CONCENTRATOR DEPARTMENT

INDUSTRIAL REPORT

NAME: YAMBA FRANCIS

VAC NUMBER: 8688

PHONE NUMBER: +260 962639659

EMAIL: francisyamba3@gmail.com

NRC NUMBER: 345080/64/1

PROGRAM: ELECTROMECHANICAL ENGINEERING

YEAR OF STUDY: 3RD YEAR, 2023

INSTITUTION: THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

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INTRODUCTION

Konkola Copper Mines (KCM) is a prominent mining company operating in Zambia, renowned
for its significant contribution to the country's copper production. Within KCM, the Concentrator
department plays a pivotal role in the extraction and processing of copper ore. This department is
instrumental in the initial stages of refining raw materials extracted from the mines into high-
quality copper concentrate, which serves as a fundamental component in the global copper
market. The Concentrator department at Konkola Copper Mines employs advanced technologies
and skilled personnel to efficiently separate and refine the ore, ensuring the extraction of
valuable copper for further processing and export. Its operations reflect a commitment to
excellence, safety, and environmental stewardship, essential facets within the mining industry.
This department's strategic importance underscores its role as a cornerstone of KCM's
operations, driving the company's success in the copper mining sector.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to the dedicated team within the Concentrator
department at Konkola Copper Mines. Your unwavering commitment and exceptional teamwork
have been invaluable in achieving our operational goals.

I am profoundly grateful to Mr. Zulu, my supervisor, whose guidance, mentorship, and

unwavering support have been instrumental in my professional growth and development. His
leadership and expertise have been an inspiration throughout my journey at KCM.

I extend my sincere appreciation to Section Engineers Michael and Sahiju for their expertise,
encouragement, and invaluable insights that have significantly contributed to our department's
success. Their dedication to excellence sets a remarkable standard for us all.

I would like to express my gratitude to Foreman Macheleta for his tireless efforts, meticulous
attention to detail, and leadership on the ground. His commitment to operational excellence has
been pivotal in ensuring the smooth functioning of our operations.

A special thank you goes to Engineering Manager Mr. Chaila Christopher for his visionary
leadership, strategic guidance, and continuous support, which have been pivotal in driving our
department towards success.

Additionally, I cannot overlook the immense support and encouragement I have received from
my mother Mrs. Yamba Mary. Her unwavering belief in my abilities and constant support have
been a pillar of strength throughout my career journey.

To everyone mentioned and to all my colleagues in the Concentrator department, thank you for
your hard work, dedication, and collaboration. Together, we have achieved milestones and
overcome challenges, setting new benchmarks in our industry. Your contributions are deeply
appreciated and have made a significant difference.

Sincerely,

Yamba Francis

Electromechanical Engineering Student

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Below is a table of contents outlining the processes involved in copper extraction and
concentrate production at the Concentrator Department of KCM (Konkola Copper Mines). This
covers the steps from the primary crusher up to the Larox Filter:

1. Introduction to the Concentrator Department at KCM………............................................6

1.1 Overview of Copper Extraction ………………………………………………………7
1.2 Importance of Concentrate Production ……………………………………………….8
2. Primary Crushing ...……………………………..……………………………………….10
2.1 Role and Function of the Primary Crusher
2.2 Crushing Process and Equipment Used

2.3 Gyratory Crushers Design ………………………………………………………...12

3. Introduction to Conveyor Belts ………………………………………………………….25

3.1 Overview of Conveyor Systems
4. Conveyor Components …………………………………………………………………..31
4.1 Belts: Materials and Structure
4.2 Rollers and Pulleys
4.3 Motors and Drive Units
4.4 Idlers and Bearings
5. Conveyor Belt Operations
5.1 Loading and Unloading Processes …..………………………………………………40
5.2 Belt Tracking and Tensioning
5.3 Speed Control and Monitoring
6. Grinding Circuit ………………………………………………………………………....75
3.1 Grinding Mills and Their Functions
3.2 Types of Grinding and Particle Size Reduction
3.3 Introduction to SAG and Ball Mills
7. Flotation Process ……………………………………………………………………….110
4.1 Flotation Cells and Their Operation
4.2 Chemicals Used in the Flotation Process
4.3 Froth Flotation and Separation of Copper

