A MAJOR PROJECT REPORT ON

EXPERIMENTAL AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS ON

CHARACTERIZATION
OF ASS310 AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES
Submitted to JNTUH in the partial fulfillment of the Academic Requirements for the
award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BY

CH. VISHNU VARDHAN 20QM5A0301

A. PRASHANTH KUMAR 19QM1A0301

CH. NARSIMHA REDDY

19QM1A0303

UNDER THE GUIDANCE

OF
Mr. PRAVEEN KUMAR
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT MECHANICAL OF ENGINEERING

KG REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Accredited by NAAC, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad) Chilkur
(Village), Moinabad (Mandal), R. R Dist, TS-501504,

2022-23
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
KG REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Accredited by NAAC, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad)
Chilkur (Village), Moinabad (Mandal), R. R Dist, TS-501504

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project report on “EXPERIMENTAL AND FINITE

ELEMENT ANALYSIS ON CHARACTERIZATION OF ASS310 AT VARIOUS
TEMPERATURES” is a bonafide record work carried out by CH. VISHNU
VARDHAN (20QM5A0301), A. PRASHANTH KUMAR (19QM1A0301), CH.
NARSIMHA REDDY (19QM1A0303), in partial fulfillment for the requirement for
the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in “MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING”, JNTUH, Hyderabad during the year 2022-23.

Internal Guide Head of the Department

Mr. Praveen kumar , Dr. L Jay Hari
Assistant Professor Dean Academics

External Examiner
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to thanks the Management, Sri. Ln. K. Krishna Reddy, CHAIRMAN of KG

Reddy College of Engineering and Technology for providing the facilities to complete our
project work.

We would also especially like to express our extreme gratitude and sincere thanks to our
beloved Director, Dr. Rohit Kandakatla, KG Reddy College of Engineering and
Technology, who encouraged and given support to complete the project successfully.

At the very outset, we wish to place on record our sincere thanks and gratitude to our beloved
head of the Institution, Dr. Y Vijayalatha Reddy, Principal, KG Reddy College of
Engineering and Technology, who allowed us to complete this endeavor successfully.

We would like to express our sincere deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr. L Jay hari , HOD, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, for his
significant suggestions and help in every respect to accomplish the project work. His
persisting encouragement, everlasting patience and keen interest in discussions have
benefited us to the extent that cannot be spanned by words. He has been the continuous
source of inspiration for us throughout the work.

We would like to sincerely thank to our Major Project coordinator, Mr. Dheeraj kumar,
Assistant Professor who stimulated many thoughts for this project and Staff-Members of
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering Department for their goodwill
gestures towards us.

We would especially like to express our extreme gratitude and sincere thanks to our project
guide Mr. Praveen kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering for his enthusiastic and innovative guidance and support.

Last but not least we would also like to thank teaching and non-teaching staff and also all
my family, friends without whose support this project work would remain unfulfilled.

CH. VISHNU VARDHAN 20QM5A0301

A. PRASHANTH KUMAR 19QM1A0301
CH. NARSIMHA REDDYU 19QM1A0303
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Stainless steel has numerous industrial and manufacturing applications due to its superior
corrosion resistance when compared to conventional carbon steel, along with other
benefits such as durability, ease of maintenance, and low life-cycle costs. These properties
make it excellent choice for use industrial applications. However, due to its high cost,
incomplete specifications, and design methods, stainless steel has mainly been utilized in
maintenance structures and decorative components in the past few years.

Nevertheless, with the increasing corrosion problems of steel structures, as well as higher
demands for building use function and aesthetics, the advantages of stainless steel are
increasingly being considered. As a result, more researchers are studying stainless steel
components, which support the improvement of the design method for stainless steel
structures.[1] Stainless steel and carbon steel exhibit different material characteristics at
both room temperature and elevated temperature, primarily due to the high alloy content
of stainless steel. At room temperature, stainless steel has a more rounded stress-strain
response compared to carbon steel and does not have a well-defined yield point.

Additionally, stainless steel has a higher ratio of ultimate-to-yield stress and greater
ductility than carbon steel. When exposed to elevated temperatures, stainless steel
maintains its strength and stiffness better than carbon steel. These properties make
stainless steel ideal for use in structures under fire conditions. Austenitic stainless steel,
in particular, has excellent strength, oxidation resistance, and room temperature as well
as elevated temperature properties, making it a suitable choice for long-term, high-
temperature industrial applications. This type of steel has been successfully used for such
purposes for many years.[2] Sheet metal forming is a manufacturing process that involves
shaping thin, flat sheets of metal into three-dimensional objects using forces that do not
significantly alter the thickness of the sheet. The process converts flat sheets into parts
with the desired shape, achieved by applying forces that create stresses in the sheet and
affect the thickness of the drawn part, which may vary in different parts of the object.

1
Common sheet metal forming techniques, such as deep drawing, stretching, and bending,
are used to produce a wide range of simple to complex components for various industrial
applications. Stretch forming is a crucial sheet metal forming process used in the
production of sheet metal components for nuclear, automotive, aerospace, and domestic
applications. In this process, a thin sheet metal blank is plastically deformed into the
desired shape using forming tools, such as punches and dies, without fracturing. The
success of the process depends on various factors, including the mechanical and
metallurgical properties of the sheet metal, the geometry of the die and punch, the use of
lubrication, the thickness of the sheet, the speed of the punch, and more. These factors are
interdependent and contribute to the overall success of the forming process to varying
degrees. Having a comprehension of how easily sheet metals can be shaped is crucial for
creating high-quality components. During the process of stretch forming, the sheet metal
blank is subjected to various types of stresses, including tension (cup wall), bending
(punch and die corners), and compression (cup flange). To be successful in stretch
forming, the material must possess high tensile strength and good ductility in
compression. The flange of the cup experiences radial tensile stresses from the pulling of
the blank into the die cavity by the punch, as well as compressive hoop stresses due to the
reduction in circumference.

