Prelims:

Current affairs of International Importance.

(Approximately 10 questions)

1.Indian’s Diplomacy with respect to countries-out-

come of meets, policy decision.

2.India’s participation in international organiza-

tions. (ASEAN, QUAD)

3.Map Based Questions: Related to Indian Foreign

Policy of India with Specific Country.

Physical features (Any visit)

Mains + Essay

Interview/ Personality test

 PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
2020
1. Critically examine the role of WHO in providing global health security during the Covid-19
pandemic.
2. ‘Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and Euro-
pean Countries’. Comment with examples.

3. ‘Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad)’ is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a mili-
tary alliance, in present times – Discuss.

4. What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss
with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region.

2019

1. ‘The time has come for India and Japan to build a strong contemporary relationship, one
involving global and strategic partnerships that will have a great significance for Asia and
the world as a whole.’ Comment.

2. ‘Too little cash, too much politics, leave UNESCO fighting for life.’ Discuss the statement in
the light of the US’ withdrawal and its accusation of the cultural body as being ‘anti-Israel
bias’.

3. “The long sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised nations has
disappeared on account of its newfound role in the emerging global order.’ Elaborate

4. What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washing-
ton is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s
national self-esteem and ambitions’. Explain with suitable examples.

2018

1. “India’s relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be
rolled back.” Discuss.

2. A number of outside powers have entrenched themselves in Central Asia, which is a zone of
interest to India. Discuss the implications, in this context, of India’s joining the Ashgabat
Agreement, 2018.

3. Indian and the USA are two large democracies. Examine the basic tenets on which the two
political systems are based.

4. What are the key areas of reform if the WTO has to survive in the present context of the
‘Trade War’, especially keeping in mind the interest of India?

5. In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national
Interest of India? How should India respond to its situation?

2017

1. ‘China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop potential
military power status in Asia’, In the light of this statement, discuss its impact on India as
her neighbor.
2. What are the main functions of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)?
Explain different functional commissions attached to it.

3. The question of India’s Energy Security constitutes the most important part of India’s eco-
nomic progress. Analyze India’s energy policy cooperation with West Asian Countries.

4. Indian Diaspora has an important role to play in South-East Asian countries’ economy and
society. Appraise the role of Indian Diaspora in South- East Asia in this context.

2016

1. “The broader aims and objectives of WTO are to manage and promote international trade in
the era of globalization. But the Doha round of negotiations seems doomed due to differences
between the developed and the developing countries.” Discuss in the Indian perspective.

2. Evaluate the economic and strategic dimensions of India’s Look East Policy in the context of
the post-Cold War international scenario.

3. “Increasing cross-border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal
affairs of member-states by Pakistan are not conducive for the future of SAARC (South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation).” Explain with suitable examples.

4. What are the aims and objectives of the McBride Commission of UNESCO? What is India’s
position on these?

2015

1. Increasing interest of India in Africa has its pros and cons. Critically examine.

2. Discuss the impediments India is facing in its pursuit of a permanent seat in the UN Secu-
rity Council.

3. Project `Mausam’ is considered a unique foreign policy initiative of the Indian Government to
improve relationships with its neighbors. Does the project have a strategic dimension? Dis-
cuss.

4. Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India-Pakistan relations. To what ex-
tent the use of soft power like sports and cultural exchanges could help generate goodwill
between the two countries? Discuss with suitable examples.

2015
1. Increasing interest of India in Africa has its pros and cons. Critically examine.

2. Discuss the impediments India is facing in its pursuit of a permanent seat in UN Security
Council.
3. Project `Mausam' is considered a unique foreign policy initiative of the Indian Government to
improve relationship with its neighbors. Does the project have a strategic dimension?
Discuss.
4. Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India-Pakistan relations. To what ex-
tent the use of soft power like sports and cultural exchanges could help generate goodwill
between the two countries? Discuss with suitable examples.

2014

1. With respect to the South China sea, maritime territorial disputes and rising tension affirm
the need for safeguarding maritime security to ensure freedom of navigation and over flight
throughout the region. In this context, discuss the bilateral issues between India and China.
2. The aim of Information Technology Agreements (ITAs) is to lower all taxes and tariffs on
information technology products by signatories to zero. What impact should such agreements
have on India's interests?

3. Some of the International funding agencies have special terms for economic participation
stipulating a substantial component of the aid to be used for sourcing equipment from the
leading countries. Discuss on merits of such terms and if, there exists a strong case not to
accept such conditions in the Indian context.

4. India has recently signed to become founding a New Development Bank (NDB) and also the
Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) .How will the role of the two Banks be different?
Discuss the significance of these two Banks for India.

5. WTO is an important international institution where decisions taken affect countries in

profound manner. What is the mandate of WTO and how binding are their decisions? Criti-
cally analyse India's stand on the latest round of talks on Food security.

2013

1. The proposed withdrawal of International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) from Afghanistan
in 2014 is fraught with major security implications for the countries of the region. Examine
in light of the fact that India is faced with a plethora of challenges and needs to safeguard its
own strategic interests.

2. What do you understand by The String of Pearls'? How does it impact India? Briefly outline the
steps taken by India to counter this.

3. Economic ties between India and Japan while growing in the recent years are still far below
their potential. Elucidate the policy constraints which are inhibiting this growth.

3. The protests in Shahbag Square in Dhaka in Bangladesh reveal a fundamental split in soci-
ety between the nationalists and Islamic forces. What is its significance for India?

4. Discuss the political developments in Maldives in the last two years. Should they be of any
cause of concern to India?

5. In respect of India-Sri Lanka relations, discuss how domestic factors influence foreign policy.

6. What is meant by Gujral doctrine? Does it have any relevance today? Discuss.

7. The World Bank and the IMF, collectively known as the Bretton Woods Institutions, are the
two inter-governmental pillars supporting the structure of the world's economic and financial
order. Superficially, the World Bank and the IMF exhibit many common characteristics, yet
their role, functions and mandate are distinctly different. Elucidate.

2012

1. What is meant by the G8+5 group?

2. What are India's stakes in the South China Sea?

3. Compare the significance of IBSA and BRICS in the context of India's multilateral diplomacy.

4. How have the US sanctions against Iran affected India's bilateral relations with Iran?

5. Write a short analytical note on Indian Diaspora. How is the "New Diaspora" different from
the "Old Diaspora"?
6. Does Putin's return as President of Russia mark a shift to a confrontationist stance in inter-
national diplomacy towards the West?

7. Do you think that China's emergence as one of the largest trading partners of India had
adversely affected the settlement of the outstanding border problem?

8. Discuss the contentious issues that have caused the prolonged constitutional logjam in Nepal.

9. The situation today is far different to that prevalent fifty years back when the Indus Water
Treaty was signed." Highlight the complexity of the current challenges on both sides of the
border in this regard. Do you think that a review of the Treaty is in India's best interests?

2011

1. List the Central Asian Republics and identify those of particular strategic and economic im-
portance to India. Examine the opportunities and bottlenecks in enhancing relations with
these countries.

2. Critically examine the security and strategic implications of the so-called 'string of pearls'
theory for India.

3. "Compared to the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA), the Bay of Bengal Initiative for
Multisectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation Free Trade Area (BIMSTEC FTA) seems
to be more promising." Critically evaluate.

4. Measures taken by the Indian government to combat piracy in the Indian Ocean.

5. Subsequent to the Nuclear Suppliers' Group (NSG) waiver in 2008, what are the agreements
on nuclear energy that India has signed with different countries?

6. Trace the progress of India's efforts for a joint counter-terrorism strategy with China. What
are the likely implications of the recent Xinjiang violence on these efforts?

7. Bring out the importance of the 'Small and Medium Enterprises Expo and Conference' held in
Dubai last year for Indian business.

8. What are the salient features of the political and economic relationship between India and
South Africa?

9. Strategies adopted by Colombia to eliminates its drug cartels .

10. World Food Programme (WFP) of the United Nations

11. Sculpture of the broken chair in front of the UN building at Geneva.

12. "As regards the increasing rates of melting of Arctic Sea ice, the interests of the Arctic
Council nations may not coincide with those of the wider world." Explain.

13. Is there still a role for the concept of balance of power in contemporary international politics?
Discuss.

14. "Strategic interests seem to be replacing commercial interests for the host country with
regard to Cam Ranh Bay." Amplify.

15. To what extent has the withdrawal of al-Shabab from Mogadishu given peace a real chance in
Somalia? Assess.

* * * *
 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states.

It addresses the many facets of relationships that can exist in the world:

International
Relations

National and
Environment Diplomacy Media
Ethnic Identities

Global
Governance Social
Movements
Inter-cultural Foreign policy International
Relations Analysis Security Terrorism

It is a multidisciplinary study and understanding that does not restrict students to

one approach and employs a variety of methods including discourse analysis, statistics
and comparative and historical analysis.

International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more

and more interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and
through social media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

According to India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, who tailored its world-
view during the initial phase, two aspects of India’s world-view, namely, the ‘positive
aspect of peace’ and the desire to promote ‘a larger degree of co-operation among
nations,’ were based on India’s past thinking on the formulation of foreign policy.

THEMES IN THE EVOLUTION OF INDIA'S INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Five aspects of India’s traditional VALUES have a bearing on the evolution of its
international relations:
 The middle way

Exhibiting positive
ideas through Tolerance
negative terms.

Absence of
Idealist and realist
imperialist
traditions
tradition

1. The Middle Way :

"Ati sarvatra varjayet "-“Let us eschew excess at all times”. The Indian preference
for Though duties and liberation are given utmost importance, capital accumulation
(“all virtues lie in gold”) and sensual pleasure ( Vatsyayana’s Kamsutra, sculptures of
Khajuraho) are not ignored.The Bhagavad-Gita therefore speaks of the divine sanction
for all desires, which are not against the moral order and moral law.

Dharma,
Artha
(“duties—whether
(“capital
social, moral,
accumulation”)
spiritual, or ritual”)

Kama Moksha
(“sensual pleasure”) (“liberation”).
 “India has absorbed and harmonised different religions; and even the conflict
between science and religion in the past; and maybe it is our destiny to help reconcile
the conflicting ideologies of today.” - Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru

2.Tolerance:
“Vade, vade Jayate tattvasiddhih”: “Enlightenment is achieved through debate.”
“Ekam sadviprah bahudha vadanti meaning”: “The one truth is described variously
by learned.”
Tolerance is not just an ideal mentioned in the scriptures but it is a social reality
:When various religious practitioners came to India they were allowed to practise and
propagate their faith:

First Christians The Parsis ?ed and

First Jews came came in 7th
came to Kerala
to Kerala in 70 AD century AD
in 47 AD

The recurring caste and communal violence in India shows that there is much less
tolerance today than there was in the past; we cannot deny that the tradition of tolerance
is fundamental to the life of the masses in India.
The tradition of tolerance in fact has been the basis of India’s emphasis on the peaceful
settlement of disputes through negotiations with neighbours like China, Pakistan etcetra.

