected, it would lead to an inefficient use of the spectrum due to its
inability to reuse frequencies because of cochannel interference. In addition, it would also result
in an uneconomical deployment of equipment, requiring relocation from one cell site to another.
Therefore, a great deal of engineering effort would be required to readjust the transmission,
switching, and control resources every time the system goes through its development phase. The
use of a regular cell pattern in a cellular system design eliminates all these difficulties. In reality,
cell coverage is an irregularly shaped circle. The exact coverage of the cell depends on the terrain
and many other factors. For design purposes and as a first-order approximation, we assume that
the coverage areas are regular polygons. For example, for omnidirectional antennas with constant
signal power, each cell site coverage area would be circular. To achieve full coverage without
dead spots, a series of regular polygons are required for cell sites.

Any regular polygon such as an equilateral triangle, a square, or a hexagon can be used for
cell design. The hexagon is used for two reasons: a hexagonal layout requires fewer cells and,
therefore, fewer transmitter sites, and a hexagonal cell layout is less expensive compared to
square and triangular cells. In practice, after the polygons are drawn on a map of the coverage
area, radial lines are drawn and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) calculated for various
directions using the propagation models, or using appropriate computer programs.we assume
regular polygons for coverage areas even though in practice that is only an approximation.
Handoff Strategies
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When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in progress, the MSC
automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new base station. This handoff
operation not only involves a new base station, but also requires that the voice and control
signals be allocated to channels associated with the new base station. Another feature of newer
cellular systems is the ability to make handoff decisions based on a wide range of metrics other
than signal strength. The cochannel and adjacent channel interference levels may be measured at
the base station or the mobile, and this information may be used with conventional signal
strength data to provide a multi-dimensional algorithm for determining when a handoff is
needed. The IS-95 code division multiple access (CDMA) spread spectrum cellular system
described provides a unique handoff capability that cannot be provided with other wireless
systems. Unlike channelized wireless systems that assign different radio channels during a
handoff (called a hard handoff), spread spectrum mobiles share the same channel in every cell.
Thus, the term handoff does not mean a physical change in the assigned channel, but rather that a
different base station handles the radio communication task. By simultaneously evaluating the
received signals from a single subscriber at several neighboring base stations, the MSC may
actually decide which version of the user's signal is best at any moment in time. This technique
exploits macroscopic space diversity provided by the different physical locations of the base
stations and allows the MSC to make a "soft" decision as to which version of the user's signal to
pass along to the PSTN at any instance EPad94]. The ability to select between the instantaneous
received signals from a variety of base stations is called soft handoff. Since CDMA uses
cochannel cells, it can use macroscopic spatial diversity to provide soft handoff. Soft handoff is
performed by the MSC, which can simultaneously monitor a particular user from two or more
base stations. The MSC may choose the best version of the signal at any time without switching
frequencies.
Types of Hand – off:

1st generation handoff, MAHO (Mobile assisted handoff), Intersystem handoff, Guard
channel concept, Umbrella approach, Soft and hard handoff, Cell dragging
2. What are the differences between TDMA, FDMA and CDMA? Explain in detail
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about each multiple access techniques. (16)

(June 2014)
Frequency Division Multiple Access
The FDMA is the simplest scheme used to provide multiple access. It separates different
users by assigning a different carrier frequency. Multiple users are isolated using bandpass
filters. In FDMA, signals from various users are assigned different frequencies, just as in an
analog system. Frequency guard bands are provided between adjacent signal spectra to
minimize crosstalk between adjacent channels. The advantages and disadvantages of FDMA
with respect to TDMA or CDMA are: Advantages
1. Capacity can be increased by reducing the information bit rate and using an efficient digital
speech coding scheme.
2. Technological advances required for implementation are simple. A system can be
configured so that improvements in terms of a lower bit rate speech coding could be easily
incorporated.
3. Hardware simplicity, because multiple users are isolated by employing simple bandpass
filters.
Disadvantages
1. The system architecture based on FDMA was implemented in first generation analog
systems such as advanced mobile phone system (AMPS) or total access communication system
(TACS). The improvement in capacity depends on operation at a reduced signal-to-interference
(S/I) ratio. But the narrowband digital approach gives only limited advantages in this regard so
that modest capacity improvements could be expected from the allocated spectrum.
2. The maximum bit-rate per channel is fixed and small, inhibiting the flexibility in bit- rate
capability that may be a requirement for computer fi le transfer in some applications in the
future.
3. Inefficient use of spectrum, in FDMA if a channel is not in use, it remains idle and cannot
be used to enhance the system capacity.
4. Crosstalk arising from adjacent channel interference is produced by nonlinear

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effects.
Time Division Multiple Access
In a TDMA system, each user uses the whole channel bandwidth for a fraction of time
compared to an FDMA system where a single user occupies the channel bandwidth for the
entire duration. In a TDMA system, time is divided into equal time intervals, called slots. User
data is transmitted in the slots. Several slots make up a frame. Guard times are used between
each user’s transmission to minimize crosstalk between channels. Each user is assigned a
frequency and a time slot to transmit data. The data is transmitted via a radio-carrier from a
base station to several active mobiles in the downlink. In the reverse direction (uplink),
transmission from mobiles to base stations is time-sequenced and synchronized on a common
frequency for TDMA. The preamble carries the address and synchronization information that
both the base station and mobile stations use for identification. In a TDMA system, the user
can use multiple slots to support a wide range of bit rates by selecting the lowest multiplexing
rate or multiple of it. This enables supporting a variety of voice coding techniques at different
bit rates with different voice qualities. Similarly, data communications customers could use the
same kinds of schemes, choosing and paying for the digital data rate as required. This would
allow customers to request and pay for a bandwidth on demand. Depending on the data rate
used and the number of slots per frame, a DMA system can use the entire bandwidth of the
system or can employ an FDD scheme. The resultant multiplexing is a mixture of frequency
division and time division. The entire frequency band is divided into a number of duplex
channels (about 350 to 400 kHz). These channels are deployed in a frequency-reuse pattern, in
which radio- port frequencies are assigned using an autonomous adaptive frequency
assignment algorithm. Each channel is configured in a TDM mode for the downlink direction
and a TDMA mode for the uplink direction.
The advantages and disadvantages of TDMA are:
Advantages
1. TDMA permits a flexible bit rate, not only for multiples of the basic single channel rate
but also submultiples for low bit rate broadcast-type traffic.

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2. TDMA offers the opportunity for frame-by-frame monitoring of signal strength/bit error
rates to enable either mobiles or base stations to initiate and execute handoffs.
3. TDMA, when used exclusively and not with FDMA, utilizes bandwidth more efficiently
because no frequency guard band is required between channels.
4. TDMA transmits each signal with sufficient guard time between time slots to accommodate
time inaccuracies because of clock instability, delay spread, transmission delay because of
propagation distance, and the tails of signal pulse because of transient responses.
Disadvantages
1. For mobiles and particularly for hand-sets, TDMA on the uplink demands high peak power
in transmit mode that shortens battery life.
2. TDMA requires a substantial amount of signal processing for matched filtering and
correlation detection for synchronizing with a time slot.
3. TDMA requires synchronization. If the time slot synchronization is lost, the channels may
collide with each other.
4. One complicating feature in a TDMA system is that the propagation time for a signal from a
mobile station to a base station varies with its distance to the base station. Code Division
Multiple Access
In CDMA, the same bandwidth is occupied by all the users, however they are all assigned
separate codes, which differentiates them from each other. CDMA utilize a spread spectrum
technique in which a spreading signal (which is uncorrelated to the signal and has a large
bandwidth) is used to spread the narrow band message signal. Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DS-SS) This is the most commonly used technology for CDMA. In DS-SS, the
message signal is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code. Each user is given his own
codeword which is orthogonal to the codes of other users and in order to detect the user, the
receiver must know the codeword used by the transmitter. There are, however, two problems in
such systems which are discussed in the sequel. CDMA/FDD in IS-95 In this standard, the
frequency range is: 869-894 MHz (for Rx) and 824-849 MHz (for Tx). In such a system, there
are a total of 20 channels and 798 users per channel. For each channel, the bit rate is

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1.2288 Mbps. For orthogonality, it usually combines 64 Walsh-Hadamard codes and a m-

sequence.
CDMA and Self-interference Problem
In CDMA, self-interference arises from the presence of delayed replicas of signal due to
multipath. The delays cause the spreading sequences of the different users to lose their
orthogonality, as by design they are orthogonal only at zero phase offset. Hence in despreading
a given user’s waveform, nonzero contributions to that user’s signal arise from the
transmissions of the other users in the network. This is distinct from both TDMA and FDMA,
wherein for reasonable time or frequency guardbands, respectively, orthogonality of the
received signals can be preserved.
CDMA and Near-Far Problem
The near-far problem is a serious one in CDMA. This problem arises from the fact
that signals closer to the receiver of interest are received with smaller attenuation than are
signals located further away. Therefore the strong signal from the nearby transmitter will mask
the weak signal from the remote transmitter. In TDMA and FDMA, this is not a problem since
mutual interference can be filtered. In CDMA, however, the near-far effect combined with
imperfect orthogonality between codes (e.g. due to different time sifts), leads to substantial
interference. Accurate and fast power control appears essential to ensure reliable operation of
multiuser DS-CDMA systems.