1.2 Dual Phase Steel

Dual-phase steels are a type of advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) that exhibit a unique
microstructure consisting of two main phases: ferrite and martensite. This distinctive
combination of phases provides dual-phase steels with an exceptional balance of high
strength and good formability, making them highly desirable for various structural
applications, particularly in the automotive industry.

The term "dual-phase" refers to the presence of two distinct phases within the steel
microstructure. Ferrite, the softer phase, is a relatively ductile and low-strength structure.
Martensite, on the other hand, is a harder and stronger phase with limited ductility. The
coexistence of these two phases allows dual-phase steels to achieve an optimal
combination of strength, formability, and toughness.

The formation of dual-phase steels involves a carefully controlled manufacturing process.

Initially, the steel is heated to a temperature above its critical range, typically in the

2
austenitic phase. This high-temperature phase allows the steel to be easily formed and
manipulated. Afterward, the steel is rapidly quenched, or cooled, to induce a phase
transformation. The rapid cooling traps some of the austenite and transforms it into a
mixture of ferrite and martensite.

The specific cooling rate and alloy composition of the steel are crucial in determining the
resulting microstructure and mechanical properties of dual-phase steels. By precisely
controlling these factors, manufacturers can achieve the desired balance between strength
and formability.

The advantages of dual-phase steels are significant. They offer high strength, allowing
for the construction of lightweight components without sacrificing structural integrity.
Dual-phase steels also exhibit good formability, enabling complex shapes to be formed
during manufacturing processes such as stamping or deep drawing. Moreover, they
possess excellent energy absorption characteristics, making them well-suited for
applications requiring impact resistance, such as automotive crash structures.

Figure 1.1: A schematic showing the differences between advanced high strength steel
(coloured) and traditional HS steel (grey). [Courtesy IISI]

Additionally, dual-phase steels are relatively weldable, facilitating their integration into
fabrication processes. They offer cost-effectiveness compared to other high-strength
materials like aluminum or composite materials. However, it is important to note that

3
dual-phase steels are more susceptible to corrosion than some other types of AHSS,
necessitating appropriate corrosion protection measures.

Overall, dual-phase steels are valued for their exceptional combination of high strength,
good formability, and energy absorption capabilities. These properties make them a
popular choice for a range of applications, particularly in the automotive industry, where
weight reduction, safety, and structural performance are critical considerations.

1.3 How austenitic stainless steel is formed

Austenitic stainless steel 310 is a popular and widely used material known for its excellent
high-temperature properties and resistance to oxidation. It belongs to the austenitic family
of stainless steels, which are characterized by their face-centred cubic crystal structure
and high levels of chromium and nickel content.

The main elements in austenitic stainless steel 310 are iron, chromium, and nickel, with
typical composition ranges of approximately 25% chromium, 20% nickel, and small
amounts of other alloying elements such as manganese and silicon. This composition
gives stainless steel 310 its superior corrosion resistance, even in highly oxidizing and
acidic environments.

Austenitic stainless steel is formed through a combination of alloy composition and a

specific manufacturing process. Here is a brief overview of how austenitic stainless steel
is formed:

1. Alloy composition: Austenitic stainless steel is primarily composed of iron,

chromium, and nickel. The exact composition may vary depending on the specific
grade of stainless steel, but typically it contains at least 18% chromium and 8%
nickel. Other elements like molybdenum, titanium, and nitrogen may also be
added to enhance specific properties.

2. Melting: The raw materials, including iron, chromium, nickel, and other alloying
elements, are melted together in a furnace. This melting process is typically
carried out in an electric arc furnace or an induction furnace.

3. Casting: Once the alloy is melted and properly mixed, it is cast into various shapes
such as slabs, billets, or ingots. This is achieved by pouring the molten steel into
molds or by continuous casting processes.
4
 4. Hot working: The cast austenitic stainless steel is then subjected to hot working
processes, which include rolling, forging, or extrusion. These processes help
refine the grain structure, improve mechanical properties, and shape the steel into
desired forms such as plates, sheets, bars, or tubes.

5. Annealing: After hot working, the steel may undergo an annealing process.
Annealing involves heating the steel to a specific temperature and holding it there
for a certain period. This allows the steel to recrystallize and relieve internal
stresses, resulting in improved ductility and homogeneity.

6. Cold working (optional): In some cases, cold working processes such as cold
rolling or cold drawing may be employed to further enhance the mechanical
properties or achieve specific dimensions. Cold working can increase the strength
and hardness of the steel while maintaining its austenitic structure.

7. Final heat treatment (optional): Depending on the desired properties, the austenitic
stainless steel may undergo additional heat treatments such as solution annealing
or stress relieving. These treatments help optimize the microstructure and
properties of the steel.

It's important to note that the specific steps and processes may vary depending on the
specific grade of austenitic stainless steel and its intended application. However, the
general formation process involves alloy composition, melting, casting, hot working, and
optionally, annealing and further heat treatments.

1.4 Here are some key features and properties of austenitic stainless steel 310:

High-temperature resistance: One of the primary advantages of stainless steel 310 is its
exceptional ability to withstand high temperatures. It can maintain its mechanical
properties and resist oxidation at temperatures up to 1100°C (2012°F), making it suitable
for various high-temperature applications such as furnace parts, heat treatment
equipment, and exhaust systems.

Corrosion resistance: Austenitic stainless steel 310 offers excellent corrosion resistance
in a wide range of environments, including oxidizing and reducing atmospheres. Its high
chromium content forms a protective oxide layer on the surface, which prevents the
material from corroding and ensures long-term durability.
5
Oxidation resistance: The high nickel content in stainless steel 310 enhances its resistance
to oxidation, even in environments with high levels of oxygen or sulphur. This makes it
particularly suitable for applications in the presence of combustion gases, such as in gas
turbines or industrial furnaces.

Strength and toughness: Stainless steel 310 possesses good mechanical properties,
including high strength and toughness. I t exhibits excellent ductility and can withstand
heavy loads and impacts without undergoing significant deformation or failure.