3. Realist and Idealist Traditions

REALIST PHILOSOPHY: Belief that both defence of a kingdom and aggressive war,
if used to conquer the whole country, are just. They hold that war should be undertaken
only as the last resort, not because war is immoral, but because it is expensive and
troublesome and victory is not certain ( Arthashashtra, Panchtantra).
IDEALIST PHILOSOPHY : Non-injury are the means to get rid of sin and secure
salvation. The Upanishads give us the basis of the theory of non-violence. There is one
undivided and indivisible spirit, which may be called God or truth. The universe is
expression of it, and all beings form part of it. Since perfection consists in realising this
truth, any kind of violence would be a repudiation of the truth ( Jainism, Buddhism).
“Our approach is not to stress the differences but to stress the similarities.”
- Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru

4. Absence of Imperialist Tradition:

No prominent Indian thinker, not even a realist like Kautilya or Manu or Bodhayana,
advocated the extension of Indian empire beyond the geographical boundaries of Bharat/
India (country stretching from the Himalayas to southern sea and from the western sea
to the eastern).
Some dynasties aggressive war against others beyond Bharat/India were repugnant
to the Hindu and Buddhist cultures. They were in fact aberrations, which should not
be used to negate the overall anti-imperialistic tradition of India.
There has thus been no deliberate attempt at imperialism at any time in the history
of India. This anti-imperialist tradition and sentiments got a boost during the British
rule, because of the suffering caused to the people by British imperialism. The leaders
of India’s freedom struggle therefore viewed their movement as a part of the overall
fight against imperialism and colonialism in the world.
When India achieved its independence it vigorously pursued the cause of emancipation
of colonial and dependent territories :

Absence of
Imperialist Tradition

India enabling
India supported in the Bangladesh to emerge
UN for freedom Namibia as an independent
from South Africa. nation.

India’s returned to
India supported in the UN Pakistan in 1972 the
for freedom in Algeria and territories captured
Tunisia from the French during Indo-Pak war
of 1971

“India’s world-view is grounded in ancient tradition and culture of this country.”

- Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru

5. Exhibiting Positive Ideas through Negative terms:

“Even a cursory look at the philosophical and civilisational tradition indicates
that the Indians have been fond of noun with negative. It is through negative terms
that the Indians have expressed positive and affirmative ideas of profound
significance in their social evolution.”
- KP MISHRA
 POSITIVE NEGATIVE
1. “peace” “non-violence” (ahimsa).
2. “defeat” “non-victory” (parajaya).
3. “many" “non-one” (aneka) ;”
4. “exertion” “non-idleness” (apramada)
5. “tolerance” “non-grudge” (avaira)

The word, non-alignment is though negative in expression, it has very positive

connotations that include pursuit of an independent world-view, and efforts towards
development, disarmament, decolonialisation and democratisation of international
relations.
 INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY
A country's relation with other countries of the world is known as her external
relations . The external relations of a country are based on certain principles and
policies. They are collectively called foreign policy. Thus, foreign policy is the totality of
actions of a state in dealing with external environment consisting of national,
international, and regional actors.
OBJECTIVES OF INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY

Indian
Foreign Policy

Promote harmony
Protecting country's Promote world and cooperation
political independence. peace. between the countries.

Promoting its Work for avoidance Promote the economic

external security. of dangerous wars development of
underprivileged nations.

DETERMINANTS OF INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

There are several factors that have influenced, and continue to influence, the shaping
of India’s foreign policy. Some of these factors are of permanent nature while others
change with the time. The important ones are mentioned below:
1. GEOGRAPHY:
Geographical Factor:
India’s geographical size and location have played vital role in shaping its foreign
policy.Geography of a state is relatively the most permanent and stable factor of its
foreign Policy. The topography of land, its fertility, climate and location are the major
geographic factors which influence the Foreign Policy of a nation. These factors determine
both the needs as well as the capability to fulfill the needs of the people of a nation.
Another geographical element is the presence of natural resources. It determines
one’s national power too. India lacks sufficient crude oil reserves and rare earth minerals.
Most of India’s foreign trade is routed through the Indian Ocean just as the Indian
harbours witness dense traffic of merchant ships proceeding from or towards Europe,
WestAsia, Southeast Asia and East Asian regions; hence geopolitical and geo-strategic
significance of the ocean to India’s external relations.
 2. History and Tradition:
The traditional values of Vasudheva Kutumbakam—One World—have come down to
the people of India from the ancient scriptures and the spiritual works of great men like
Swami Vivekananda. Particularly, the values that have helped in shaping India’s foreign
policy are tolerance, non-violence and universal brotherhood.
History is an important factor in determining the relations among the neighbouring
nations. Foreign policy interactions between India ,Pakistan ,China, Afghanistan, Sri
Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar are mostly the legacies of past history.
The past experience with the policies of colonialism have been a determining factor of
the anti-imperialist and anti-colonial contents of the foreign policies of India.

3. Economic Conditions:
After Independence, it was clear to our leaders that the country needs help from
foreign governments for many things :

Transfer of
Funds

Setting up dams
and energy
security

Training of
Technical
Personnel

In an ideologically polarised world, India needed friendship and goodwill from both
the free market economies in the West as well as the Socialist world led by the former
Soviet Union. By adopting the policy of non-alignment, India hoped for assistance from
both the camps. As a parallel to that external policy, India has adopted a mixed economy
approach that combined public sector with heavy state investment in infrastructure
areas while a strong private sector flourished in an array of other areas.
 4. Nature of leadership:
The personality of the incumbent prime ministers has come to be identified in certain
measure with a particular flavour given to the country’s foreign policy.

5. Domestic Dynamics:
No country’s foreign policy can be immune from the influence of the dynamics within.
Indeed it is an important determinant of foreign policy.
The domestic influence that shapes foreign policy are:

The Nature of The policies of The activities of

Governing System political parties interest/pressure
groups

Enlightened Opinion of the

Leadership. business
associations
The political Public Structure of
culture opinion government
 6. International Trends:
The broad currents of international politics at any given point of time have direct
bearing on foreign policies.
The Cold War era (1945-90) has determined in a big way the foreign policy of most
countries including India. India stood it's ground of non-alignment but was mostly seen
close to erstwhile Soviet Union by USA and hence the nation's which were close to USA
maintained a virtual distance from India.
After the sudden end of the Cold War followed by the disintegration of the Soviet
Union, India’s
FOREIGN POLICY underwent appreciable SHIFTS on numerous counts:

Foreign
Policy Shift

Lack of enthusiasm Resumption of Increased focus Representation

towards the non- full diplomatic on Southeast Asia of developing world
aligned movement ties with Israel and even South Asia.

Eagerness to Emphasis on
Issues of terrorism Climate change
accommodate the economic aspects
and human rights and Global warming
American concerns of relations with
Europe

What Drives India’s Foreign Policy Today?

Economic Growth

Conventional
Security Energy Security

Prestige Security Nuclear Capability

and Nonproliferation
 INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY: AN OVERVIEW

INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY UNDER NEHRU

The first prime minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru was in a dilemma as the external
environment was of the Cold War between the two super powers—the UnitedStates
(US) and the Soviet Union (USSR)—both were on the winning side in the the Second
World War.
Alignment with any of them could have created trouble for India which has got
Independence after a prolonged struggle. Nehru opted to keep
India away from both the power blocs, and follow an independent foreign policy i,e
policy of non-alignment.

“We shall take full part in international conferences as a free nation with our
own policy and not merely as a satellite of another nation…. We are particularly
interested in the emancipation of colonial and dependent countries and peoples,
and in the recognition in theoryand practice of equal opportunities for all races.”
- Jawahar Lal Nehru

By non-alignment Nehru meant not getting entangled with any military alliances.
The US promoted North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the Soviet Union had
to counter it by Warsaw Pact. While these were the competing military alliances at the
global level, these two super powers also promoted regional alliances to attract the
newly independent nations in Asia and Africa.
Non-alignment did not mean neutrality in world politics. Neutrality has a meaning
that is truly relevant during the times of war. it meant that:
1. India retained the independence of decision making on an issue that affected her interests.
2. There was no a prior commitment to support one or the other nation involved in a crisis.

Nehru's goals for foreign policy were :

Nehru's goals
for foreign policy

Independence Close ties with

End of colonialism
from power blocs China and Asian
and racism
neighbours

Early in 1947, at the initiative of India, the Asian Relations Conference at Delhi was
convened where the principles of foreign policy of independent India were proclaimed.
It was attended by representatives of 29 countries. The Conference helped to strengthen
the solidarity of all Asian countries.
Some incidents started taking an ugly turn as Pakistan tried to capture Jammu and
Kashmir. Nehru had great faith in the international organisations and their sense of
justice. It was Nehru who had taken to the UN the crisis created by Pakistan’s war
against Jammu and Kashmir in 1948. He never imagined that the Kashmir question
would become a matter seen through the prism of Cold War.

Pakistan joined the US promoted South East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and
Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO) in the 1950s. Pakistan with its military alliance
with the US, began to raise the Kashmir issue in the UN SC now and then. The SC
instead of declaring Pakistan as an aggressor and seeking to vacate its aggression, kept
the issue as an instrument to pressurise India politically.

Under these circumstances the Soviet Union came to India’s rescue. It saw an
opportunity to befriend non-aligned nations in the predicament faced by India in the UN
SC.
Thus, when Western powers like the US and UK began to vote on the side of Pakistan
on the question of Kashmir, the Soviet Union exercised its veto power to save the
Indian interests from Cold War politics.
Even after such turn of events Nehru kept his faith on policy of Non-alignment
which was based on the five principles of Panch Shila, enumerating international
conduct. These were first envisaged and formulated in 1954.

These principles were:

Mutual respect for each

other’s territorial
integrity and sovereignty.

Non interference
Non-aggression in each other’s
military affairs

Equality and
Peaceful
mutual bene?t
coexistence

Nehru participated in the Afro-Asian Conference held in 1955 in Bandung and

popularized the policy of non-alignment there. The agenda contained in these conferences
was :
 Afro-Asian
Conference

The economic Respect for human Promotion of

and cultural rights and world peace and
cooperation self-determination cooperation

Under Nehru’s guidance, India became the first country to begin a policy that was
new in the history of international relations – the policy of Non-Alignment, which was
founded in 1961 in Belgrade and was ably supported by Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt,
President Sukarno of Indonesia and Joseph Broz Tito of Yugoslavia.
The strengths and weaknesses of the non-alignment were also brought out during the
next major crisis in Indian foreign policy in the background of the Chinese aggression of
October 1962.
By 10th October 1962 a massive Chinese attack was launched on Indian posts and
the next day the Chinese captured the Thagla Ridge, the traditional Indo-Tibetan
border. The Chinese refused to recognize the MacMohan line or the accepted eastern
border.
US, which was, anti-China then and which came to India’s help anyway briefly after
October 1962 Sino-Indian war.