3. Explain the various methods that increase the system capacity. (May 13)

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System capacity is the most important measure for a cellular network. Methods for
increasing capacity are thus an essential area of research:
1. Increasing the amount of spectrum used: this is the “brute force” method. It turns out to
be very expensive, as spectrum is a scarce resource, and usually auctioned off by governments at
very high prices. Furthermore, the total amount of spectrum assigned to wireless systems can
change only very slowly; changes in spectrum assignments have to be approved by worldwide
regulatory conferences, which often takes ten years or more.
2. More efficient modulation formats and coding: using modulation formats that require
less bandwidth (higher order modulation) and/or are more resistant to interference. The former
allows an increase in data rate for each user (or an increase in the number of users in a cell while
keeping the data rate per user constant). However, the possible benefits of higher order
modulation are limited: they are more sensitive to noise and interference, so that the reuse
distance might have to be increased. The use of interference-resistant modulation allows a
reduction in reuse distance. The introduction of near-capacity-achieving codes – turbo codes and
low-density parity check codes – is another way of achieving better immunity to interference,
and thus increases system capacity.
3. Better source coding: depending on required speech quality, current speech coders need
data rates between 32 kbit/s and 4 kbit/s. Better models for the properties of speech allow the
data rate to be decreased without decreasing quality. Compression of data files and music/video
compression also allows more users to be served.
4. Discontinuous Voice Transmission DTX: exploits the fact that during a phone
conversation each participant talks only 50% of the time. A TDMA system can thus set up more
calls than there are available timeslots. During the call, the users that are actively talking at the
moment are multiplexed onto the available timeslots, while quiet users do not get assigned any
radio resources.
5. Multiuser detection: this greatly reduces the effect of interference, and thus allows
more users per cell for CDMA systems or smaller reuse distances for FDMA
systems
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6. Adaptive modulation and coding: employs the knowledge at the TX of the transmission
channel, and chooses the modulation format and coding rate that are “just right” for the current
link situation. This approach makes better use of available power, and, among other effects,
reduces interference.
7. Reduction of cell radius: this is an effective, but very expensive, way of increasing
capacity, as a new BS has to be built for each additional cell. For FDMA systems, it also means
that the frequency planning for a large area has to be redone.Furthermore, smaller cells also
require more handovers for moving users, which is complicated, and reduces spectral efficiency
due to the large amount of signaling information that has to be sent during a handover.
8. Use of sector cells: a hexagonal (or similarly shaped) cell can be divided into several
(typically three) sectors. Each sector is served by one sector antenna. Thus, the number of cells
has tripled, as has the number of BS antennas. However, the number of BS locations has
remained the same, because the three antennas are at the same location.
9. Use of an overlay structure: an overlay structure combines cells with different size and
different traffic density. Therefore, some locations may be served by several BSs simultaneously.
An umbrella cell provides basic coverage for a large area. Within that coverage area, multiple
microcells are placed in areas of high traffic density. Within the coverage area of the microcells,
most users are served by the microcell BS, but fast-moving users are assigned to the umbrella
cell, in order to reduce the number of handovers between cells.
4. What are the features of interference limited
systems. Interference Limited Systems
Noise-Limited Systems
Wireless systems are required to provide a certain minimum transmission quality .This
transmission quality in turn requires a minimum Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) at the receiver
(RX). Consider now a situation where only a single BS transmits, and a Mobile Station (MS)
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receives; thus, the performance of the system is determined only by the strength of the (useful)
signal and the noise. As the MS moves further away from the BS, the received signal power
decreases, and at a certain distance, the SNR does not achieve the required threshold for reliable
communications. Therefore, the range of the system is noise limited. Depending on the
interpretation, it is too much noise or too little signal power that leads to bad link quality.
Let us assume for the moment that the received power decreases with d2, the square of the
distance
distance between BS and MS. More precisely, let the received power

(1.1)
where GRX and GTX are the gains of the receive and transmit antennas, respectively,1
/λ is the wavelength, and PTX is the transmit power.

The noise that disturbs the signal can consist of several components, as follows:
1. Thermal noise: The power spectral density of thermal noise depends on the
environmental
temperature Te that the antenna “sees.” The temperature of the Earth is around 300 K, while
the temperature of the (cold) sky is approximately Te ≈ 4K (the temperature in the
direction
of the Sun is of course much higher). As a first approximation, it is usually assumed that the
environmental temperature is isotropically 300 K. Noise power spectral density is then

(1.2)
where kB is Boltzmann’s constant, kB = 1.38 x 10−23 J/K, and the noise power is
Pn = N0B (1.3)
where B is RX bandwidth (in units of Hz). It is common to write Eq. (1.2) using logarithmic
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units (power P expressed in units of dBm is 10 log10 (P/1 mW)):

N0 = −174 dBm/Hz (1.4)
This means that the noise power contained in a 1-Hz bandwidth is −174 dBm. The noise power
contained in bandwidth B is
−174 + 10 log10(B) dBm (1.5)
The logarithm of bandwidth B, specifically 10 log10(B), has the units dBHz.

2. Man-made noise: We can distinguish two types of man-made noise:

(a) Spurious emissions: Many electrical appliances as well as radio transmitters (TXs)
designed for other frequency bands have spurious emissions over a large bandwidth that includes
the frequency range in which wireless communications systems operate. For urban outdoor
environments, car ignitions and other impulse sources are especially significant sources of noise.
In contrast to thermal noise, the noise created by impulse sources decreases with frequency (see
Figure 1.15). At 150 MHz, it can be 20 dB stronger than thermal noise; at
900 MHz, it is typically 10 dB stronger.
Note that frequency regulators in most countries impose limits on “spurious” or “out-of-
band” emissions for all electrical devices. Furthermore, for communications operating in
licensed bands, such spurious emissions are the only source of man-made noise. It lies in the
nature of the license (for which the license holder usually has paid) that no other intentional
emitters are allowed to operate in this band. In contrast to thermal noise, man-made noise is not
necessarily Gaussian distributed. However, as a matter of convenience, most system-planning
tools, as well as theoretical designs, assume Gaussianity anyway.

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Figure 1.15 Noise as a function of frequency.

(b) Other intentional emission sources: Several wireless communications systems operate
in
unlicensed bands. In these bands, everybody is allowed to operate (emit
electromagnetic
radiation) as long as certain restrictions with respect to transmit power, etc. are fulfilled.
The
most important of these bands is the 2.45-GHz Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band.
The amount of interference in these bands can be considerable.

3. Receiver noise: The amplifiers and mixers in the RX are noisy, and thus increase the total
noise power. This effect is described by the noise figure F, which is defined as the SNR at the
RX input (typically after down conversion to baseband) divided by the SNR at the RX output. As
the amplifiers have gain, noise added in the later stages does not have as much of an impact as
noise added in the first stage of the RX. Mathematically, the total noise figure Feq of a ca.e of
components is

(1.6)
where Fi and Gi are noise figures and noise gains of the individual stages in absolute units
(not in decibels (dB)). Note that for this equation, passive components, like

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attenuators with gain m < 1, can be interpreted as either having a noise figure of F = 1/m
and unit gain of
G =1,or unit noise figure F = 1, and gain G = m.

For a digital system, the transmission quality is often described in terms of the Bit Error Rate
(BER) probability. Depending on the modulation scheme, coding, and a range of other factors,
there is a relationship between SNR and BER for each digital communications systems. A
minimum transmission quality can thus be linked to the minimum SNR, SNR min, by this
mapping (see Figure 1.16). Thus, the planning methods of all analog and digital links in noise-
limited environments are the same; the goal is to determine the minimum where all quantities are
in dB.

Noise Limited Systems

5.Explain in brief about Trunking and grade of Service.
Trunking and Grade of Service

The concept of trunking allows a large number of users to share the relatively small
number of channels in a cell by providing access to each user, on demand, from a pool of
available channels. In a trunked radio system, each user is allocated a channel on a per call basis,
and upon termination of the call, the previously occupied channel is immediately returned to the
pool of available channels.
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The telephone company uses trunking theory to determine to determine the number of
telephone circuits that need to be allocated for office buildings with hundreds of telephones , and
this same principle is used in designing cellular radio systems. In a trunked mobile radio system,
when a particular user requests service and all of the radio channels are already in use, the user is
blocked, or denied access to the system. To design trunked radio systems that can handle a
specific capacity at a specific “grade of service”, it is essential to understand trunking theory and
queuing theory.

The grade of service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a user to access a trunked
system during the busiest hour. The busy hour is based upon customer demand at the busiest
hour during a week, month or a year. The grade of service is a bench mark used to define the
desired performance of a particular trunked system by specifying a desired likelihood of a user
obtaining channel access given a specific number of channels available in a system. GOS is
typically given as the likelihood that a call is blocked, or the likelihood of a call experiencing a
delay greater than a certain queuing time.

The traffic intensity offered by each user is equal to the call request rate
multiplied by the call holding time.

Au = λH

Where H is the average duration of a call and λ is the average number of call requests per unit
time for each user.

For a system containing U users and an unspecified number of channel, the total offered
traffic intensity A, is given as

A = U Au

Furthermore, in a C channel trunked system, if the traffic is equally distributed among the
channels, then the traffic intensity per channel, Ac, is given as

Ac = U Au/C

There are two types of trunked systems which are commonly used.

(1) Blocked calls cleared

(2) Blocked calls delayed
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The blocked calls cleared type offers no queuing for call requests. If no channels are
available, the requesting user is blocked without access and is free to try again later. The
blocked calls cleared formula or Erlang B formula determines the probability that a call is
blocked and is a measure of the GOS for a trunked system which provides no queuing for
blocked calls. The Erlang B formula is given by

AC
Pr[blocking]  C!  GOS
C A K


k 0 K!

Where C is the number of trunked channels offered by a trunked radio system and A is the total
offered traffic.

