Pollution

MODULES IN GEE 1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

BY: DEODATUS G. SAGADAL

MODULE 5. POLLUTION
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Discuss explicitly the term “pollution”.
2. Describe the different types of pollution.
3. Discuss the causes and effect of each type of pollution.
4. Describe the control measures of each type of pollution.
5. Understand the role of an individual in preventing pollution.
INTRODUCTION
We spray our elms, and the following spring, trees are silent of robin song, not because
we sprayed the robins directly but because the poison traveled step by step through the
now familiar elm-earthworm-robin cycle’ – Rachael Carson
This quotation appeared in Rachael Carson’s book entitled Silent Spring. In the years
following the publication of Silent Spring in 1962, the book has inspired controversy and
has initiated a major change in thinking about the safety of using pesticides and other
toxic chemicals. This pesticides and toxic chemicals causes pollution of our environment.
In this module, we will discuss what pollution is, what are the causes and effect and its
control measures.
5.1 DEFINITION
Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful
effects on plants, animals and human beings. This occurs when only short-term economic
gains are made at the cost of the long-term ecological benefits for humanity. No natural
phenomenon has led to greater ecological changes than have been made by mankind.
During the last few decades we have contaminated our air, water and land on which life
itself depends with a variety of waste products.
Pollutants include solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in greater than natural
abundance produced due to human activity, which have a detrimental effect on our
environment. The nature and concentration of a pollutant determines the severity of
detrimental effects on human health. An average human requires about 12 kg of air each
day, which is nearly 12 to15 times greater than the amount of food we eat. Thus even a
small concentration of pollutants in the air becomes more significant in comparison to the
similar levels present in food. Pollutants that enter water have the ability to spread to
distant places especially in the marine ecosystem.
From an ecological perspective pollutants can be classified as follows:

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Degradable or non-persistent pollutants: These can be rapidly broken down by natural

processes. Eg: domestic sewage, discarded vegetables, etc.
Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants: Pollutants that remain in the environment for
many years in an unchanged condition and take decades or longer to degrade. Eg: DDT
and most plastics.
Non-degradable pollutants: These cannot be degraded by natural processes. Once
they are released into the environment they are difficult to eradicate and continue to
accumulate. Eg: toxic elements like lead or mercury.
5.2 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF
POLLUTION
5.2.1 AIR POLLUTION
History of air pollution: The origin of air pollution on the earth can be traced from the times
when man started using firewood as a means of cooking and heating. Hippocrates has
mentioned air pollution in 400 BC. With the discovery and increasing use of coal, air
pollution became more pronounced especially in urban areas. It was recognized as a
problem 700 years ago in London in the form of smoke pollution, which prompted King
Edward I to make the first antipollution law to restrict people from using coal for domestic
heating in the year 1273. In the year 1300 another Act banning the use of coal was
passed. Defying the law led to imposition of capital punishment. In spite of this air pollution
became a serious problem in London during the industrial revolution due to the use of
coal in industries. The earliest recorded ma- jor disaster was the ‘London Smog’ that
occurred in 1952 that resulted in more than 4000 deaths due to the accumulation of air
pollutants over the city for five days.
In Europe, around the middle of the 19th century, a black form of the Peppered moth was
noticed in industrial areas. Usually the normal Peppered moth is well camouflaged on a
clean lichen covered tree. However the peppered pattern was easily spotted and picked
up by birds on the smoke blackened bark of trees in the industrial area, while the black
form remained well camouflaged. Thus while the peppered patterned moths were
successful in surviving in clean non-industrial areas, the black colored moths were
successful in industrial areas. With the spread of industrialization, it has been observed
that the black forms are not only see in Peppered moth, but also in many other moths.
This is a classic case of pollution leading to adaptation.
Air pollution began to increase in the beginning of the twentieth century with the
development of the transportation systems and large-scale use of petrol and diesel. The
severe air quality problems due to the formation of photochemical smog from the
combustion residues of diesel and petrol engines were felt for the first time in Los Angeles.
Pollution due to auto-exhaust remains a serious environmental issue in many developed
and developing countries including India.

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The Air Pollution Control Act in India was passed in 1981 and the Motor Vehicle Act for
controlling the air pollution, very recently. These laws are intended to prevent air from
being polluted. The greatest industrial disaster leading to serious air pollution took place
in Bhopal where extremely poisonous methyl isocyanides gas was accidentally released
from the Union Carbide’s pesticide manufacturing plant on the night of December 3rd
1984. The effects of this disaster on human health and the soil are felt even today.
Structure of the atmosphere
The atmosphere is normally composed of 79 percent nitrogen, 20 percent oxygen and
one percent as a mixture of carbon dioxide, water vapor and trace amounts of several
other gases such as neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen and xenon. The general
structure of the atmosphere has several important features that have relevance to
environmental problems. The atmosphere is divided into several layers. The innermost
layer the troposphere extends 17 kilometers above sea level at the equator and about 8
kilometers over the poles. It contains about 75 percent of the mass of the earth’s air. The
fragility of this layer is obvious from the fact that if the earth were an apple this particular
layer would be no thicker than an apple’s skin.
Temperature declines with altitude in the troposphere. At the top of the troposphere
temperatures abruptly begin to rise. This boundary where this temperature reversal
occurs is called the tropopause.
The tropopause marks the end of the troposphere and the beginning of the stratosphere,
the second layer of the atmosphere. The stratosphere extends from 17 to 48 kilometers
above the earth’s surface. While the composition of the stratosphere is similar to that of
the troposphere it has two major differences. The volume of water vapor here is about
1000 times less while the volume of ozone is about 1000 times greater. The presence of
ozone in the stratosphere prevents about 99 percent of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet
radiation from reaching the earth’s surface thus protecting humans from cancer and
damage to the immune system. This layer does not have clouds and hence airplanes fly
in this layer as it creates less turbulence. Temperature rises with altitude in the
stratosphere until there is another reversal. This point is called the stratopause and it
marks the end of the stratosphere and the beginning of the atmosphere’s next layer, the
mesosphere.
In the mesosphere the temperature decreases with altitude falling up to –110oC at the
top. Above this is a layer where ionization of the gases is a major phenomenon, thus
increasing the temperature. This layer is called the thermosphere. Only the lower
troposphere is routinely involved in our weather and hence air pollution. The other layers
are not significant in determining the level of air pollution.
Types and sources of Air Pollution
What is air pollution?

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Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the
air in quantities that are harmful to human health and the environment. Air may get
polluted by natural causes such as volcanoes, which release ash, dust, sulphur and other
gases, or by forest fires that are occasionally naturally caused by lightning. However,
unlike pollutants from human activity, naturally occurring pollutants tend to remain in the
atmosphere for a short time and do not lead to permanent atmospheric change.
Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources are produced both by natural
events (for example, dust storms and volcanic eruptions) and human activities (emission
from vehicles, industries, etc.). These are called primary pollutants. There are five primary
pollutants that together contribute about 90 percent of the global air pollution. These are
carbon oxides (CO and CO2), nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds
(mostly hydrocarbons) and suspended particulate matter.
Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere when certain chemical reactions take
place among the primary pollutants are called secondary pollutants. Eg: sulfuric acid,
nitric acid, carbonic acid, etc.
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless and toxic gas produced when organic
materials such as natural gas, coal or wood are incompletely burnt. Vehicular exhausts
are the single largest source of carbon monoxide. The number of vehicles has been
increasing over the years all over the world. Vehicles are also poorly maintained and
several have inadequate pollution control equipment resulting in release of greater
amounts of carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is however not a persistent pollutant.
Natural processes can convert carbon monoxide to other compounds that are not harmful.
Therefore the air can be cleared of its carbon monoxide if no new carbon monoxide is
introduced into the atmosphere.
Sulfur oxides are produced when sulfur containing fossil fuels are burnt.
Nitrogen oxides are found in vehicular exhausts. Nitrogen oxides are significant, as they
are involved in the production of secondary air pollutants such as ozone.
Hydrocarbons are a group of compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They
either evaporate from fuel supplies or are remnants of fuel that did not burn completely.
Hydrocarbons are washed out of the air when it rains and run into surface water. They
cause an oily film on the surface and do not as such cause a serious issue until they react
to form secondary pollutants. Using higher oxygen concentrations in the fuel-air mixture
and using valves to prevent the escape of gases, fitting of catalytic converters in
automobiles, are some of the modifications that can reduce the release of hydrocarbons
into the atmosphere.
Particulates are small pieces of solid material (for example, smoke particles from fires,
bits of asbestos, dust particles and ash from industries) dispersed into the atmosphere.
The effects of particulates range from soot to the carcinogenic (cancer causing) effects
of asbestos, dust particles and ash from industrial plants that are dispersed into the