While assessing the effectiveness of Nehru’s foreign policies, it is imperative to observe

the dynamic nature of India’s relations with the two superpowers of the time. During
the first fifteen years of independence, India both endorsed and opposed the US and
the Soviet Union at different times.
During the Korean War (1950), India backed the US by endorsing the United Nations
resolution that condemned North Korea’s attack on South Korea.
Poor harvest during the early years of independence compelled Nehru to reach out to
the US for food aid. From 1947 to 1959, the US provided food supplies worth 930
million USD to India.
In 1950 India opposed the US designed ‘Uniting for Peace Resolution’, on the ground
that it would prevent the Soviet Union from taking direct action in the Security Council.
India’s refusal to join US sponsored pacts and its position as a leader of the emerging
Non-Aligned countries gave a new direction to India-Soviet relations.
It was because of this act that Nehru received an unprecedented welcome on his
visit to the Soviet Union in 1955. His visit was followed by the Soviet Premier Nikolai
Bulganin’s and General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev’s visit to India the same year. The
Soviet leaders endorsed and backed India’s position against Pakistan on Kashmir and
against Portugal on Goa.
As the first Prime Minister of India, Nehru managed to transcend regional boundaries
and emerged as a global statesman. He supervised India’s foreign policy with other
countries and created a political incubator for the new country to develop.
 FOREIGN POLICY UNDER LAL BAHADUR SHASTRI
Shastri focussed on India’s immediate NEIGHBOURHOOD aimed at improving relations
within South Asia.
Perception of a weak India continued under Shastri which led to situation which
further reflected India as weak nation:

Weak Nation

Dispute in the India's weak reaction Promotion of

Rann of Kutch with to China exploding world peace and
Pakistan a nuclear bomb. cooperation

1.Dispute in the Rann of Kutch with Pakistan:

The Rann of Kutch is a marshy land between West Pakistan and Gujarat.
PAKISTAN'S CLAIM : Rann of Kutch was a lake and according to the international
law, the boundary should run in the middle of the lake.

INDIAN CLAIM: Rann of Kutch is a marshy land and the boundaries between
Sindh and India were well demarcated. But Pakistan was intruding into the area
since 1956. In 1965 hostilities broke out between the two countries in the area.

DISPUTE WENT TO ARBITRATION:

Both the parties were unable to reach an agreement. Eventually, as the two countries
could not agree on a solution, arbitrators awarded 900 square Km to Pakistan—one
tenth of their original claim.

2. India's weak reaction to China exploding a nuclear bomb:

China had exploded a nuclear bomb in October 1964. India did not react to it
immediately. Instead the non-aligned conference that met in Cairo in 1964 sent a
delegation to Beijing to urge upon China to desist from going nuclear.
The Chinese authorities even refused to receive the delegation.

3. War in 1965 with Pakistan:

Pakistan launched the War against India under Ayub Khan. In this war while Pakistan
was able to capture some territory in J & K, Indians opened a second front of its
choosing by moving towards Lahore.
The US was then busy with its war in Vietnam. Russian leaders were keen that they
be perceived as neutral in the Indo-Pak war.
 Then Soviet premier Kosygin invited Lal Bahadur Shastri and Ayub Khan to Tashkent
to find a solution to the war and the warring leaders signed the Tashkent agreement.
Under the agreement India had to give away the territories captured by the army under
Russian pressure.
Lal Bahadur Shastri's tenure was short as he died in Tashkent in January 1966
after signing the Tashkent Agreement with Ayub Khan, military dictator of Pakistan.

MRS. INDIRA GANDHI’S FOREIGN POLICY ( FIRST TENURE )

After Pandit Nehru, Indira Gandhi had the longest tenure, as the nation’s PM and
hence she had ample time to shape India's Foreign policy. The major foreign policy
events during her tenure were:

Tenure

Indo-Soviet Treaty Bangladesh war Simla Nuclear Test

of Peace and fought with Pakistan Agreement, 1972 of 1974
Friendship, 1971 in 1971

1. Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace and Friendship, 1971:

Before the Bangladesh war of 1971, India signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship
with the Soviet Union. Under the treaty, the two countries agreed on “immediate
mutual consultations” in the event of either country facing a military threat and
adopt appropriate effective measures.

2.Bangladesh war fought with Pakistan in 1971:

In the only democratic election held in Pakistan in December 1970 results were:

Leader and party Won

1. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) 88 in West Pakistan

2. Awami League of Sheikh Mujibur Rehman 167 in East Pakistan

Then military dictator in Pakistan Yahya Khan did not invited the leader of Awami
League, Sheikh Mujibur Rehman to form the government as manipulative Bhutto was
unwilling to have a Bengali as the Prime Minister of Pakistan.

Yahya Khan imposed martial law, appointed Lt. General Tikka Khan as Governor
and Sheikh Mujibur Rehman, popular leaderof the Awami Party was arrested and
imprisoned in West Pakistan.
 The enraged population of East Pakistan then came out on the streets to denounce
military dictatorship.The military indulged in one of the worst human rights violations
in the world history. The intellectuals and supporters of the party were massacred;
women were raped and there was a systematic genocide of Hindus in East Pakistan.As
a result over 12 million Bangladeshis, Muslims and Hindus, came to West Bengal,mainly
to Calcutta, as refugees, creating an economic strain and law and order problem for
India.

Indira Gandhi, adept in political gamble, went on a tour of Western countries to

inform the leaders of the human tragedy in East Pakistan. At the same time she had
also asked the army to prepare for military intervention. Pakistan, to pre-empt India
and force her to divert troops to west, attacked on 3 December 1971. India intervened
in the East in a massive way. The resulting war ended in the liberation of East Pakistan
and the birth of Bangladesh as an independent country. The Indian forces were at
their best when they accepted the surrender of over 90,000 Pakistani troops in the
war.

To save West Pakistan, USA sent nuclear powered warship ENTERPRISE to move to
Bay of Bengal but Soviet Union sent its nuclear powered ship to follow the US warship.
The Soviet Union was the main supporter of India in the War often using its veto power
in the UN Security Council to nullify the US resolutions condemning India.

3. Simla Agreement, 1972:

The Indo-Pakistan war of 1971 was brought to an end by signing the Simla Agreement
betweenGandhi and Bhutto.
The terms of agreement were:

Pakistan to get Respect each other’s

freedom for Prisoners national unity and
of War taken in territorial integrity
Bangladesh.

Not to assist or encourage

Pakistan to regain all
acts which could affect the
its territories lost in
maintenance of peace in the
West Pakistan.
region.
 In one stroke India has shed its weak image as Pakistan could not do anything even
with US support.

4. Nuclear Test of 1974:

Ever since China conducted its nuclear tests in October 1964, there was domestic
pressure on the Indian government to conduct nuclear tests. Lal Bahadur Shastri as
the PM (1964) had authorised Atomic Energy Commission to work on the bomb design.

The prevailing Nixon Doctrine had promised the US protection if any non-nuclear
nation was threatened by a nuclear weapons state. But USA informed the Indian policy
makers that India should not bank on the US if China intervenes in the likely conflict
between India and Pakistan. Also during the Bangladesh war in 1971 the US had used
its nuclear powered enterprise to blackmail India to stop it from attacking West Pakistan.

Indira Gandhi desired to make India self reliant in her security.The test conducted by
Indira Gandhi was to demonstrate the Indian nuclear capability though it was claimed
to be a peaceful nuclear explosion (PNE).

Mrs. Gandhi will also be remembered by the nation for her determination to take
nation on the path of a major power.

FOREIGN POLICY OF THE JANATA PARTY

The first ever non-Congress (Janta Party) government came to power in 1977 under
Morarji Desai as the PM. Charan Singh succeeded him for a six-month term in 1979.

A major foreign policy challenge was unfolding while the nation was going through
the election process in December 1979 when the Soviet Union militarily intervened
in Afghanistan, a non-aligned country on Soviet Union’s southern borders. Then Indian
PM, Charan Singh called upon the Soviet Union to withdraw its troops as early as
possible and preserve the non-aligned character of Afghanistan.
Janta Government had declared to correct the tilt towards Soviet Union in the
Indian non-alignment and make it a genuine non-alignment, nothing significant
happened. Mrs. Gandhi replaced Charan Singh again in January 1980.

MRS. INDIRA GANDHI’S FOREIGN POLICY ( SECOND TENURE )

In her second tenure Mrs. Gandhi had to deal with two external issues :

External Issues

Ethnic Crisis in
Afghan Crisis
Sri Lanka
 1. Afghan crisis:
Indira Gandhi inherited Afghan crisis from previous government. She had said during
her election campaign that the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan was “a danger to
India.”

This literally brought the US-Soviet Union Cold War to the Indian northwestern
borders. The US asked India to help it in getting the Russians out of Afghanistan.
Indira Gandhi denied it.

Since India did not agree to cooperate with the US against the Soviets, Americans
turned to Pakistan for support. Pakistan readily agreed to be a conduit to transfer
weapons to Afghan guerrillas (Mujahidins) at a total military and economic aid package
of $7.4 billion. This transformed the region into a terrorist hub.

2. Ethnic crisis in Sri Lanka:

An ethnic crisis in Sri Lanka began in a big way in 1983. But Mrs. Gandhi had handled
the crisis as a disinterested mediator between Sri Lanka and the Liberation Tigers of
Tamil Eelam (LTTE) who were demanding a separate Tamil state in the north-eastern
Sri Lanka.
 RAJIV GANDHI’S FOREIGN POLICY

Rajiv Gandhi inherited an ethnic crisis in Sri Lanka and under him the crisis took a
turn for the worse.
He took many steps to defuse the crisis :

Steps Taken. Reaction

1. Humanitarian aid to Tamils in Jaffna --Sri Lankan government had imposed an
economic blockade on the area

2. Sent the food grains by 20 boats -- Sri Lankans did not permit the supply to
reach the needy

3. In 1987, Indian air force dropped the -- Sri Lankan Government became
supply for the people suspicious.

4. India and Sri Lanka signed an accord in -- IPKF dubbed as “Innocent People Killing
July 1987,Indian Peace Keeping Force Force” by Tamils,lost face and also over
(IPKF) 1000 Indian soldiers.

There was bad blood between all sides to dispute. As a result, LTTE plotted and a
human bomb assassinated Rajiv Gandhi on 21 May 1991.

FOREIGN POLICY UNDER PV NARSHIMHA RAO

Issues faced by Narsimha Rao :

Issues

Gulf War and Unipolar Ussr Succeeded

Nuclear Program By Russia
World Order

Era in Bilateral Ne w C o nt ac t s w ith Threat of Nuclear

Relationship after Central Asian Republics Bomb
Cold War.
 1. GULF WAR :
In 1990 Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait which was the economic for the West. This
led to the beginning of the Gulf War-I. As Gulf War-I broke out in the region , the US
jumped into the conflict to help Kuwait.
On the other hand from the Indian point of view, iraq was a crucial state as:

Secular state as not a Iraq was to supply 2.5

Iraq favoured India on
member of Organisation million tons of oil to
the Kashmir question
of Islamic States. India in 1990-91.

US had launched a full-fledged military invasion of iraq to force it to withdraw from

Kuwait.In 1989, the Soviet Union had already disintegrated. The Communist regimes
in Eastern Europe had collapsed. This ended the sole adversary of the US in the world.
The US displaved tremendous military power in Iraq during, the Gulf War and there
was unipolar world order.
This led to a delayed response from India on the Gulf War. India was forced to support
the UN resolution against iraq and urged Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait.

