UNIT-3

WIND ENERGY
3.1 Introduction
 Winds are essentially created by the solar heating of the atmosphere. Several attempts have
been made since 1940 to use wind to generate electric energy and development is still going
on. However, techno-economic feasibility has yet to be satisfactorily established.
 Wind as a power source is attractive because it is plentiful, inexhaustible and non-polluting.
Further, it does not impose extra heat burden on the environment. Unfortunately, it is non-
steady and undependable.
 Control equipment has been devised to start the wind power plant whenever the wind speed
reaches 30km/h. Methods have also been found to generate constant frequency power with
varying wind speeds and consequently varying speeds of wind mill propellers.
 Wind power may prove practical for small power needs in isolated sites. But for maximum
flexibility, it should be used in conjunction with other methods of power generation to ensure
continuity.
 For a rotor of 17m diameter and a velocity of 48 km/h the theoretical power is 265kW and
the practical would be roughly half of this value.
There are some distinctive energy end-use features of wind power systems:
 Most wind power sites are in remote rural, island or marine areas. Rural grid systems are
likely to be ‘weak’ in these areas, since they carry relatively low voltage supplies (e.g.33kV).

Figure 3.1 Wind from the ocean during day time & night time
3.1.1 Wind energy

 Can be economically used for the generation of electrical energy.

 Winds are caused due to Heating and cooling of the main atmosphere which generates
convection currents. The rotation of the earth with respect to atmosphere, and its motion
around the sun.
 The potential of wind energy is abundant. 1.6X107 MW. (Same order of present energy
consumption) Wind mill is drives generator to produce electricity.
 Water pumping for irrigation and drinking water Required Wind speed range is 8 to 36Km
per hour In India, coastal areas of Saurashtra, western Rajasthan and some parts of central
India.

3.1.2 Wind Direction

A weather vane, or wind vane, is used to show the direction of the wind. A wind vane points
toward the source of the wind. Wind direction is reported as the direction from which the wind
blows, not the direction toward which the wind moves. A north wind blows from the north toward
the south.

3.1.3 Wind Speed

 It is important in many cases to know how fast the wind is blowing. Wind speed can be
measured using a wind gauge or anemometer. One type of anemometer is a device with three
arms that spin on top of a shaft.
 Each arm has a cup on its end. The cups catch the wind and spin the shaft. The harder the
wind blows, the faster the shaft spins. A device inside counts the number of rotations per
minute and converts that figure into miles per hour. A display on the anemometer shows the
speed of the wind.

3.1.4 History of Wind Machines

 Since ancient times, people have harnessed the wind’s energy. Over 5,000 years ago, the
ancient Egyptians used the wind to sail ships on the Nile River. Later, people built windmills
to grind wheat and other grains.
 The early windmills looked like paddle wheels. Centuries later, the people in Holland
improved the windmill. They gave it propeller type blades, still made with sails. Holland is
famous for its windmills.
  In this country, the colonists used windmills to grind wheat and corn, to pump water, and to
cut wood at sawmills. Today, people occasionally use windmills to grind grain and pump
water, but they also use modern wind turbines to make electricity.

3.1.5 Today’s Wind Turbines

Like old-fashioned windmills, today’s wind turbines use blades to capture the wind’s kinetic
energy. Wind turbines work because they slow down the speed of the wind. When the wind blows, it
pushes against the blades of the wind turbine, making them spin. They power a generator to produce
electricity. Most wind turbines have the same basic parts: blades, shafts, gears, a generator, and a
cable. (Some turbines do not have gearboxes.)
These parts work together to convert the wind’s energy into electricity.
 The wind blows and pushes against the blades on top of the tower, making them spin.
 The turbine blades are connected to a low-speed drive shaft. When the blades spin, the shaft
turns. The shaft is connected to a gearbox. The gears in the gearbox increase the speed of the
spinning motion on a high-speed drive shaft.
 The high-speed drive shaft is connected to a generator. As the shaft turns inside the
generator, it produces electricity.
 The electricity is sent through a cable down the turbine tower to a transmission line. The
amount of electricity that a turbine produces depends on its size and the speed of the wind.
Wind turbines come in many different sizes. A small turbine may power one home.
 Large wind turbines can produce enough electricity to power up to 1,000 homes. Large
turbines are sometimes grouped together to provide power to the electricity grid. The grid is
the network of power lines connected together across the entire country.

3.1.6 Wind Power Plants

 Wind power plants, or wind farms, are clusters of wind turbines used to produce electricity.
A wind farm usually has dozens of wind turbines scattered over a large area. Choosing the
location of a wind farm is known as siting a wind farm.
 The wind speed and direction must be studied to determine where to put the turbines. As a
rule, wind speed increases with height, as well as over open areas with no windbreaks.
 Turbines are usually built in rows facing into the prevailing wind. Placing turbines too far
apart wastes space. If turbines are too close together, they block each other’s wind. The site
 must have strong, steady winds. Scientists measure the winds in an area for several years
before choosing a site.
 The best sites for wind farms are on hilltops, on the open plains, through mountain passes,
and near the coasts of oceans or large lakes. The wind blows stronger and steadier over water
than over land. There are no obstacles on the water to block the wind.
 There is a lot of wind energy available offshore. Offshore wind farms are built in the shallow
waters off the coast of major lakes and oceans. Offshore turbines produce more electricity
than turbines on land, but they cost more to build and operate. The first offshore wind farm in
the United States, off the coast of Massachusetts, was approved in April 2011. Construction
is expected to begin in 2013.

3.1.7 Wind Production

Every year, wind produces only a small amount of the electricity this country uses, but the
amount is growing every year. One reason wind farms don’t produce more electricity is that they can
only run when the wind is blowing at certain speeds. On Midwestern wind farms, the wind is
optimum for producing electricity between 65 and 90 percent of the time.