Weldability: Austenitic stainless steel 310 has good weldability, allowing for easy
fabrication and joining through various welding techniques. However, it is important to
use appropriate welding procedures and filler materials to maintain the corrosion
resistance and mechanical properties of the material.

Applications: Stainless steel 310 finds applications in a wide range of industries,

including the petrochemical, chemical processing, power generation, and heat treatment
sectors. It is commonly used for components such as radiant tubes, thermocouple sheaths,
furnace linings, and heat exchangers.

In summary, austenitic stainless steel 310 is a versatile material known for its exceptional
high-temperature resistance, corrosion resistance, and strength. It is a preferred choice for
demanding applications that require durability, reliability, and resistance to oxidation and
corrosion in challenging environments.

1.5 Tensile Test

A tensile test, also known as a tension test, is a common mechanical testing method used
to determine the mechanical properties of a material, particularly its strength and ductility.
It involves applying a gradually increasing tensile force or load to a standardized test
specimen until it breaks. The test helps engineers and researchers understand how a
material behaves under tension and provides valuable information for material selection,
design, and quality control purposes.

During a tensile test, a test specimen of a specific geometry, such as a cylindrical or

rectangular shape, is securely clamped into a testing machine called a universal testing
machine or tensile testing machine. The machine applies a uniaxial tensile force along the
longitudinal axis of the specimen.
6
As the force is applied, the specimen undergoes deformation, resulting in elongation or
stretching along its length. The machine measures the applied force and the corresponding
elongation or deformation of the specimen. These measurements are used to calculate
various mechanical properties, including:

Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): The maximum stress or force that the specimen can
withstand before it fractures. It indicates the material's maximum resistance to tension.

Yield Strength: The stress or force at which the material exhibits a specified amount of
permanent deformation or offset from the linear elastic region. It represents the onset of
plastic deformation and can be determined using different methods, such as the 0.2%
offset yield strength or the yield point.

Elastic Modulus or Young's Modulus: The measure of a material's stiffness or its ability
to deform elastically under tensile stress and return to its original shape when the load is
removed.

Ductility: The ability of a material to deform plastically before fracturing. It is usually

measured by the percentage of elongation or reduction in cross-sectional area before
fracture.

Tensile tests can be performed at different temperatures, strain rates, and specimen
orientations to understand the material's behaviour under different conditions. The results
obtained from tensile testing help engineers determine the material's suitability for
specific applications and aid in the development and improvement of materials and
manufacturing processes.

1.6 Metal Forming

Metal forming is the process of mechanically deforming metals to form parts and objects.
By remaining deformed to the desired shape, the mass of the material remains unchanged
despite no additional or subtraction of material. In hot forming, the sheet material is bent
into the desired shape at a temperature higher than half of the material's melting point. [1-
3]. Metal forming techniques have become the most popular manufacturing techniques
all over the world due to their extensive application in the automotive and aerospace
industries. 1.3.1 Sheet-Metal Forming A metal sheet blank is plastically deformed into a
desired three - dimensional shape by using external forces without greatly varying its
7
cross sectional thickness. This technique has grown in popularity since new alloys were
developed and their improved functionalities were found. The surface area to volume ratio
does not change significantly. It involves transforming thin metal sheet blanks into
intricate components. The method entails applying tensile forces with a high surface area
to thickness ratio to sheet metal. Several factors influence the way metal is shaped,
including friction between the tool and the material interface, speed of deformation,
metallurgical structure and temperature of the blank. Among these processes are
stretching, bending, deep drawing of metal, etc. Many intricate components, including
those for household appliances, aircraft, and nuclear applications, are made with silicon.

In Figures 1.2and 1.3, a few of these components are shown. Parts are formed from metal
5 sheets using one or more of these processes.

Figure 1.2: classification of forming

1.7 Stretch Forming process:

One of the most common methods of forming metal is stretching. This method involves
forcing a punch into a die cavity to form thin sheets into desired sizes shown in figure
8
1.4. Stretching occurs when the metal is stretched beyond its yield point in order to reach
the plastic region, and therefore elongate permanently. A stretched metal has no
compressed fibres, so it’s spring-back less. The automotive and aircraft industries use it
extensively to manufacture high-radius-of-curvature parts. The automotive and aircraft
industries use it extensively to manufacture high-radius-of curvature parts. As During
stretch forming, the gradient is relatively constant, and the spring-back effect is greatly
reduced. In contrast, only materials with a high degree of ductility can undergo large
deformations.

It is the uniform elongation of simple shapes that defines the tension limit of stretch
forming. The elongations that occurred are significantly more limited than the elongations
that have been sustained. A leading cause of failure is the tearing of sheet metal at high
stretch points. Complicated parts tend to tear between the jaws while parts with a high
radius of curvature tend to fail about halfway between the jaws and the form of the block.
Sheets with sheared edges are more likely to develop edge cracking, which will
significantly reduce the allowable stretch. It is more likely for sheets of metal to wrinkle
as they increase in width, radius of curvature, and strength as well as in thickness. As
soon as you release a stretched rubber band, the rubber band regains its original geometry.
That is what we call elastic deformation. The strain will definitely cause plastic
deformation if it exceeds a certain limit rather than elastic deformation.

Figure 1.3: stretch forming

9
 Plastic deformation is a region of deformation where material cannot regain its
original shape, as well as a shape change that does not correlate with applied force. The
proportionality limit describes where a metal turns from elastic to plastic under a given
amount of stress. Calculating this limit is typically difficult. Yielding commences at a
yield point determined by the 0.002 offsets technique. In figure 1.5, the metal begins to
deform plastically after it reaches the yield point, so more force is needed to continue
deforming it. Plastic deformation makes a metal more durable. Normally, this occurs as a
result of strain hardening.