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atmosphere. Repeated exposure to particulates can cause them to accumulate in the

lungs and interfere with the ability of the lungs to exchange gases.
Lead is a major air pollutant that remains largely unmonitored and is emitted by vehicles.
High lead levels have been reported in the ambient air in metropolitan cities. Leaded
petrol is the primary source of airborne lead emissions in Indian cities. Pollutants are also
found indoors from infiltration of polluted outside air and from various chemicals used or
produced inside buildings. Both indoor and outdoor air pollution are equally harmful.

What happens to pollutants in the atmosphere?

Once pollutants enter the troposphere they are transported downwind, diluted by the large
volume of air, transformed through either physical or chemical changes or are removed
from the atmosphere by rain during which they are attached to water vapor that
subsequently forms rain or snow that falls to the earth’s surface.
The atmosphere normally disperses pollutants by mixing them in the very large volume
of air that covers the earth. This dilutes the pollutants to acceptable levels. The rate of
dispersion however varies in relation to the following aspects:

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Topography
Normally as the earth’s surface becomes warmed by sunlight the layer of air in contact
with the ground is also heated by convection. This warmer air is less dense than the cold
air above it, so it rises. Thus pollutants produced in the surface layer are effectively
dispersed. However on a still evening, the process is reversed. An hour or two before
sunset after a sunny day, the ground starts to lose heat and the air near the ground begins
to cool rapidly. Due to the absence of wind, a static layer of cold air is produced as the
ground cools. This in turn induces condensation of fog. The morning sun cannot initially
penetrate this fog layer. The cold air being dense cannot rise and is trapped by the warm
air above. It cannot move out of the area due to the surrounding hills. The topographic
features resemble a closed chemical reactor in which the pollutants are trapped. This
condition often continues through the cool night and reaches its maximum intensity before
sunrise. When the morning sun warms the ground the air near the ground also warms up
and rises within an hour or two. This may be broken up by strong winds. In cold regions
this situation can persist for several days. Such a situation is known as smog (smoke +
fog).

The most well-known example is that of the ‘London Smog’ that occurred in 1952. The
city used large quantities of sulphur containing coal for domestic heating that released
smoke, along with smoke from thermal power plants and other industrial establishments.
This used to lead to the generation of high levels of smoke containing sulphur oxides.
Due to a sudden adverse meteorological condition air pollutants like smoke and sulphur
oxides started to build-up in the atmosphere. The white fog accumulated over the city

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turned black forming a ‘pea-soup’ smog with almost zero visibility. Within two days of the
formation of this smog, people started suffering from acute pulmonary disorders which
caused irritation of bronchi, cough, nasal discharges, sore throat, vomiting and burning
sensations in the eyes. This event lead to several deaths.
Meteorological conditions
The velocity of the wind affects the dispersal of pollutants. Strong winds mix polluted air
more rapidly with the surrounding air diluting the pollutants rapidly. When wind velocity is
low mixing takes place and the concentration of pollutants remains high.

When sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are transported by prevailing winds they form
secondary pollutants such as nitric acid vapor, droplets of sulfuric acid and particles of
sulphate and nitrate salts. These chemicals descend on the earth’s surface in two forms:
wet (as acidic rain, snow, fog and cloud vapor) and dry (as acidic particles). The resulting
mixture is called acid deposition, commonly called acid rain.
Acid deposition has many harmful effects especially when the pH falls below 5.1 for
terrestrial systems and below 5.5 for aquatic systems. It contributes to human respiratory
diseases such as bronchitis and asthma, which can cause premature death. It also
damages statues, buildings, metals and car finishes. Acid deposition can damage tree
foliage directly but the most serious effect is weakening of trees so they become more
susceptible to other types of damage. The nitric acid and the nitrate salts in acid
deposition can lead to excessive soil nitrogen levels. This can over stimulate growth of
other plants and intensify depletion of other important soil nutrients such as calcium and
magnesium, which in turn can reduce tree growth and vigor.
Effects of air pollution on living organisms
Our respiratory system has a number of mechanisms that help in protecting us from air
pollution. The hair in our nose filters out large particles. The sticky mucus in the lining of
the upper respiratory tract captures smaller particles and dissolves some gaseous
pollutants. When the upper respiratory system is irritated by pollutants sneezing and

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coughing expel contaminated air and mucus. Prolonged smoking or exposure to air
pollutants can overload or breakdown these natural defenses causing or contributing to
diseases such as lung cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Elderly
people, infants, pregnant women and people with heart disease, asthma or other
respiratory diseases are especially vulnerable to air pollution.
Cigarette smoking is responsible for the greatest exposure to carbon monoxide. Exposure
to air containing even 0.001 percent of carbon monoxide for several hours can cause
collapse, coma and even death. As carbon monoxide remains attached to hemoglobin in
blood for a long time, it accumulates and reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
This impairs perception and thinking, slows reflexes and causes headaches, drowsiness,
dizziness and nausea.
Carbon monoxide in heavy traffic causes headaches, drowsiness and blurred vision.
Sulfur dioxide irritates respiratory tissues. Chronic exposure causes a condition similar to
bronchitis. It also reacts with water, oxygen and other material in the air to form sulfur-
containing acids. The acids can become attached to particles which when inhaled are
very corrosive to the lung. Nitrogen oxides especially NO2 can irritate the lungs, aggravate
asthma or chronic bronchitis and also increase susceptibility to respiratory infections such
as influenza or common colds. Suspended particles aggravate bronchitis and asthma.
Exposure to these particles over a long period of time damages lung tissue and
contributes to the development of chronic respiratory disease and cancer. Many volatile
organic compounds such as (benzene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates (such as
lead, cadmium) can cause mutations, reproductive problems or cancer. Inhaling ozone,
a component of photochemical smog causes coughing, chest pain, breathlessness and
irritation of the eye, nose and the throat.
Effects on plants
When some gaseous pollutants enter leaf pores they damage the leaves of crop plants.
Chronic exposure of the leaves to air pollutants can break down the waxy coating that
helps prevent excessive water loss and leads to damage from diseases, pests, drought
and frost. Such exposure interferes with photosynthesis and plant growth, reduces
nutrient uptake and causes leaves to turn yellow, brown or drop off altogether. At a higher
concentration of sulphur dioxide majority of the flower buds become stiff and hard. They
eventually fall from the plants, as they are unable to flower.
Prolonged exposure to high levels of several air pollutants from smelters, coal burning
power plants and industrial units as well as from cars and trucks can damage trees and
other plants.
Effects of air pollution on materials
Every year air pollutants cause damage worth billions of rupees. Air pollutants break down
exterior paint on cars and houses. All around the world air pollutants have discolored
irreplaceable monuments, historic buildings, marble statues, etc.