3.1.8 Environmental Impacts

In some areas, people worry about the birds and bats that may be injured by wind turbines.
Some people believe wind turbines produce a lot of sound, and some think turbines affect their view
of the landscape. On the other hand, wind is a clean, renewable energy source that produces no air
pollution. And wind is free to use. Wind power is not the perfect answer to our electricity needs, but
it is a valuable part of the solution.

3.1.9 Betz Limit

Betz limit is the theoretical limit assigned to efficiency of a wind turbine. It states that no
turbine can convert more than 59.3 % of wind kinetic energy into shaft mechanical energy. Thus the
value of C is limited to Betz limit. For a well designed turbine the efficiency lies in the range of35-
45 %.
3.1.10 Wind Turbines
A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the wind kinetic energy into mechanical
energy. If the mechanical energy is then converted to electricity, the machine is called a wind
generator, wind turbine. The former are more commonly used due to several inherent advantages,
the latter being used in small scale. Turbine subsystems include:
 Rotors which convert wind energy into mechanical energy of the shaft ;
 Nacelle (enclosure) which contains all the conversion equipment, generator, gear shaft etc.
 To increase the height of the turbine systems so that higher wind speeds are captured.
 Control equipment, Cables and other Civil works.

3.2 Basic Principles of Wind Energy Conversion

3.2.1 The nature of the Wind
 The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by the non- uniform heating of the earth’s
surface by the sun. The air immediately above the warm area expands; it is forced upwards
by cool, denser air which flows in form surrounding areas causing a wind.
 The nature of the terrain, the degree of cloud cover and the angle of the sun in the sky are all
factors which influence this process. In general, during the day the air above the land mass
tends to heat up more rapidly than the air over water.
 In coastal regions this manifests itself in a strong onshore. At night the process is reversed
because the air cools down more rapidly over the land and the breeze therefore blows off
shore.
 The main planetary winds are caused in much the same way: Cool surface air sweeps down
from the poles forcing the warm air over the tropics to rise. But the direction of these massive
air movements is affected by the rotation of the earth and the net effect is large.
 Despite of wind’s intermittent nature, wind patterns at any circular site remain remarkably
constant year by year. Average wind needs are greater in hilly and coastal areas than they are
well inland.
 Wind speeds increase with height. They have traditionally been measured at a standard
height of ten meters where they are found to 20-25% greater than close to surface.
3.2.2 The power in the Wind
 Wind possesses energy by virtue of its motion. Any device capable of slowing down the
mass of moving air, like a sail or propeller, an extract part of the energy and convert is into
useful work.
 Three factors determine the output from a wind energy converter:
(i). the wind speed
(ii) The cross-section of wind swept by rotor; and
(iii) the overall conversion efficiency of the rotor, transmission system and generator or
pump.

3.2.3 Basic Components of a WECS (Wind Energy Conversion system)

The block diagram of wind energy conversion system is shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Basic components of wind energy conversion systems

The main components of wind energy components are:

(i).Aero turbine: Aero turbines convert wind energy into rotary mechanical energy. This block
requires pitch and yaw, i.e., direction of wind flow control for proper operation.
(ii). Mechanical interface (coupling & gearing): A suitable mechanical gear should be provided to
transmit mechanical energy into electric generator.
(iii). Electric generator: Generator that converts mechanical energy from the aero turbine into
electrical energy and is connected to the load or power grid.
(iv). Controller: Controller that senses wind speed, wind direction, and shaft speeds. The output
power from the generator and temperature is sensed by the controller and if necessary controller will
send appropriate signal to the wind energy input to protect the system form abnormal conditions.
3.2.3.1 Wind Electric Generating Power Plant
 The physical embodiment for such an aero generator is shown in a generalized form.
 The sub components of the wind mills are:
1. Wind turbine or rotor
2. Wind mill head
3. Transmission and control
4. Supporting structure. Such a machine typically is a large impressive structure.

Figure 3.3 Wind Power Generating Plant

Rotors are mainly of two types:
 Horizontal axis rotor
 Vertical axis rotor
 One advantage of vertical axis machine is that they operate in all wind directions and thus
need no yaw adjustments.
 The rotor is only of the important components. For an effective utilization, all the
components need to be properly designed and matched with the rest of the components.
The wind mill head supports the rotor, housing the rotor bearings. It also houses any control
mechanism incorporated like changing the pitch of the blades for safety devices and tail vane to
orient the rotor to face the wind.
  The latter is facilitated by mounting it on the top of the supporting structure on suitable
bearings.
Transmissions the rate of rotation of large wind turbine generator operating at rated capacity or
below, is conveniently controlled by varying the pitch of the rotor blades, but it is low, about 40 to
50 revolutions per minute.
 Because optimum generator output requires much greater rates of rotation, such as 1800 rpm,
it is necessary to increase greatly the low rotor rate of turning.
 Among the transmission options are mechanical systems involving fixed ratio gears, belts,
and chains, singly or combination are hydraulic systems involving fluid pumps and motors.
 Fixed ratio gears are recommended for top mounted equipment because of the high
efficiency, known cost and minimum system risk.
 Such a combination offers a high degree of design flexibility as well as large potential
savings.
Generator either constant or variable speed generators are a possibility, but variable speed generator
are expensive.
 Among the constant speed generator candidates for use are synchronous induction and
permanent magnet types.
 The generator of choice is the synchronous unit for large aero generator systems because it is
very versatile and has an extensive data base.
 Other electrical components and systems are, however, under development.
Controls the modern large wind turbine generator requires versatile and reliable control systems to
perform the following function:
1. The orientation of the rotor into the wind;
2. Start up and cut-in of the equipment;
3. Power control of the rotor by varying the pitch of the blades;
4. Generator output monitoring-status, data computation, and storage;
5. Shut down and cut-out owing to malfunction or very high winds;
6. Protection for the generator, the utility accepting the power and the prime mover;
7. Auxiliary and/or emergency power maintenance mode.
 Many combinations are possible in terms of the control system and may involving the
following components:
1. Sensor –mechanical, electrical, or pneumatic:
2. Decision elements-relays, logic modules, analog circuits, a microprocessor,
a fluidics, units, or a mechanical unit; and
 3. Actuators- mechanical, electrical, or pneumatic. A recommended
combination of electric transducers feeding into a micro-processor which,
in turn, signals electrical actuators and provides protection through
electronic circuits, although a pneumatic slip clutch may be required.
Towers four types of supporting towers deserve consideration, these are:
1. The reinforced concrete tower
2. The pole tower
3. The buildup shell-tube tower
4. The truss tower
 Among these the truss tower is favored because it is proved and widely acceptable, cost is
low, parts are readily available, it is readily transported, and it is potentially stiff.
 Shell-tube towers are have attractive features and may prove to be competitive with truss
towers. The type of the supporting structures and its heights related cost and the
transmission system incorporated. It is designed to withstand the winds load during gusts.
 Horizontal axis wind turbines are mounted on towers so as to be above the level of
turbulence and other ground-related effects.
 The minimum tower height for a small WECS is about ten m, and the maximum practical
height is estimated to be roughly 60m.