Forming processes often include a critical factor that must be overcome, and this is
usually a problem that must be solved. In order to produce and manufacture strong
components, strain hardening plays a critical role when used correctly. Forming processes
are critically dependent on it, and normally, it is a challenge to overcome in such
processes. It is 8 crucial to the manufacturing of strong components, however, that strain
hardening be used properly. There are several factors that can contribute to sheet failure
in the stretched region. It might be due to weak tensile strength causing localized necking
here. In ductile fractures, considerable plastic deformation takes place before
transmission. It is more common for a fracture to be initiated by voids formed in
subsequent phases of solids. Sheet metal formed with fixed hemispherical punches is
subjected to failure mechanisms examined in Ghosh. Having a high degree of formability
allows sheet metal to withstand large plastic deformations before failure and prevents
premature cracking during plastic deformation.

Sheet metal stretching is a metal forming process that involves elongating a flat metal
sheet in one or more directions to achieve a desired shape or increase its dimensions. This
process is commonly used in various industries, including automotive, aerospace, and
manufacturing, to create components with specific geometries and mechanical properties.

The first step in the sheet metal stretching process is material selection. The choice of
metal depends on the desired characteristics of the final product, such as strength,
durability, and corrosion resistance. Common metals used for stretching include steel,
aluminum, and stainless steel. The thickness of the sheet metal is also determined based
on the requirements of the application.

10
Once the material is selected, the sheet metal is prepared by cutting it into a blank of the
required size and shape. The blank serves as the starting point for the stretching process.
It is important to accurately cut the blank to ensure that the final product meets the desired
specifications.

Next, the blank is clamped between two dies or grippers to hold it in place during
stretching. The clamping mechanism must be strong enough to withstand the forces
involved in the stretching process and prevent the blank from moving or buckling.

Tension is then applied to the blank in a controlled manner to stretch it. This tension can
be generated through hydraulic or mechanical stretching machines. The amount of tension
applied depends on factors such as the desired elongation, material properties, and the
final product requirements. The stretching force causes the sheet metal to undergo plastic
deformation, permanently changing its shape without fracturing.

As the sheet metal elongates under tension, it may undergo additional forming operations
to achieve the desired shape. This can include bending, drawing, or other metal forming
processes, depending on the specific requirements of the product. The combination of
stretching and forming allows manufacturers to create complex shapes and intricate
designs.

Once the desired elongation and forming operations are completed, the tension is
released, and the stretched sheet metal part is removed from the stretching machine or
dies. The part may then undergo additional finishing operations, such as trimming,
deburring, or surface treatment, to refine its appearance and improve its functional
properties.

Sheet metal stretching offers several advantages in metal forming. It allows for the
creation of components with high strength-to-weight ratios, improved dimensional
accuracy, and enhanced mechanical properties. The process enables manufacturers to
optimize material usage, reduce waste, and achieve cost-effective production.
Furthermore, sheet metal stretching is a versatile technique that can be used for both
simple and complex shapes, making it widely applicable across different industries.

11
As soon as you release a stretched rubber band, the rubber band regains its original
geometry. That is what we call elastic deformation. The strain will definitely cause plastic
deformation if it exceeds a certain limit rather than elastic deformation.

Plastic deformation is a region of deformation where material cannot regain its original
shape, as well as a shape change that does not correlate with applied force. The
proportionality limit describes where a metal turns from elastic to plastic under a given
amount of stress. Calculating this limit is typically difficult. Yielding commences at a
yield point determined by the 0.002 offsets technique.

In figure 1.5, the metal begins to deform plastically after it reaches the yield point, so
more force is needed to continue deforming it. Plastic deformation makes a metal more
durable. Normally, this occurs as a result of strain hardening

Figure 1.4: The stress strain diagram.

Forming processes often include a critical factor that must be overcome, and this is
usually a problem that must be solved. In order to produce and manufacture strong
components, strain hardening plays a critical role when used correctly. Forming processes
are critically dependent on it, and normally, it is a challenge to overcome in such
processes. It is crucial to the manufacturing of strong components, however, that strain
hardening be used properly.

12
There are several factors that can contribute to sheet failure in the stretched region. It
might be due to weak tensile strength causing localized necking here. In ductile fractures,
considerable plastic deformation takes place before transmission. It is more common for
a fracture to be initiated by voids formed in subsequent phases of solids. Sheet metal
formed with fixed hemispherical punches is subjected to failure mechanisms examined
in Ghosh et al.

Having a high degree of formability allows sheet metal to withstand large plastic
deformations before failure and prevents premature cracking during plastic deformation.

1.8 Materials models for the numerical analysis of sheet metal forming processes

Most mathematical models are dependent on the accuracy of input material properties
and the improvement of different fitting material models. Sheet metal properties play an
important role in determining its formability. To judge the formability of sheet metal,
material properties, such as strain 10 rate sensitivity parameter, strain hardening
exponents, anisotropy parameters, yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, and ductility are
important. To determine the material properties and flow stress behaviour of a material, a
number of procedures are available. In testing for flow stress curves, there were several
conditions, but test conditions did not repeat because of stresses states, anisotropy effects,
Bauschinger effects, yield criterion assumptions, temperature, experimental errors and
model weaknesses. There is no perfect test strategy. By choosing appropriate material
models, one can greatly improve the accuracy of mathematical models. To predict the
behaviour of a material under stress, there is a need to develop material models. The
plasticity of material is represented by the accompanying two components.

[1] The yield criterion is a numerical representation of the relationship between stresses
right before plastic yielding takes place. [2] The constitutive model (Hardening model)
describes the relationship between the flow stress pattern and the dynamic material
properties. A material's stress-strain curve is used to determine the yield point in uniaxial
tension. In contrast, it may be much more challenging to determine what causes the
transition from the elastic to the plastic state when there is multi-axial stress.