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Effects of air pollution on the stratosphere

The upper stratosphere consists of considerable amounts of ozone, which works as an
effective screen for ultraviolet light. This region called the ozone layer extends up to 60
km above the surface of the earth. Though the ozone is present up to 60 km its greatest
density remains in the region from 20 - 25 km. The ozone layer does not consist of solely
ozone but a mixture of other common atmospheric gases. In the densest ozone layer
there will be only one ozone molecule in 100,000 gas molecules. Therefore even small
changes in the ozone concentration can produce dramatic effects on life on earth.
The total amount of ozone in a ‘column’ of air from the earth’s surface up to an altitude of
50 km is the total column ozone. This is recorded in Dobson Units (DU), a measure of the
thickness of the ozone layer by an equivalent layer of pure ozone gas at normal
temperature and pressure at sea level. This means that 100 DU=1mm of pure ozone gas
at normal temperature and pressure at sea level.
Ozone is a form of oxygen with three atoms instead of two. It is produced naturally from
the photo dissociation of oxygen gas molecules in the atmosphere. The ozone thus
formed is constantly broken down by naturally occurring processes that maintain its
balance in the ozone layer. In the absence of pollutants the creation and breakdown of
ozone are purely governed by natural forces, but the presence of certain pollutants can
accelerate the breakdown of ozone. Though it was known earlier that ozone shows
fluctuations in its concentrations which may be accompanied sometimes with a little
ozone depletion, it was only in 1985 that the large scale destruction of the ozone also
called the Ozone Hole came into limelight when some British researchers published
measurements about the ozone layer. Soon after these findings a greater impetus was
given to research on the ozone layer, which convincingly established that CFC’s were
leading to its depletion. These CFCs (chloro-fluro-carbons) are extremely stable, non-
flammable, non-toxic and harmless to handle. This makes them ideal for many industrial
applications like aerosols, air conditioners, refrigerators and fire extinguishers. Many
cans, which give out foams and sprays, use CFCs. (eg: perfumes, room fresheners, etc.)
CFCs are also used in making foams for mattresses and cushions, disposable Styrofoam
cups, glasses, packaging material for insulation, cold storage etc. However their stability
also gives them a long life span in the atmosphere.
Halons are similar in structure to the CFCs but contain bromine atoms instead of chlorine.
They are more dangerous to the ozone layer than CFCs. Halons are used as fire
extinguishing agents as they do not pose a harm to people and equipment exposed to
them during firefighting.
The CFCs and the halons migrate into the upper atmosphere after they are released. As
they are heavier than air they have to be carried by air currents up to just above the lower
atmosphere and then they slowly diffuse into the upper atmosphere. This is a slow
process and can take as long as five to fifteen years. In the stratosphere unfiltered UV-
radiation severs the chemical bonds releasing chlorine from the rest of the CFC. This

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attacks the ozone molecule resulting in its splitting into an oxygen molecule and an
oxygen atom. Despite the fact that CFCs are evenly distribute over the globe, the ozone
depletion is especially pronounced over the South Pole due to the extreme weather
conditions in the Antarctic atmosphere. The presence of the ice crystals makes the Cl-O
bonding easier. The ozone layer over countries like Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
and parts of South America is also depleted. India has signed the Montreal Protocol in
1992, which aims to control the production and consumption of Ozone Depleting
Substances.
Ozone depletion-What does it do?
Changes in the ozone layer have serious implications for mankind.
Effects on human health: Sunburn, cataract, aging of the skin and skin cancer are
caused by increased ultra-violet radiation. It weakens the immune system by suppressing
the resistance of the whole body to certain infections like measles, chicken pox and other
viral diseases that elicit rash and parasitic diseases such as malaria introduced through
the skin.
Food production: Ultra violet radiation affects the ability of plants to capture light energy
during the process of photosynthesis. This reduces the nutrient content and the growth
of plants. This is seen especially in legumes and cabbage. Plant and animal planktons
are damaged by ultra-violet radiation. In zooplanktons (microscopic animals) the breeding
period is shortened by changes in radiation. As planktons form the basis of the marine
food chain a change in their number and species composition influences fish and shell
fish production.
Effect on materials: Increased UV radiation damages paints and fabrics, causing them
to fade faster.
Effect on climate: Atmospheric changes induced by pollution contribute to global
warming, a phenomenon which is caused due to the increase in concentration of certain
gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, methane and CFCs. Observations of the earth
have shown beyond doubt that atmospheric constituents such as water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides and Chloro Fluro Carbons trap heat in the form of infra-
red radiation near the earth’s surface. This is known as the ‘Green-house Effect’. The
phenomenon is similar to what happens in a greenhouse. The glass in a greenhouse
allows solar radiation to enter which is absorbed by the objects inside. These objects
radiate heat in the form of terrestrial radiation, which does not pass out through the glass.
The heat is therefore trapped in the greenhouse increasing the temperature inside and
ensuring the luxuriant growth of plants.

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There could be several adverse effects of global warming.

• With a warmer earth the polar ice caps will melt causing a rise in ocean levels and
flooding of coastal areas.
• In countries like Bangladesh or the Maldives this would be catastrophic. If the sea level
rises by 3m., Maldives will disappear completely beneath the waves.
• The rise in temperature will bring about a fall in agricultural produce.
• Changes in the distribution of solar energy can bring about changes in habitats. A
previously productive agricultural area will suffer severe droughts while rains will fall in
locations that were once deserts. This could bring about changes in the species of natural
plants, agricultural crops, insects, livestock and micro-organisms.
• In the Polar Regions temperature rises caused by global warming would have disastrous
effects. Vast quantities of methane are trapped beneath the frozen soil of Alaska. When
the permafrost melts the methane that will be released can accelerate the process of
global warming.
Control measures for air pollution
Air pollution can be controlled by two fundamental approaches: preventive techniques
and effluent control.
One of the effective means of controlling air pollution is to have proper equipment in place.
This includes devices for removal of pollutants from the flue gases though scrubbers,
closed collection recovery systems through which it is possible to collect the pollutants
before they escape, use of dry and wet collectors, filters, electrostatic precipitators, etc.
Providing a greater height to the stacks can help in facilitating the discharge of pollutants
as far away from the ground as possible. Industries should be located in places so as to

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minimize the effects of pollution after considering the topography and the wind directions.
Substitution of raw material that causes more pollution with those that cause less pollution
can be done.
5.2.2 WATER POLLUTION
Our liquid planet glows like a soft blue sapphire in the hard-edged darkness of space.
There is nothing else like it in the solar system. It is because of water. – John Todd
Introduction: Water is the essential element that makes life on earth possible. Without
water there would be no life. We usually take water for granted. It flows from our taps
when they are turned on. Most of us are able to bathe when we want to, swim when we
choose and water our gardens. Like good health we ignore water when we have it.
Although 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by water only a tiny fraction of this water
is available to us as fresh water. About 97% of the total water available on earth is found
in oceans and is too salty for drinking or irrigation. The remaining 3% is fresh water. Of
this 2.997% is locked in ice caps or glaciers. Thus only 0.003% of the earth’ total volume
of water is easily available to us as soil moisture, groundwater, water vapor and water in
lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands.
In short if the world’s water supply were only 100 liters our usable supply of fresh water
would be only about 0.003 liters (one-half teaspoon). This makes water a very precious
resource. The future wars in our world may well be fought over water. By the middle of
this century, almost twice as many people will be trying to share the same amount of fresh
water the earth has today. As freshwater becomes scarcer access to water resources will
be a major factor in determining the economic growth of several countries around the
world.
Water availability on the planet: Water that is found in streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands
and artificial reservoirs is called surface water. Water that percolates into the ground and
fills the pores in soil and rock is called groundwater.
Porous water-saturated layers of sand, gravel or bedrock through which ground water
flows are called aquifers. Most aquifers are replenished naturally by rainfall that
percolates downward through the soil and rock. This process is called natural recharge.
If the withdrawal rate of an aquifer exceeds its natural recharge rate, the water table is
lowered. Any pollutant that is discharged onto the land above is also pulled into the aquifer
and pollutes the groundwater resulting in polluted water in the nearby wells.
India receives most of her rainfall during the months of June to September due to the
seasonal winds and the temperature differences between the land and the sea. These
winds blow from the opposite directions in the different seasons. They blow into India
from the surrounding oceans during the summer season and blow out from the
subcontinent to the oceans during the winter. The monsoon in India is usually reasonably
stable but varies geographically. In some years the commencement of the rains may be
delayed considerably over the entire country or a part of it. The rains may also terminate