2. NUCLEAR PROGRAM :
Rao inherited a rapidly changing international situation as at that time, the US wanted
a roll back of the Indian nuclear programme.
America had passed an amendment to laws which stated that any state engaging in
a nuclear weapons programme would not receive any aid and if any aid was being given
to such a nation, it shall be suspended automatically.
It is ironical that, to counter the USSR’s influence in Afghanistan, the US not only
did aid Pakistan but also conveniently turned a blind eye to the Pakistani nuclear
programme. Things, however, changed as Clinton administration wanted the hyphenation
of India and Pakistan and to make both parties sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
(CTBT).
In the period immediately after the Cold War, though the US had begun to favour
Pakistan and wanted to revive its alliance with the country, it also realised that it could
not ignore India as India was a new emerging market.

3. USSR SUCCEEDED BY RUSSIA:

On the other hand, by 1990, following the complete disintegration of the Soviet Union,
the erstwhile USSR was now succeeded by Russia, which meant that India had now
lost the patronage of the erstwhile USSR.
During the Cold War, Russia was one of the major defence suppliers to India. Now
after the end of the Cold War, India had to renegotiate all contracts and at certain
places even sign new contracts. However, the greater dilemma was with whom were
these new contracts to be negotiated. There was a vacuum and not much clarity.
 4. ERA IN BILATERAL RELATIONSHIP AFTER COLD WAR :
India wanted cryogenic technology from Russia but under intense US pressure, Russia
refused to provide India with cryogenic technology for its space programme, citing that
the technology could be used by India for military purposes.

Things normalised when Boris Yeltsin visited India in 1993. During his visit, the 1971
India—Russia Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation was revised with 14 additional
clauses and was signed to mark a new era in bilateral relationship after the Cold War.

5. NEW CONTACTS WITH CENTRAL ASIAN REPUBLICS

Narshimha Rao developed new contacts with the five Central Asian Republics that
emerged after the breakup of the USSR. Today, India is actively engaged in the region
now, officially as a member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO).

6. THREAT OF NUCLEAR BOMB :

China's antagonistic view towards India came to fore as it was supporting Pakistan in
its nuclear programme. In 1992 the Babri Maszid was demolished and Pakistan started
threatening India of bombing with nuclear bomb.

FOREIGN POLICY OF I. K. GUJRAL

In 1997, Gujral became the PM and evolved a fresh approach in the foreign policy:

Gujral

REFUSAL TO SIGN
CTBT and ECONOMIC
GUJRAL DOCTRINE
OPPORTUNITIES
FOR THE US

1.GUJRAL DOCTRINE :
The basic foreign policy idea of Gujral was that India is a dominant power in the South
Asian region, and by this virtue when it deals diplomatically with states around itself it
should not look for arithmetical reciprocity.
The core of the idea was to give more than what you may take from a foreign state. In
a simpler language, the Gujral doctrine meant that if a neighbour moved an inch India
should move a yard.
Gujral took his first lead with BANGLADESH and initiated a dialogue with Hasina
Wazed of Bangladesh on settling dispute over water utilisation of Ganga River. A 30-
year treaty on Ganga River water sharing was proposed which brought impetus to
relationship.
 After the death of Rajiv Gandhi, India had stayed away from the domestic political
concerns of SRI LANKA, and the relations had slipped to an all-time low. But Gujral
also initiated talks with the Chandrika Kumaratunga government in Sri Lanka.
With PAKISTAN, Gujral wanted normalisation of relationships . He even instructed
RAW to dismantle all human assets it had established in Pakistan for covert operations,
as he perceived them as tools that would hinder constructive engagement with Pakistan.
Gujral wanted a dialogue on the political, economic, cultural and social fronts but
Pakistans sole agenda was Kashmir so dialogues did not yield any results.

Relations with CHINA improved significantly. Chinese President Jiang Zemin visited
India in 1996. Both sides signed an agreement to maintain peace and tranquillity at
the border.

2.REFUSAL TO SIGN CTBT and ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE US

Clinton administration wanted India to sign the CTBT. During Gujral’s met Clinton
in 1997 on the sidelines of the UN General Assembly meeting, and explained the reasons
for India’s refusal to sign the CTBT(Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty ). He also
highlighted the tremendous economic opportunities available for the US with India.
This dual approach worked well.

ATAL BIHARI VAJPAYEE'S FOREIGN POLICY :

Congress party withdrew support and the Gujral government fell and was later replaced
by the government of Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
The major events that shaped the foreign policy were :

Major Event

New Campaign in
Nuclear tests Kashmir by Pakistan Bilateral Economic New US-pakistan US Invasion of Iraq
and sanctions (Kargil War) Diplomacy with US axis was born

Breaking the Logjam Increased cross

The Agra War on Terrorism.
with pakistan Border Terrorism
Summit

Era of Strategic Partnership’

and Co-operation on Civilian
Nuclear and Missile Defence

1. NUCLEAR TESTS AND SANCTIONS :

From 11 to 13 May 1998, the government carried out nuclear tests. These tests were
significant because one of the tests conducted in Pokhran was a thermonuclear test
whuch indicated HYDROGEN BOMB CAPABILITY.
India reached the sub-critical level in the tests and after the operation Shakti I-V
(the codename for the tests), India declared itself a NUCLEAR POWER.
 India declared a voluntary moratorium on further nuclear testing. The tests done by
India were Immediately followed by nuclear tests by Pakistan.
Vajpayee in a letter to Clinton asserted that India faced threats from China and
Pakistan and letter to Clinton was leaked and this aggravated tensions further between
India and China.
After the tests there were international sanctions including sanctions by IMF and
World Bank on further assistance.

2. BREAKING THE LOGJAM WITH PAKISTAN

India started a bus service between Delhi and Lahore. Vajpayee also visited Lahore
and concluded the Lahore Declaration which did not yield any results.

3. NEW CAMPAIGN IN KASHMIR BY PAKISTAN (KARGIL WAR)

The Pakistani side crossed the Line of Control (LOC) and captured peaks on the
Indian soil in Kargil. As India began to drive out the intruders, Pakistan asked for help
from the US but it advised Sharif to order his army to pull back from the occupied
territories and not breach the LOC. The conflict ended after Indian forces captured all
the peaks occupied by Pakistan.

4. THE AGRA SUMMIT :

Nawaz Sharif was deposed, and after referendum, PARVEZ MUSHARRAF took over as
the President of Pakistan.
In 2001, another effort for friendship took place between India and Pakistan at Agra.
The Agra Summit failed to achieve any breakthrough as Pakistan wanted Kashmir to be
added as the main issue in the joint statement while India wanted the addition of
cross-border terrorism. Both rejected the demand, and therefore summit failed.

5. BILATERAL ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY WITH US :

CLINTON visited as the FOURTH US President to do so after EISENHOWER, NIXON
and CARTER in 2000 and the visit saw a push towards bilateral economic diplomacy as
deals worth three billion dollars were signed, ranging from broadband connectivity to
energy dimensions. The Indian diaspora influenced the decision and India as emerging
market attracted US.

6. WAR ON TERRORISM :
The 9/ 11 attacks happened when BUSH came to power. India said it was willing to
enter into military alliance with and work with the US on its war on terrorism. Bush
was appreciative of the Indian offer and recognized that terrorism is a global problem.

7. NEW US-PAKISTAN AXIS WAS BORN :

US turned to strengthen its military alliance and partnership with Pakistan. Pakistan
happily became it's most important NON-NATO ally in the region.
US entered the subcontinent and shocked Pakistan by invading Afghanistan in 2001
and ended the rule of Taliban in Afghanistan. This was a big blow to Pakistan which
favoured the Taliban in Afghanistan as it enabled it to maintain strategic depth against
India.

8. INCREASED CROSS BORDER TERRORISM

The cross-border terrorism from Pakistani side in 2001 increased :

Attack on
Kashmir Assembly

The attack on Cross-border Regular attacks

Indian Parliament Terrorism on Armed Forces

Attack on believers of
Democratic Process

India responded to this by launching a mega-military mobilisation excercise on Indo-

Pakistan border under the name of OPERATION PARAKRAM.

9. US INVASION OF IRAQ :

In 2003, American war on Afghanistan was ongoing and the US launched invasion
on Iraq. Saddam Hussein was displaced as leader and elections were organised and
Iraq was thrown into sectarian conflict and violence.
( Sectarian conflicts led to the rise of ISIS as a new problem in the region since 2014.)

10. ERA OF STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP’ AND COOPERATION ON CIVILIAN

NUCLEAR AND MISSILE DEFENCE
The US invasion of Iraq did not go well with India. India was against any support to the
US since people rejected the logic that Saddam had weapons of mass destruction.
The Bush administration still decided that ties with India needed to be strengthened
at the highest level.The sanctions imposed by the US on India post Pokhran were lifted.
A new initiative called the ‘NEXT STEP IN STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP’ was launched,
and cooperation on Civilian Nuclear and Missile defence dimensions began.
 FOREIGN POLICY OF MANMOHAN SINGH

The regime under Manmohan Singh tried to establish better relationship with the
neighbors :
1. CONFIDENCE BUILDING MEASURES WITH PAKISTAN :

The trust deficit was not bridged and the cordial atmosphere of the relations was
constantly affected due to Jihadi attacks in India:

The Attack

Varanasi (2006) Mumbai (2006)

2. STRATEGIC AND COOPERATIVE PARTNERSHIP WITH CHINA :

The relationship with China under Manmohan took a momentous step ahead. In April
2005, Chinese PREMIER WEN JIABAO visited India, and both sides entered a new
phase of STRATEGIC AND COOPERATIVE PARTNERSHIP:
 STRATEGIC AND
COOPERATIVE PARTNERSHIP

Efforts were Intense negotiations

made to resolve followed on
the border dispute bilateral issues.
by the adoption
of a new set of
guidelines.

The year 2006 proved to be a landmark year in Indo-China relationship:

Indo-China
Relationship

Defence Became a Decided to boost Co-operation with

new CBM between bilateral trade and each other in each
both sides. reopened the Nathu other’s search for
La Pass. energy supplies.

3. INDIA—RUSSIA TIES BOLSTERED :

The India—Russia ties were renewed afresh during the regime of Vladimir Putin :
In 2004, Manmohan and Putin met at the India-Russia Summit. The two sides decided
to resolve their long-pending disputes related to DEFENCE.
India was concerned about the supply of defence spares and their TIMELY DELIVERY
and PRICING.
Russia was concerned about INDIA’S IPR LAWS. During the 2004 summut meeting,
India conveyed its assurance to Russia that it would respect intellectual property rights
of all equipments supplied to India by Russia and ensure they were neither copied nor
secretly
stolen by any state. The two sides subsequently strengthened cooperation in DEFENCE
and ENERGY.

4. US ACCEPTED INDIA AS A MAJOR POWER OF FUTURE.

The Next Steps in Strategic Partnership ultimately culminated into the India-US
Civilian Nuclear Cooperation in 2005 as US recognized India as major power of future.

5. INDIA’S RELATIONSHIP WITH REST OF WORLD :

ASEAN:
During Manmohan Singh’s regime as the PM, India and ASEAN concluded a Free
Trade Agreement (FTA) in goods (2010) and services (2012).

JAPAN:
The two sides, under the leadership of Manmohan Singh and Shinzo Abe, concluded
an agreement to establish a SEAMLESS MOVEMENT of NAVY, CAPITAL and PEOPLE
between India and Japan.
AFRICA:
India launched multiple initiatives, ranging from Focus Africa Programme to Pan
African e-Network Projects, to enhance peopleto-people ties.