The blocked calls delayed type is a kind of trunked system in which a queue is
provided to hold calls which are blocked. If a channel is not available immediately, the call
request may be delayed until a channel becomes available. The Erlang C formula determines
the likelihood of a call not having immediate access to a channel. The Erlang C formula is
given by

Pr[delay  0] 
AC
 A C1 A K
A  C!1
C

 
Ck 0


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UNIT III DIGITAL SIGNALING FOR FADING CHANNELS

PART-A
1. What are the main features of QPSK? (June 2014)
As with DSB -SC modulation, BPSSK requires a transmission bandwidth twice the
message bandwidth. Now, Channel bandwidth is a primary resource that should be
conserved, particularly in wireless communications.
2. List the advantages of GMSK. (Dec 2014)
The properties of the MSK signal are
The MSK signal should have a constant envelope and a relatively narrow bandwidth
3. List the advantages of third generation (3G) networks. (Dec 2014)
Another3G system based on CDMA is a direct sequence (OS) spread spectrum system in
which the entire bandwidth of the carrier channel is made available to each user
simultaneously.
4. Differentiate Cellular telephony and Cordless telephony.
A cordless telephone or portable telephone replaces the handset cord with a radio link. The
handset communicates with a base station connected to a fixed telephone line.
5. Compute the Rayleigh distance of a square Antenna with 20 dB gain.
The minimum range length to avoid this error is the Rayleigh distance:
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A few trial calculations will show that miles of range can be required for large dishes.
Fortunately, the Rayleigh distance for the 25 inch dish which I wanted to measure is only
91 feet.
6. List out any two properties of wideband channel.
Radio channels are inherently barvl-limited, implying that they may be sampled at the
Nyquist rate. This result simplifies the simulation and analysis of complicated wideband
channels.
The wideband models treat the propagation channel as frequency -selective; different
frequency sub-bands have different channel responses

7. Draw the mathematical link model for analysis of modulation schemes.

Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform,
called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal which typically contains information to
be transmitted
8. Comment on the necessity of a Gaussian filter in GMSK.
The properties of the MSK signal are The MSK signal should have a constant envelope
and a relatively narrow bandwidth
9. Discuss the principle of OFDM modulation scheme.
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a method of encoding digital data
on multiple carrier frequencies.
10. Define cyclic prefix.(Dec 2012)
In OFDM, delay dispersion leads to a loss of orthogonality between the subcarriers and
thus leads to Inter Carrier Interference (ICI). These negative effects can be eliminated by a
special type of guard interval called the cyclic prefix.

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Part – B
1. Explain MSK transmitter and receiver with signal space diagram and give
an expression for spectral efficiency.
(June 13)

Minimum shift keying (MSK) is a special type of continuous phase.frequency shift keying
(CPFSK) wherein the peak frequency deviation is equal to 1/4 the bit rate. In other words,
MSK is continuous phase FSK with a modulation index of 0.5 .A modulation index of 0.5
corresponds to the minimum frequency spacing that allows two FSK signals to be coherently
orthogonal, and the name minimum shift keying implies the minimum frequency separation
(i,e. bandwidth) that allows orthogonal detection.

Where

MSK is sometimes referred to as fast FSK, as the frequency spacing used is only half as
much as that used in conventional noncoherent FSK.

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It contains orthogonal basis functions Φ1(t) and Φ2(t) they form a pair of modulated carriers.

We may express the MSK signal in the expanded form

MSK is a spectrally efficient modulation scheme and is particularly attractive for use in mobile
radio communication systems. It possesses properties such as constant envelope, spectral
efficiency, good BER performance, and self-synchronizing capability Constellation diagram

Constellation diagram of an MSK signal is two dimensional with four message

points.
N=2
M=4
In MSk,the transmitted symbol is represented by one of two message points at
any one time depending on the value ofθ(0)

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Error performance of MSK

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Generation of MSK

Figure 3.13 Block diagram of MSK modulator

Figure 3.13 shows a typical MSK modulator. Multiplying a carrier signal with cos [π t/2T]
produces two phase-coherent signals at fc + 1 /4T and –fc + — I /4T. These two FSK signals are
separated using two narrow bandpass filters and appropriately combined to form the in-phase and
quadrature carrier components x(t) and y(t), respectively. These carriers are multiplied with the
odd and even bit streams, rnI(t) and mQ(t), to produce the MSK modulated
signal SMSK(t).
Demodulation of MSK
The block diagram of an MSK receiver is shown in Figure 3.14. The received signal SMSK(t) (in
the absence of noise and interference) is multiplied by the respective in- phase and quadrature
carriers x(t) and y(t). The output of the multipliers are integrated over two bit periods and
dumped to a decision circuit at the end of each two bit periods. Based on the level of the signal at
the output of the integrator, the threshold detector decides whether the signal is
a 0 or a1. The output data streams correspond to rnI(t) and mQ(t), which are offset combined to
obtain the demodulated signal.

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Figure 3.14 block diagram of an MSK receiver

Properties
 It has constant envelope, smoother waveforms are obtained
 Relatively narrow bandwidth
 Coherent detection suitable for satellite communication
 Side lobes are zero outside the frequency band, so it has resistance to co- channel
interference
Advantages
1. Smoother waveform than QPSK
2. There is no amplitude variation, constant envelope.
3. Main lobe is wider, contains 99% of signal energy.
4. Less inter channel interference
5. Spectral efficiency is good; BER performance is suitable for mobile radio
communication systems.
Disadvantages
1. Complex circuits are needed for generation and detection of MSK signal.
2. Main lobe of MSK is wide
3. Slow decay of MSK power spectral density creates adjacent channel
interference.
4. Not suitable for multi user communications
5. Bandwidth required is higher than that of QPSK scheme.
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2. Explain with neat diagram QPSK transmission and reception technique and
their significance in wireless system. (16) (June 2014)
Quadrature-Phase Shift Keying
A Quadrature-Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)-modulated signal is a PAM where the signal
carries bit per symbol interval on both the in-phase and quadrature-phase component. The
original data stream is split into two streams, b1i and b2i:

each of which has a data rate that is half that of the original data stream:

Let us first consider the situation where basis pulses are rectangular pulses, g(t) = gR(t, TS).
Then we can give an interpretation of QPSK as either a phase modulation or as a PAM. We
first define two sequences of pulses

When interpreting QPSK as a PAM, the bandpass signal reads

Normalization is done in such a way that the energy within one symbol interval is 2EB, where
EB is the energy expended on transmission of a bit. The baseband signal is

When interpreting QPSK as a phase modulation, the low-pass signal can be written as
√2EB/TB exp(jΦS(t)) with:

It is obvious from this representation that the signal is constant envelope, except for the
transition at t = iTS

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Signal space diagram of quadrature-phase

shift keying.

Normalized power-spectral density of

quadrature-phase shift keying.

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QPSK Transmission
Figure 3.4 shows a block diagram of a typical QPSK transmitter. The unipolar binary
message stream has bit rate Rb and is first converted into a bipolar non-return-to-zero (NRZ) sequence
using a unipolar to bipolar convener. The bit stream m (t) is then split into two bit streams mI (t) and
mQ (t) (in-phase and quadrature streams), each having a bit rate of Rs = Rb/2. The bit stream m1 (t)
is called the "even" stream and mQ (t) is called the "odd" stream. The two binary sequences are
separately modulated by two carriers Φ1(t) and Φ2(t) which are in quadrature. The two modulated
signals, each of which can be considered to be a BPSK signal, are summed to produce a QPSK signal.
The filter at the output of the modulator confines the power spectrum of the QPSK signal within the
allocated band. This prevents spill-over of signal energy into adjacent channels and also removes out-
of-band spurious signals generated during the modulation process. In most implementations, pulse
shaping is done at baseband to provide proper RF filtering at the transmitter output.

Block diagram of a QPSK transmitter.

Figure 3.5 shows a block diagram of a coherent QPSK receiver. The frontend bandpass filter removes
the out-of-band noise and adjacent channel interference. The filtered output is split into two parts, and
each part is coherently demodulated using the in-phase and quadrature carriers. The coherent carriers
used for demodulation are recovered from the received signal using carrier recovery circuits. The
outputs of the demodulators are passed through decision circuits which generate the in-phase and
quadrature binary streams. The two components are then multiplexed to reproduce the original binary
sequence.

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Block diagram of a QPSK receiver.

Advantages:
1. Higher data rate.
2. Bandwidth conservation is achieved.
Disadvantages:
1. Signals are amplified using linear amplifiers, which are less efficient
2. Only suitable for rectangular data pulses
3. QPSK phase changes by 90° or 180°. This creates abrupt amplitude variations in the
waveform
3.Explain with neat diagram, the principle of Gaussian Minimum shift keying receiver and men

GMSK (Gaussian MSK) is CPFSK with modulation index hmod = 0.5 and Gaussian phase
basis pulses:

Thus the sequence of transmit phase pulses is

We see that GMSK achieves better spectral efficiency than MSK because it uses the smoother
Gaussian phase basis pulses as opposed to the rectangular ones of MSK

GMSK is a simple binary modulation scheme. The side lobe levels of the spectrum are much reduced
by passing the modulating NRZ data waveform through a pre-modulation Gaussian

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pulse-shaping filter. Gaussian refers to the shape of filter. GMSK has excellent power efficiency
and spectral efficiency than conventional FSK.

Properties of Gaussian filter

 Suppress the high frequency components of the transmitted signal
 Avoids excessive deviations in the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal
 Detect coherently or non-coherently the GMSK signal
 Gaussian filter is used before the modulator to reduce the transmitting bandwidth of the
signal.
Features
 It has excellent power efficiency due to the constant envelope and it has excellent spectral
efficiency.
 The pre-modulation Gaussian filtering introduces ISI in the transmitted signal. But the
degradation is not severe if 3dB bandwidth bit duration product of the filter is greater than 0.5.

GMSK Bit Error Rate

The bit en-or rate for GMSK was first found in for AWON channels, and was shown to offer
performance within 1 dB of optimum MSK when BT=0.25. The bit error probability is a
function of BT, since the pulse shaping impacts ISI. The bit error probability for GMSK is given
by

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GMSK Transmitter

Block diagram of GMSK Transmitter

This modulation technique is shown in Figure 3.15 and is currently used in a variety of analog and
digital implementations for the U.S. Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) system as well as for the
Global System for Mobile (GSM) system. Figure 3.15 may also be implemented digitally using a
standard I/Q modulator.