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8. Concentrate Thickening ………………………………………………………………121
5.1 Purpose of Thickening
5.2 Thickener Operations and Processes
9. Filtration ………………………………………………………………………………122
6.1 Overview of Filtration Process
6.2 Larox Filter: Function and Operation
6.3 Larox Filter Maintenance and Optimization
10. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………..125
7.1 Summary of Copper Extraction Process at KCM Concentrator
7.2 Importance of Efficient Processes in Concentrate Production

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Introduction to the Concentrator Department at KCM

Konkola Copper Mines (KCM) proudly houses one of the most integral segments of its
operations: the Concentrator Department. Nestled within the heart of our mining facilities, the
Concentrator serves as the pulsating core, orchestrating the intricate processes that transform raw
copper ore into a valuable, high-grade concentrate.

At the Concentrator Department, our primary goal is to extract and refine copper ore with
precision and efficiency. This department stands as a testament to KCM's commitment to
sustainable mining practices, technological advancement, and operational excellence.

Role and Significance:

The Concentrator Department plays a pivotal role in the entire copper extraction process. It acts
as the bridge between the raw copper ore extracted from Nchanga Open Pit and Nchanga
Underground mines, and the creation of a refined copper concentrate that embodies purity and
quality. Through a series of meticulously designed processes, we harness the richness of copper
ores and refine them into a product that fuels industries worldwide.

Advanced Processes and Cutting-Edge Technology:

Our operations are underpinned by state-of-the-art technology, innovative methodologies, and a

team of skilled professionals dedicated to optimizing every step of the extraction process. From
primary crushing to filtration, we integrate the latest advancements in mining and metallurgical
practices, ensuring maximum efficiency, minimal environmental impact, and adherence to strict
quality standards.

Commitment to Sustainability:

At KCM, sustainability is ingrained in our core values. The Concentrator Department upholds
these principles by implementing eco-friendly practices, resource optimization, and waste
reduction strategies. We aim not just to meet regulatory requirements but to exceed them,
safeguarding the environment for future generations.

Conclusion:

The Concentrator Department at KCM stands as a beacon of innovation, reliability, and

excellence in the realm of copper extraction. We are dedicated to upholding the highest standards
of operational integrity, safety, and environmental responsibility while consistently delivering

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premium-grade copper concentrates to the global market.
As we navigate the dynamic landscape of mining, our commitment to continuous improvement
remains unwavering. The Concentrator Department at KCM is not just a cornerstone of our
operations; it represents our unwavering commitment to excellence in the mining industry.

Overview of Copper Extraction from Nchanga Mines at KCM:

Konkola Copper Mines (KCM) operates the Nchanga open pit and Nchanga underground mines,
which stand as significant contributors to the company's copper production. These mines,
situated in the Zambian Copperbelt, represent pivotal components of KCM's mining operations.

Nchanga Open Pit Mine:

The Nchanga open pit mine is a sprawling operation characterized by extensive surface mining
activities. It represents a substantial source of copper ore for KCM. The extraction process
involves the removal of overburden layers to access the copper-rich ore deposits beneath the
surface.

Types of Ores Extracted from Nchanga Open Pit Mine:

Chalcocite: This copper ore is rich in copper sulfide and is a valuable source for direct copper
smelting.
Covellite: Another significant copper sulfide ore found at Nchanga, contributing to the overall
copper production.
Chalcopyrite: Although less common in the open pit, this ore contains a high percentage of
copper and is an essential source of copper extraction at Nchanga.

Nchanga Underground Mine:

The Nchanga underground mine is a labyrinth of tunnels and shafts delving deep into the earth to
extract copper ore from beneath the surface. This underground operation involves intricate
mining methods to access the copper-rich veins hidden beneath layers of rock.