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earlier than usual. They may be heavier than usual over one part than over another. All
these may cause local floods or drought. However in India even areas that receive
adequate rainfall during the monsoon suffer from water shortages in the post monsoon
period due to lack of storage facilities.
When the quality or composition of water changes directly or indirectly as a result of man’s
activities such that it becomes unfit for any purpose it is said to be polluted.
Point sources of pollution: When a source of pollution can be readily identified because
it has a definite source and place where it enters the water it is said to come from a point
source. Eg. Municipal and Industrial Discharge Pipes. When a source of pollution cannot
be readily identified, such as agricultural runoff, acid rain, etc., they are said to be non-
point sources of pollution.
Causes of water pollution
There are several classes of common water pollutants. These are disease-causing
agents (pathogens) which include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms that
enter water from domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes. Human
wastes contain concentrated populations of coliform bacteria such as Escherichia coli and
Streptococcus faecalis. These bacteria normally grow in the large intestine of humans
where they are responsible for some food digestion and for the production of vitamin K.
These bacteria are not harmful in low numbers. Large amounts of human waste in water,
increases the number of these bacteria which cause gastrointestinal diseases. Other
potentially harmful bacteria from human wastes may also be present in smaller numbers.
Thus the greater the amount of wastes in the water the greater are the chances of
contracting diseases from them.
Another category of water pollutants is oxygen depleting wastes. These are organic
wastes that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxygen requiring) bacteria. Large
populations of bacteria use up the oxygen present in water to degrade these wastes. In
the process this degrades water quality. The amount of oxygen required to break down a
certain amount of organic matter is called the biological oxygen demand (BOD). The
amount of BOD in the water is an indicator of the level of pollution. If too much organic
matter is added to the water all the available oxygen is used up. This causes fish and
other forms of oxygen dependent aquatic life to die. Thus anaerobic bacteria (those that
do not require oxygen) begin to break down the wastes. Their anaerobic respiration
produces chemicals that have a foul odour and an unpleasant taste that is harmful to
human health.
A third class of pollutants are inorganic plant nutrients. These are water soluble nitrates
and phosphates that cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants. The
excessive growth of algae and aquatic plants due to added nutrients is called
eutrophication. They may interfere with the use of the water by clogging water intake
pipes, changing the taste and odor of water and cause a buildup of organic matter. As

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the organic matter decays, oxygen levels decrease and fish and other aquatic species
die.
The quantity of fertilizers applied in a field is often many times more than is actually
required by the plants. The chemicals in fertilizers and pesticides pollute soil and water.
While excess fertilizers cause eutrophication, pesticides cause bioaccumulation and bio
magnification. Pesticides which enter water bodies are introduced into the aquatic food
chain. They are then absorbed by the phyto-planktons and aquatic plants. These plants
are eaten by the herbivorous fish which are in turn eaten by the carnivorous fish which
are in turn eaten by the water birds. At each link in the food chain these chemicals which
do not pass out of the body are accumulated and increasingly concentrated resulting in
bio magnification of these harmful substances.
One of the effects of accumulation of high levels of pesticides such as DDT is that birds
lay eggs with shells that are much thinner than normal. This results in the premature
breaking of these eggs, killing the chicks inside. Birds of prey such as hawks, eagles and
other fish eating birds are affected by such pollution. Although DDT has been banned in
India for agricultural use and is to be used only for malaria eradication, it is still used in
the fields as it is cheap.
A fourth class of water pollutants is water soluble inorganic chemicals which are acids,
salts and compounds of toxic metals such as mercury and lead. High levels of these
chemicals can make the water unfit to drink, harm fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop
yields and accelerate corrosion of equipment that use this water.
Another cause of water pollution is a variety of organic chemicals, which include oil,
gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergent and many other chemicals.
These are harmful to aquatic life and human health. They get into the water directly from
industrial activity either from improper handling of the chemicals in industries and more
often from improper and illegal disposal of chemical wastes.
Sediment of suspended matter is another class of water pollutants. These are insoluble
particles of soil and other solids that become suspended in water. This occurs when soil
is eroded from the land. High levels of soil particles suspended in water, interferes with
the penetration of sunlight. This reduces the photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants and
algae disrupting the ecological balance of the aquatic bodies.
When the velocity of water in streams and rivers decreases the suspended particles settle
down at the bottom as sediments. Excessive sediments that settle down destroys feeding
and spawning grounds of fish, clogs and fills lakes, artificial reservoirs etc.
Water soluble radioactive isotopes are yet another source of water pollution. These can
be concentrated in various tissues and organs as they pass through food chains and food
webs. Ionizing radiation emitted by such isotopes can cause birth defects, cancer and
genetic damage.

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Hot water let out by power plants and industries that use large volumes of water to cool
the plant result in rise in temperature of the local water bodies. Thermal pollution occurs
when industry returns the heated water to a water source. Power plants heat water to
convert it into steam, to drive the turbines that generate electricity. For efficient functioning
of the steam turbines, the steam is condensed into water after it leaves the turbines. This
condensation is done by taking water from a water body to absorb the heat. This heated
water, which is at least 15oC higher than the normal is discharged back into the water
body. The warm water not only decreases the solubility of oxygen but changes the
breeding cycles of various aquatic organisms.
Oil is washed into surface water in runoff from roads and parking lots which also pollutes
groundwater. Leakage from underground tanks is another source of pollution. Accidental
oil spills from large transport tankers at sea have been causing significant environmental
damage. Though accidents such as the Exxon Valdez get worldwide attention, much
more oil is released as a result of small, regular releases from other less visible sources.
Nearly two thirds of all marine oil pollution comes from three sources: runoff from streets,
improper discharge of lubricating oil from machines or automobile crankcases and
intentional oil discharges that occur during the loading and unloading of tankers. Oil
tankers often use sea water as ballast to stabilize the ship after they have discharged
their oil. This oil contaminated water is then discharged back into the sea when the tanker
is refilled.
Groundwater pollution: While oil spills are highly visible and often get a lot of media
attention, a much greater threat to human life comes from our groundwater being polluted
which is used for drinking and irrigation. While groundwater is easy to deplete and pollute
it gets renewed very slowly and hence must be used judiciously. Groundwater flows are
slow and not turbulent hence the contaminants are not effectively diluted and dispersed
as compared to surface water. Moreover pumping groundwater and treating it is very slow
and costly. Hence it is extremely essential to prevent the pollution of groundwater in the
first place.
Ground water is polluted due to:
● Urban run-off of untreated or poorly treated waste water and garbage
● Industrial waste storage located above or near aquifers
● Agricultural practices such as the application of large amounts of fertilizers and
pesticides, animal feeding operations, etc. in the rural sector
● Leakage from underground storage tanks containing gasoline and other
hazardous substances
● Leachate from landfills
● Poorly designed and inadequately maintained septic tanks
● Mining wastes
Severe cases of arsenic poisoning from contaminated groundwater have been reported
from West Bengal in what is known today as the worst case of groundwater pollution. The

