CHEMISTRY THIRD QUARTER

Coverage: CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

• Types and Properties of Solids The solids in which the constituent particles of matter
• Heating and Cooling Curve are arranged and organized in a specific manner are
• Types of Solution called Crystalline Solids.
These solids contain crystals in their structure and
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLIDS each crystal has definite geometry. Adding further, as
 Solids have definite mass, volume, shape and crystalline solids have low potential energy, they are
density. Usually, the density of solid state is the most stable form of solids.
greater than the density of liquid and gaseous
state. Water and mercury are exceptions. The • Almost all solids fall in the category of crystalline
density of ice (solid state of water) is lower than solids including metallic elements (iron, silver, and
the density of liquid state of water. The density of copper) and non-metallic elements (Phosphorus,
mercury (which exists in liquid state) is very high Sulphur, and iodine). Also, several compounds like
(13.6 g mL-1). sodium chloride, zinc sulphide and naphthalene build
 Solids are usually hard, incompressible, and crystalline solids.
rigid. Some solids like sodium, potassium and
phosphorous are exceptions; they are soft. Solids
cannot be compressed. because the
intermolecular distance of separation between
neighboring molecules is very small.
 In a solid state, intermolecular forces of
attraction between the constituent particles
are stronger than those present in liquid and
gaseous states.
 All pure solids have characteristic melting
points which depend on the extent of
intermolecular forces present in the solid state.
Stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction,
higher is the melting point of the solid. CHARACTERISTICS OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
 Weaker the intermolecular forces of attraction, the ✓ The main characteristics of crystalline solids are
lower is its melting point. Hence, depending on the mentioned as below:
intermolecular forces of attraction, melting points ✓ Crystalline solids show regular structure and have
of the different solids range from almost absolute definite geometrical shape.
zero (helium) to a few thousand Kelvin (diamond). ✓ The sharp freezing point is found in crystalline
 The. Hence the particles cannot change their solids. This is because the distance between same
intermolecular forces of attraction hold the atoms/molecules or ions is same and remains
constituent particles of the solids tightly constant, unlikely from amorphous solids.
positions and remain stationary at one position. ✓ The heat of fusion is definite and fixed as the
Therefore, solids cannot flow like liquids. regularity in crystal lattice remains same and is
ideal.
TYPES OF SOLID ✓ Crystalline Solids are also known as True Solids as
Based on the arrangement of constituent particles, they do not tend to flow like pseudo solids.
solids are classified into two-state types: ✓ When we cut a crystalline solid with a knife, we
✓ Crystalline Solids obtain a flat and smooth surface.
✓ Amorphous Solids ✓ The nature of crystalline solid is anisotropic; that
is, the properties turn out to be different in
different direction.
✓ Crystalline solids depict both long range and
short-range order.
✓ Examples: Quartz, Calcite, Sugar, Mica, Diamonds
etc.

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 CHEMISTRY THIRD QUARTER
USES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS ✓ Amorphous Solids do not have definite shape or
There are many applications of crystalline solids, geometry due to random arrangement of atoms
some are: and molecules inside the solid lattice.
• Diamond is the most decent example of crystalline ✓ Short-range order is found in amorphous solids.
solids and is widely used in making beautiful ✓ Amorphous Solids are also called Pseudo solids or
jewelry items. Super cooled Liquids because they don’t form
• Quartz is extensively used in manufacturing of crystalline structure and has the ability to flow.
watches and clocks. ✓ The nature of amorphous solids is isotropic in
• Many crystalline solids are used as a raw material nature that is, the properties measured in all
in many industries. directions come out to be same, example refractive
index of amorphous solids is same.
POLYCRYSTALLINE SOLIDS ✓ Amorphous solids don’t show sharp melting point,
▪ Polycrystalline materials are made up of an this is because of irregular packing of amorphous
aggregate of many small single crystals (also solids.
called crystallites or grains). ✓ When we cut an amorphous solid, we find the
▪ Polycrystalline materials have a high degree of broken constituent particles to be irregular in
order over many atomic or molecular dimensions. shape and geometry.
▪ Grains (domains) are separated by grain ✓ Amorphous solids are unsymmetrical in nature,
boundaries. The atomic order can vary from one due to irregular packing of atoms and molecules
domain to the next. inside the solid lattice.
▪ The grains are usually 100 nm - 100 microns in ✓ Amorphous solids don’t have fixed heat of fusion
diameter. because of absence of sharp melting point.
▪ Polycrystals with grains less than 10 nm in ✓ Examples: Plastics, Glass, Rubber, Metallic Glass,
diameter are nanocrystalline. Polymers, Gel etc.