Types of Ores Extracted from Nchanga Underground Mine:

Bornite: This copper ore, rich in copper and iron sulfides, is an important source of copper at the
underground mine.
Malachite: While less abundant, malachite—a copper carbonate mineral—contributes to the
overall copper production at the underground mine.
Azurite: Similarly, azurite, another copper carbonate mineral, is occasionally found in the
underground mine and contributes to the copper extracted.
Conclusion:
The Nchanga open pit and underground mines at KCM play vital roles in the extraction of

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copper ores. These mines yield various types of copper-rich ores, including chalcocite, covellite,
chalcopyrite, bornite, malachite, and azurite, which are subsequently processed to produce high
quality copper concentrates. The diverse ore sources contribute to KCM's status as a leading
copper producer in the region.

Importance of Concentrate Production at KCM:

Konkola Copper Mines (KCM) places immense importance on concentrate production as it

serves as a cornerstone of its operations, reflecting several critical aspects:

Revenue Generation:

Concentrate production at KCM represents a primary source of revenue. The sale of high-quality
copper concentrates derived from the ore extraction process forms a significant portion of KCM's
income stream.
Value Addition and Market Supply:

Copper concentrates produced at KCM contribute to the global supply chain of copper, meeting
the demands of various industries. The concentrate, rich in copper content, serves as a valuable
raw material for smelting and refining, adding value to the copper production cycle.

Economic Contribution:
The production of copper concentrates significantly contributes to the Zambian economy. It
creates employment opportunities, fosters economic growth in the region, and supports various
businesses linked to the mining industry, thereby enhancing socio-economic development.
Strategic Position in the Industry:
By consistently producing high-quality copper concentrates, KCM maintains a competitive edge
in the global market. This reliability and consistency in supply position KCM as a trusted
supplier within the copper industry.
Technological Advancements and Operational Efficiency:
Emphasizing concentrate production drives KCM's focus on innovation and operational
efficiency. The company continually invests in cutting-edge technologies, refining processes,
and sustainable mining practices to optimize production and maintain high-quality concentrates.
Meeting Environmental Standards:
KCM's commitment to producing concentrates aligns with its dedication to environmental
stewardship. Stricter environmental regulations and sustainable practices guide the mining and
production processes, ensuring responsible mining and waste management.

Long-Term Sustainability:
The emphasis on concentrate production aligns with KCM's vision for long-term sustainability.

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Continuous improvements in production processes, resource management, and community
engagement support KCM's goal of sustainable mining practices.

Conclusion:
Concentrate production at Konkola Copper Mines represents more than just a stage in the copper
extraction process. It serves as a linchpin for revenue, economic growth, technological
advancement, and environmental responsibility. By prioritizing the production of high-quality
copper concentrates, KCM reinforces its commitment to sustainable mining practices while
playing a pivotal role in the global copper market.

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Roles and Functions of the Primary Superior MKII 54''-75'' Gyratory Crusher:

Primary Crushing Operation:

The primary function of the Superior MKII 54''-75'' Gyratory Crusher is to break down large
chunks of mined ore into smaller, more manageable pieces.
It is the initial step in the process of extracting copper ore, where the crusher reduces the ore size
from the mine to a consistent feed size for subsequent processing stages.
High Capacity and Efficiency:
This Gyratory Crusher model is renowned for its high throughput capacity and efficiency in
handling large volumes of ore. It is designed to process substantial quantities of material at a
steady rate.
The crusher's large feed opening allows for the handling of oversized materials without
compromising its performance, ensuring continuous operation.
Reduction of Ore Size:
The gyratory crusher utilizes a gyratory motion to crush the ore between a mantle and a concave
surface. It applies compressive force to break down the material, reducing the ore size to a size
suitable for downstream processing.
By reducing the ore size, it facilitates efficient further processing in subsequent stages, such as
grinding and flotation.
Reliability and Maintenance:
Ensuring the reliability of the Superior MKII 54''-75'' Gyratory Crusher is essential for
uninterrupted production. Regular maintenance schedules and checks are imperative to keep the
crusher operating at its peak performance.
Maintenance includes inspections, lubrication, wear parts replacements, and addressing any
operational issues to prevent downtime.
Safety Measures:
Safety features and protocols are integrated into the design and operation of the crusher to ensure
the safety of personnel working around the equipment.