 In wind energy-generating system, wind turbine converts kinetic energy of the wind motion
into mechanical energy with the help of blades. The direction of wind flow control, i.e.,
pitches and yaw control is required for the proper operation. A suitable mechanical
transmission gear is provided to transmit the mechanical energy from the wind turbine to
electrical generator.
 An electric generator converts mechanical energy into electric energy and is fed to the
rectifier thereby converting fixed AC to variable DC supply. Further DC is fed to an inverter,
which converts DC into variable AC supply, transmitted to grid system for utility purpose.
 A diesel engine is used to drive a synchronous machine when there is no wind energy as
input to the aero turbine.

3.2.4 The principles of wind energy conversion

There are two forces in play: Lift and Drag.

 The Lift Force is perpendicular to the wind direction. It is caused by a pressure difference
between the air on either side of the blade.
  The Drag Force is in the same direction as the wind. The ratio between lift and drag largely
depends on the shape of the blade and the angle of the main line of the blade (chord line) and
the main wind direction - the angle of attack. The lift force is largest for streamlined.
 Depending on the design of the turbine, either drag or lift moves the blades. Most wind
turbines today use the principle of lift rather than drag.

3.3 SITE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

This is a list of things to consider when selecting sites for installing wind monitoring devices
and wind generators. Site selection will depend on a number of factors including the general terrain
and wind flow characteristics of an area and the proximity to the location of intended use. For more
detailed information, check the references listed below.
Considerations
Wind Characteristics: Ideal sites are generally located in areas with good exposure to the
prevailing wind, away from structures, terrain or vegetation that might alter the wind or introduce
excessive turbulence. For wind measurement, sites that represent a wide area are ideal in order to
estimate the wind resource over as wide an area as possible. Vegetation will often show signs of
"flagging" if wind is present in sufficient amounts.
Proximity to End Use: The costs associated with wind energy grow with increased distance to
where the energy might be used. A windy site close to transmission lines or close to a pumping
location might be most appropriate.
Terrain and Land Use: Consider the amount of land available, how this land is currently used, it?s
proximity to other uses such as roads, houses, towns or parks. Avoid potential problems by
considering your neighbors and the public in this process.
Site Accessibility: To install a monitoring tower or a wind turbine and to provide routine
maintenance it will be necessary to get equipment to the site. Accessibility may be important. It may
also be useful to have cell phone coverage at the site to obtain help with maintenance issues that
might arise. The following characteristics are important in considering a wind turbine site, and are
examined in this,
A. Predicted Wind Resource
B. Noise
C. Environmental Issues and Permitting
D. Proximity to Airports
E. Wind Turbine Component Transportation & Access
F. Distance to Transmission/Distribution Lines for Power Distribution
G. Net-metering
H. Production Estimates for Selected Turbines

3.4 Terms and definitions

1. Areodynamics. It is the branch of science which deals with air and gases in motion and
their mechanical effects.
2. Angle of attack. It is the angle between the relative air flow and the closed of the airfoil.

Angle of attack Air foil showing edges, camber and chord

3. Blade. An important part of a wind turbine that extracts wind energy.

4. Leading edge. It is the front edge of the blade that faces towards the direction of flow
shown in figure b.
5. Meanline. A line that is equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces of the air foil.
6. Camber. It is the maximum distance between the mean line and the chrodline, which
measures the curvature of the airfoil.
7. Rotor. It is the primary part of the wind turbine that extracts energy from the wind. It
constitutes the blade and hub assembly.
8. Hubs. Blades are fixed to a hub which is a central solid part of the turbine.
9. Pitch angle. It is the angle between the direction of wind and the direction perpendicular
to the planes of blades.
 10. Pitch angle. It is the angle between the direction of the wind and the direction
perpendicular to the planes of blades.
11. Pitch control. It is the control of pitch angle by turning the blades or blade tips shown in
figure(a)
12. Yaw Control. It is the control for orienting (steering) the axis of wind turbine in the
direction of wind shown in figureb.
13. Teethering. It is see-saw like swinging motion with hesitation between two alternatives.
The plane of wind turbine wheel is swing in inclined position at higher wind speeds by
teethering control.

Controls in wind turbines: Pitch control; Yaw control; Teether control

3.5 Types of Windmills

A wind mill is machine, which plays major role in wind energy conversion. Wind turbine
that converts the kinetic energy of the wind motion to the mechanical energy transferred to an
electric generator through the shaft.
Normally, based upon the axis of rotation of turbine, wind mills are classified into two types. They
are:
(i)Horizontal axis windmill
(ii) Vertical axis wind mill

3.5.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs)

 Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) get their name from the fact that their axis of rotation
is horizontal. They have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower,
and are pointed into the wind.
 The variability of wind distribution and speed brings up the requirement of a gear system
connected to the rotor and the generator. The gear system enables a constant speed of rotation
to the generator thus enabling constant frequency generation.
 Turbine blades are made stiff in order to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower
by high winds. Downwind machines have also been built, as they no longer require a yaw
mechanism to keep them facing the wind, and also because in high winds the blades can turn
out of the wind thereby increasing drag and coming to a stop. Most of the HAWTs’ are
upwind as downwind systems cause regular turbulence this may lead to fatigue.