GMSK Receiver
GMSK signals can be detected using orthogonal coherent detectors as shown in Figure 3.16, or
with simple noncoherent detectors such as standard FM discriminators. Carrier recovery is sometimes
performed using a method suggested by de Buda where the sum of the two discrete frequency
components contained at the output of a frequency doubler is divided by four. DeBuda's method is
similar to the Costas loop and is equivalent to that of a PLL with a frequency doubler. This type of
receiver can be easily implemented using digital

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logic as shown in Figure 3.17. The two D flip-flops act as a quadrature product demodulator and the
XOR gates act as baseband multipliers. The mutually orthogonal reference carriers are generated using
two D flip-flops, and the VCO center frequency is set equal to four times the carrier center frequency.
A non-optimum, but highly effective method of detecting GMSK signal is to simply sample the output
of an FM demodulator.

Block diagram of a GMSK receiver

4. Describe with block diagram π/4 QPSK and its advantages. (Dec 2014)
The π /4 shifted QPSK modulation is a quadrature phase shift keying unique which offers
a compromise between OQPSK and QPSK in terms of the allowed maximum phase transitions. It
may be demodulated in a coherent or noncoherent fashion. In π /4 QPSK, the maximum phase
change is limited to ± 135°. as compared to 180° for QPSK and 90° for OQPSK. Hence, the band
limited π /4 QPSK signal preserves the constant envelope property better than band limited QPSK, but
is more susceptible to envelope variations than OQPSK. An extremely attractive feature of π /4 QPSK
is that it can be noncoherently detected, which greatly simplifies receiver design. Further, it has been
found that in the presence of multipath spread and fading, π /4 QPSK performs better than OQPSK.
When differentially encoded, π
/4 QPSK is called π /4 DQPSK
Constellation diagram of π /4 QPSK

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Features of π /4 QPSK
 Class C power efficient amplifiers are used
 Low out of band radiation of the order of -60 dB to -70 dB can be achieved
 Simple limiter, discriminator circuits are used.
 Receiver circuits provide high immunity
 Constant envelope modulation are power efficient.
Disadvantages:
1. They occupy a large bandwidth
2. So, poor bandwidth efficiency.
π /4 QPSK Transmission Techniques

Block diagram of π /4 QPSK Transmission

Just as in a QPSK modulator, the in-phase and quadrature bit streams Ik and Qk are then separately
modulated by two carriers which are in quadrature with one another, to produce the π /4 QPSK
Both Ik and Qk are usually passed through raised cosine rolloff pulse shaping

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filters before modulation, in order to reduce the bandwidth occupancy. Pulse shaping also reduces
the spectral restoration problem.
Carrier phase shifts corresponding to various input Bit pairs
Information bits Phase shifts
11 π/4
01 3π/4
00 -3π/4
10 -π/4

π /4 QPSK Detection Techniques

Due to ease of hardware implementation, differential detection is often employed to demodulate
π /4 QPSK signals. In an AWGN channel, the BER performance of a differentially detected π /4
QPSK is about 3 dB inferior to QPSK, while coherently detected π /4 QPSK has the same error
performance as QPSK. There are various types of detection techniques that are used for the detection of
π /4 QPSK signals. They include
1. Baseband differential detection,
2. IF differential detection,and
3. FM discriminator detection.
Baseband Differential Detection

Block diagram of a baseband differential detector

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Figure 3.7 shows a block diagram of a baseband differential detector. The incoming π /4 QPSK signal
is quadrature demodulated using two local oscillator signals that have the same frequency as the
unmodulated carrier at the transmitter, but not necessarily the same phase.In decision device SI and
SQ are the detected bits in the in-phase and quadrature terms, respectively. These two bits are
multiplexed to get an output.
Advantages
1. Easy to implement
2. Simple hardware circuits
Disadvantages
1. Any drift in the carrier frequency will cause a drift in the output phase.
2. It leads to BER degradation
IF Differential Detector

IF differential detector

The IF differential detector shown in Figure 3.8 avoids the need for a local oscillator by using a delay
line and two phase detectors. The received signal is converted to IF and is bandpass filtered. The
bandpass filter is designed to match the transmitted pulse shape, so that the carrier phase is preserved
and noise power is minimized. The minimize the effect of IS! and noise, the bandwidth of the filters are
chosen to be 0.57/Ts. The received IF signal is differentially decoded using a delay line and two
mixers. The bandwidth of the signal at the output of the differential detector is twice that of the
baseband signal at the transmitter end.
FM Discriminator

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Block diagram of an FM discriminator detector

Figure 3.9 shows a block diagram of an FM discriminator detector for it π /4 QPSK. The input signal
is first filtered using a bandpass filter that is matched to the transmitted signal. The filtered signal is
then hard limited to remove any envelope fluctuations. Hard limiting preserves the phase changes in
the input signal and hence no information is lost. The FM discriminator extracts the instantaneous
frequency deviation of the received signal which, when integrated over each symbol period gives the
phase difference between two sampling instants. The phase difference is then detected by a four level
threshold comparator to obtain the original signal. The phase difference can also be detected using a
modulo-2 π phase detector. The modulo-2 π phase detector improves the BER performance and
reduces the effect of click noise.
5.Describe with necessary diagram the operation of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a modulation scheme that is

especially suited for high-data-rate transmission in delay-dispersive environments. It converts a high-
rate data stream into a number of low-rate streams that are transmitted over parallel, narrowband
channels that can be easily equalized.

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Principle behind orthogonal frequency division multiplexing: N carriers within a bandwidth of

W
Implementation of Transceivers
Transceiver structures for orthogonal frequency division multiplexing in purely analog
technology, and using inverse fast Fourier transformation

.Cyclic Prefix

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Principle of the cyclic prefix.Ncp = NTcp/(N/W) is the number of samples in the cyclic prefix

Structure of an orthogonal-frequency-division-multiplexing transmission chain with cyclic prefix and one-tap equ

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UNIT IV MULTIPATH MITIGATION

TECHNIQUES PART-A
1. State the principle of diversity.(June 2013) (Dec 2013)
There are many categories of diversity implementations. Diversity is a way to increase the bit
error rate by changing the channel statistics. It assures that the signal to noise ratio is less when
increasing the bit error rate.
2. What is Equalization? (Dec 2013)
Generally equalization is a technique which is used to increase the received signal quality and
link performance. This compensates for inter symbol interference created by multipath within
time dispersive channels.
3. Compare macro and micro diversity. (Dec 2014)
There are many categories of diversity implementations. Diversity is a way to increase the bit
error rate by changing the channel statistics. It assures that the signal to noise ratio is less when
increasing the bit error rate.
4. What are the applications of non linear equalizers? (June 2014)
The fundamental concept of this type of equalizer is that once an information system has been
detected and decided upon, the IS! which it induces on future symbols can be estimated and
subtracted out before detection of subsequent symbols.
5. List the advantages of digital modulation techniques.
Greater noise immunity, robustness to channel impairments, easier multiplexing of
various forms of information, Greater security
6.State the significance of linear and decision feedback equalizer.
If the analog signal is not used in the feedback path to adapt the equalizer then it is referred as linear equaliz

7. Assume four branch diversity is used, where each branch receives an

independent
Rayleigh fading signal. If the average SNR is 20 dB, determine the probability that the 8NR
will drop below 10 dB. Compare this. with the case of a single receiver without
diversity.
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8. Draw the structure of linear transversal equalizer? (Dec 2015

Structure of linear Transversal equalizer:

9. Why nonlinear equalizers are preferred? List out the nonlinear equalization
methods. (Dec 2012)
The linear equalizers are very effective in equalizing channels where ISI is not severe. The severity
of ISI is directly related to the spectral characteristics. In this case there are spectrel nulls in the
transfer function of the effective channel, the additive noise at the receiver input will be dramatically
enhanced by the linear equalizer. To overcome this problem, non linear equalizers can be used.
Decision feedback equalization (DFE), Maximum likelihood symbol detection and Maximum
likelihood sequence estimation (MLSE) are the nonlinear equalization methods used.
10. What is the need for diversity schemes?(May 2012)

To increase signal to noise ratio, For error free digital transmission, To degrade the bit error
probability.

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Part –B

1. Briefly explain about linear equalizers. (Dec 13)

Linear equalizer in the time domain (a) and time-discrete equivalent system in the z-
transform domain (b)

Structure of a linear transversal filter. Remember that z−1 represents a delay by one sample

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Zero-Forcing Equalizer

Illustration of noise enhancement in zero-forcing equalizer (a), which is mitigated in an MMSElinear

equalizer (b)
The Mean Square Error Equalizer
The ultimate goal of an equalizer is minimization, not of the ISI, but of the bit error probability. Noise
enhancement makes the ZF equalizer ill-suited for this purpose. A better criterion is minimization of the
Mean Square Error (MSE) between the transmit signal and the output of the equalizer. We are thus
searching for a filter that minimizes:

MSE = E |εi|2 = E εiεi∗

This can be achieved with a filter whose coefficients e opt are given by
eopt = R−1p
where R = E{u∗i uT i } is the correlation matrix of the received signal, and p = E{u∗i ci} the cross
correlation between the received signal and the transmit signal. Considering the frequency domain,
concatenation of the noise-whitening filter with the equalizer E(z) has the transfer function: E(z) ˜ =
1/E(z) + N0/σ2s which is the transfer function of the Wiener filter.