To determine whether plastic flow will occur, there is a 11 need to connect the principal
stresses. The yield function (yield criterion) is a measure of such a relationship and it is
normal for it to be verifiable. For plastic flow rates to be related to stress rates, the plastic
13
flow rule is required. Stress and strain in plastics can be characterized by the plastic flow
rule. The flow rule is said to be 'related' to the yield function when the plastic strain rate
vector in the strain-stress space determines the shape of the curved elastic domain as a
function of the yield surface. Relevant flow rules are used in most sheet metal
applications.

Models of constitutive properties of metals and alloys are normally used to represent the
flow characteristics of metals and alloys to enable computer code to assess forming
reactions of mechanical part individuals under usual stacking conditions. A structural
constitutive model is usually tested at low strain rates using uniaxial tensile tests. For the
most part, an ideal constitutive model for metals and alloys should be able to accurately
depict the material properties, such as strain-rate dependence, work hardening or strain-
hardening behaviour, strain and strain-rate history dependence, and temperature-
dependence (both isotropic and anisotropic hardening). In one constitutive model,
however, these marvels would be impossible to depict. Additionally, mathematical
models can only be truly accurate when a fitting constitutive model is used.

14
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review on the tensile testing of austenitic stainless steel 310 involves an
analysis of existing scholarly research, articles, and relevant sources that specifically
focus on studying the mechanical behavior and properties of this particular stainless steel
alloy under tension. Here is a paragraph summarizing the key findings and trends in the
literature related to the tensile testing of austenitic stainless steel 310:

Numerous studies have investigated the tensile properties of austenitic stainless steel 310,
aiming to understand its mechanical behavior and performance under various loading
conditions. The research consistently highlights the high strength and excellent ductility
of this alloy.

Tensile tests reveal that austenitic stainless steel 310 exhibits significant tensile strength,
with yield and ultimate tensile strength values surpassing those of many other stainless
steel grades. The elongation at fracture is typically substantial, indicating good ductility.

The strain-hardening behavior of the material during plastic deformation has been
extensively examined, with studies reporting an initially steep work-hardening rate
followed by a gradual saturation.

The presence of dislocation activities, dynamic strain aging, and strain-induced

martensitic transformation have been identified as contributing factors to the strain-
hardening behavior. Additionally, investigations into the effects of temperature, strain
rate, and heat treatment on the tensile properties of austenitic stainless steel 310 have
demonstrated variations in its mechanical response. However, more research is still
needed to fully comprehend the influence of these factors and their interactions on the
material's behavior in different applications and environments

15
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The methodology used in this study can be seen in Figure 3.1. ASS310 steel was
used as an investigating material in the form of a 1 mm thick cold rolled sheet due to its
extensive application in today's aerospace, automobile industries.

As per the testing standards, it was shear cut into square sheets for easy
processing by wire cut EDM. 54 tensile specimens and samples were machined using
wire-cut EDM according to ASTM standards. To determine the chemical composition of
a sample specimen, it was examined under a microscope, and then the experiment was
conducted.

In this experiment, sample specimens were tensile tested using ASTM standard
E8M specifications using temperatures that varied from 300k to 1023K at strain rates of
0.001- 0.1 s-1. Friction test was also conducted to determine the frictional effect on the
metal forming process.

In this study, yield, ultimate tensile strength, and elongation percentage have
been evaluated using experimental data. A yield point stress of 0.2% has been calculated.
Load-displacement graphs were used to plot the true stress-true strain graphs for each
specimen.

Wire cut Electric discharge machine (EDM) was used to prepare ASS310 steel
sheet specimens according to the Nakajima standard test procedure. Stereo Microscope
measurements were made by marking the circular grids with laser etching on the
stretching specimens. Scanning electron microscopy was used to study the fracture
behaviours of stretched specimens at various strain rates and temperatures.

On the basis of strain rates measured by stereo microscopes,

experimental FLDs have been developed ASS310 Steel. Several graphs were plotted
before the onset of necking put the minor stress on the ordinate and the major stress on
the abscissa.

Due to the fact that the experiments were conducted at varying temperatures, FLDs
were constructed at different temperatures and compared in different orientations. It will

16
be helpful for developing and designing the right production processes for ASS310 steel
at high temperatures using the forming limit diagrams.

Figure 3.1: Illustration of the research process

Based on the calculated material properties, ASS310 alloy has been subjected to various
anisotropic yield criteria and constitutive models at high temperatures.

17
 CHAPTER 4

MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION

In this chapter, the properties of ASS310 steel Sheet metal are

characterised through tensile tests at temperatures ranging from 300K to 1023K. ASS310
steel sheets were prepared as tensile test specimens as per ASTM specifications. The
specimens were tested at the above temperatures and at different strain rates. A fracture
behaviour analysis of the specimens has been performed based on true stress - true strain
graphs.

4.1 Material and Method

In the present study, commercially available cold-rolled

stainless steel of 1 mm thickness, with major elements are listed in Table 1. For
microstructural analysis, the test sample was prepared as per the ASTM E3- 95 standards.
In order to observe the grain boundaries in the microstructure, the sample was etched with
the 2% Nital solution, which mainly contains 98% methanol and 2% HNO3 solution.
Figure 1(a) shows the microstructure of the received parent ASS310 sheet. Further, the
material phases namely, martensitic and ferrite, were identified by the X-ray diffraction
(XRD) technique. Figure 4.1(b) shows that the XRD peaks were observed in the as-
received parent material. The peaks corresponding to (110), (200) and (211) planes clearly
indicate the martensitic and ferrite.

4.2 Specimen preparation for tensile test

Uniaxial tensile specimens as per sub-sized ASTM E08/E8M-11

standard, with a gauge length of 30 mm, 21 mm width and 1 mm thickness 28 were wire
cut by electric discharge machined from the parent sheet as shown in Figure 4.2(a), 4.3
and 4.4. Before the testing, each specimen was polished by diamond pastes to remove
scratches from the flat surface. In sheet metal, mechanical properties and flow behaviour
vary with respect to orientation due to the inherent anisotropic nature of sheet material.
Thus, specimens were wire cut at an angle of 0º, 30º, 60º and 90º as shown in Figures
4.2(b) and 4.4. Uniaxial tensile tests were carried out at the temperature range of 300 to
973 K under constant quasi-static strain rates of 00.1s to conduct the isothermal tensile

18
tests. UTM is equipped with a two zone split furnace, maximum 1000 °C heating capacity
with ± 5°C accuracy. During the uniaxial tests, the temperature of the specimen was
controlled through three thermocouples.