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School of Environmental Sciences, Jadhavpur University, West Bengal has been involved
in the task of surveying the magnitude of the arsenic problem in West Bengal for the last
fourteen years.
According to a report in the Down to Earth (Vol. 11, No.22), arsenic poisoning was first
noticed by K C Saha, former professor of dermatology at the School of Tropical Medicine,
Kolkata when he began to receive patients with skin lesions that resembled the symptoms
of leprosy which was in reality not leprosy. Since all the patients were from the district of
24-Parganas, Saha along with others began to look for the cause and found it to be
arsenic toxicity. Thus groundwater arsenic contamination in West Bengal was first
reported in a local daily newspaper in December 1983 when 63 people from three villages
located in different districts were identified by health officials as suffering from arsenic
poisoning.
There are two theories that have been put forth to explain this unusually high content of
arsenic in groundwater. One group of researchers suggested that the cause is natural
while the other stated that the cause is man-made.
Control measures for preventing water pollution
While the foremost necessity is prevention, setting up effluent treatment plants and
treating waste through these can reduce the pollution load in the recipient water. The
treated effluent can be reused for either gardening or cooling purposes wherever
possible. A few years ago a new technology called the Root Zone Process has been
developed by Thermax. This system involves running contaminated water through the
root zones of specially designed reed beds. The reeds, which are essentially wetland
plants have the capacity to absorb oxygen from the surrounding air through their stomatal
openings.
The oxygen is pushed through the porous stem of the reeds into the hollow roots where
it enters the root zone and creates conditions suitable for the growth of numerous bacteria
and fungi. These micro-organisms oxidize impurities in the wastewaters, so that the water
which finally comes out is clean.
5.2.3 SOIL POLLUTION
Introduction: We can no more manufacture a soil with a tank of chemicals than we can
invent a rain forest or produce a single bird. We may enhance the soil by helping its
processes along, but we can never recreate what we destroy. The soil is a resource for
which there is no substitute. (Environmental historian Donald Worster reminds us that
fertilizers are not a substitute for fertile soil).
Soil is a thin covering over the land consisting of a mixture of minerals, organic material,
living organisms, air and water that together support the growth of plant life. Several
factors contribute to the formation of soil from the parent material. This includes
mechanical weathering of rocks due to temperature changes and abrasion, wind, moving
water, glaciers, chemical weathering activities and lichens. Climate and time are also

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important in the development of soils. Extremely dry or cold climates develop soils very
slowly while humid and warm climates develop them more rapidly. Under ideal climatic
conditions soft parent material may develop into a centimeter of soil within 15 years.
Under poor climatic conditions a hard parent material may require hundreds of years to
develop into soil. Mature soils are arranged in a series of zones called soil horizons. Each
horizon has a distinct texture and composition that varies with different types of soils. A
cross sectional view of the horizons in a soil is called a soil profile. The top layer or the
surface litter layer called the O horizon consists mostly of freshly fallen and partially
decomposed leaves, twigs, animal waste, fungi and other organic materials. Normally it
is brown or black. The uppermost layer of the soil called the A horizon consists of partially
decomposed organic matter (humus) and some inorganic mineral particles. It is usually
darker and looser than the deeper layers. The roots of most plants are found in these two
upper layers. As long as these layers are anchored by vegetation soil stores water and
releases it in a trickle throughout the year instead of in a force like a flood. These two top
layers also contain a large amount of bacteria, fungi, earthworms and other small insects
that form complex food webs in the soil that help recycle soil nutrients and contribute to
soil fertility. The B horizon often called the subsoil contains less organic material and
fewer organisms than the A horizon. The area below the subsoil is called the C horizon
and consists of weathered parent material. This parent material does not contain any
organic materials. The chemical composition of the C-horizon helps to determine the pH
of the soil and also influences the soil’s rate of water absorption and retention.
Soils vary in their content of clay (very fine particles), silt (fine particles), sand (medium
size particles) and gravel (coarse to very coarse particles). The relative amounts of the
different sizes and types of mineral particles determine soil texture. Soils with
approximately equal mixtures of clay, sand, silt and humus are called loams.
Causes of soil degradation
Erosion
Soil erosion can be defined as the movement of surface litter and topsoil from one place
to another. While erosion is a natural process often caused by wind and flowing water it
is greatly accelerated by human activities such as farming, construction, overgrazing by
livestock, burning of grass cover and deforestation. Loss of the topsoil makes a soil less
fertile and reduces its water holding capacity. The topsoil, which is washed away, also
contributes to water pollution clogging lakes, increasing turbidity of the water and also
leads to loss of aquatic life. For one inch of topsoil to be formed it normally requires 200-
1000 years depending upon the climate and soil type. Thus if the topsoil erodes faster
than it is formed the soil becomes a non-renewable resource. Thus it is essential that
proper soil conservation measures are used to minimize the loss of top soil. There are
several techniques that can protect soil from erosion. Today both water and soil are
conserved through integrated treatment methods. Some of the most commonly employed
methods include the two types of treatment that are generally used.

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• Area treatment which involves treating the land

• Drainage line treatment which involves treating the natural water courses
Continuous contour trenches can be used to enhance infiltration of water reduce the
runoff and check soil erosion. These are actually shallow trenches dug across the slope
of the land and along the contour lines basically for the purpose of soil and water
conservation. They are most effective on gentle slopes and in areas of low to medium
rainfall. These bunds are stabilized by fast growing tree species and grasses.
In areas of steep slopes where the bunds are not possible, continuous contour benches
(CCBs) made of stones are used for the same purpose. Gradonies can also be used to
convert wastelands into agricultural lands. In this narrow trenches with bunds on the
downstream side are built along contours in the upper reaches of the catchment to collect
run-off and to conserve moisture from the trees or tree crops. The area between the two
bunds is use for cultivation of crops after development of fertile soil cover.
Some of the ways in which this can be achieved are:
Live check dams which barriers created by planting grass, shrubs and trees across the
gullies can be used for this purpose.
A bund constructed out of stones across the stream can also be used for conserving soil
and water.
An Earthen check bund is constructed out of local soil across the stream to check soil
erosion and flow of water.
A Gabion structure is a bund constructed of stone and wrapped in galvanized chain link.
A Gabion structure with Ferro cement impervious barrier has a one inch thick impervious
wall of Ferro cement at the center of the structure which goes below the ground level up
to the hard strata. This Ferro cement partition supported by the gabion portion is able to
retain the water and withstand the force of the runoff water.
Excess use of fertilizers: Approximately 25 percent of the world’s crop yield is estimated
to be directly attributed to the use of chemical fertilizers. The use of chemical fertilizers
has increased significantly over the last few decades and is expected to rise even higher.
Fertilizers are very valuable as they replace the soil nutrients used up by plants. The three
primary soil nutrients often in short supply are potassium, phosphorus and nitrogen
compounds. These are commonly referred to as macronutrients. Certain other elements
like boron, zinc and manganese are necessary in extremely small amounts and are
known as micronutrients. When crops are harvested a large amount of macronutrients
and a small amount of micronutrients are removed with the crops. If the same crop is
grown again depleted levels of the nutrients can result in decreased yields. These
necessary nutrients can be returned to the soil through the application of fertilizers. In
addition to fertilizers a large amount of pesticides (chemicals used to kill or control
populations of unwanted fungi, animals or plants often called pests) are also used to