USES OF AMORPHOUS SOLIDS

There are many applications of amorphous solids,
some of them are:
• The glass is widely used in packaging (food jars,
cosmetics box, and soft-drink bottles), making
tableware (utensils), in the construction of
AMORPHOUS SOLIDS buildings (windows, lighting, and shelves) etc.
The solids in which the constituent particles of matter • Rubber is mainly used in manufacturing of tires,
are arranged in a random manner are called footwear, ropes, camp cloth and as a raw material
amorphous solids. It is a non-crystalline solid with no for several industries.
proper arrangement of atoms in the solid lattice. • Use of polymer can be seen in manufacturing of
pipes, medicines and as a raw ingredient for many
▪ In other words, we can define amorphous solids as factories.
materials which don’t have certain organized • Amorphous silicon is considered as the best
arrangement of atoms and molecules. photovoltaic material to convert sunlight into
▪ Most solids are amorphous in nature and are electricity.
utilized in many sectors as well. One of the most
common examples of amorphous solids is glass, DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CRYSTALLINE AND
which is used widely in the manufacturing sector. AMORPHOUS
CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
CHARACTERISTICS OF AMORPHOUS SOLIDS Atoms are arranged in They do not have regular
An Amorphous Solid depicts following properties, regular 3 dimension arrangement
which are as follows: Sharp melting point No particulate melting
✓ The constituent particles of matter inside solid are point
arranged in a random manner, that is, the position Anisotropic Isotropic
of atoms and molecules is not fixed and varies True Solid Pseudo solid
from one solid to another. Symmetrical Unsymmetrical
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More Rigid Less Rigid COVALENT SOLIDS
Long Rage Order Short Range Order In these types of solids, the constituent particles are
Ex: Potassium nitrate, Ex: Cellophane. atoms of same or different elements connected to each
copper Polyvinyl, chloride other by covalent bond network.
▪ For example, in diamond only carbon atoms
OTHER TYPES OF SOLIDS constitute the covalent network while
IONIC SOLIDS carborundum covalent bond network is
In ionic solids, the constituent particles are ions of constituted by silicon and carbon atoms.
opposite charges. Each ion is surrounded by a definite ▪ Obviously, the interparticle forces operating in
number of ions of opposite charge. these solids are covalent bonds.
▪ The number of ions that surround a particular ion ▪ These solids are also called network solids
of opposite charge its called co – ordination because the covalent bonds extend in three
number of the ion. dimensions forming a giant interlocking structure.
▪ For example, in sodium chloride crystal each ▪ Some examples of covalent solids are : Diamond,
sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions. silicon carbide, aluminum nitrite etc.
Hence coordination number of is 6. At the same
time each chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium
ions. Therefore the co – ordination number of ion
is also 6.

Characteristics of Covalent Solids

Some common characteristics of covalent solids are :
✓ They are very hard. Diamond is the hardest
naturally occurring substance.
✓ They have very high melting points.
▪ However, in calcium fluoride crystal each ion is ✓ They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
surrounded by eight fluoride ions and each ion is ✓ They have high heats of fusion.
surrounded by four ions.
▪ Thus, in crystal co – ordination numbers of and METALLIC SOLIDS
ions are respectively 4 and 8. In these types of solids, the constituent particles are
▪ The inter particle forces in ionic solids are ionic metal atoms. The interparticle forces in these solids
bonds operating between the ions of opposite are metallic bonds. In the metallic crystals the metal
charges some examples of ionic solids are : sodium atoms occupy the fixed positions, but their valence
chloride (NaCl) ; cesium chloride (CsCl), zinc electrons are mobile.
sulphide (ZnS), calcium fluoride, etc.
The close packed assembly of metal kernels (part of
Characteristics of Ionic Solids metal atom without valence
Some common characteristics of ionic solids are as electrons) remain immersed in the sea of mobile
follows: valence electrons. The attractive force between the
✓ They are hard, brittle and have low volatility. kernels and mobile valence electrons is termed as
✓ They have high melting points. metallic bond.
✓ They are poor conductors of electricity in solid
state,
✓ however, they become good conductors of
electricity in molten state or in dissolved state.
✓ They are generally soluble in polar solvents like
water.