Schematic of horizontal Axis wind turbine

Major components of a typical horizontal axis, three-bladed, upwind wind turbine

3.5.1.1 HAWT advantages
 Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack. Changing
the angle of attack provides greater control over power generated and enables maximum
efficiency.
 As wind energy increases with height, the tall tower in the HAWT gives access to higher
wind speed. In some cases increase of even 10m height leads to increase in wind speed by 20
%.
 In HAWTs’ the blades move horizontally those is perpendicular to the wind and hence have
minimum drag and they receive power throughout the rotation.

3.5.1.2 HAWT disadvantages

 Due to inherent large structures, construction costs are very high and so are transportation
costs.
 Civil construction is costly due to erection of large towers.
 Wind turbine operation often leads to production of electronic noise which affects radar
sites.
 In case of downwind HAWTs’ the regular turbulence produced leads to structural failure.
 HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind.

3.5.1.3. Types of HAWTs

(a) Mono-Blade Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) Features
1. They have lighter rotor and are cheaper.
2. Blade are 15-25 m long and are made up of metal, glass reinforced plastics, laminate
wood, composite carbon fiber/ fiberglass etc.
3. Power generation is within the range 15 kW to 50 kW and service life of plant is 30
years.
 Wind Turbine components
Advantages
1. Simple and lighter construction.
2. Favorable price
3. Easy to install and maintain.
Disadvantages
1. Tethering control necessary for higher loads.
2. Not suitable for higher power ratings.
Applications
1. Field irrigation
2. Sea-Water desalination Plants
3. Electric power supply for farms and remote loads.

(b) Twin-Blade HAWT

1. They have large sizes and power output in range of 1 MW, 2 MW and 3MW.
2. These high power units feed directly to the distribution network.

(c) Blade HAWT

1. 3 blade propeller type wind turbines have been installed in India as well as abroad.
2. The rotor has three blades assembled on a hub. The blade tips have a pitch control of 30 for
controlling shaft speed.
3. The shaft is mounted on bearings.
 4. The gear chain changes the speed from turbine shaft to generator shaft. Vertical axis Wind
Turbines Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically as
the plane of rotation is vertical. Blades are also vertical in this arrangement. The biggest advantage
of VAWTs is they don’t require a yaw control mechanism to be pointed into the wind. Thus these
are useful in sites where wind direction is random or there is presence of large obstacles like trees,
houses etc. Also VAWTs’ don’t require a tower structure and can be placed nearby a ground
enabling access to electrical components. Some drawbacks are the low efficiency of wind production
and the fact that large drag is created for rotating the blades in a vertical axis.

3.5.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

 A type of wind turbine in which the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the wind stream and
the ground. VAWTs work somewhat like a classical water wheel in which water arrives at a
right angle (perpendicular) to the rotational axis (shaft) of the water wheel.
 Vertical-axis wind turbines fall into two major categories: Darrieus turbines and Savonius
turbines. The basic theoretical advantages of a vertical axis machine are the generator,
gearbox etc. may be placed on the ground, and a tower is not essential for the machine

3.5.2.1 VAWT advantages

• A massive tower structure is not required, as VAWTs’ are mounted closer to the ground
• They don’t require yaw mechanisms.
• These are located closer to the ground and hence easier to maintain.
• These have lower startup speeds than their horizontal counterparts. These can start at speeds
as low as 10Kmph.
• These have a lower noise signature.
3.5.2.2VAWT disadvantages
•VAWTs’ have lower efficiency as compared to HAWTs’ because of the additional drag
produced due to rotation of blades.
• Even though VAWTs’ are located closer to the ground, the equipment now resides at the
bottom of the turbines structure thus making it inaccessible.
•Because of their low height they cannot capture the wind energy stored in higher altitudes.

3.5.2.3Types of VAWTs

(a) Persian Windmill

1. The Persian windmill was the earliest windmill installed. (7th Century A.D. – 13th Century
A.D. in Persia, Afghanistan, and China)
2. It is a vertical axis windmill. This windmill was used to grind grains and make flour.
(b) Savonius Rotor VAWT
Savonius wind turbines are a type of vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT), used for converting
the force of the wind into torque on a rotating shaft. The turbine consists of a number of aerofoils,
usually—but not always—vertically mounted on a rotating shaft or framework, either ground
stationed or tethered in airborne systems.

Savonius Rotor VAWT

 The Savonius turbine is one of the simplest turbines. Aerodynamically, it is a drag-type

device, consisting of two or three scoops. Looking down on the rotor from above, a two-
scoop machine would look like an "S" shape in cross section. Because of the curvature, the
scoops experience less drag when moving against the wind than when moving with the
wind.
  The differential drag causes the Savonius turbine to spin. Because they are drag-type
devices, Savonius turbines extract much less of the wind's power than other similarly-sized
lift-type turbines. Much of the swept area of a Savonius rotor may be near the ground, if it
has a small mount without an extended post, making the overall energy extraction less
effective due to the lower wind speeds found at lower heights.
Characteristics of Savonius rotor
(i) Self starting
(ii) Low speed
(iii) Low efficiency

(c) Darrieus Rotor VAWT

1. It consists of 2 or 3 convex blades with airfoil cross-section.
2. The blades are mounted symmetrically on a vertical shaft.
3. To control speed of rotation mechanical brakes are incorporated. Those brakes consist of
steel discs and spring applied air released calipers for each disc.