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Comparison shows that the noise power of an MMSE equalizer is smaller than that of a ZF equalizer
2. Explain about DFE and MLSE equalizer. (Dec 13)
A decision feedback equalizer (DFE) has a simple underlying premise: once we have detected
a bit correctly, we can use this knowledge in conjunction with knowledge of the channel impulse
response to compute the ISI caused by this bit. In other words, we determine the effect this bit will
have on subsequent samples of the receive signal. The ISI caused by each bit can then be
subtracted from these later samples. The block diagram of a DFE is shown. The DFE consists of a
forward filter with transfer function E(z), which is a conventional linear equalizer, as well as a
feedbackfilter with transfer function D(z). As soon as the RX has decided on a received symbol, its
impact on all future samples (postcursorISI ) can be computed, and (via the feedback) subtracted
from the received signal. A key point is the fact that the ISI is computed based on the signal after the
hard decision; this eliminates additive noise from the feedback signal. Therefore, a DFE results in a
smaller error probability than a linear equalizer. One possible source of problems is error
propagation. If the RX decides incorrectly for one bit, then the computed postcursor ISI is also
erroneous, so that later\ signal samples arriving at the decision device are even more afflicted by ISI
than the unequalized samples. This leads to a vicious cycle of wrong decisions and wrong
subtraction of postcursors. Error propagation does not usually play a role when the BER is small.
Note, however, that small error rates are often achieved via coding. It may therefore be necessary to
decode the bits, re-encode them (such that the signal becomes a noise- free version of the received
signal), and use this new signal in the feedback from the DFE.

Structure of a decision feedback equalizer.

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MMSE Decision Feedback Equalizer
The goal of the MMSE DFE is again minimization of the MSE, by striking a balance between noise
enhancement and residual ISI. As noise enhancement is different in the DFE case from that of linear
equalizers, the coefficients for the forward filter are different: as postcursor ISI does not contribute
to noise enhancement, we now aim to minimize the sum of noise and (average) precursor
ISI. The coefficients of the feedforward filter can be computed from the following equation:

whereKff is the number of taps in the feedforward filter. The coefficients of the feedback filter are
then

whereKfb is the number of taps in the feedback filter

Assuming some idealizations (the feedback filter must be at least as long as the postcursor ISI;it must
have as many taps as required to fulfill Eq. (16.30); there is no error propagation), the MSE
at the equalizer output is

3.Explain diversity techniques to combat small scale fading (June 2013)

Methods that can be used to combat small-scale fading, which are therefore called
“microdiversity.” The five most common methods are as follows:
Spatial diversity: several antenna elements separated in space.
MS in cellular and cordless systems: it is a standard assumption that waves are incident from all
directions at the MS. Thus, points of constructive and destructive interference of Multi Path
Components (MPCs) – i.e., points where we have high and low received power, respectively – are
spaced approximately λ/4 apart. This is therefore the distance that is
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required for decorrelation of received signals. This intuitive insight agrees very well with the results
from the exact mathematical derivation (Eq. (13.4), with f2 − f1 = 0), decorrelation, defined as ρ =
0.5, occurs at an antenna separation of λ/4. The above considerations imply that the minimum
distance for antenna elements in GSM (at 900 MHz) is about 8 cm, and for various cordless and
cellular systems at the 1,800-MHz band it is about 4 cm. For Wireless Local Area Networks
(WLANs) (at 2.4 and 5 GHz), the distances are even smaller. It is thus clearly possible to place two
antennas on an MS of a cellular system.
BS in cordless systems and WLANs: in a first approximation, the angular distribution of incident
radiation at indoor BSs is also uniform – i.e., radiation is incident with equal strength from all
directions. Therefore, the same rules apply as for MSs.
BSs in cellular systems: for a cellular BS, the assumption of uniform directions of incidence is no
longer valid. Interacting Objects (IOs) are typically concentrated around the MS. Since all waves are
incident essentially from one direction, the correlation
Temporal diversity: transmission of the transmit signal at different times.
Temporal diversity can be realized in different ways: 1. Repetition coding: this is the simplest
form. The signal is repeated several times, where the repetition intervals are long enough to achieve
decorrelation. This obviously achieves diversity, but is also highly bandwidth inefficient. Spectral
efficiency decreases by a factor that is equal to the number of repetitions.
2. Automatic Repeat reQuest( ARQ): here, the RX sends a message to the TX to indicate whether
it received the data with sufficient quality. If this is not the case, then the transmission is repeated
(after a wait period that achieves decorrelation). The spectral efficiency of ARQ is better than that of
repetition coding, since it requires multiple transmissions only when the first transmission occurs in a
bad fading state, while for repetition coding, retransmissions occur always. On the downside, ARQ
requires a feedback channel.
3. Combination of interleaving and coding: a more advanced version of repetition coding is
forward error correction coding with interleaving. The different symbols of a codeword are
transmitted at different times, which increase the probability that at least some of them arrive with a
good SNR. The transmitted codeword can then be reconstructed.
Frequency diversity: transmission of the signal on different frequencies.
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This spreading can be done by different methods: • Compressing the information in time: – i.e.,
sending short bursts that each occupy a large bandwidth – TDMA
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
• Multicarrier CDMA and coded orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
• Frequency hopping in conjunction with coding: different parts of a codeword are transmitted
on different carrier frequencies
Angular diversity: multiple antennas (with or without spatial separation) with different antenna
patterns.
Polarization diversity: multiple antennas with different polarizations (e.g., vertical and
horizontal).
Horizontally and vertically polarized MPCs propagate differently in a wireless channel, as the
reflection and diffraction processes depend on polarization. Even if the transmit antenna only sends
signals with a single polarization, the propagation effects in the channel lead to depolarization so that
both polarizations arrive at the RX. The fading of signals with different polarizations is statistically
independent. Thus, receiving both polarizations using a dual- polarized antenna, and processing the
signals separately, offers diversity. This diversity can be obtained without any requirement for a
minimum distance between antenna elements.

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4. Explain with diagram the different techniques available for signal
combining. (June 2014)
Selection diversity

Switched Diversity
The main drawback of selection diversity is that the selection criteria (power, BER, etc.) of all
diversity branches have to be monitored in order to know when to select a different antenna. As we
have shown above, this leads to either increased hardware effort or reduced spectral efficiency. An
alternative solution, which avoids these drawbacks, is switched diversity. In this method, the
selection criterion of just the active diversity branch is monitored.
If it falls below a certain threshold, then the RX switches to a different antenna. Switching only
depends on the quality of the active diversity branch; it does not matter whether the other branch
actually provides a better signal quality or not. Switched diversity runs into problems when both
branches have signal quality below the threshold: in that
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case, the RX just switches back and forth between the branches.
This problem can be avoided by introducing a hysteresis or hold time, so that the new diversity
branch is used for a certain amount of time, independent of the actual signal quality. We thus have
two free parameters: switching threshold and hysteresis time. These parameters have to be selected
very carefully: if the threshold is chosen too low, then a diversity branch is used even when the other
antenna might offer
better quality; if it is chosen too high, then it becomes probable that the branch the RX switches
to actually offers lower signal quality than the currently active one. If hysteresis time is chosen
too long, then a “bad” diversity branch can be used for a long time; if it is chosen too short, then
the RX spends all the time switching between two antennas. Summarizing, the performance of
switched diversity is worse than that of selection diversity Combining Diversity

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5. Explain with diagram how Rake receiver provides diversity to improve
the performance of CDMA receiver. (16) (June 2014)
The Rake receiver is a tapped delay line, whose outputs are weighted and added up.
The tap delays, as well as the tap weights, are adjustable, and matched to the channel.
Note that the taps are usually spaced at least one chip duration apart, but there is no requirement
for the taps to be spaced at regular intervals. The combination of the receiver filter and the Rake
receiver constitutes a filter that is matched to the receive signal.
The receive filter is matched to the transmit signal, while the Rake receiver is matched to the
channel. Independent of this interpretation, the receiver adds up the (weighted) signal from the
different Rake fingers in a coherent way.
As these signals correspond to different MPCs, their fading is (approximately) statistically
independent – in other words, they provide delay diversity (frequency diversity). A Rake receiver is
thus a diversity receiver, and all mathematical methods for the treatment of diversity remain valid.

Diagram of Rake receiver.

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A Rake receiver is thus a diversity receiver, can be implemented in a practical Rake combiner is
limited by power consumption, design complexity, and channel estimation. A Rake receiver that
processes only a subset of the available Lr resolved MPCs achieves lower complexity, while still
providing a performance that is better than that of a single-path receiver. The Selective Rake (SRake)
receiver selects the Lb best paths (a subset of the Lr available resolved MPCs) and then combines the
selected subset using maximum-ratio combining.

Another possibility is the Partial Rake (PRake), which uses the first Lf MPCs. Although the
performance it provides is not as good, it only needs to estimate L f MPCs. Another generally important
problem for Rake receivers is interpath interference. An alternative to this combination of Rake
receiver and symbol-spaced equalizer is the chip-based equalizer, where an equalizer works directly on
the output of the despreader sampled at the chip rate. This method is optimum, but very complex.
The basic nature of a CDMA system is to spread the signal over a large bandwidth; thus, it can
be anticipated that the transfer function of the channel exhibits variations over this bandwidth. If the
channel is slowly time variant, the effective impulse response can be written as

(5.1)
where the effective system impulse response ˜p(τ ) is the convolution of the transmit and receive
spreading sequence:

(5.2)

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UNIT V MULTIPLE ANTENNA TECHNIQUES

PART-A
1. List the different types of channel coding techniques. (Dec 2014)
Repetition coding, Automatic repeat request.
2. What is frequency hopped multiple access?(June 2014)
In this type of method, at the same time, all the people can send the signals. These
users are differ in the frequency of operation.
3. Write about MMSE decision feedback equalizer. (May 2015)
The fundamental concept of this type of equalizer is that once an information system has
been detected and decided upon, the ISI which it induces on future symbols can be
estimated and subtracted out before detection of subsequent symbols.
4. Characterize the effects of multipath propagation on code division multiple
access.(May 2015)
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a surface that is large relative to the wavelength
of the signal. Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large
compared to wavelength of radio wave.
5. What do you mean by transmit diversity? (May 2015)
There are many transmit antennas in the transmit diversity. The transmit power is divided
among these antennas. The systems need transmit diversity when it holds more.
6. Define coding gain. (MAY/JUNE 2016)
Coding is the embedding of signal constellation points in a higher dimensional signaling
space. The theory of coding says that it holds for temporally constant and temporally
varying channels.
7. Define Spatial multiplexing.
Capacity gain at no additional power or bandwidth consumption obtained through the use
of multiple antennas at both sides of a wireless radio link.