4.2.1 Composition Of ASS310 In %

Table 4.1: composition of ASS310

4.3 Tensile Testing

Test samples were prepared according to specifications in ASTM E08/E8M-11

standard. A sheet of 1 mm thick material was cut into three orientations with respect to
rolling direction (0,30,60,90), as shown in figure 4.2. A flat-sheet specimen of 30 mm in
length, 6.2 mm in width, and 1 mm in thickness is used in the experiment.

Electro thermal processes are used to prepare the sample, i.e. WEDM machines, where
electrically conductive metals are heated from electric sparks and cut with an electrode
(metal wire). The metal is melted or vaporized, instead of cut, and the result is a very fine
and precise shape and size. This discharges an electrified current that acts as a cathode
and guides the electrified current along the desired cutting path.

The electrode does not come into contact with the workpiece. The diameter of electrodes
is usually between 0.1 mm and 0.3 mm, and they are made of stratified copper or brass.
Dielectric fluid submerged in the workpiece directs sparks at the workpiece. Using the
electrode wire, it is possible to machine sideways with precision and an accuracy of +/-
0.005 mm.

19
 Figure 4.1: (a) Schematic of the tensile test specimen as per sub-sized ASTM
E08/E8M-11 standard and
(b) Schematic of different orientations of a sheet

Figure 4.2 : Geometry of tensile test specimen as per ASTM E08/E8M11standard

20
 Figure 4.3: Tensile test specimens as per ASTM E08/E8M-11standard

Figure 4.4: UTM Schematic Diagram

An arrangement of pinned grips is provided with the UTM to fix the flat tensile specimen.
A proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control system regulates the speed. It determines
an "error" value by comparing the measured process to a set point after equal intervals of
time. For measuring true strain rates and varying strain rates with an adjusted strain rate,
PID controllers are widely used in industrial control systems.

21
To A three-zone split, the furnace is equipped with UTM to conduct the test at high
temperatures. With a precision of 5°C, 900°C is achieved with a uniform distribution of
heating coils in three zones. Using thermocouples, the temperature was controlled and
measured.

Figure 4. 5: A magnified view of a UTM

Figure 4.6: Split furnace with 3-zone heating attached to UTM

4.4 Tensile Flow stress behaviour

The tensile flow behavior of ASS310, a grade of austenitic stainless steel, is

characterized by its ability to undergo significant plastic deformation before fracture.
During a tensile test, the material initially exhibits elastic deformation, where the applied

22
stress causes proportional elastic strain, following Hooke's law. However, as the stress
increases, the material transitions into plastic deformation without a distinct yield point.

ASS310 demonstrates gradual plastic deformation as the stress-strain curve shows

a continuous increase in strain with a relatively constant stress level. This behavior is
attributed to the movement of dislocations within the crystal structure of the material. The
plastic deformation is accompanied by strain hardening or work hardening, whereby the
material becomes stronger and more resistant to further deformation as the plastic strain
increases.

As the plastic deformation progresses, ASS310 may experience localized necking,

where the cross-sectional area decreases significantly in a concentrated region. Despite
this necking, the material continues to deform plastically until it reaches its ultimate
tensile strength (UTS). The UTS represents the maximum stress that ASS310 can
withstand before fracture occurs.

Fracture in ASS310 is typically ductile in nature, characterized by significant

plastic deformation and necking prior to final separation. This ductility is indicative of
the ability of ASS310 to absorb energy before failure, making it suitable for applications
that require good toughness and formability.

It's important to note that the specific tensile flow behavior of ASS310 can be
influenced by factors such as composition, heat treatment, strain rate, and temperature.
To fully understand and characterize the tensile flow behavior of ASS310, conducting
actual tensile tests and analyzing the resulting stress-strain curves would provide more
specific and accurate information.

The effects of test temperature, strain rate and sheet orientation on the flow stress
behaviour of austenitic stainless steel have been analysed in this section. Figure 4.8 shows
the effect of test temperatures [(room temperature) 300K and 973 k] on the tensile flow
behaviour of DP 590 steel for different strain rates. It is observed that the rise in test
temperature significantly affects the peak flow/yield stress. The yield stress decreases
with the rise in temperature. This is mainly due to an obvious softening phenomenon,
especially at the higher test temperature. This tendency is similar to most metals while
uniaxial tensile deformation at the elevated temperature.

23
 The decrease in the yield stress is mainly because of thermal activation of the
dislocation motion, which results in easier plastic deformation at elevated temperature.
Figure 4 shows the effect of strain rates ( 0.1 𝑠−1) on tensile flow behaviour of ASS310
for different test temperatures. It is noticed that flow stress increases rapidly up to the
peak yield stress value with a rise in the strain rate. But the uniform elongation decreases
with rise in the strain rate. This rise in flow stress might be due to either decelerate of
action or increase in the dislocation motion barriers while mechanically and thermal
activated plastic deformations.

Figure 4.7: Stress-strain cures

For all test temperatures, this peak value reaches within a strain range of (0.1/s).
Further, a steady flow behaviour has been exhibited with the subsequent deformation
stage especially at the low strain rate. From figures the yield stress decreases with
increasing of the test temperature and decreasing of strain rate. Thus, this confirms that
the temperature and strain rate significantly affect the flow stress behaviour of ASS310.