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ensure a good yield. Pesticides can be subdivided into several categories based on the
kinds of organisms they are used to control. Insecticides are used to control insect
populations while fungicides are used to control unwanted fungal growth. Mice and rats
are killed by rodenticides while plant pests are controlled by herbicides.
Problems with pesticide use
Pesticides not only kill the pests but also a large variety of living things including humans.
They may be persistent or non-persistent. Persistent pesticides once applied are effective
for a long time. However as they do not break down easily they tend to accumulate in the
soil and in the bodies of animals in the food chain.
For example, DDT which was one of the first synthetic organic insecticide to be used was
thought to be the perfect insecticide. During the first ten years of its use (1942-1952) DDT
is estimated to have saved about five million lives primarily because of its use to control
disease carrying mosquitoes. However after a period of use many mosquitoes and insects
became tolerant of DDT, thus making it lose its effectiveness. DDT in temperate regions
of the world has a half-life (the amount of time required for half of the chemical to
decompose) of 10 to 15 years. This means that if 100 kilograms of DDT were to be
sprayed over an area, 50 kilograms would still be present in the area 10 to 15 years later.
The half-life of DDT varies according to the soil type, temperature, kind of soil organisms
present and other factors. In tropical parts of the world the half-life may be as short as six
months. The use of DDT has been banned in some countries. India still however permits
the use of DDT though for purposes of mosquito control only. Persistent pesticides
become attached to small soil particles which are easily moved by wind and water to
different parts thus affecting soils elsewhere. Persistent pesticides may also accumulate
in the bodies of animals, and over a period of time increase in concentration if the animal
is unable to flush them out of its system thus leading to the phenomenon called
bioaccumulation. When an affected animal is eaten by another carnivore these pesticides
are further concentrated in the body of the carnivore. This phenomenon of acquiring
increasing levels of a substance in the bodies of higher trophic level organisms is known
as bio-magnification. This process especially in the case of insecticides like DDT have
been proved to be disastrous. DDT is a well-known case of bio magnification in
ecosystems. DDT interferes with the production of normal eggshells in birds making them
fragile. Other problems associated with insecticides is the ability of insect populations to
become resistant to them thus rendering them useless in a couple of generations. Most
pesticides kill beneficial as well as pest species. They kill the predator as well as the
parasitic insects that control the pests. Thus the pest species increase rapidly following
the use of a pesticide as there are no natural checks to their population growth. The short
term and the long-term health effects to the persons using the pesticide and the public
that consumes the food grown by using the pesticides are also major concerns. Exposure
to small quantities of pesticides over several years can cause mutations, produce
cancers, etc.

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Thus the question that comes to mind is that if pesticides have so many drawbacks then
why are they used so extensively and what are the substitutes for them? There are three
main reasons for the use of pesticides. Firstly the use of pesticides in the short term has
increased the amount of food that can be grown in many parts of the world as the damage
by pests is decreased. The second reason for its extensive use is based on an economic
consideration. The increased yields more than compensates the farmer for cost of
pesticides. Thirdly current health problems especially in developing countries due to
mosquitoes are impossible to control without insecticides.
However more and more farmers are increasingly opting to replace chemical fertilizers
and use different methods of controlling pests without affecting their yield. Thus several
different approaches that have slightly varying and overlapping goals have been
developed. Alternative agriculture is the broadest term that is used that includes all non-
traditional agricultural methods and encompasses sustainable agriculture, organic
agriculture, alternative uses of traditional crops, alternative methods for raising crops, etc.
Sustainable agriculture advocates the use of methods to produce adequate safe food in
an economically viable manner while maintaining the state of the ecosystem. Organic
agriculture advocates avoiding the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. A wide
variety of techniques can be used to reduce this negative impact of agriculture. Leaving
crop residue on the soil and incorporating it into the soil reduces erosion and increase
soil organic matter. Introduction of organic matter into the soil also makes compaction
less likely. Crop rotation is an effective way to enhance soil fertility, reduce erosion and
control pests. There have been arguments both for and against organic farming. Critics
argue that organic farming cannot produce the amount of food required for today’s
population and it is economically viable only in certain conditions.
However supporters for organic farming feel that of the hidden costs of soil erosion and
pollution are taken into account it is a viable approach. Besides organic farmers do not
have to spend on fertilizers and pesticides and also get a premium price for their products
thus making it financially viable for them.
Another way to reduce these impacts is through the use of integrated pest management.
This is a technique that uses a complete understanding of all ecological aspects of a crop
and the particular pests to which it is susceptible to establish pest control strategies that
uses no or few pesticides. IPM promotes the use of bio-pesticides. Bio-pesticides are
derived from three sources: microbial, botanical and bio- chemical. Microbial pesticides
are micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungus, virus or protozoa that fight pests through
a variety of ways. They produce toxins specific to the pests and produce diseases in them.
Biochemical pesticides contain several chemicals that affect the reproductive and
digestive mechanisms of the pests. The most commonly used bio-pesticides are Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt), neem (Azadirachta indica) and trichogramma. Although they are
available in the market they are yet to become market favorites.
Excess salts and water

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Irrigated lands can produce crop yields much higher than those that only use rainwater.
However this has its own set of ill effects. Irrigation water contains dissolved salts and in
dry climates much of the water in the saline solution evaporates leaving its salts such as
sodium chloride in the topsoil. The accumulation of these salts is called salinization, which
can stunt plant growth, lower yields and eventually kill the crop and render the land
useless for agriculture. These salts can be flushed out of the soil by using more water.
This practice however increases the cost of crop production and also wastes enormous
amounts of water. Flushing salts can also make the downstream irrigation water saltier.
Another problem with irrigation is water logging. This occurs when large amounts of water
is used to leach the salts deeper into the soil. However if the drainage is poor this water
accumulates underground gradually raising the water table. The roots of the plants then
get enveloped in this saline water and eventually die.
Thus in the long run it is better for us to adopt sustainable farming practices so as to
prevent the degradation of soil.
5.2.4 MARINE POLLUTION
Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction of substances to the marine
environment directly or indirectly by man resulting in adverse effects such as hazards to
human health, obstruction of marine activities and lowering the quality of sea water. While
the causes of marine pollution may be similar to that of general water pollution there are
some very specific causes that pollute marine waters.
• The most obvious inputs of waste is through pipes directly discharging wastes into the
sea. Very often municipal waste and sewage from residences and hotels in coastal towns
are directly discharged into the sea.
• Pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture which are washed off the land by rain, enter
water courses and eventually reach the sea.
• Petroleum and oils washed off from the roads normally enter the sewage system but
stormwater overflows carry these materials into rivers and eventually into the seas.
• Ships carry many toxic substances such as oil, liquefied natural gas, pesticides,
industrial chemicals, etc. in huge quantities sometimes to the capacity of 350,000 tons.
Ship accidents and accidental spillages at sea therefore can be very damaging to the
marine environment. Shipping channels in estuaries and at the entrances to ports often
require frequent dredging to keep them open. This dredged material that may contain
heavy metals and other contaminants are often dumped out to sea.
• Offshore oil exploration and extraction also pollute the seawater to a large extent.
Pollution due to organic wastes
The amount of oxygen dissolved in the water is vital for the plants and animals living in it.
Wastes, which directly or indirectly affect the oxygen concentration, play an important role

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in determining the quality of the water. Normally the greatest volume of waste discharged
to watercourses, estuaries and the sea is sewage, which is primarily organic in nature
and is degraded by bacterial activity. Using the oxygen present in the water these wastes
are broken down into stable inorganic compounds. However as a result of this bacterial
activity the oxygen concentration in the water is reduced. When the oxygen concentration
falls below 1.5 mg/lit, the rate of aerobic oxidation is reduced and their place is taken over
by the anaerobic bacteria that can oxidize the organic molecules without the use of
oxygen. This results in end products such as hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and methane,
which are toxic to many organisms. This process results in the formation of an anoxic
zone which is low in its oxygen content from which most life disappears except for
anaerobic bacteria, fungi, yeasts and some protozoa. This makes the water foul smelling.
Control measures: One way of reducing the pollution load on marine waters is through
the introduction of sewage treatment plants. This will reduce the biological oxygen
demand (BOD) of the final product before it is discharged to the receiving waters.
Various stages of treatment such as primary, secondary or advanced can be used
depending on the quality of the effluent that is required to be treated.
Primary treatment: These treatment plants use physical processes such as screening
and sedimentation to remove pollutants that will settle, float or, that are too large to pass
through simple screening devices. This includes, stones, sticks, rags, and all such
material that can clog pipes. A screen consists of parallel bars spaced 2 to 7cms apart
followed by a wire mesh with smaller openings. One way of avoiding the problem of
disposal of materials collected on the screens is to use a device called a comminuter
which grinds the coarse material into small pieces that can then be left in the waste water.
After screening the wastewater passes into a grit chamber. The detention time is chosen
to be long enough to allow lighter, organic material to settle. From the grit chamber the
sewage passes into a primary settling tank (also called as sedimentation tank) where the
flow speed is reduced sufficiently to allow most of the suspended solids to settle out by
gravity. If the waste is to undergo only primary treatment it is then chlorinated to destroy
bacteria and control odors after which the effluent is released. Primary treatment normally
removes about 35 percent of the BOD and 60 percent of the suspended solids.
Secondary treatment: The main objective of secondary treatment is to remove most of
the BOD. There are three commonly used approaches: trickling filters, activated sludge
process and oxidation ponds. Secondary treatment can remove at least 85 percent of the
BOD. A trickling filter consists of a rotating distribution arm that sprays liquid wastewater
over a circular bed of ‘fist size’ rocks or other coarse materials. The spaces between the
rocks allow air to circulate easily so that aerobic conditions can be maintained. The
individual rocks in the bed are covered with a layer of slime, which consists of bacteria,
fungi, algae, etc. which degrade the waste trickling through the bed. This slime
periodically slides off individual rocks and is collected at the bottom of the filter along with
the treated wastewater and is then passed on to the secondary settling tank where it is
removed.