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8. Define Diversity gain.

Improvement in link reliability obtained by transmitting the same data on independently
fading branches.
9. Define Transmit diversity. (Dec 2015)
Transmit diversity is radio communication using signals that originate from two or more
independent sources that have been modulated with identical information- bearing signals
and that may vary in their transmission characteristics at any given instant.
10. Define Receiver diversity.
Receive diversity improves the bit error rate (BER) performance. In this post, let us try
to understand the BER improvement with receive diversity.
11. What is antenna diversity(space diversity). ? (Dec 2015)
Conventional wireless systems consist of an elevated base station antenna and a mobile
antenna close to the ground .The existence of direct path between the transmitter &
receiver is not guaranteed and the possibility of a number of scatterers is large from this
JAKES deduced that the signal received from spatially separated antennas on the mobile
would have essentially uncorrelated envelopes for antenna separations of one half
wavelength or more.

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PART-B
1. Discuss about the MIMO systems in detail.
• A MIMO system consists of several antenna elements, plus adaptive signal
processing, at both transmitter and receiver
First introduced at Stanford University (1994) and Lucent (1996)
Exploit multipath instead of mitigating it

MIMO:

High data rate wireless communications links with transmission rates nearing 1
Gigabit/second (will quantify a “bit” shortly)

Provide high speed links that still offer good Quality of Service (QoS) (will be quantified
mathematically)

• Single-Input-Single-Output (SISO) antenna system:

• Theoretically, the 1Gbps barrier can be achieved using this configuration if you are
allowed to use much power and as much BW as you so please!
• Extensive research has been done on SISO under power and BW constraints. A
combination a smart modulation, coding and multiplexing techniques have yielded
good results but far from the 1Gbps barrier.

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MIMO Antenna Configuration:

Use multiple transmit and multiple receive antennas for a single user

Now this system promises enormous data rates!

MIMO Design Criterion:

MIMO Systems can provide two types of gain

Spatial Multiplexing Gain:

• Maximize transmission rate (optimistic approach)

• Use rich scattering/fading to your advantage

Diversity Gain:

• Minimize Pe (conservative approach)

• Go for Reliability / QoS etc
• Combat fading

Diversity:

• Each pair of transmit-receive antennas provides a signal path from transmitter to

receiver. By sending the SAME information through different paths, multiple
independently-faded replicas of the data symbol can be obtained at the receiver end.
Hence, more reliable reception is achieved
• A diversity gain d implies that in the high SNR region, my Pe decays at a rate of
1/SNRd as opposed to 1/SNR for a SISO system
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• The maximal diversity gain dmax is the total number of independent signal paths
that exist between the transmitter and receiver
• For an (MR,MT) system, the total number of signal paths is MRMT
• 1 ≤ d ≤ dmax= MRMT
• The higher my diversity gain, the lower my Pe

MIMO Benefits :
higher capacity (bits/s/Hz)
(spectrum is expensive; number of base stations limited)
better transmission quality (BER, outage)
Increased coverage
Improved user position estimation
2.Explain in detail how inherent delay in a multiuser system is overcome by beamforming.(MAY

 Beamforming or spatial filtering is a signal processing technique used in sensor arrays for
directional signal transmission or reception.

 This is achieved by combining elements in a phased array in such a way that signals at
particular angles experience constructive interference while others experience destructive
interference.

 Beamforming can be used at both the transmitting and receiving ends in order to achieve
spatial selectivity. The improvement compared with omni
directional reception/transmission is known as the receive/transmit gain (or loss).

 Beamforming can be used for radio or sound waves. It has found numerous applications
in radar, sonar, seismology, wireless communications, radio astronomy, acoustics, and
biomedicine.

 Adaptive beamforming is used to detect and estimate the signal-of-interest at the output
of a sensor array by means of optimal (e.g., least-squares) spatial filtering and
interference rejection.

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• Desired signal maximization mode

• Interference signal minimization or cancellation mode
Conventional beamformers use a fixed set of weightings and time-delays (or phasings) to
combine the signals from the sensors in the array, primarily using only information about the
location of the sensors in space and the wave directions of interest. In contrast, adaptive
beamforming techniques generally combine this information with properties of the signals
actually received by the array, typically to improve rejection of unwanted signals from other
directions. This process may be carried out in either the time or the frequency domain.

As the name indicates, an adaptive beamformer is able to automatically adapt its response to
different situations. Some criterion has to be set up to allow the adaption to proceed such as
minimizing the total noise output. Because of the variation of noise with frequency, in wide
band systems it may be desirable to carry out the process in the frequency domain.

Beamforming can be computationally intensive. Sonar phased array has a data rate low enough
that it can be processed in real-time in software, which is flexible enough to transmit and/or
receive in several directions at once. In contrast, radar phased array has a data rate so high that it
usually requires dedicated hardware processing, which is hard-wired to transmit and/or receive in
only one direction at a time. However, newer field programmable gate arrays are fast enough
to handle radar data in real-time, and can be quickly re-programmed like software, blurring the
hardware/software distinction.

3. Discuss about Spatial multiplexing of a MIMO system in detail.

We send multiple signals, the receiver learns the channel matrix and inverts it to
separate the data.

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 MIMO spatial multiplexing in Line-of-sight

 The system is near rank one (non invertible)

 Spatial multiplexing requires multipath to work

Spatial Multiplexing:
y = Hs + n  y’ = Ds’ + n’ (through SVD on H)

where D is a diagonal matrix that contains the eigenvalues of HHH Viewing the
MIMO received vector in a different but equivalent way,
CEP = log 2 [IM + (P/MT)DDH] = log 2 [1 + (P/MT)‫ג‬i] b/s/Hz Equivalent

form tells us that an (MT,MR) MIMO channel opens up

m = min (MT,MR) independent SISO channels between the transmitter and the receiver

So, intuitively, I can send a maximum of m different information symbols over the
channel at any given time.
Practical System:

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rs : number of different symbols N transmitted in T symbol periods rs = N/T

Spectral efficiency = (R*rc info bits/symbol)(rs)(Rs symbols/sec)/w
= Rrcrs bits/s/Hz assuming Rs = w
rs is the parameter that we are concerned about: 0 ≤ rs ≤ MT
** If rs = MT, we are in spatial multiplexing mode (max transmission rate)
**If rs ≤ 1, we are in diversity mode
MIMO Systems are getting us closer to the 1Gbps landmark (aspiration 1)
At the same time, they provide reliable communications (aspiration 2)

4. Discuss about transmitter diversity, receiver diversity in detail.

By combining signals from different at the RX, the total quality of the signal is improved.
Signals selected from the multiple diversity branches by

1. Selection diversity, where the “best” signal copy is selected and processed (demodulated and
decoded), while all other copies are discarded. There are different criteria for what constitutes the
“best” signal.

2. Combining diversity, where all copies of the signal are combined (before or after the
demodulator), and the combined signal is decoded. Again, there are different algorithms for
combination of the signals.

Combining diversity leads to better performance, as all available information is exploited.

We also have to keep in mind that the gain of multiple antennas is due to two effects:

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 diversity gain
 beamforming gain.
Diversity gain reflects the fact that it is improbable that several antenna elements are in a fading
dip simultaneously; the probability for very low signal levels is thus decreased by the use of
multiple antenna elements.

Beamforming gain reflects the fact that (for combining diversity) the combiner performs an
averaging over the noise at different antennas. Thus, even if the signal levels at all antenna
elements are identical; the combiner output SNR is larger than the SNR at a single-antenna
element.

Selection Diversity

Received-Signal-Strength-Indication-Driven Diversity

In this method, the RX selects the signal with the largest instantaneous power (or Received
Signal Strength Indication – RSSI ), and processes it further. This method requires Nr antenna
elements, Nr RSSI sensors, and a Nr-to-1 multiplexer (switch), but only one RF chain (see
Figure 4.7). The method allows simple tracking of the selection criterion even in fast-fading
channels. Thus, we can switch to a better antenna as soon as the RSSI becomes higher there.

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Selection diversity principle: (a) Received-signal-strength-indication-controlled diversity.

(b) Bit error- rate-controlled diversity.

1. If the BER is determined by noise, then RSSI-driven diversity is the best of all the selection
diversity methods, as maximization of the RSSI also maximizes the SNR.

2. If the BER is determined by co-channel interference, then RSSI is no longer a good selection
criterion. High receive power can be caused by a high level of interference, such that the RSSI
criterion makes the system select branches with a low signal-to- interference ratio.

3. Similarly, RSSI-driven diversity is suboptimum if the errors are caused by the frequency
selectivity of the channel. RSSI-driven diversity can still be a reasonable approximation,
because that errors caused by signal distortion occur mainly in the fading

The cdf is, by definition, the probability that the instantaneous SNR lies below a given level. As
the RX selects the branch with the largest SNR, the probability that the chosen signal lies below
the threshold is the product of the probabilities that the SNR at each branch is below the
threshold. In other words, the cdf of the selected signal is the product of the cdfs of each branch:

Advantages of RSSI:

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1. Only one RF chain is required. It is processed with only a single received signal at a
time.