WEST ASIA AND OIL DIPLOMACY/ENERGY SECURITY:

During Manmohan Singh’s regime India and SAUDI ARABIA concluded a STRATEGIC
PARTNERSHIP agreement.
Cooperation with the UAE, Kuwait, Qatar and Oman continued. India and Qatar
signed an agreement on LNG, and Qatar decided to supply India LNG for energy security.
In his 10-year tenure as a PM Manmohan Singh touched all dimensions of international
relationships with countries India had established diplomatic ties.

Foreign Policy of Narendra Modi

In the year 2014 Modi became the Prime Minister of India. His very first foreign policy
is well dForeign Policy of Narendra Modi
In the year 2014 Modi became the Prime Minister of India. His very first foreign policy
is well designed based on his vast experience as a karyakarta of RSS and then as Chief
Minister of Gujarat.
The key elements of his making of foreign policy are:
 PERSONAL DIPLOMACY

INTEREST IN LEARNING

BACKGROUND IN RSS AND RETAIL DIPLOMACY

CULTURAL DIPLOMACY

DIASPORA DIPLOMACY CATALYST FOR

TRANSFORMATIVE DIPLOMACY

ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY

UNDERSTANDING NEEDS OF THE INVESTORS

NEW NEIGHBOURHOOD FIRST POLICY

BIG BROTHER TO A COLLABORATIVE ALLY

SOFT POWER DIPLOMACY

1. PERSONAL DIPLOMACY :
It date back to his tenure as the Chief Minister (CM) of Gujarat. During his foreign
visits, he emphasised building strong personal relationships with leaders of the states
he visited.This style of personal diplomacy is now recognised as the hallmark of Modi’s
way of engaging with the world.
Though there is a thrust on building a personal chemistry with leaders Modi is now
careful as personal chemistry does not always give results. The issues with China on
NSG, Masood Azhar are some instances when personal diplomacy did not worked.
Modi has also realised that even if political diplomacy may not fetch political votes
domestically, it does enhance India’s standing in the world and helps to garner resources
for developing India.

2. INTEREST IN LEARNING and INDIA FIRST DIPLOMACY. :

Modi’s diplomatic skills were further strengthened when Vajpayee, as the PM, deputed
Modi to travel abroad for party work where he always tried to learn how foreign states
solved problems related to infrastructure, roads, rivers, etc., and applying that learning
to Indian situations. This ability of learning from foreign states to replicate the same in
India is visible in his style of India First diplomacy.
 3. BACKGROUND IN RSS AND RETAIL DIPLOMACY :
Working on ground has teached him a sense of a wider engagement with people of
all walks of life for suggestions. SAMVAD (conversation with people in general) also
eventually emerged as a key pillar of his foreign policy. He has effectively developed
Contacts With Followers at all levels. When he travels abroad, he does not restrict his
engagement with merely the heads of states but widens his reach to include private
sector firms to monks to students to workers in factories. His idea of foreign policy or
diplomacy is that it should not just be perceived as the art of government-to-government
interaction but more as a leader-to-people interaction. Diplomacy involving leader-to-
people interactions is called retail diplomacy. In RETAIL DIPLOMACY, the state leader
interacts, meets and shakes hands with a wide spectrum of scholars to monks to
workers. Retail diplomacy not only enhances the perceived approachability of the leader
in the eyes of the public but also helps in developing very strong interpersonal
relationships.

4. CULTURAL DIPLOMACY :
The cultural visits helps him connect more with the people and hence it's primacy is
clearly reflected in his visits to temples in foreign states.

5. DIASPORA DIPLOMACY CATALYST FOR TRANSFORMATIVE DIPLOMACY :

Modi has, from day one, addressed concerns related to the Indian diaspora. On any
foreign tour, Modi makes it a point to address a gathering of the Indian diaspora. There
are two purposes of addressing the diaspora :
1. He addresses the diaspora not only to reconnect with them as a messenger from their home-
land but also to convey to them the problems India faces.
He also informs the diaspora of initiatives the government has taken. The intention of this
exercise is to convince the diaspora that they can emerge as effective stakeholders in the
problems faced by India.
2. His address to the Indian diaspora in foreign countries is a message to the governments of
those countries ~ ‘if you take care of this constituency, they will take care of your govern-
ments in elections’.
He would link the past, present and the future in such a way that the diaspora gets
galvanised, energised and enthusiastic to play a role in India’s future. His addresses to
the diaspora in the US, Australia and the UK reflect the intermixing of past, present
and future.
Modi’s idea of diaspora diplomacy is to ensure a collective Indian voice in the countries
of their residence where they are simultaneously loyal citizens.

6. ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY:
Gujarat had been an important port of international trade during the peak of trade via
the ancient Silk Route. Trade was natural to Gujarat, and this had emerged as a
crucial element of the Modi doctrine.

Modi understood well that domestic growth rates cannot be boosted by domestic
initiatives alone and that geostrategic imperatives arising out of external engagement
with rest of the world are a key to India’s growth story.
The key drivers to Highlight India’s economic powers abroad as per Modi's policy seem:
 Economic Powers

DEMOGRAPHY DEMAND DIASPORA

7. UNDERSTANDING NEEDS OF THE INVESTORS :

The important element here is that Modi understanding Needs Of the Investors well
and has worked upon government-to-business contacts.
For example, in Order to illustrate this idea, Modi, during an address at a business
lunch in Tokyo in 2014, said that when he was the CM of Gujarat, he had invited
Japanese investments. As Japanese businesses came, he began to study Japanese
tastes and found that study Japanese tastes and found that the Japanese like to play
golf. This led Modi to establish world-class golf courses in Gujarat, thereby showing °
that what a proactive government can do for investors.

Economic Diplomacy also Included:

Economic Diplomacy

Streamlining Downsizing Modernization

8. NEW NEIGHBOURHOOD FIRST POLICY:

Modi invited the heads of SOUTH ASIA (SAARC leaders) during his oath taking ceremony
in New Delhi in 2014. This gesture reflected of what awaited ahead in the high-powered
diplomatic ventures he was about to undertake.
Modi’s key focus vis-a-vis India’s relations with its neighbours is economic trade. Modi
believes that aggressive economic trade with neighbours will benefit all and the benefits
will percolate deep down in the society.
At the neighbourhood level, connectivity has emerged as an inbuilt dimension of
economic diplomacy.
Though GREAT POWER DIPLOMACY only boosts some excitement at the domestic
political level, it is in reality the neighborhood diplomacy where there is greater domestic
political resonance. For example, Nepal of Bihar Sri Lanka on Tamil Nadu and Bangladesh
on West Bengal explain this.

9. BIG BROTHER TO A COLLABORATIVE ALLY :

Modi tried to change the image of India amongst neighbors from ‘Big Brother’, to a
'Collaborative Ally' which shall prove positive spill over for the entire region.
This will bring about a radical shift in the way its neighbours perceive India.

10. SOFT POWER DIPLOMACY :

 By
MANOJ PATHAK
 India-Afghanistan Relations
Afghanistan has always provided a transit route to invaders to invade India right
since historical times. Afghanistan is at a very strategic position from where India can
seek its gateway towards Central Asia which is very important as far as natural resources
are concerned but India needs to find stability and peace in Afghanistan to have overall
development of South Asia region.
For India Afghanistan has always remained an area of high priority due to historical
,political ,cultural and geographical reasons.
Having been a victim of power game in post-world War2 Afghanistan considered India
a natural ally due to non-aligned policy. Both the countries developed their relations on
these lines during Cold War period.
Afghanistan is important for India from the following perspective:

1. In post Cold War period it gave special attention and importance to India.

2. India's deteriorating relations with Pakistan

3. Emergence of fundamentalists Taliban

4. Its role as a transit route provider towards Central Asia's natural

resources

5. For power struggle in Cold War period India

6. India's not so friendly relations with China and Pakistan ,it could not take
risk to ignore Afghanistan in its policy orientation.

7. Historical and cultural links provide common ties of interests.

India's relations with Afghanistan could be discussed in following broad

spectrum :

1.INITIAL STAGE OF RELATIONSHIP :

Afghanistan participated in the ASIAN CONFERENCE in march 1947 and January
1949 held with the direct Indian initiatives. Being the landlord state it was the firm
believer of maintaining a POLICY OF NEUTRALITY in power politics hence pursued the
policy of friendship with all states.
This posture converged with India's policies:

India's policies

Colonialism World peace Equal opportunities

of progress as
nation state.
 TREATY OF FRIENDSHIP IN 1950:
At bilateral level both India and Afghanistan signed the TREATY OF FRIENDSHIP IN
1950. It formalized fully diplomatic relations and gave boost to POLITICAL, ECONOMIC
and CULTURAL interaction.
From the GEOSTRATEGIC point of view there has always been a strong convergence
of interest between the two. Hostile relations with Pakistan have compelled Afghanistan
to share common approach with India :

They became main buyers Both countries shared

India and Afghanistan
of military equipment common approach on
aligned towards
for security arrangements various issues related to
Soviet Union.
from Soviet Union. international politics.

Only thing that brought some tense moments for India was the sino-indian war of
1962. Afghanistan remained reluctant in condemning China's aggression.
PERIOD OF VISITS :
High-level visits taken place from Indian side many times:

VISIT BY. YEAR

President Radha Krishna's - 1963

Foreign ministers Bowen Singh's -1964

Vice president Hussein's -1966

Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's - 1969

There was clear indication of mutual understanding and faith between India and
Afghanistan. The Afghan side also was not far behind in reciprocal visits to India.
These visits culminated into following outcomes:
1. Both the countries agreed to bring about more systemic trade arrangements

2. India offered its training facilities in the areas of Agriculture and small-scale industries

3. Indian exports team also visited to explore available opportunities there and several
projects were outlined

4. A Joint Commission was established at ministerial level to explore the various areas of
mutual benefits by taking care of respective resources and capabilities.

PERIOD OF CONFUSION AND POLITICAL INSTABILITY IN AFGHANISTAN:

In the decade of 1970s KING MOHAMMED ZAHID SHAH was deposed by his cousin
DAOUD KHAN who took control of the government. after that this power game more
complicated as Mohammed Daoud Khan was also OVERTHROWN by newer MOHAMMED
KARACHI in a coup and become president. HAFEZ ULLA AMIN became the power
center. Under this regime he tried to enforce TOTAL CONTROL over tribal society with
the BRUTAL and VIOLENT handed fashion. It gave birth to widespread revolt among
the masses.
SOVIET UNION JUMPS IN AFGHANISTAN:
In 1979 Soviet Union imposed communist government in Afghanistan. It DESTROYED
the TRADITIONAL NEUTRALITY of Afghanistan.
With the active participation of US and PAKISTAN'S ISI AFGHANISTAN was
TRANSFORMED into HOTBED OF JIHAD IDEOLOGY.
India was the only salvation country to recognize communist government headed by
Najibullah after the Soviet invasion of 1979.
It fully supported and provided financial aid to Afghanistan government during this
period although India supported this government till the takeover of Afghanistan by
Taliban.