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In the activated sludge process the sewage is pumped into a large tank and mixed for
several hours with bacteria rich sludge and air bubbles to facilitate degradation by micro-
organisms. The water then goes into a sedimentation tank where most of the
microorganisms settle out as sludge. This sludge is then broken down in an anaerobic
digester where methane-forming bacteria slowly convert the organic matter into carbon
dioxide, methane and other stable end products. The gas produced in the digester is 60
percent methane, which is a valuable fuel and can be put to many uses within the
treatment plant itself. The digested sludge, which is still liquid, is normally pumped out
onto sludge drying beds where evaporation and seepage remove the water. This dried
sludge is potentially a good source of manure. Activated sludge tanks use less land area
than trickling filters with equivalent performance. They are also less expensive to
construct than trickling filters and have fewer problems with flies and odour and can also
achieve higher rates of BOD removal. Thus although the operating costs are a little higher
due to the expenses incurred on energy for running pumps and blowers they are preferred
over trickling filters.
Oxidation ponds are large shallow ponds approximately 1 to 2 meters deep where raw or
partially treated sewage is decomposed by microorganisms. They are easy to build and
manage and accommodate large fluctuations in flow and can provide treatment at a much
lower cost. They however require a large amount of land and hence can be used where
land is not a limitation.
Advanced sewage treatment: This involves a series of chemical and physical process
that removes specific pollutants left in the water after primary and secondary treatment.
Sewage treatment plant effluents contain nitrates and phosphates in large amounts.
These contribute to eutrophication. Thus advanced treatment plants are designed to
specifically remove these contaminants. Advanced treatment plants are very expensive
to build and operate and hence are rarely used.
Pollution due to oil: Oil pollution of the sea normally attracts the greatest attention
because of its visibility. There are several sources though which the oil can reach the sea.
Tanker operations
Half the world production of crude oil which is close to three billion tons a year is
transported by sea. After a tanker has unloaded its cargo of oil it has to take on seawater
as ballast for the return journey. This ballast water is stored in the cargo compartments
that previously contained the oil. During the unloading of the cargo a certain amount of
oil remains clinging to the walls of the container and this may amount to 800 tons in a
200,000 ton tanker. The ballast water thus becomes contaminated with this oil. When a
fresh cargo of oil is to be loaded, these compartments are cleaned with water, which
discharges the dirty ballast along with the oil into the sea. Two techniques have
substantially reduced this oil pollution. In the load-on-top system, the compartments are
cleaned by high pressure jets of water. The oily water is retained in the compartment until
the oil floats to the top. The water underneath that contains only a little oil is then

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discharged into the sea and the oil is transferred to a slop tank. At the loading terminal,
fresh oil is loaded on top of the oil in the tank and hence the name of the technique.
In the second method called ‘crude oil washing’, the clingage is removed by jets of crude
oil while the cargo is being unloaded. Some modern tankers have segregated ballast
where the ballast water does not come in contact with the oil. Thus with the introduction
of these new methods of de-ballasting, the amount of oil entering the sea has been
considerably reduced.
Dry docking
All ships need periodic dry docking for servicing, repairs, cleaning the hull, etc. During
this period when the cargo compartments are to completely emptied, residual oil finds its
way into the sea.
Bilge and fuel oils
As ballast tanks take up valuable space, additional ballast is sometimes carried in empty
fuel tanks. While being pumped overboard it carries oil into the sea. Individually the
quantity of oil released may be small but it becomes a considerable amount when all the
shipping operations are taken into consideration.
Tanker accidents
A large number of oil tanker accidents happen every year. Sometimes this can result in
major disasters such as that of the Exxon Valdez described in the section on water
pollution.
Offshore oil production
Oil that is extracted from the seabed contains some water. Even after it is passed through
oil separators the water that is discharged contains some oil, which adds to marine
pollution. Drilling muds which are pumped down oil wells when it is being drilled normally
contain 70 to 80 percent of oil. They are dumped on the seabed beneath the platform thus
heavily contaminating the water. Uncontrolled release of oil from the wells can be
catastrophic events resulting in oil pollution.
Control measures for oil pollution: Cleaning oil from surface waters and contaminated
beaches is a time consuming labor intensive process. The natural process of
emulsification of oil in the water can be accelerated through the use of chemical
dispersants which can be sprayed on the oil. A variety of slick-lickers in which a
continuous belt of absorbent material dips through the oil slick and is passed through
rollers to extract the oil have been designed. Rocks, Harbour walls can be cleaned with
high pressure steam or dispersants after which the surface must be hosed down.
Effects of marine pollution: Apart from causing eutrophication a large amount of organic
wastes can also result in the development of red tides. These are phytoplankton blooms

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of such intensity that the area is discolored. Many important commercially important
marine species are also killed due to clogging of gills or other structures.
When liquid oil is spilled on the sea it spreads over the surface of the water to form a thin
film called an oil slick. The rate of spreading and the thickness of the film depends on the
sea temperature and the nature of the oil.
Oil slicks damage marine life to a large extent. Salt marshes, mangrove swamps are likely
to trap oil and the plants, which form the basis for these ecosystems thus suffer. For salt
marsh plants, oil slicks can affect the flowering, fruiting and germination.
If liquid oil contaminates a bird’s plumage its water repellent properties are lost. Water
thus penetrates the plumage and displaces the air trapped between the feathers and the
skin. This air layer is necessary as it provides buoyancy and thermal insulation. With this
loss the plumage becomes water logged and the birds may sink and drown. Even if this
does not happen loss of thermal insulation results in exhaustion of food reserves in an
attempt to maintain body temperature often followed by death. Birds often clean their
plumage by preening and in the process consume oil which depending on its toxicity can
lead to intestinal, renal or liver failure.
5.2.5 Noise Pollution
Noise may not seem as harmful as the contamination of air or water but it is a pollution
problem that affects human health and can contribute to a general deterioration of
environmental quality. Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. Not all sound is noise.
What may be considered as music to one person may be noise to another? It is not a
substance that can accumulate in the environment like most other pollutants. Sound is
measured in a unit called the ‘Decibel’.
There are several sources of noise pollution that contribute to both indoor and outdoor
noise pollution. Noise emanating from factories, vehicles, playing of loudspeakers during
various festivals can contribute to outdoor noise pollution while loudly played radio or
music systems, and other electronic gadgets can contribute to indoor noise pollution. A
study conducted by researchers from the New Delhi based National Physical Laboratory
show that noise generated by firecrackers (presently available in the market) is much
higher than the prescribed levels.
The permitted noise level is 125 decibels, as per the Environment (Protection) (second
amendment) Rules, 1999.
The differences between sound and noise is often subjective and a matter of personal
opinion. There are however some very harmful effects caused by exposure to high sound
levels. These effects can range in severity from being extremely annoying to being
extremely painful and hazardous.
Effects of noise pollution on physical health