2. Easy to implement.

Disadvantage of RSSI:

1. It wastes signal energy by discarding (Nr -1) copies of received signal.

2. It is not an optimum method.

Bit-Error-Rate-Driven Diversity

For BER-driven diversity, we first transmit a training sequence – i.e., a bit sequence that is
known at the RX. The RX then demodulates the signal from each receive antenna element and
compares it with the transmit signal. The antenna whose associated signal results in the smallest
BER is judged to be the “best,” and used for the subsequent reception of data signals. A similar
approach is the use of the mean square error of the “soft-decision” demodulated signal, or the
correlation between transmit and receive signal.

BER-driven diversity has several drawbacks:

1. The RX needs either Nr RF chains or demodulators (which makes the RX more complex), or
the training sequence has to be repeated Nr times (which decreases spectral efficiency), so that
the signal at all antenna elements can be evaluated.

2. If the RX has only one demodulator, then it is not possible to continuously monitor the
selection criterion (i.e., the BER) of all diversity branches. This is especially critical if the
channel changes quickly.

3. Since the duration of the training sequence is finite, the selection criterion – i.e., bit error
probability – cannot be determined exactly. The variance of the BER around its true mean
decreases as the duration of the training sequence increases.

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Disadvantage of BER

1. More number of RXs are needed, which makes the RX more complex.

2. The training sequence has to be repeated Nr times, which decreases spectral

efficiency.

3. If the channel changes quickly, more than one demodulators are required.

4. Duration of training sequence increases, BER decreases. So trade off between duration
of training sequence and BER is maintained.

5. Diversity branches are monitored all the times, so hardware effort increases,
spectral efficiency is reduced.

Switched Diversity

The main drawback of selection diversity is that the selection criteria (power, BER, etc.) of all
diversity branches have to be monitored in order to know when to select a different antenna. As
we have shown above, this leads to either increased hardware effort or reduced spectral
efficiency. An alternative solution, which avoids these drawbacks, is switched diversity. In this
method, the selection criterion of just the active diversity branch is monitored. If it falls below a
certain threshold, then the RX switches to a different antenna.

Switching only depends on the quality of the active diversity branch; it does not matter whether
the other branch actually provides a better signal quality or not.

Switched diversity runs into problems when both branches have signal quality below the
threshold. This problem can be avoided by introducing a hysteresis or hold time, so that the new
diversity branch is used for a certain amount of time, independent of the actual signal quality.
We thus have two free parameters: switching threshold and hysteresis time. These parameters
have to be selected very carefully: if the threshold is chosen too low, then a diversity branch is
used even when the other antenna might offer better quality; if it is chosen too high, then it
becomes probable that the branch the RX

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switches to actually offers lower signal quality than the currently active one. If hysteresis time is
chosen too long, then a “bad” diversity branch can be used for a long time; if it is chosen too
short, then the RX spends all the time switching between two antennas.

Disadvantage:

 Performance is worst than that of selection diversity.

Combining Diversity

Basic Principle

Selection diversity wastes signal energy by discarding (Nr − 1) copies of the received signal.
This drawback is avoided by combining diversity, which exploits all available signal copies.
Each signal copy is multiplied by a (complex) weight and then added up.

complex weight = phase correction + real weight of the amplitude

• Phase correction causes the signal amplitudes to add up, while, on the other hand, noise is
added incoherently, so that noise powers add up.

• For amplitude weighting, two methods are widely used:

 Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC) weighs all signal copies by their amplitude.
 Equal Gain Combining (EGC), where all amplitude weights are the same (in other
words, there is no weighting, but just a phase correction). The two/ methods are outlined
in Figure 4.8.
Maximum Ratio Combining

MRC compensates for the phases, and weights the signals from the different antenna branches
according to their SNR. This is the optimum way of combining different diversity branches – if
several assumptions are fulfilled. Let us assume a propagation channel that is slow fading and
flat fading. The only disturbance is AWGN. Under these assumptions, each channel realization
can be written as a time-invariant filter with impulse response:

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(4.6)

where αn is the (instantaneous) gain of diversity branch n. This signals at the different branches
are multiplied with weights w*n and added up, so that the SNR becomes

(4.7)

where Pn is the noise power per branch. The SNR is maximized by choosing the weights
as

(4.8)

i.e., the signals are phase-corrected (remember that the received signals are multiplied with w*)
and weighted by the amplitude. We can then easily see that in that case the output SNR of the
diversity combiner is the sum of the branch SNRs:

(4.9)

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Combining diversity principle: (a) maximum ratio combining, (b) equal gain combining.

If the branches are statistically independent, then the moment-generating function of the total
SNR can be computed as the product of the characteristic functions of the branch SNRs.

5. Explain with relevant diagrams the layered space time structure with respect to
MIMO systems.(MAY/JUNE 2016)

Layered space time architecture allow us to break up the demodulation process into
several separate pieces.When this technique is combined with capacity achieving codes,it can
closely approximate the capacity of a MIMO system..These structures are also widely known
under the name of BLAST (Bell labs Layered Space Time) architectures.

Horizontal BLAST:

Horizontal BLAST (H-BLAST) is the simplest possible layered space time structures.The
transmitter first demultiplexes the datastream into into Nt parallel streams
,each of which is encoded separately.Each encoded data stream is then transmitted from a
different transmit antenna.The channel mixes up the different data streams the RX seperates
them out by nulling the interference subtraction.In other words, the RX proceeds in the following
steps:

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 It considers the first datastream as the useful one, and regards the other datatastream as
interference.It can be then use optimum combining for suppression of interfering
streams.The Receiver has Nr≥Nt antenna elements available.If Nr=Nt.it can suppress all
Nt-1 interfering datastreams,and receive the desired data stream with diversity order .if
the RX has more antennas ,it can receive the first datastream with better quality.But at
any case interference from the other streams can be eliminated.

Figure: Block diagram of a horizontal BLAST transceiver

m that process are firm decisions on the bits of stream 1.Since we have separate encoding for different datasteams,we need only
.Multiplying the symbol stream by the transfer function of the

channel,we obtain the contribution that stream 1 has made to the total received signal at
the different antenna elements.
• We sustract these contributions from the signals at the different antenna elements.
• Now we consider the cleaned up signal and try to detect the second data
stream.We again have Nt received signals,but only Nt-2 interferers.Using
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optimum combining again,we can now receive the desired data stream with diversity
order 2.
• The next step is again decoding,recoding and remodulating the considered datastream
and subtraction of the associated signal from the total at the receive antenna elements
obtained in the previous step.This cleans up the received signal even more.
• The process is repeated until the last datastream is decoded.
• Even with stream ordering,HBlast does not achieve channel capacity.However its
simplity still makes the scheme an attractive one

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Question paper Code:51416

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, MAY/JUNE 2014

Seventh Semester

Electronics & Communication Engineering

EC 2401-WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

(Regulation 2008/2010)

Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks

PART A(10x2=20 marks)

1. What are the basic requirements for wireless services?

2. What is frequency hopped multiple access?

3. State the propagation effects in mobile radio.

4. Interpret link budget equation.

5. What are the main features of QPSK?

6. What are Rayleigh and Ricean fading?

7. Compare macro and micro diversity.

8. What are the applications of non linear equalizers?

9. Why QPSK is preferred for wireless communications?

10. List the advantages of third generation (3G) networks.

Part B-(5*16=80 marks)

11. (a) (i) Discuss about the technical challenges face by the wireless
communication. (10)

(ii)What are the features of interference limited systems. (6)

Or
(b) What are the major differences between TDMA, FDMA and CDMA?(16)

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12. (a) (i)Explain how signal propagates against free space attenuation and reflection.

(8)

(ii)Discuss about the temporal channel variations in Fixed Wireless Systems.

(8)
Or
(b) (i) Explain in detail two path model propagation mechanism. (8)
(ii)Explain different models for characterizing wide band channels. (8)
13. (a) Explain with neat diagram the QPSK based transmission and reception technique
and their significance in the wireless system. (16)

Or
(b)Explain with neat diagram, the principle of Gaussian Minimum shift Keying receiver
and mention how this is different from MSK. (16)

14. (a) (i)What is the need for diversity ?List different types of diversity. (6)
(ii)Explain with diagram, the different techniques available for signal combining.(10)
Or
(b)With neat block diagram explain how RAKE receiver provides diversity to improve
the performance of CDMA receiver (16)

15. (a)Describe the principle involved in Cellular Code-Division-Multiple-Access Systems.

(16)

Or
(b)Explain with necessary diagram, the operation of Orthoganal FrequencyDivide
Multiplexing transceiver. (16)

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Question paper Code: 91419

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2014

Seventh Semester

Electronics & Communication Engineering

EC 2401-WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

(Regulation 2008/2010)

Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks

PART A(10x2=20 marks)

1. What are the different modules of a basic cellular system?

2. State advantages of CDMA over FDMA?
3. List the different types of propagation machanisms.
4. What are the different fading effects due to Doppler Spread?
5. State advantages of Offset-QPSK.
6. List the advantages of GMSK.
7. List the different types of channel coding techniques.
8. Differentiate between Macrodiversity and Microdiversity.
9. What are the effects of Multipath propagation on CDMA?
10. List some important features of 3G networks.

PART B(5x16=80 Marks)

11. (a) (i) With a block diagram of a basic cellular system, explain its various functional

modules and the method by which a call is routed. (10)

(ii) Explain in detail a handoff scenario at cell boundary (6)

Or

(b) (i) Explain the different types of multipath propagation in wireless

communication. (10)
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(ii) With neat illustration, explain CDMA. (6)

12. (a) (i) Explain briefly on outdoor propagation models. (8)

(ii) Describe in detail Two Ray Rayleigh Fading Model. (8)

Or

(b) (i) Explain on path loss estimation techniques using path loss models.(8)

(ii) Describe on Ricean distribution.