4.5 Evaluation of Mechanical properties with result

The mechanical properties, namely tensile strengths (YS and UTS) and %
elongation, were calculated for different test temperatures, quasi-static strain rates and
24
orientation conditions. Table gives the calculated material properties of ASS310. It is
observed that the calculated tensile strengths are inversely proportional to the test
temperature. Drop in the yield and ultimate tensile strength were approximately 71.8 and
71.33% with rise in test temperature from 300 to 973 K along with 0º orientation. Further,
the % elongation is found to be directly proportional to the test temperature. Around
54.77% improvement observed in % elongation with a rise in test temperature from 300
K to 973 K along 0º orientation. Similar behaviour is observed with other sheet
orientations.

Table 4.2: Mechanical Properties with results

S.No Temperature Strain Orientation UTS(Mpa) YTS(Mpa) %

(k) rate in degrees elongation

1 RT 0.1/s 0 675.74+4 392.7+2 9.99+1

2 973 0.1/s 0 184.24+7 124.08+5 65.82+3

25
 CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF TENSILE TESTING

The chapter discusses tensile test operation. The experimental setup was developed for
performing tensile test experiments on 310 stainless steel at various temperatures.
Following the tensile experiments, by the obtained values the stress strain graph is plotted.

5.1 Tensile Test Experimental Setup:

The tensile test is a common experimental procedure used to determine the mechanical
properties of a material, specifically its response to tensile forces or stretching. The setup
for a tensile test typically involves several components and instruments that enable the
measurement of key parameters.

To begin with, a test specimen is prepared according to the required dimensions and
specifications. This specimen is usually in the form of a carefully machined or
standardized shape, such as a round or rectangular bar, with a specific gauge length and
cross-sectional area. The specimen is often made from a representative sample of the
material being tested, such as metal, plastic, or composite.

The next step involves mounting the specimen onto a tensile testing machine. This
machine consists of a loading frame or rig that can apply controlled tensile forces to the
specimen. The specimen is securely gripped by grips or jaws attached to the machine,
ensuring a strong connection capable of withstanding the applied forces without slippage
or failure.

Once the specimen is properly mounted, the tensile testing machine applies an axial force
in a linear and controlled manner. This force stretches the specimen along its length until
it eventually fractures. The machine measures the applied force and the corresponding
elongation or deformation of the specimen throughout the test.

To accurately measure the deformation, an extensometer is often used. This device

attaches to the specimen and provides real-time measurements of the elongation or strain
occurring during the test. The extensometer typically consists of a set of arms or contact
points that move apart as the specimen elongates, generating electrical signals that are
converted into strain values.

26
During the test, various parameters are recorded, such as the applied force, elongation,
and time. These data are used to generate a stress-strain curve, which illustrates the
material's response to increasing tensile forces. The stress is calculated by dividing the
applied force by the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen, while the strain is
determined by dividing the change in length by the original gauge length.

By analyzing the stress-strain curve, important mechanical properties of the material can
be determined, including the yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, modulus of
elasticity, and elongation at fracture. These properties provide valuable information about
the material's strength, stiffness, and ductility, which are essential for engineering design
and material selection.

Figure 5.1: Tensile Test Schematic Image

In summary, the experimental setup for a tensile test involves preparing a test specimen,
mounting it onto a tensile testing machine, applying controlled forces, measuring the
deformation using an extensometer, and recording the data to analyze the material's
mechanical properties. This standardized procedure allows for the characterization and
comparison of different materials under tension, providing insights into their behavior
and performance.

27
For experiments, the following three steps are commonly used: marking the grids on the
sheets, stretching the marked specimens until failure or onset of localized necking, and
measuring the major and minor strain.

Nakajima standard specifications were followed in preparing the stretching samples.

Blanks ranged in length between 150 mm and 150 mm in the steps of 25 mm, while the
width varied between 25 mm and 150 mm. Sheets of 1 mm thickness were used for cutting
the blanks. Using an electron discharge machine (EDM) with a wire electrode, we were
able to cut the electrically conductive metal using heat generated from electrical sparks
to cut the metal. Figure 7.2 shows the wire electrode (a metallic wire) used for cutting the
metal. Rather than cutting the metal, it melts or vaporizes it, providing very accurate size
and shape. It discharges the electrified current along its cutting path, acting as the cathode.
The electrode does not physically contact the workpiece.

Figure 5.2: Wire cut Electric discharge machine

28
 Figure 5.3: Nakajima standard tensile samples

Figure 5.4 : Nakajima standard test samples (0° orientation)

Strain gauges, grid markings, optical, and mechanical extensometers are the primary
methods of measuring strain or displacement. As a relatively simple method of strain
measurement in sheet metal forming processes, grid marking is one of the most frequently
used deformation measurement methods. Printing or etching patterns on sheet metal
specimens is known as grid marking. In order to obtain explicit results from the analysis,
the grid pattern used must be precise and accurate. Several metal forming problems are
now being solved using this practical method. Figure 5.5 shows the laser etching
equipment used to mark the grids on the blank sheets
29
 Figure 5.5: Equipment for laser etching grids

Figure 5.6: tensile test image

Figure above shows a two-zone resistance heating split furnace with two areas for
stretching and forming up to fracture using a servo-electric hot forming test rig. Using a
two-zone split furnace with accurate temperature control of 5°C, the maximum load
capacity was 50 KN.

30
In order to obtain uniformity in temperature throughout the blank, samples are heated to
deformation temperature at 30°C/min. Every experiment set includes two samples, and
the mean values are recorded to obtain more data points.

Figure 5.7: Stero Microscope

Extensometers are utilized during forming processes to measure high temperatures. Using
a computer control system, load-displacement data were recorded. Using a feedback
control system, constant true strain rates (Strain/sec) can be acquired while exponentially
increasing the speed of the actuator. Various temperatures were tested.

As the width of the samples is changed, distinct strains are subjected to the blank sheets,
such as the plane strain, tension-tension zone, and compression-tension zone.

At a microscopic level, a tensile test specimen reveals intricate details about the material's
behavior under tension. As the test progresses, the specimen undergoes various stages of
deformation, providing valuable insights into its microstructure and mechanical
properties.