INDIA'S RELATION REMAINED IN A SITUATION OF ADJOURNMENT WITH

AFGHANISTAN
Situation in Afghanistan worsened day by day with the direct confrontation between
SOVIET GUARD and AFGHAN mujahideen aided by foreign powers. The rapid
POLITICIZATION OF ISLAM and emergence of a MILITANT ISLAMIC
FUNDAMENTALIST MOVEMENT took place in this country. After that India's relation
remained in a situation of adjournment with Afghanistan.

SOVIETS EXIT AND POWER SEIZE BY EXTREMISTS:

After Soviet demise, Afghanistan has continued to be remaining epicenter of massive
military confrontation. The struggle among different ethnic and tribal groups started
primarily in order to win control over the central power. Religious extremist forces led
by Rabbani supported by Pakistan ,Saudi Arabia and UAE seized power there.
PHENOMENON OF TALIBAN CAME TO FOREFRONT:

WHO ARE THE TALIBAN?

Taliban means students.

They are refugees of Afghan civil war and are located in NWFP in Pakistan.
They were educated in Madrasas financed by Saudi Arabia and indoctrinated with
Wahabism-Salafism.
Wahabism is a puritan movement in Islam who wants Shariat rule.
Taliban and Al-Qaida were supported by Pakistan and took over the reins of Afghanistan.
It brought complete breakdown in Indian presence there. India lost all political and
diplomatic links with Afghanistan.
The destruction of the Bamiyan Buddha ornaments and hijacking of Indian Airlines
flight eight one four and its landing in Kandahar had reflected the nefarious design of
hostile Taliban towards India.
9/11 AND WAR AGAINST TALIBAN:
India offered all type of strategic support for the US-led coalition forces in the war
against Taliban in 2001 in the light of 9/11 tragedy. It led to overthrow of the oppressive
rule of Taliban and an establishment of INTERIM GOVERNMENT IN KABUL.
 CAUTIOUS APPROACH OF INDIA:
Bitter experiences of Taliban regime made India to rethink afghanistan with more
cautious approach. Since then india has been engaged with afghanistan at lateral and
multilateral platforms.
India established diplomatic links with Afghanistan again:
1. Established embassy
2. Established consulate missions
3. Participated in Reconstruction and rehabilitation progress in Afghanistan
4. India actively participating in various meetings that concluded for the strengthening of Af-
ghanistan.
5. India attended the Friends of Afghanistan meeting in September 2002
6. India granted of dollars for reconstruction work in Afghanistan :

1. Civil aviation
2. Road construction
3. Media
4. Rural development
5. Education
6. Training to civil servants, diplomats ,police
7. Giving scholarships to students
8. Established Indian medical missions in four major cities( Kabul, mazar-e-sharif,
Kandahar and Herath)
9. India Afghanistan vocational training center
10. Indira Gandhi Hospital in Kabul
11. Construction of Salma Dam

Frequent visits of President Karzai to India have reflected the real POLITICAL AND
STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP between the two countries in these areas from Indian side
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh paid reciprocal visits to Afghanistan in 2005 and in
2011.

CHANGE IN REGIME AND CONFUSION:

In Kabul the new President Ashraf Ghani sought to realign their relations with its
neighbors Pakistan and China. It raised some serious questions regarding India's position
and added worries to its positive gesture although the visit of President Ashraf Ghani in
April 2015 and his open criticism of Pakistan's hostile policy towards Afghanistan brought
some site of relief in Indian camp.

PM MODI'S VISIT TO AFGHANISTAN:

In his visit Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi reiterated India's commitment to
strengthening bilateral relations with Afghanistan. India also delivered three advanced
country built CHEETAH HELICOPTERS.

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES:
A. COVID-19 AND RELATED ISSUES:
TO fight global pandemic of COVID-19 and related issues of food security, India is
helping Afghanistan:
 supply of tablets Other
Wheat to Afghanistan Surgical
of Hydroxy-chloroquinine, medical help
Instruments
of Paracetamol

B. CHINESE INFLUENCE:
China under President XI Jinping has actively invested in Afghanistan, economically
and politically. The latter has become a PART OF THE ONE BELT ONE ROAD initiative
of the former. China is also part of the Quadrilateral initiative on Afghanistan.
India has been taking note of these developments and is moving forward confidently.
India is clearly ahead of China in many aspects.

C.DIFFICULTIES IN EXPANDING THE TRADE:

While there is immense potential to expand bilateral trade, the difficulties in transit
via Pakistan is a major hurdle in expanding the trade ties. India shares a land boundary
with Afghanistan. However, this territory is currently under the illegal occupation of
Pakistan.

D. THE QUESTION OF MILITARY HARDWARE:

India did not wanted to sell military hardware to Afghanistan and it caused certain
irritation in Kabul. India has reversed this policy after PM Modi took over in 2014.

E. CITIZENSHIP (AMENDMENT) ACT, 2019:

Issues such as the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 coupled with the Delhi riots
appear to have caused certain disharmony in the ties between India and Afghanistan.

F. US-Taliban PEACE PACT:

The US and Taliban signed an agreement for Bringing Peace to Afghanistan, which
seeks facilitation of the US and NATO to withdraw troops.

INDIA AND TALIBAN

• The Taliban perceived India as a hostile country, as India had supported the anti-Taliban
force Northern Alliance in the 1990s.
• India never gave diplomatic and official recognition to the Taliban when it was in power
during 1996-2001.

CHALLENGES POSED BY THE PACT FOR INDIA:

• Pact is silent on other terrorist groups: Though parties to the agreement made reference
to al-Qaeda is important, the pact is silent on other terrorist groups — such as anti-India
groups Lashkar-e-Taiba or Jaish-e-Mohammed.
• In the Doha agreement, the Taliban has guaranteed enforcement mechanisms that will
prevent the use of the soil of Afghanistan by any group or individual against the security of
 the United States and its allies. However, it is unclear whether India, which is not a U.S. ally,
is included in this definition, and whether Pakistan-backed groups that threaten India, would
still operate in Afghanistan.
• Threat to India’s security: The pact has also strengthened Pakistan, Taliban’s benefactor,
and the Pakistan Army and the ISI’s influence appears to be on the rise.
• Impact of prisoner release and lifting sanctions: According to the agreements, Taliban
prisoners will be released gradually and the U.S. has committed to taking Taliban leaders of
the UN Security Council’s sanctions, which could considerably bring down the number of
terrorists Pakistan is accused of harbouring, according to the FATF greylist conditions. This
might benefit Pakistan during the FATF Plenary, when it faces a blacklist for not complying.
This will endanger India’s efforts to isolate Pakistan at global level as harbinger of terrorism.
• Handing powers to Taliban: This appears to sideline the Intra-Afghan dialogue, and India’s
support for the election process for leadership in Afghanistan.
 INDO-MYANMAR RELATIONSHIP

THE INITIAL PHASE:

In 1937 Burma a predominantly Buddhist nation was separated from British India.
India gained independence in 1947 and Burma in 1948.

Both countres adopted British parliamentary democracy system Nehru took over as
the PM of
India and U Nu became Burma's first Prime Minister. The personal friendship between
Nehru and U Nu helped to build up cordial Indo Burma relations.

CIVIL WAR AND INDIAN :

By 1949. Burma was engulfed in a civil war while putting down communist rebellion
and armed ethic insurgent groups. Rangoon was about to collapse. India came to Burmn’s
aid providing arms to the Burmese army and organising loans from the Commonwvealh
nations. Rangoon was saved. In 1951 Inda and Burma signed the Treaty of Friendsip.
Indm became the biggest importer of Burmese rice.

THE MILITARY COUP:

In 1962. Indo Burnw relations got strained when Burma came under Ne Win's military
rule after a coup. Ne Wn milary regime promoted stringent nationalization policy forcing
the majorty of the Indian community to flee Burma.

CHINA FANNING INSURGENCY IN INDO-BURMA:

After the 1962 Indo-China war, China started aiding Inda’s North-East insurgents
groups on the one hand and on the other hand started supporting the Burmese
communists and the ethnic insurgents groups which helped in warming up the Indo
Burma relations. In 1967 India and Burma signed the boundary agreement to solve the
border issue between the two counties.

CHINA-BURMA WARM-UP:
Deng Xiaopng assumed power after Mao's death initiated economic reforms and
changed China's foregn policy of exporting communst revolution, By 1980s, China stopped
supporting Burma's commumsts and ethnic insurgents and made inroads in Burma in
the pretext of brokerng peace taks. China Burma relations warmed up and the
IndoBurma relations suffered.
China invested heavy in Burma's infrastructure development projects building roads,
railways ,hydropower and laying of gas and oil pipeline. Burma became more dependent
on China.

THE RISE OF INDIAN INSURGENT GROUPS IN BURMA:

Meanwhie in India's Northeast , the insurgency scenario made a paradigm shift towards
Burma. The NSCN was formed in 1980 opposing the 1975 Shillong Accord and established
its headquarters in Burma. The Burmese military Junta had no control over this
regon.The NSCN started governng the areas. Slowly. ths region became the traning
ground for India's Northeast insurgent groups.
 In 2012 ULFA was split into ULFA (I) headed by Paresh Baruah with headquarters
established in Burma. The PLA, UNLF, PREPAK, KYKL & KCP had also established ther
headquarters in ths Burmese regon .Burma's Sagaing region became the bases of the
Northeast insurgent groups.

PRO-DEMOCRACY MOVEMENT AND MYANMAR :

In 1988 after a popular nationwide protest Ne Win resigned. Miltary officers loyal to
Ne Wn staged a coup and Burma was brought under the STATE LAW AND ORDER
RESTORATION COUNCIL (SLORC).

In 1989 the SLORC changed the name of BURMA TO MYANMAR Thereafter. Burma
faced a popular pro-democracy movement led by Aung Sung Sw Kyi. Suu Ky and other
oppositition Leaders founded the NATIONAL LEAGUE FOR DEMOCRACY (NLD) and
WON the 1990 election. Power was not handed to the NLD and Burma remained under
the miltary regime.

INDIAN SUPPORT TO DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT:

Inda under PM rajiv Gandhi supported the pro-demncracy movement and gave asylum
to the Burmese refugees who fled the military crackdown.Indo- Burma relations
worsened.

INDIA'S LOOK EAST POLICY AND INDO-MYANMAR RELATIONS:

In 1991 the Indian Prime Minister Narasimha Rao initsted the liberalisation of
India's economy which resulted formulating the Look East Pokky (LEP) to integrate
the Indian economy with the booming Southeast Asian economy. India's Northeast was
considered as the launchng pad for the Look East policy because of its geographical
proximity to the Southeast Asia. Burma is bridge to Southeast Asia and passage for the
proposed Trans Asian highway and railway project.
In 1996 India became a member of the ASEAN(Assocuation of South East Asian Nations)
followed by BIMSTEC EC (Banghdesh ,India, Myanmar,Sri Lanka).
India's engagement with Burma partially succeeded in countering Chinese dominance
in Burma. India became the second largest importer of Burmese products and invested
in the infrastructure development and energy sector keeping an eye on importng Burma's
gas and oil.
India’s military aid to Burma was mainly directed for counter insurgency operations
against the Northeast insurgent groups based in Burma.
Myanmar since 2011 significantly sought to decrease the country’s over-dependence
on China. Infact .China has been stung by massive outcry over Chinese exploitation of
country natural resources.
India's ties with Myanmar improved substantially affer Gen. Maung Aye’s visit to New
Deh in 2000, the landmark vist by Present U Then Sem in October 2011 and the return
vist by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to Naypytaw in May 2012.