High Mechanical Efficiency Centrifugally Stable Darrieus Turbine

Characteristics of Darrieus Rotor

(i) Not self starting, High Speed
(ii) High Efficiency, Potentially low capital cost.
 Based on the principle by which a Bermuda-rigged sailing ship can sail across the wind at
speeds greater than that of the wind, much like the blade of a horizontal- axis windmill.
 Lift causes a turning action stronger than the drag forces that impede it as long as TSR is
high enough to prevent the blades from stalling as they cross the wind.Although modern
Darrrieus wind turbines usually cannot self-start under steady wind conditions, they do rotate
 slowly due to the drag difference between the rounded leading edges and the sharp trailing
edges of the air-folis.
 If this is taking place when the wind speed drops below that of the rotor, the resulting
increase in the TSR may be enough to unstall the blades. On one or two occasions when this
possibility was not foreseen, the machines reached runaway speed with no load and
accidentally destroyed themselves.
 However, there are ways to self-start a Darrieus wind turbine when desired, and methods of
preventing over speed as well. There are also some types of high TSR, horizontal-axis
turbines whose aerodynamics inhibit self starting, these require either pitch changing or
electrical motive power to run them up to a speed where the blades will unstall.
 The Darrieus turbine is usually shaped like an egg beater in profile, with blades curved in a
form that minimizes the bending stresses caused centrifugal forces.

Darrieus rotor principle

3.5.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AXIS AND VERTICAL AXIS WIND
MACHINES
S.No Aspects Horizontal axis wind Vertical axis wind machines
machines
1. Power captured (for the same More Less
lower height)
2. Effect of fatigue (arising No such problem arises Suffer from fatigue effect.
from numerous resonance in
structure)
3. Appearance of the unwanted Nil Yes
power periodicity
4. Complexity of yaw Exists No such problem arises
mechanism
5. Noise problem Less More
6. Complexity of design More Less
3.5.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL AXIS WIND MACHINES

Horizontal and Vertical Axis Wind machines

Figure shows horizontal and vertical axis wind machines.
3.6 Maximum Power Operation
 Maximum power. As stated above that the total power cannot be converted into mechanical
power. Consider a horizontal axis, propeller type windmill, henceforth to be called a wind
turbine, which is the most common type used today. Assume that the wheel of such a turbine
has thickness a b, shown in fig.6.2.3.
 Let pi and vi are the wind pressure and velocity at the upstream of the turbine, and P e and Ve
are the pressure and velocity at downstream of the turbine. Ve is less than Vi because the
kinetic energy is extracted by the turbine.
 Considering the incoming air between i and a as a thermodynamic system, and assuming that
the air density remains constant, that the potential energy is zero, and no heat or work are
added or removed between I and a, the general energy equation reduces to the kinetic and the
flow energy terms only.
Thus Piv+Vi2/2gc=Pav+Va2/2gc
 Z1+V12/2g+u+P1v1+ q=Z2+V22/2g+u2+P2v2+ Wsf
Z1=potential energy
V2/2g=kinetic energy
u=internal energy
Pv=flow energy
q=net heat added
Wsf=net steady flow mechanical work done of the system.
Pi+pVi2/2gc=Pa+pVa2/2gc
Where v and p are the specific volume and its reciprocal, the density,respectively,both
considered to be constant.
Similarly for the exit region be,
Pe+pVe2/2ge=Pb+pVb2/2gb
 The wind velocity across the turbine decreases from a to b since kinetic energy is converted
to mechanical work there. The incoming velocity Vi does not decrease abruptly but gradually
as it approaches the turbine to Va and as it leaves it to Ve . The Vi > Va and Vb > V.,Pa>Pi and
Pb>Pi.
Pa-Pb=(Pi+p[Vi2-Va2]/2gc)-(Pe+p[Ve-Vb]/2gc)
 It can be assumed that wind power at e can be assumed to ambient, Pe=Pi
 As the blade width a. b is very thin as compared to total distance considered, it can be
assumed that velocity with in the turbine does not change much. Va =Vt=Vb
Pa-Pb=p(Vi2-Ve2/2gc)
 The axial force Fx, in the direction of wind stream, on a turbine wheel with projected area,
perpendicular to the stream A, is given by,
Fx=( Pa-Pb)A=pA(Vi2-Ve2/2gc)
The force is also equal to change in momentum of the wind.
Fx= (mV)/gc
m=mass flow rate=pAVt
Fx=(1/ gc)pAVt(Vi-Ve)
pA(Vi2-Ve2/2gc)= (1/ gc)pAVt(Vi-Ve)
Vt=1/2(Vi+Ve)
 Considering the total thermodynamic system bouded by I and e, there are no changes n
potential energy, the internal energy is there from Ti to Te, and flow energy change is there
from Piv to Pev. In the system no heat is added or rejected. The general energy equation how
reduce to the steady flow work W and kinetic energy terms.
 W=kEi-kEe= Vi2-Ve2/2gc
The power P is defined as the rate of work, from mass flow rate equation.
P=m Vi2-Ve2/2gc=(1/ 2gc)pAVt(Vi2-Ve2)
Combining above two equations we get
P=(1/ 4gc)pA(Vi+Ve) (Vi2-Ve2)
 The wind velocity reduces to zero after leaving the turbine. This is not possible because the
wind cannot accumulate at turbine exit. Where Ve is positive in one term and negative in
other, that too low or too high a value for Ve results in reduced power. There thus s an
optimum exit velocity Ve opt, that results in maximum power Pmax , which can be obtained
by differenting P , and equating the derivative to zero.
Dp/dVe=0
dp/dVe=3Ve2+2ViVe-Vi2=0
This is solved for a positive Ve to give Ve opt.
Ve opt=1/3 Vi
Pmax=8/27gcpAVi3.
=0.595Ptotal
 The ideal or maximum, theoretical efficiency of a wind turbine is the ratio of the maximum
power obtained from the wind, to the total power available in the wind. The factors 0.593 are
known as the betz coefficient.
 It is the maximum fraction of the power in a wind stream that can be extract Power
coefficient=Cp=power output from wind machine/power available in wind
 Thus Cp cannot exceed 0.593 for a horizontal axis wind machine. There are two main
families of wind turbines: wind pumps and wind generators. A pump generally involves a
high solidity rotor with a low TSR connected mechanically to a piston pump, which a
generator is usually driven through a gear box by a low solidity rotor
 The two main end uses of wind pumps have very different technical operational and
economic requirements. Irrigation designs are generally unsuitable for water supply duties,
which may require heads 10-100 m high.
 Despite these limitations, however, water supply pumps are sometimes used for irrigation.
Since many water supply pumps must run unattended for most of the time, their design
should incorporate protection devices to prevent over speeding in storms and sturdy parts that
required little attention
 Consequently they are built of components manufactured from industrial steel and drive
piston pumps via reciprocating pump rods
 This type of construction is expensive in relation to the output but the reliability and low
maintenance are worth the price to someone like an Australian farmer, who may have a
dozen wind pumps spread over a large area of semi desert to sustain several thousand head of
cattle.
 In contrast, irrigation being seasonal the mill may only be useful for a few months of the
year. It also involves pumping much larger volumes of water through a low head. Because
the intrinsic value of water is low it is essential to keep cost down.
 In addition someone is usually present to tend the machine. Therefore windmills used for
irrigation are generally indigenous designs that are built by the farmer as a method of low
cost mechanization.
 If water supply wind pumps are used on farms for irrigation it may be difficult to provide
piston pumps large enough to absorb the power from the windmill at low heads.
 Also, most wind pumps of this kind must be located over the pump in substantial, reinforced
concrete foundations.
 This usually makes them better suited for pumping from wells or bore holes than from open
water, for which a surface water suction pump can be used on the other hand.
 These do not achieve mechanical forces as high as those of industrial wind pumps which
often pull their rods with a force equivalent to 1t or more enough to uproot any carelessly
installed pump.
 Furthermore most indigenous designs are much cheaper and easier to install because they are
lower in height and do not require concrete foundations.
 In pumped hydro applications, the wind units can be used to supply power to pump from an
auxillary reservoir below hydro electric dam back into the main reservoir above the dam.
 This enables the main reservoir to be replenished when the wind is blowing , thereby added
to the capacity of the hydro electric system to generate base load electric power.
 Wind power can also be used to compress air for use in various applications, including the
operation of gas turbines for generating electricity during the peak demand periods of a
public utility system.
 For this type of application, conventional gas turbine can be modified to separate the
compressor, generator and power stages by clutches.
  In one mode of operation, the motor generator operating as a motor and powered by a wind
machine drives the air compressor.
 The compressed air is fed into a large cavern, aquifier, or depleted natural gas well.
 Under this mode the power turbine is inoperative and no fuel is consumed.
 In a second mode of operation when the demand for power exceeds the supply of the base
load utility system the compressor is engaged and the power turbine is connected to the
generator.
 The burner that drives the power turbine is fed fuel and compressed air from storage to
generate power for the utility system.
 The temperature for air is raised when it is compressed without loss of heat.
 In this case less heat will need to be added to the air, when it is eventually used to drive a
turbine at a given efficiency than if its heat has been allowed to escape from the storage
container and the temperature of the air had been allowed to drop to the ambient temperature
.
 Adiabatic storage is better from the standpoint of energy conservation than isothermal
storage.
 Wind powered pumps can be used to desalinate water using reverse osmosis units.