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 CHEMISTRY THIRD QUARTER
Characteristics of Metallic Solids Polar Molecular Solids
The common characteristics of metallic solids are as These solids are held together by polar covalent bonds
follows: and the atoms/molecules are bonded by relatively
✓ They generally range from soft to very hard. stronger dipole- dipole interactions.
✓ They are malleable and ductile. - The physical nature is soft and most of these are
✓ They are good conductors of heat and electricity. gases or liquids at room temperature.
✓ They possess bright luster. - They do not conduct electricity and they have a
✓ They have high melting and boiling points. higher melting point than the non -polar molecular
✓ They have moderate heats of fusion. solids.
- Examples: HCl, SO2, NH3 etc.
ATOMIC SOLIDS
In these solids the constituent particles are atoms. Hydrogen-Bonded Molecular Solids
These closely packed atoms are held up by London The solids contain polar covalent bonds with
dispersion forces. Some examples are crystals of noble Hydrogen, Fluorine, Oxygen and Nitrogen atoms. In
gases. Such solids are very soft, possess very low these solids, molecules are held together via strong
melting points and poor conductors of heat and hydrogen bonding.
electricity. - The physical nature of such solids are hard.
- They do not conduct electricity.
MOLECULAR SOLIDS - The physical state of these solids are volatile
In these solids, the constituent particles which pack up liquids or soft solids under room temperature.
together are molecules of the substance. These - They have a low melting point.
molecules may be non – polar (dipole moment = 0) - Examples: H2O (Ice ).
such as etc. or they may be polar (dipole moment > 0)
like etc. Characteristics of Molecular Solids
Some of the general characteristics of molecular solids
are:
✓ They are generally soft.
✓ Their melting points are low to moderately high.
✓ The melting points of solids with non – polar
molecules are relatively low whereas solids with
polar molecules have moderately high melting
points.
✓ They are generally bad conductors of heat and
electricity.
✓ They have generally low density.

HEATING AND COLLING CURVE

 A simple line graph that shows the phase changes
a given substance undergoes with increasing or
decreasing temperature.

Non-Polar Molecular Solids

These solids are formed from molecules or atoms that
share a non-polar covalent bond. The atoms or
molecules are held by weak dispersion force or by
London forces.
- The physical nature of non-polar solids are soft.
- They don’t conduct electricity so they are
insulators.
- They have a very low melting point.
- Examples: H2, Cl2, I2 etc.

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 CHEMISTRY THIRD QUARTER
 Independent variable: Temperature What is Polarity?
 Dependent variable: Time  In chemistry, polarity is a separation of electric
 Heat is a measure of kinetic or translational energy charge leading to a molecule or its chemical
– In chemistry heat is measured in Joules (J)– Heat groups having an electric dipole moment, with a
is dependent on mass, temperature change and negatively charged end and a positively charged
specific heat (or ability of a substance to absorb end.
heat)
 Temperature is a measure of warmth or coldness. TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
– Temperature is independent of heat–  Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
Temperature is measured in Kelvin (K) or Celsius substances the composition are uniformly
(C) distributed and maybe varied within definite limit.
 Anything below 0 degrees Celsius undergoes In a solution, the dissolved substance is a solute
freezing, 100 degrees calcium go vaporization. while the dissolving medium is known as a
solvent.
CURVE COMPONENTS
▪ Incline – Changes in kinetic energy particles are
speeding up. Increasing temperature.

▪ Decline – Changes in kinetic energy particles are

slowing down. Decreasing Temperature.

▪ Plateau - Changes in potential energy Particles

are spreading out. Phase change>

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
What is a MIXTURE? Dilute Solution
 Two or more elements or compounds NOT  has a low concentration which means that there is
chemically combined. less amount of solute dissolved in each solvent. It
 Can be uniform called Homogeneous and are is also known as unsaturated solution.
known as solutions.  Dilution is frequently used in everyday life.
 Can be non-uniform called Heterogeneous. Examples include making coffee or tea, using
 Can be separated into their components by household cleaners, and taking medicine, with
chemical or physical means. each of these instances involving reducing the
concentration of a solute in a solution by adding
more solvent.

Saturated Solution
 The amount of solute dissolved in a given amount
solvent is in its maximum. It is also defined as a
solution wherein the rate of dissolving is equal to
the rate of crystallizing.
 In a saturated solution, no more solute can be
dissolved at a given temperature. We can make an

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 CHEMISTRY THIRD QUARTER
saturated solution by keep on dissolving solute
until no more solute can be dissolved.
 Many types of homogeneous mixtures can form
saturated solutions. For example, solids dissolving
in liquids (e.g., salt in water), gases dissolving in
liquids (e.g., oxygen in water), gases dissolving in
gases (e.g., water vapor in air), and solids
dissolving in alloys (e.g., carbon in iron). Conclusion
 A soda is a saturated solution of carbon dioxide in An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the
water. is capable of dissolving. Supersaturated solutions
contain more dissolved solute than saturated
solutions and dissolves more solute than the solution
has the capacity to at a given temperature.

Supersaturated Solution
 Means that the amount of solute dissolved in a
given amount of solvent is more than the
maximum. This type of solution is very unstable
which means that a minimal change in the
condition of the solution, the excess solute
crystallizes and the solution is back to a saturated
solution.
 An example of a supersaturated solution is sodium
acetate in water. Sodium acetate is the salt of
acetic acid or vinegar. Water is a common solvent
of supersaturated solutions since it can be heated
safely.

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