PRO-DEMOCRACY MOVEMENT AND SUU KYI:

Sui Kyi had said memoral lecture for Nehru it was saddened to feel that we had
drawn away from India or rather that India had drawn away trom us during our very
difficult days. but I always had faith in the lasting Friendship between our two countres."
She got elected in 2015 and tried to balance the relationship with China. It alienated
India somewhat.
 In 2015, India conducted a cross-border strike on insurgent groups operating out of
Myanmar. More than the strikes, the considerable publicity given by India generated
disappointment in Myanmar.

VISIT OF Myanmar’s MILITARY CHIEF TO NEW DELHI:

The commander-in-chief of Myanmar defence forces, senior general Min Aung Hlaing,
visited India in 2017.
In spite of the political changes, the Myanmar military (called Tatmadaw) as an
institution and its chief continue to play a pre-eminent role.
Initially, the ruling National League for Democracy (NLD) and the Tatmadaw were at
loggerheads over the appointment of Suu Kyi as the state counsellor. Even at a personal
level, the Myanmar military leaders and Suu Kyi shared frosty relationship not long
ago. Hence the visit was a message to ruling government that India is important.

FOREIGN SECRETARY, ARMY CHIEF OF INDIA VISIT MYANMAR:

In October 2020, during the meeting with Suu Kyi, India handed over 3000 vials of
Remdesivir to the State Counsellor, symbolic of India’s commitment to assist Myanmar
in its fight against the pandemic.
The Indian Army Chief separately met the Vice Senior General Soe Win, Deputy
Commander-in-Chief, Myanmar Armed Services.
Though China’s footprints are all over Myanmar, the military and civilian rulers of the
country do not want to put all their eggs in one basket.
China’s covert support to many of the ethnic groups that have been fighting the Myanmar
army has always been a sore point with the military. So building ties with India suits
Myanmar as much as it helps India. Both neighbours now have robust political, military
and economic and developmental relations.

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES BETWEEN INDIA-MYANMAR:

1. ROHINGYA CRISIS:
Rohingyas are those who are from the Rakhine state of Myanmar. The 1982 Citizenship
Act of Myanmar doesn’t recognize these people who practice Islam and describes these
people as ‘illegal immigrants’ from Bangladesh.
• They are described as the ‘boat people' who have migrated from :

1.Thailand

2. India

Boat People 3. Bangladesh

4.Laos

5. other countries

The present crisis of Myanmar was triggered by the actions of the armed forces of
Myanmar. They unleashed violence on this group in 2017 after one of their outposts
was attacked by the Rohingyas.
 INDIA AND THE ROHINGYA CRISIS

As per the report of Intelligence Bureau (IB), there are over 40,000 Rohingya refugees
in India, registered with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
as well those staying illegally in India.
They have been spotted in India at many places :

1. Union Territories of Jammu and Kashmir and

2.Delhi-NCT

3.Assam,

Spotted 4.Karnataka,

5. Kerala,

6.Tamil Nadu,

7.Telangana

8. West Bengal.

According to the IB, the ARAKAN SALVATION ARMY, a banned terror group consisting
of Rohingyas intends to target India and Indian targets and they are assisted by the
notorious ISI in this regard.
Rohingyas have also been arrested for the terror attack on the Mahabodhi temple in
Gaya (Bihar).
• The government has stated that it intends to deport these 40,000 individuals back to Myanmar.

2.DEFENCE RELATIONS:
A. Armed forces of both the nations launched Operation Sunrise 1 and 2 in 2019. These opera-
tions were launched in a coordinated manner in the states of Assam, Manipur, Mizoram and
Nagaland and on the Myanmar side. This led to massive damages being inflicted on the
various insurgent groups.
B. A report by the Union Home Ministry has pointed out the negative effects of the FREE MOVE-
MENT REGIME.
The report points out to this mechanism being misused by various insurgent groups for smug-
gling of human beings, arms and ammunitions, narcotics and other psychotropic substances
and Fake Indian Currency Notes (FICN).
C. The navies of both the nations conduct the INNEX naval exercises, off the coast of Bay of
Bengal. And IMBAX is the joint exercises carried out by the two Armies.
3. KALADAN MULTI-MODAL CORRIDOR

PROJECT:

A. This is an important project which would give India better access to its North-Eastern states.
B. It is a combination of shipping lanes, inland waterways and road projects.
C. In the first instance, the project aims to build shipping links between Kolkata and Sittwe.
D. Then onwards an Inland waterway between Sittwe to Paletwa (on river Kaladan).
E. A road link between Paletwa to the Indian border which would extend into Lawngtlai (Mizoram).
F. The project would be completed by March 2021 including the last leg of the project, i.e. Paletwa-
Zorinpui road.

4. TRILATERAL HIGHWAY PROJECT:

 This project connects Moreh in Mizoram to Mae Sot in Thailand. India has agreed to
construct the Kalewa-Yargyi road which is 126 kms in length and build 69 bridges along
the Tamu-Kalewa road along with the construction of the Rhi-Tiddim road in the Chin
State bordering the Indian state of Mizoram. It connects India to South-East Asia.
3. ECONOMIC TIES/DEVELOPMENTAL ASSISTANCE:
A. India launched OPERATION INSAANIYAT for the development of the RAKHINE REGION and
airlifted essential supplies during the crisis.
B. Extension of the QUICK IMPACT PROJECT SCHEME: A scheme to finish incomplete projects
in the physical infrastructure sector and socio-economic sectors such as community cen-
tres, health and educational facilities to Myanmar.
C. India has also agreed to facilitate the E-ID (similar to the Aadhar card) card project in Myanmar.

5. ENERGY COOPERATION:
A. Myanmar has proven 20 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. It is this that India seeks to tap.
B. There is a Joint Working Group on energy cooperation between the two countries.
C. India has also proposed to construct a petroleum Refinery in the Thanlyn region worth USD 6
Billion.
D. Approval for the investment of USD 120 million in the Shwe Oil and gas project.
E. Both sides also planning for construction of a high capacity high voltage Grid interconnection
between North-East India and Myanmar.
F. So far, ONGC Vidhesh, GAIL and other public sector companies have been involved in this
sector. The projects have been executed at a slow rate. The entry of the private sector in
recent times is expected to increase the pace of execution.
 INDIA-US BILATERAL RELATIONS

India-USA: History of Relations

 The birth of Indian Republic was accompanied by Pakistan’s occupation of Kashmir. Nehru’s
efforts to garner support from the international community was fruitless.
 India declined the American offer to accept a seat at the United Nations Security Council and
rather pushed for the membership of the People’s Republic of China which it has immedi-
ately recognized as a sovereign nation. (Reference – TheHindu)
 In the year 1950, India abstained from a US-sponsored resolution calling for UN’s military
involvement in the Korean War. India even voted against UN forces crossing the 38th Paral-
lel and naming China as an aggressor.
 1955: Pakistan officially aligned with the United States via the South East Asian Treaty
Organization (SEATO) and Central Treaty Organization (CEATO) also known as Baghdad Pact.
Meanwhile, India, being the chief proponent of Non-Alignment Movement (NAM), held the
first Afro-Asian Conference at Bandung, Indonesia.
 The rogue state of Pakistan became an important ally to the US in the containment of the
Soviet Union, giving rise to strategic complications with India.
 In the Sino-Indian war of 1962, the US extended help to India against China’s belligerence by
sending an American carrier- The Enterprise- to the Bay of Bengal. China, however, had
declared unilateral ceasefire the next day. Indian leaders and public welcomed American
intervention.
 1966: In response to India’s criticism of the US intervention in Vietnam, President Lyndon
B. Johnson restricted the supply of grain shipments to India under Public Law 480 programme.
 1967: A predominantly Anti-American worldview led India to reject a founding membership
in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
 1968: India rejected the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) proposed by the world’s leading nuclear
powers.
 1971: The USA had maintained a studious silence on Pakistan’s repressive policies in East
Pakistan. The then Secretary of State Henry Kissinger visited Delhi to make India comply to
not support liberation movements in East Pakistan. Indira Gandhi’s intransigence was met
with diplomatic muscle-flexing. Next month, India signed a Treaty of Friendship, Peace and
Cooperation with the Soviet Union, seen as a blatant shift from India’s Non-Alignment poli-
cies. US President Richard Nixon in a retaliatory move chose to explicitly tilt American policy
in favour of Pakistan and suspended $87 million worth of economic aid to India. American
naval fleet USS Enterprise traversed the Bay of Bengal, issuing mild threats. India won the
Bangladesh Liberation War as the Pakistani Army embarrassingly surrendered more than
90,000 troops.
 1974: India conducted its first nuclear weapon test at Pokhran, and it came as a major jolt to
the USA who made plans to upgrade its presence at Diego Garcia, a British-controlled island
in the Indian ocean.
 1975: India faced considerable domestic turmoil and entered into a state of Emergency.
 1977: The Emergency ended and the US immediately eased restrictions it has placed on
World Bank loans to India and approved direct economic assistance of $60 million.
 1978: US President Jimmy Carter and Indian Prime Minister Desai exchanged visits to
each other’s nations.
 The 1980s: Large amounts of military aid was pumped into Pakistan by the USA in order to
fight a proxy against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan. This created significant repercussions
in the internal security of India as the Pakistani mujahedeen fighters infiltrated into Kash-
mir as militants.
 1988: Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi made a historic visit to China which led to normalization
 of relations between India and China.
 1990: India hesitatingly provided a brief logistical support for American military operations
in the Gulf War.
 Post-1991: The Soviet Union disintegrated into independent nations and the United States
emerged as the single largest hegemon, making the world unipolar. It coincided with India
opening doors to foreign private capital in its historic Liberalization, Privatization, and Glo-
balization move.
 Trade between India and the US grew dramatically and is flourishing today.

Why India Matters to the USA?

 India is an indispensable partner for the United States. Geographically, it sits between the
two most immediate problematic regions for U.S. national interests. The arc of instability
that begins in North Africa goes through the Middle East, and proceeds to Pakistan and Af-
ghanistan ends at India’s western border.
 The Indian landmass juts into the ocean that bears its name. With the rise of Asian econo-
mies, the Indian Ocean is home to critical global lines of communication, with perhaps 50
percent of world container products and up to 70 percent of ship-borne oil and petroleum
traffic transiting through its waters.
 India’s growing national capabilities give it ever greater tools to pursue its national interests
to the benefit of the United States. India has the world’s third-largest Army, fourth-largest Air
Force, and fifth largest Navy. All three of these services are modernizing, and the Indian Air
Force and Indian Navy have world-class technical resources, and its Army is seeking more of
them.
 India is an important U.S. partner in international efforts to prevent the further spread of
weapons of mass destruction.
 India’s broad diplomatic ties globally (most importantly in the Middle East), its aspirations for
United Nations (UN) Security Council permanent membership, and its role in international
organizations such as the International Atomic Energy Agency makes New Delhi an espe-
cially effective voice in calls to halt proliferation.
 India’s position against radicalism and terrorism corresponds with that of the United States.
 India’s English-speaking and Western-oriented elite and middle classes comfortably partner
with their counterparts in U.S. firms and institutions, including more than 2.8 million In-
dian Americans. The U.S. higher education system is an incubator of future collaboration,
with more than 100,000 Indian students in American universities.
 As India modernizes and grows it will spend trillions of dollars on infrastructure, transporta-
tion, energy production and distribution, and defence hardware. U.S. firms can benefit im-
mensely by providing expertise and technology that India will need to carry out this sweeping
transformation.
 India-USA cooperation is critical to global action against climate change.
 India is genuinely committed to a world order based on multilateral institutions and coopera-
tion and the evolution of accepted international norms leading to accepted international law.
Indian culture and diplomacy have generated goodwill in its extended neighbourhood. New
Delhi has positive relations with critical states in the Middle East, in Central Asia, in South-
east Asia, and with important middle powers such as Brazil, South Africa, and Japan—all of
the strategic value to the United States. India’s soft power is manifest in wide swaths of the
world where its civil society has made a growing and positive impression.
 Indian democracy has prospered despite endemic poverty; extraordinary ethnic, religious,
and linguistic diversity; and foreign and internal conflicts.
 Why the United States matters to India?