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The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is physical damage to the ear and the
temporary or permanent hearing loss often called a temporary threshold shift (TTS).
People suffering from this condition are unable to detect weak sounds. However hearing
ability is usually recovered within a month of exposure. In Maharashtra people living in
close vicinity of Ganesh mandals that play blaring music for ten days of the Ganesh
festival are usually known to suffer from this phenomenon. Permanent loss, usually called
noise induced permanent threshold shift (NIPTS) represents a loss of hearing ability from
which there is no recovery.
Below a sound level of 80 dBA haring loss does not occur at all. However temporary
effects are noticed at sound levels between 80 and 130 dBA. About 50 percent of the
people exposed to 95 dBA sound levels at work will develop NIPTS and most people
exposed to more than 105 dBA will experience permanent hearing loss to some degree.
A sound level of 150 dBA or more can physically rupture the human eardrum.
The degree of hearing loss depends on the duration as well as the intensity of the noise.
For example, 1hour of exposure to a 100 dBA sound level can produce a TTS that may
last for about one day. However in factories with noisy machinery workers are subjected
to high sound levels for several hours a day. Exposure to 95 dBA for 8 hours every day
for over a period of 10 years may cause about 15 dBA of NIPTS. In addition to hearing
losses excessive sound levels can cause harmful effects on the circulatory system by
raising blood pressure and altering pulse rates.
Effects of noise pollution on mental health:
Noise can also cause emotional or psychological effects such as irritability, anxiety and
stress. Lack of concentration and mental fatigue are significant health effects of noise. It
has been observed that the performance of school children is poor in comprehension
tasks when schools are situated in busy areas of a city and suffer from noise pollution.
As noise interferes with normal auditory communication, it may mask auditory warning
signals and hence increases the rate of accidents especially in industries. It can also lead
to lowered worker efficiency and productivity and higher accident rates on the job.
Thus noise is just more than a mere nuisance or annoyance. It definitely affects the quality
of life. It is thus important to ensure mitigation or control of noise pollution.
PERMITTED NOISE LEVELS

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A standard safe time limit has been set for exposure to various noise levels. Beyond this
‘safe’ time continuing exposure over a period of a year will lead to hearing loss.

5.2.6 THERMAL POLLUTION

Sources: The discharge of warm water into a river is usually called a thermal pollution. It
occurs when an industry removes water from a source, uses the water for cooling
purposes and then returns the heated water to its source. Power plants heat water to
convert it into steam, to drive the turbines that generate electricity. For efficient functioning
of the steam turbines, the steam is condensed into water after it leaves the turbines. This
condensation is done by taking water from a water body to absorb the heat. This heated
water, which is at least 15oC higher than the normal is discharged back into the water
body.
Effects: The warmer temperature decreases the solubility of oxygen and increases the
metabolism of fish. This changes the ecological balance of the river. Within certain limits
thermal additions can promote the growth of certain fish and the fish catch may be high
in the vicinity of a power plant. However sudden changes in temperature caused by
periodic plant shutdowns both planned and unintentional can change result in death of
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these fish that are acclimatized to living in warmer waters. Tropical marine animals are
generally unable to withstand a temperature increase of 2 to 30C and most sponges,
mollusks and crustaceans are eliminated at temperatures above 370C. This results in a
change in the diversity of fauna as only those species that can live in warmer water
survive.
Control measures: Thermal pollution can be controlled by passing the heated water
through a cooling pond or a cooling tower after it leaves the condenser. The heat is
dissipated into the air and the water can then be discharged into the river or pumped back
to the plant for reuse as cooling water. There are several ways in which thermal pollution
can be reduced. One method is to construct a large shallow pond. Hot water is pumped
into one end of the pond and cooler water is removed from the other end. The heat gets
dissipated from the pond into the atmosphere. A second method is to use a cooling tower.
These structures take up less land area than the ponds. Here most of the heat transfer
occurs through evaporation. Here warm waters coming from the condenser is sprayed
downward over vertical sheets or baffles where the water flows in thin films. Cool air
enters the tower through the water inlet that encircles the base of the tower and rises
upwards causing evaporative cooling. A natural draft is maintained because of the density
difference between the cool air outside and the warmer air inside the tower. The waste
heat is dissipated into the atmosphere about 100 m above the base of the tower. The
cooled water is collected at the floor of the tower and recycled back to the power plant
condensers. The disadvantage in both these methods is however that large amounts of
water are lost by evaporation.
5.2.7 NUCLEAR HAZARDS
Nuclear energy can be both beneficial and harmful depending on the way in which it is
used. We routinely use X-rays to examine bones for fractures, treat cancer with radiation
and diagnose diseases with the help of radioactive isotopes. Approximately 17 % of the
electrical energy generated in the world comes from nuclear power plants. However on
the other hand it is impossible to forget the destruction that nuclear bombs caused the
cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The radioactive wastes from nuclear energy have
caused serious environmental damage. Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of
the atom. The resulting energy can be used for a variety of purposes. The first controlled
fission of an atom was carried out in Germany in 1938. However the United States was
the first country to develop an atomic bomb which was subsequently dropped on the
Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The world’s first electricity generating reactor
was constructed in the United States in 1951 and the Soviet Union built its first reactor in
1954. In December 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower in his ‘Atoms for Peace’
speech made the following prediction: ‘Nuclear reactors will produce electricity so cheaply
that it will not be necessary to meter it. The users will pay a fee and use as much electricity
as they want. Atoms will provide a safe, clean and dependable source of electricity.’
Today however though nuclear power is being used as a reliable source of electricity the

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above statement sounds highly optimistic. Several serious accidents have caused
worldwide concern about safety and disposal of radioactive wastes.
In order to appreciate the consequences of using nuclear fuels to generate energy it is
important to understand how the fuel is processed. Low-grade uranium ore, which
contains 0.2 percent uranium by weight, is obtained by surface or underground mining.
After it is mined the ore goes through a milling process where it is crushed and treated
with a solvent to concentrate the uranium and produces yellow cake a material containing
70 to 90 percent uranium oxide. Naturally occurring uranium contains only 0.7 percent of
fissionable U-235, which is not high enough for most types of reactors. Hence it is
necessary to increase the amount of U-235 by enrichment though it is a difficult and
expensive process. The enrichment process increases the U-235 content from 0.7 to 3
percent.
Fuel fabrication then converts the enriched material into a powder, which is then
compacted into pellets. These pellets are sealed in metal fuel rods about 4 meters in
length which is then loaded into the reactor. As fission occurs the concentration of U-235
atoms decreases. After about three years, a fuel rod does not have enough radioactive
material to sustain a chain reaction and hence the spent fuel rods must be replaced by
new ones. The spent rods are however still very radioactive containing about one percent
U-235 and one percent plutonium.
These rods are a major source of radioactive waste material produced by a nuclear
reactor. Initially it was thought that spent fuel rods could be reprocessed to not only
provide new fuel but also to reduce the amount of nuclear waste. However the cost of
producing fuel rods by reprocessing was found to be greater than the cost of producing
fuel rods from ore.
ASSESSMENT
1. List down at least 20 specific sources of air, water, and soil pollution in your
municipality or province, how they are processed, who are affected, how they
affect, what are the effects, and what do you think are the best measures to prevent
or control them.
(Example:
1. Gasoline. Gasoline is used as fuel for engines. During the combustion of the
gasoline, carbon monoxide is produced and generate air pollutants. The smoke
mixed up with the air and scattered in our surroundings. When human and animals
breathe the air, the carbon contents of the air are also inhaled and trapped in our
lungs. Severe level of carbon in our lungs causes cancer and other diseases.
Wearing of mask may prevent the carbon content of air to enter our lungs. Devices
such as catalytic converter for engines reduces carbon emission may be installed.
5 points each. Minimum 5 sentences for each pollutant. Show pictures. Deadline of
submission: November 23, 2021, word format, Arial font, size 12, A4.

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