13. (a) (i) Explain with neat constellation diagram the modulation technique of QPSK.
(8)
(ii) List the advantages and application of BPSK. (8)
Or

(b) (i) Describe with a block diagram π/4 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying and its

advantages (8)

(ii) What is MSK? Explain its power spectral density. (8)

14. (a) (i) With a neat block diagram, explain the principle of Macrodiversity.
(8)

(ii) Explain the operation an adaptive equalizer at the receiver side. (8)

Or

(b) (i) Explain with a block diagram Maximal ratio combiner. (8)

(ii) Describe on Polarization and Space Diversity. (8)

15. (a) Write short notes on the following :

(i) Frequency Hopping and its advantages. (8)
(ii) Orthogonal FDM (OFDM) (8)

Or

(b) Discuss in detail the 2G and 3G wireless network standards. Compare the

relative merits and demerits of both the standards (16)

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Question Paper Code: 71467

B.E/B.TECH DEGREE OF EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2015

Seventh Semester

Electronics and Communication Engineering

EC2401/EC71/10144 EC701-Wireless communication

(Regulation 2008/2010)

Time:3 hours Maximum:100marks

Answer ALL Questions

PART A – ( 10 *2=20 marks)

1. State the difference between small-scale fading and large scale fading?
2. Mention a few techniques used to expand the capacity of a cellular system?
3. Interpret Snell’s law?
4. List the properties of wideband channels?
5. Comment on the necessity of a Gaussian filter in GMSK?
6. List the advantages of digital modulation techniques?
7. What do you meant by transmit diversity?
8. Write about MMSK decision feedback equalizer?
9. Characteristics the effects of multipath propagation on code division multiple
access?
10. What are the basic channels available in GSM?

PART B- ( 5*16=80 marks)

11.(a)(1)Elaborate about the factors which influence small scale fading. (8)
(2) Comment on the different types of services in detail. (8)
Or
(b) (1) Discuss about the construction and destructive interference in detail. (8)
(2) Give the details about the causes for Inter symbol Interference? How Can ISI
be eliminated. (8)
12. ( a ) (1) Explain in brief the three propagation mechanisms which have impact
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On Propagation in a mobile environment (8)

(2) Define Brewster angle .Calculate Brewster angle for a wave impinging On a
ground permittivity=4 (8)
Or
(b) In detail explain about channel classification. (16)

13 (a) (1) Explain the structure of Wireless Communication link in detail (6)

(2) Demonstrate the generation and detection and bit error probability of QPSK
scheme. (10)
Or
(b)(1)How MSK signals are generated? Explain in detail (8)
(2)Discuss in detail the demodulation techniques for Minimum Shift keying. (8)

14 (a) Write the short notes on

(1) Spatial diversity (4)

(2) Temporal diversity (4)
(3) Polarization diversity (4)
(4) Macrodiversity (4)
Or
(b) (1)Explain in detail about linear equalizers (8)
(2)With suitable diagrams, explain channel coding and speech
codingTechniques. (8)
15.(a) Examine about the effects of multipath propagation on CDMA (16)
Or
(b) (1) Illustrate the block diagram of IS-95 Transmitter (8)
(2) Give a detailed description off OFDM Transceiver. (8)

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Question paper Code: 51416

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2015

Seventh Semester

Electronics & Communication Engineering

EC 2401-WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

(Regulation 2008/2010)

Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks

PART A(10x2=20 marks)

1. Mention the operating frequency ranges for AMPS and ETACS systems.
2. Define mean excess delay and rms delay spread.
3. Define Co-channel Interference.
4. Define Coherence time.
5. What do you mean by Non-coherent Detection?
6. Draw the Constellation diagram of Binary Frequency Shift Keying system.
7. If a digital signal processing chip can perform one million multiplications per
second, determine the time required between each iteration for the following
adaptive equalizer algorithm LMS.
8. What is Transmit Diversity?
9. Draw the block diagram of a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Transmitter.
10. What is IS-95 Standard?
PART-B—(5*16=80marks)
11 (a) (1) With diagram explain Personal Access Communication system. (8)
(2) Briefly explain ETACS System. (8)
(or)
(b) (1) Explain some techniques intended to improve the coverage area and
Capacity of cellular system. (8)
(2) Analyze co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference and
suggest some measures to reduce them. (8)
12. (a) Derive the expressions for the total Electric field, Eror(d) and received
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power at distance, Pr(d) using two – ray ground reflection model. (16)
(or)
(b) The fading characteristics of a CW carrier in an urban area to be
measured. The following assumptions are made :
I. The mobile receiver uses a simple vertical monopole.
II. Large-scale fading due to path loss is ignored.
III. The mobile has no line-of-sight path to the base station
IV. The pdf of the received signal follows a Rayleigh distribution
(1) Derive the ratio of the desired signal level to the rms signal
Level that maximizes the level crossing rate. Express your
Answer in dB. (5)
(2) Assuming the maximum velocity of the mobile is 50 km/hr, and the carrier
frequency is 900MHz, determine the maximum number of times the signal
envelope will fade below the level found in (1) during a one minute test.
(6)
(3) How long, on average, will each fade in (2) last? (5)
13. (a) Derive the expression for MSK signal as a special type of continuous phase
FSK signal. (16)
(or)
(b) Explain in detail about the Gaussian Minimum Shift keying (GMSK)
Transmission and Reception with necessary diagrams. (16)

14. (a) Explain in detail about Space diversity with necessary diagrams (16)

(or)

(b) Derive the LMS Algorithm for an Adaptive Equalizer. (16)

15. (a) Explain in detail about various spread spectrum multiple access techniques
with neat block diagrams. (16)
(or)
(b) Draw the basic arrangement of multitone OFDM transceiver and discuss its

overall operation. (16)

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Question paper Code:91419

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, MAY/JUNE 2016

Fifth Semester

Information Technology

EC 6801-WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

(Regulations 2013)

Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks

PART A(10x2=20 marks

1. Calculate the Brewster Angle for wave impinging on ground having a permittivity
έr=5.
2. Define coherence bandwidth.
3. What is soft hand off in mobile communication?
4. What is multiple access technique?
5. Why is MSK referred to as fast FSK?
6. What is windowing?
7. Define adaptive equalization?
8. What are the benefits of RAKE receiver?
9. What is MIMO system?
10. What is transmit diversity?

PART B(5x16=80 Marks)

11. (a) In free space propagation describe how the signals are affected by reflection
diffraction and scattering. (16)
Or

(b) Explain in detail the various parameters involved in mobile multipath channels.

(16)

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12. (a) Summarize the features of various multiple access technique used in wireless mobile
communication.State the advantages and disadvantages of each technique
(16)

Or

(b) Explain in detail how to improve coverage and channel capacity in cellular systems

(16)

13. (a) Explain in detail Offset QPSK and π/4-DQPSK linear digital modulation techniques
employed in wireless communication (16)
.
Or

(b) Explain in detail Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying(GMSK) transmission and

reception with necessary diagrams (16)
.

14. (a) Explain in detail about linear and non linear equalizer. (16)

Or

(b) Write short notes on : (16)

(i) Spatial Diversity

(ii) Frequency Diversity
(iii)Polarization Diversity
(iv)Time Diversity

15. (a) (i) Explain in detail how inherent delay in a multiuser system is overcome by beam
forming. (8)

(ii) Explain in detail spatial multiplexing of a MIMO system. (8)

Or

(b) Explain with relevant diagrams the layered space time structure with respect to MIMO
systems. (16)

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Question Paper code:51467

B.E/B.Tech.DEGREE EXAMINATION,MAY/JUNE 2016.

Seventh Semester

Electronics and Communication Engineerimg

EC2401/EC71/10144EC701-WIRELESS

COMMUNIATION

(Regulations 2008/2010)

(Common to PTEC 2401-Wireless Communication for B.E (Part Time)

Sixth Semester-ECE-Regulations 2009)

Time:Three hours Maximum:100 marks

Answer ALL questions

PARTA-(10X2=20 marks)
1. Define frequency reuse.

2. State the operating principle of adhocnetworks.

3.Define co-channel Interference.

4. Define Coherence time.

5. Give the expression for bit error probability of Gaussian Minimum shift keying
modulation.
6. What is fading and Doppler spread?

7. Assume for branch diversity is used,where each branch receives an independent Rayleigh
fading signal.If the average SNR is 20 dB,determine the probability,that the SNR will drop
below 10dB.Compare this with the case of a single receiver without diversity.
8. Define coding gain.

9. Characterize the effects of multipath propagation on Code Division Multiple Access.

10.What are the basic channels available in GSM?

PART B-(5X16=80 marks)
11.(a)Discuss the types of services,requirements,spectrum limitations and noise
considerations of wireless communications. (16)
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Or
(b)Expain the principle of Cellular Networks and various types of Handoff techniques.
(16)
12. (a) (i) Explain the time invariant two-path model of a wireless propagation channel.
(8)
(ii)Brief about the properties of Rayleigh distribution. (8)
Or
(b) (i)Explain the narrow band modeling methods for Short scale fading and large scale fading.
(10)
(ii)Brief about the properties of Nakagam distribution. (6)

13.(a) (i) Briefly explain the structure of a wireless Communication Link. (6)
(ii)With block diagram,explain MSK transmitter andreceiver.Derive an expression for
MSK and power spectrum. (10)
Or
(b) Derive an expression for :

(i) M-ary phase shift keying and (8)

(ii) Mary quadrature amplitude modulation. (8)

Also derive an expression for their bit error probability (8)
14. (a)Explain in detail about Space diversity with necessary diagrams.
Or
(b)Derive the LMS algorithmfor an Adaptive Equaliser.
15.(a) Examine about the effects of multipath propagation on CDMA. (16)
Or
(b) (i)Illustrate the block diagram of IS-95 transmitter. (8)

(ii)Give a detailed description of OFDM transceiver. (8)

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