 America remains the critical stabilizing force in Asia through its military and diplomatic
power projection and commitments to the region.
 The twentieth century bore witness to a multigeneration U.S. efforts to prevent the emer-
gence of any hostile hegemon on the Eurasian landmass, a function that the United States
continues to fulfil today with the help of its Asian partners.
 China has chosen episodically to ignore global nonproliferation norms, a pattern of behaviour
that the United States has assiduously sought to curtail. Though no nation can a priori pre-
vent future Chinese proliferation activities, only a U.S.-led international effort has any chance
of success.
 India will be better able to protect its national interests in Pakistan and Afghanistan in
coordination with the United States.
 The United States will continue to be important for India’s economic success. India’s economy
has been built around unleashing domestic consumption rather than relying on exports.
 The United States has also remained one of the top sources of foreign direct investment in
India, bringing important managerial expertise, capital, and technology with it to the dy-
namic Indian market.
 The United States has a long-term commitment to maintain security and freedom of naviga-
tion on the high seas, something critical to India as a net energy importer.
 Washington retains unparalleled power and influence in global governance institutions.
As India seeks a larger role in the UN Security Council and international monetary institu-
tions, U.S. support for India will be critical to reforms that benefit New Delhi’s national inter-
ests.
 The United States retains a sizable technological edge on many commercials, aerospace,
and defence technologies, the access to which benefits Indian national interests as well as
Indian firms and customers.

India-USA: Five Pillars of Strategic Partnership

 Strategic Issues
 Energy and Climate Change
 Science and Technology
 Health and Innovation
 Education and Development

India-US Civil Nuclear Deal

The deal is seen as a watershed in India-USA relations and introduces a new aspect
to international nonproliferation efforts. Since July 18, 2005, the deal lifts a three-
decade U.S. moratorium on nuclear trade with India. It provides U.S. assistance to
India’s civilian nuclear energy program and expands India-USA cooperation in energy
and satellite technology.
An approval by the Nuclear Suppliers Group lifting the ban on India has also cleared
the way for other countries to make nuclear fuel and technology sales to India. India
would be eligible to buy U.S. dual-use nuclear technology, including materials and
equipment that could be used to enrich uranium or reprocess plutonium, potentially
creating the material for nuclear bombs.
 Five developments in the India-US relations since the deal:

India-US Nuclear Deal

 The US has removed many high technology sanctions imposed on India since 1974. If Delhi
was prevented by law from importing anything for its nuclear programme over the last few
decades, it is boosting atomic power generation in India through imported uranium and is
negotiating with multiple vendors for the purchase of new reactors.
 The US has become India’s largest trading partner in goods and services, and the two sides
have set an ambitious goal of half a trillion dollars for future trade. The growing commercial
engagement has been reinforced by an intensification of people-to-people contact and the
presence of the 3 million strong Indian diasporas in America.
 Cooperation on counter-terrorism and intelligence-sharing have expanded rapidly over the
last decade. The US has become one of India’s major suppliers of arms, and the two sides are
discussing ideas that would once have been dismissed as inconceivable — for example, US
support in the development of India’s next-generation aircraft carrier.
 In refusing to extend the civil nuclear initiative to Islamabad, Washington removed the hy-
phen in its relations with Delhi and Islamabad. Since 2005, America has also discarded the
idea of mediating between India and Pakistan, especially on the Kashmir question.
 While traditional differences between Delhi and Washington on global issues have endured,
the two sides are now avoiding confrontation in multilateral fora dealing with trade and cli-
mate change.

The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Bill, 2010

 The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (CLND) Bill, 2010 fixes liability for nuclear damage
and specifies procedures for compensating victims.
 The Bill fixes no-fault liability on operators and gives them a right of recourse against certain
persons. It caps the liability of the operator at Rs 500 crore. For damage exceeding this
amount, and up to 300 million SDR, the central government will be liable.
 All operators (except the central government) need to take insurance or provide financial
security to cover their liability.
 For facilities owned by the government, the entire liability up to 300 million SDR will be
borne by the government.
 The Bill specifies who can claim compensation and the authorities who will assess and award
compensation for nuclear damage.
 Those not complying with the provisions of the Bill can be penalized.

There is no proposal to amend the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act of 2010 Act or
the Rules.

India-US Trade Relations

Trade Deal: Trade has been a major bone of contention between India and the US.
India has been referred by the US, as “tariff king” that imposes “tremendously high”
import duties. Donald Trump formulated America First policy, on the economic dimension,
it means reducing the U.S. 's trade deficits with major trading partners, including
India. In pursuance of this:
 In June 2019, the Trump administration decided to terminate India’s benefits under the
Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) scheme, which provides preferential, duty-free ac-
cess for over $6 billion worth of products exported from this country to the US.
 Removal from the GSP list amidst rising trade tensions prompted India to finally impose
retaliatory tariffs on several American imports. This made the US approach the WTO against
 India.
 The office of the US Trade Representative (USTR) has underlined India’s measures to re-
strict companies from sending personal data of its citizens outside the country as a “key”
barrier to digital trade.
 Also, the US has long demanded greater access to American agriculture and dairy products.
For India, protecting its domestic agriculture and dairy interests was a major reason to walk
out of the RCEP agreement.

India-US Defence Cooperation

Defence relationship has emerged as a major pillar of India-USA strategic

partnership with the signing of ‘New Framework for India-U.S. Defense Relations’ in
2005 and the resulting intensification in defence trade, joint exercises, personnel
exchanges, collaboration and cooperation in maritime security and counter-piracy, and
exchanges between each of the three services.
India participated in Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) exercise in July-August 2016.
The agreements signed during the past one year include:
 Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Association (LEMOA)
 Fuel Exchange Agreement
 Technical Agreement (TA) on information sharing on White (merchant) Shipping
 Information Exchange Annexe (IEA) on Aircraft Carrier Technologies

Pending agreements are:

 Communication and Information Security Memorandum of Agreement (CISMOA)
 Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA)

India-US: Cooperation in Energy and Climate Change

The India-USA Energy Dialogue was launched in May 2005 to promote trade and
investment in the energy sector.
There are six working groups in oil and gas, coal, power and energy efficiency, new
technologies and renewable energy, civil nuclear co-operation and sustainable
development under the Energy Dialogue.
As a priority initiative under the PACE (Partnership to Advance Clean Energy), the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the Government of India have established the
Joint Clean Energy Research and Development Center (JCERDC) designed to promote
clean energy innovations by teams of scientists from India and the United States, with
a total joint committed funding from both Governments of US$ 50 million.

India-US: Cooperation in Education

India is learning from the U.S. experience in community colleges in order to meet our
demands for skill-development. It has been agreed to collaborate with U.S. institutions
in the area of Technology Enabled Learning and Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)
to extend the reach of education in India. Under the Global Initiative of Academic
Networks (GIAN) launched by India, up to 1000 American academics will be invited and
hosted each year to teach in Indian universities at their convenience. The two sides
are also collaborating to establish a new Indian Institute of Technology in Ahmedabad.
 India-US: People to People Contacts

The 3.5-million-plus strong Indian American community is an important ethnic group

in the U.S., accounting for about 1% of the total population in the country. Indian
American community includes a large number of professionals, business entrepreneurs
and educationalists with increasing influence in the society. The two countries have
been working together to facilitate travel of their respective citizens, and to this end,
an MOU has been signed in June 2016 to facilitate India’s joining of the Global Entry
Programme for expedited immigration for eligible Indian citizens at U.S. airports.

It appears highly likely that in strategic, political, security, defence and economic
terms, relations between India and the USA will continue their upward trajectory under
President Trump. Impact of USA’s relations with Pakistan over India is likely to be
beneficial and positive. Geopolitical manoeuvres can have significant impact on India-
USA relations, however, it would remain to be multi-faceted and an “indispensable
partnership”

US-Pakistan Equation: US has softened its position on Pakistan in the last seven
months, due to the role Pakistan can play in the Afghan deal (between the US and the
Taliban), likely to be signed on February 29, 2020.
In return, Pakistan wants the US to engage with India on the Kashmir issue
(internationalising the Kashmir issue). Whereas India maintains the view that Kashmir
is a bilateral issue between India and Pakistan and no third party can be engaged in it.

Internal Issues in India: India-US strong strategic partnership is also based on an

idea of “shared values” of democracy, rule of law, religious freedom and protection of
minorities. However, the revocation of Article 370, the new citizenship law and the NRC
is testing this “shared values” principle.
Though the US president maintained that these matters are internal to India, criticism
from the US Congress and some parts of US civil society is pushing the US administration
to tell India to bring Kashmir to normalcy and not go ahead with the new citizenship
law followed by the NRC.

Convergence in Indo-US relations

In the post-cold war era, India's relationship with the US on defence and strategic
issues has strengthened. This can be reflected in the following:

 A foundational military agreement that allows for the sharing of encrypted communications
and equipment (COMCASA- Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement).
 A change in U.S. export control laws that places India in a privileged category of NATO and
non-NATO U.S. allies.
 The signing of an Industrial Security Annex that will allow for greater collaboration among
the two countries’ private defence industries.
 A new ‘2+2’ foreign and defence ministers dialogue.
 The bilateral Strategic Energy Partnership was launched in April 2018 under which India
has started importing crude and LNG from the US. Now, the US is India’s sixth-largest source
of crude oil imports and hydrocarbons.
 Inauguration of the first India-US tri-service military exercise and expansion of existing
military exercises.
 Inclusion of India and South Asia in the US Maritime Security Initiative.
 These intense engagement has helped achieve robust support from the US against terror-
ism.
 This was evident after the Pulwama attack, leading to the designation of Jaish-e-
Mohammad chief Masood Azhar as a global terrorist under UN Security Council Resolution
1267.
 Also, placing Pakistan on the grey-list of the Financial Action Task Force.
 The US under its Pivot to Asia policy views India as an ideal balancer to check the aggressive
rise of China. Therefore, the US has formulated the concept of Indo-Pacific to counter China
in the South China Sea and the Indian ocean.
 The US has designated India as an integral part of the Indo-pacific narrative by the concep-
tion of Quad.