3.7 GENERATING SYSTEMS

Several schemes for electric generation have been developed. These schemes can be broadly
classified under three categories:
(i). Constant-speed constant frequency systems (CSCF)
(ii). Variable speed constant frequency systems (VSCF)
(iii). Variable speed variable frequency systems (VSVF)
(1). Constant speed constant frequency system (CSCF). Constant speed drive has been used for
large generators connected directly to the grid where constant frequency operation is essential.
(a) Synchronous generator. For such machines the requirement of constant speed is very rigid
and only minor fluctuations about1% for short durations (fraction of a second) could be
allowed. Synchronization of wind driven generator with power grid also will pose problems
with gusty winds.
(b) Induction Generator.
 If the stator of an induction machine is connected to the power grid and if the rotor is
driven above synchronous speed Ns (Ns=120f/p), the machine becomes a generator
and delivers constant line frequency power to the grid. (f=line frequency and
 p=number of poles for which the stator winding is made. The per unit slip is 0 and
0.05.
 The output power of wind driven induction generator is uniquely determined by the
operating speed. The pull out torque condition should not be exceeded. When this
happens the speed continues to increase and the system may ‘runaway’.
 Torque-speed characteristics of an induction machine in the motor and generating
modes are shown in figure. Induction generators are basically simpler than
synchronous generators. They are easier to operate, control and maintain, have no
synchronization problems and rae economical.

Torque-slip characteristics of induction machine

(2)Variable speed constant frequency scheme

 Variable-speed drive is typical for most small wind generators used in autonomous
applications, generally producing variable frequency and variable voltage output.
 The variable speed operation of wind electric system yield higher outputs for both low and
high wind speeds. This results in higher annual energy yields per rated installed kW capacity.
Both horizontal axis and vertical axis turbines will exhibit this gain under variable speed
operation.

 The popular schemes to obtain constant frequency output are as follows:

(a) AC-DC-AC link.
 With the advent of high powered thyristors and high voltage d.c transmission
systems, a.c. output of the 3-phase alternator is rectified using a bridge rectifier and
then converted back to a.c. using the line commutated inverters.
 They utilise an a.c. source which periodically reverses polarity and causes the
commutation to occur naturally. Since the frequency is automatically fixed by the
 power line, they are also known as synchronous inverters. The block diagram of the
system is shown in figure

Block diagram of Wind Electric Scheme

(b)Double Output Induction Generator.

In this system a slip-ring induction motor is used as shown in figure.