Initially, the specimen appears uniform and intact, with a defined grain structure.
Depending on the material, the grains may be visible under a microscope, such as in
metals, or more homogenous in materials like polymers. The boundaries between grains,
known as grain boundaries, can influence the material's strength and deformation
characteristics.

As the tensile force is applied, the specimen begins to elongate. Microscopic observations
reveal the stretching of individual grains, accompanied by the movement of dislocations

31
within the crystal lattice. Dislocations are defects or irregularities in the atomic
arrangement of a material that enable plastic deformation. Under tension, dislocations
migrate, creating slip planes and allowing the material to deform without fracturing.

During the test, necking often occurs in ductile materials. Necking is the localized
narrowing of the specimen, resulting from non-uniform deformation. Microscopically,
this phenomenon manifests as a region of concentrated strain and elongation within the
specimen. The necked region typically exhibits elongated and deformed grains, indicating
the significant plastic deformation occurring in that area.

In brittle materials, such as certain ceramics or brittle polymers, the microscopic view
during a tensile test shows limited plastic deformation before fracture. Microcracks or
micro-voids may develop within the material, propagating and coalescing as the applied
force increases. These microstructural features contribute to the material's fracture
toughness and brittleness.

Observing the fracture surface after the test provides further insights into the material's
behavior. In ductile materials, a cup and cone pattern may be visible, indicating shear
deformation and localized deformation bands. Microscopic examination of the fracture
surface can also reveal the presence of dimples, which are round or elongated depressions
caused by the ductile tearing and necking process.

In contrast, brittle materials exhibit a relatively smooth and flat fracture surface with
limited deformation features. The fracture may appear more granular or crystalline, with
characteristic features that depend on the material's composition and structure.

Overall, examining the microscopic view of a tensile test specimen offers a detailed
understanding of the material's response to applied forces. It helps identify the
mechanisms of deformation, the role of microstructural features, and the material's overall
strength and ductility characteristics.

32
 CHAPTER 6

THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF STRESS

STRAIN DIAGRAM

Theoretical and experimental studies of stress-strain diagrams play a crucial role in

understanding the mechanical behavior of materials. These studies involve both analytical
calculations and practical measurements to investigate the relationship between stress and
strain during deformation.

Theoretical studies involve the development of mathematical models and equations that
describe the behavior of materials under various loading conditions. These models are
based on fundamental principles of mechanics, such as elasticity and plasticity theories.
Theoretical analyses provide insights into the underlying mechanisms governing
deformation and help in predicting the response of materials to different types of stress.

One common theoretical approach is linear elasticity, which assumes that the material's
response to stress is linearly proportional to the applied load within the elastic region.
This allows for the calculation of stress and strain values based on known material
properties, such as Young's modulus. Linear elastic models provide a simplified
understanding of material behavior and are applicable to many engineering applications.

However, when materials undergo plastic deformation, linear elasticity no longer

accurately describes their behavior. Theoretical studies then involve plasticity theories,
such as the yield criteria and flow rules, to model the transition from elastic to plastic
deformation. These theories consider factors like yield strength, strain hardening, and the
influence of stress state on deformation.

Experimental studies involve conducting physical tests, such as tensile tests, compression
tests, or bending tests, on actual material specimens. These tests apply controlled forces
or loads to the specimen while measuring the resulting deformation. Experimental data,
such as load values, elongation, or strain measurements, are collected during the test.

By plotting the collected data, experimental stress-strain diagrams are generated. These
diagrams depict the relationship between stress (load per unit area) and strain
(deformation per unit length) throughout the material's deformation process.

33
They provide valuable information about the material's mechanical properties, including
its elastic and plastic behavior, ultimate strength, yield point, and fracture point.

Comparing theoretical predictions with experimental results allows for the validation of
theoretical models and provides insights into the accuracy of the assumptions made.
Discrepancies between theoretical and experimental findings can lead to the refinement
of models and further investigations into the material's behavior.

The combination of theoretical and experimental studies of stress-strain diagrams helps

in understanding the fundamental behavior of materials and aids in the design and analysis
of structures and components. Theoretical models provide a foundation for predicting
material response, while experimental tests validate these models and provide real-world
data for verification and improvement. This iterative process of theoretical and
experimental studies contributes to the advancement of material science and engineering.

34
 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

7.1 High-Temperature Working (300k to 973k)

Austenitic stainless steel sheets with a thickness of 1mm at high temperatures are the
object of the current study. Tension tests were conducted in this study to evaluate the
material's tensile flow stress behaviour .

To determine the tensile limits of austenitic stainless steel 310, stretching forming
experiments were conducted on the hot forming setup. The results are as follows.

7.2 Tensile test

Usually the flow behavior of alloys is studied by isothermal deformation

experimentation. In the present investigation, warm forming operation is carried out on
a servo electric hot forming test rig with an aim to improve the formability characteristics
of ASS 310 alloy and the same has been compared with room temperature. From the
experimental results, the following conclusions could be drawn.

In the present study, hot flow behaviour for ass310 at a wide range of temperatures and
strain, strain rates were studied. From the above analysis, the following conclusions were
drawn:

● During isothermal warm deformation, with increase in deformation temperature, the

limiting strains also found to be increased due to the refinement of grain structures.

● At elevated temperatures, tension is found to have significantly increased from room

temperature to 973k and can be considered as the highest with less thickness variation
within the available experimental limits

● The tensile flow stress behaviour is significantly affected by test temperatures, strain
rates and sheet orientation for ASS310

35
7.3 Future Scope of the work

Future research will focus on:

● A suitable experimental setup allows formability studies to extend to temperatures

above 1073K, to find ways to further increase formability.

● Established constitutive models can be incorporated for FE analysis for different

sheet metal forming operations.

● Other tribological properties of stainless steel 310 can be investigated.

The chemical composition and temperature of materials can be used to predict the hot
forming behaviour based on experimental data and data mining techniques.

36
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