Block diagram of double output wind driven wound rotor induction generator (IGWR)
 Rotor power output at slip frequency is converted to line frequency power by rectification
and inversion output power is obtained both from stator and rotor and hence this device is
called double output induction generator.
 Rotor output power has the electrical equivalence of additional impedance in the circuit.
Therefore, increasing rotor outputs lead to increasing slips and higher speeds. Such an
operation increases the generating speed range from Ns to 2 Ns.
(c)A.C. commutation generator.
This system is also known as scherbius system employs two polyphase windings in the stator and
commutator winding on the rotor. Basic problems in employing this device for wind energy
conversion are the cost and the additional maintenance and the care required by the commutator and
the brush gear.
(3) Variable speed Variable Frequency (VSVF)
 Since resistive heating loads are essentially frequency insensitive, the a.c. generator can be
effected at a variable frequency corresponding to the changing driving speed. For this
purpose capacitor excited (self excited) squirrel cage induction machines can be
conventionally used. Such a scheme is shown in figure. ,.
 These systems are gaining the importance of standalone wind power applications. The
magnitude and frequency of the emf depends on the value of the load impedance,
primemover speed and excitation capacitance.
 The varying output voltage can be converted to constant dc using choppers or controlled
rectifiers on constant ac using force-commutated inverters.
3.7.1 Generator Control
Control schemes which act on the generator alone or large decided upon by the generator
employed.
Permanent magnet. There is no readily available means of controlling this type of machine directly.
Inorder to vary the torque established by a permanent magnet alternator, it is necessary to change the
armature current.
DC generator.
 Usually of the shunt or parallel field winding type in which a small variation of the field
current achieved by means of a variable resistor connected in the field circuit will vary
the terminal voltage and hence the power output.
 It should be noted that with the juidicious choice of generator and load resistance a fairly
good nature match can be obtained between the power and speed characteristics of the
generator and the wind turbine.
Induction Generator. When used to supply power to an isolated load. The machine may be made to
self excite by means of a bank of capacitors connected to the terminals. Variation of this capacitance
value varies with the terminal voltage and output frequency of the system.
When a wound rotor induction generator is used for a grid connection application, power
control is achieved by varying the slip energy of the rotor circuit.
 Caze rotor induction generators can be made to operate over a wider speed range by pole
changing or pole amplitude modulating the main winding to achieve one, two or three separate speed
ratings.
Synchronous machine power control is readily achieved through variation of the d.c.field excitation
current. The frequency of the output voltage will be variable with wind speed for an isolated
machine and fixed for a grid connected machine.
Transmission control
 The most effective method of varying the power flow in the transmission link between the
generator and its connected load is by means of a silicon controlled rectifier device. This unit
employs power electronic devices(thyristors) whose conduction periods can be controlled
applying delayed trigger pulses to the gate of such individual thyristors. Some common
arrangements are shown in below figure

Single phase controlled bridge

Single phase uncontrolled bridge with d.c. chopper

 3 phase fully controlled bridge.
Transmission Control
3.7.2 Load Control
 Scheme employing switched load resistors enable stepwise load approximation to be made to
the power (rotational speed) characteristic of the wind turbine.
 Operation within the maximum current loading of the generator can be set and the discrete
resistance values selected so that for a particular wind speed, operation of the turbine is held
 Fairly close to the Cp maximum value. This method of controls ideally suited to small stand
alone wind turbines and has the merits of being cheap, simple and effective where the load
demand is for the resistance heating.

3.8 Typology of Wind turbines and its applications

3.9 DESIGN OF THE WIND TURBINE ROTOR

 There are several parameters involved in the design of an efficient yet economical wind
turbine. Generally and efficient design of the blade is known to maximize the lift and
minimize the dragon the blade.
 Now, minimization of the drag means that the aerofoil should face the relative windin such a
way that minimum possible area is exposed to the drag force of the wind. Furthermore the
angle of this relative wind to the blades is determined by the relative magnitudes of the wind
speed and the blade velocity.
 The thing to note here is that the wind velocity basically stays constant throughout the swept
area but the blade velocity increases from the inner edge to the tip. Which means the relative
angle of the wind with respect to the blade is ever-changing. Now the various parameters
which determine the design of the wind turbine are noted below:

3.9.1 Diameter of the Rotor

Since the power generated is directly proportional to the square of the diameter of the rotor, it
becomes a valuable parameter. It’s basically determined by the relation between the optimum power
required to be generated and the mean wind speed of the area.

3.9.2 Choice of the number of blades

 The choice of the number of blades of a wind rotor is critical to its construction as well as
operation. Greater number of blades is known to create turbulence in the system, and a lesser
number wouldn’t be capable enough to capture the optimum amount of wind energy.
 Hence the number of blades should be determined by both these constraints and after proper
study of its dependence on the TSR. Now, let be the time taken by one blade to move into the
position previously occupied by the previous blade, so for an n-bladed rotor rotating at an
angular velocity, ω we have the following relation:
 Again let be the time taken by the disturbed wind, generated by the interference of the blades
to move away and normal air to be reestablished. Now this will basically depend on the wind
speed, on how fast or how slow the wind flow is. Hence it depends on the wind speed V &
the length of the strongly perturbed wind stream, say d Here we have:
3.10 Advantages of Wind Power
 The wind blows day and night, which allows windmills to produce electricity throughout the
day. (Faster during the day) Energy output from a wind turbine will vary as the wind varies,
although the most rapid variations will to some extent be compensated for by the inertia of
the wind turbine rotor.
 Wind energy is a domestic, renewable source of energy that generates no pollution and has
little environmental impact. Up to 95 percent of land used for wind farms can also be used
for other profitable activities including ranching, farming and forestry.
 The decreasing cost of wind power and the growing interest in renewable energy sources
should ensure that wind power will become a viable energy source in the United States and
worldwide.

3.11 Disadvantages of wind power

Intermittent output of wind energy Low energy density of wind energy Wildlife Aesthetics
National Security.
1. Wind energy available is dilute and fluctuating in nature.
2. Noisy in operation
3. Large area is required
4. Wind velocity in India are relatively low (5 km/hr to 20 km/hr)

Some wind mills located in India

1. Cazri wind mills at jodhapur

2. WP-2 water pumping wind mill by NAL, Bangalore
3. Madurai wind mill
4. Jayabji wind mill in rajastan etc.

3.12 Applications of Wind energy

 Energy extracted from the wind is initially energy in the form of rotary,translational or
oscillatory mechanical motion.This mechanical motion can be used to pump fluids or can be
converted to electricity,heat or fuel.
 Some of the most effective application are those that use energy derived directly from
wind,without further any energy processing,conversion,or storage.
 However,if required,wind derived energy can be converted to other forms of energy or can be
stored through the use of compressed fluids,pumped hydro systems,water-saver systems,
batteries,hydrogen,flywheel,hot water,etc.
 Some energy is normally lost in each of these conversion or storage steps.
 In any case,wind energy is one of the most flexible and tractable of all energy sources,since
the mechanical energy derived directly from the wind can be readily and efficiently
converted to other forms of energy.

Basic wind energy conversion system with energy storage

 The efficiency of converting wind derived mechanical energy to heat or electrical energy is
usually much higher for instance, then the efficiency of converting solar or fuel derived heat
energy to mechanical or electrical energy, since the efficiencies that can be attained when
converting heat to electrical or mechanical energy are limited by relatively low carnot cycle
efficiencies, which, even under optimum conditions usually do not exceed 30-35%
 Wind-turbine generators have been built in a wide range of power outputs from a kilowatt or
so as to a few thousand kilowatts. Machines of low power can generate sufficient electricity
for space heating and cooling of homes and for operating domestic appliances. Low power
WEC generators have been used for many years for the corrosion protection of buried metal
pipelines.
 Applications of somewhat more powerful turbines, upto about 50KW,are for operating
irrigation pumps, navigational signals, and remote communications, relay, and whether and
for offshore oil drilling platforms.
 Aero generators in the intermediate power range, roughly 100-250 KW, can supply
electricity to isolated populations, to farm co-operatives, and to small industries.
 Finally, the largest WEC generators, with rated powers of a few thousand kilowatts are
usually planned for interconnection with an electric utility system.
  Present indications are that the optimum economic diameter of a wind turbine with a two-
bladed-propeller type rotor is about 110 M,the electric power output would range from 2000
to 5000 KW or 2 to 5 MW.
Pumping applications
 A typical wind powered pumping application is one that might use the horizontal axis wind
machine.
 An example is the ancient jiib-sail design that is mostly wind used to pump irrigation water.
 Large number of water pumping wind mills has been used on Indian farms.
 Other applications that are being developed include the pumping of water for aqueducts for
pumped-hydro storage of energy.
 This can be done either by direct mechanical pumping of water or through the generation of
electricity by the wind units, and the subsequent use of this energy to operate water pumps
incorporated in the aqueduct system.
 Wind machines can generate low power for space heating and cooling of homes.The electric
energy generated from the wind stations can be adoptable for domestic appliances.
 Low power wind energy conversion systems have been used for corrosion protection of
buried metal pipelines. Wind power turbines up to 50kW can be used for irrigation pumps,
navigational signals, remote communication, etc.

Direct Heat Applications

 Mechanical motion derived from wind power can be used to drive heat pumps or to produce
heat from the friction of solid materials by the use of centrifugal or other types of pumps in
combination with restrictive orifices that produce heat from friction and turbulence when the
working fluid flows through them.
 This heat may then be stored in materials having a high heat capacity such as water,
stones,etc. Heating system designed for heating of the building is done by using the
electricity generated by the wind machine to provide resistive heating of water that is
circulated through the buildings.
 Examples of possible wind powered agricultural process heat applications include green
house applications, crop drying, milk processing, food processing, refrigeration, frost
protection, ventilation, and waste processing.
 Examples of typical industrial processes that might be able to use low temperature heat
produced by wind energy includes the following
 Production of inorganic chemicals, including borax, bromine, chlorine, caustic soda,
potassium chloride, sodium metal. Production of plastic materials and synthetics such as
polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, for which approximately 45% of the process
steam used is in the range of 100-1750C.
 Production of organic chemicals like various types of alcohols and solvents, synthetic
perfumes, flooring materials, rubber processing chemicals, etc.
 Food processing such as meat preparation and packing fruits and vegetables dehydration, wet
corn milling, soybean oil milling etc.
 Textile processing, primarily steam or hot air for drying, curing, and finishing of both yarns
and textiles.

Electric Generation Applications

 Wind power can be used in centralized utility applications to drive synchronous a.c. electrical
generators. In such applications, the energy is fed directly into power networks through
voltage step up transformers.
 WECS units can be integrated with existing hydro electrical networks and used in a water
saver mode of operation. When the wind is blowing, electrical generation at the hydroelectric
plants in the network can be reduced by an amount equal to that being produced by WECS
units.
 Under these conditions some of the water that would have been used by the hydroelectric
plant to supply the load is saved in the reservoir and made available for later use when the
wind is not blowing.
 Additional hydroelectric generating facilities are provided at the hydroplant to allow the
water that was saved in the reservoir to be used at a greater rate when the wind was not
blowing, thereby providing a firm generating capacity equal to the firm generating capacity
of the wind powered plant.
 In desired applications, wind power can be used to generate dc electrical power that in turn
can be used for dc applications or space heaters, such as resistance heaters, or can be stored
in batteries and then inverted for used by ac loads.
 There are a number of commercial units available for these types of dispersed operations and
all can be used independently or tied into a utility network using an induction generator or a
synchronous inverter.
 In centralized or dispersed applications requiring constantly available sources of power, the
energy can be stored in the form of mechanical motion of a flywheel or as hydrogen and
 oxygen gases derived from the electrolytic dissociation of water. The hydrogen and oxygen
can be stored in liquid form in tanks, or in gaseous form in tanks, caverns, aquifers, depleted
natural gas wells, etc.
 The stored hydrogen can be used either as a fuel or direct space heating or industrial process
heat, or it can be reconverted in to electricity through the use of fuel cells, gas turbine
generators that burn hydrogen, or by other means.