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Proper training, adherence to safety procedures, and the installation of safety devices contribute
to a safe working environment.
Process Optimization:

The performance of the crusher directly impacts the subsequent processes in the copper
extraction flow. Therefore, optimizing the crusher's efficiency and throughput contributes to
overall process optimization and productivity.
Contribution to Copper Production:
As the primary crusher, the Superior MKII 54''-75'' Gyratory Crusher plays a pivotal role in
initiating the copper extraction process. Its reliable operation and efficient crushing of ore
contribute directly to the overall copper production at both the New East Mill and Copper
Primary Plant in KCM.
The Primary Superior MKII 54''-75'' Gyratory Crusher is a fundamental component in the copper
extraction process, ensuring efficient ore size reduction and serving as a critical link in the chain
of copper production at KCM's mining facilities.

Given task of the Day

For the purpose of learning and skill development, I was assigned with a task, together with my
workmates to perform a preventive maintenance on the Superior Gyratory crusher, which
involved changing lubrication oil, pinion shaft lubricant inspection, and mantle life inspection.

The task was accomplished successfully without any challenges and without any record of
injuries.

The job procedure was performed as follows:

 Collection and signing of safety documents that included a Job Safety Analysis (JSA)
SLAM, work permit, isolation certificate and collection of all the necessary tools, which
were needed for the task.
 Electrical Isolation and hazard identification: the Gyratory crusher was isolated from the
power source and the isolation key was locked up in the isolation safety box on which
every member was required to put a lock. It was a mandate for every team member to put
an isolation padlock on the isolation safety box in order to protect everyone. All the

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 potential hazards were identified and control measures were put in place for the task to be
performed successfully.
 Lubrication Oil Change (Viscosity ISO-VG68):
Changing the lubrication oil, especially to a specified viscosity such as ISO-VG68, is a
fundamental preventive measure. This ensures that the crusher's moving parts are
adequately lubricated, reducing friction and wear. Regular oil changes help maintain the
viscosity and lubricating properties necessary for efficient operation.

Pinion Shaft Lubricant Inspection:

The pinion shaft plays a crucial role in the crusher's functionality, and its proper
lubrication is essential. The inspection of pinion shaft lubricant involves checking for any
signs of contamination, proper oil levels, and the overall condition of the lubricant. This
step helps prevent premature wear and potential damage to the pinion shaft.

Mantle Life Inspection:

The mantle is a critical component of the crusher, and its inspection is vital for
identifying any signs of wear or damage. Regular inspections contribute to the early
detection of issues, allowing for timely replacement or maintenance. This not only
extends the life of the mantle but also ensures the crusher's continued efficiency.

High-Pressure Pump Inspection:

The high-pressure pumps are responsible for providing lift on the crusher, contributing to
the efficient crushing process. Inspection of these pumps involves assessing their
performance, checking for any leaks, and ensuring that the pressure levels are within the
specified range. Regular inspections help prevent pump failures that could disrupt the
crusher's operation.
Results and Closure:
The positive results of the preventive maintenance indicate that the crusher's components
were in satisfactory condition after the inspections and necessary maintenance tasks.
Closing the work permit signifies that all planned maintenance activities were completed
successfully, and the crusher is deemed ready for operation.

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 Energizing the Crusher:
Once the preventive maintenance tasks was completed and the work permit closed, the
crusher was energized to resume its normal operation. This ensures minimal downtime
and allows for the continued processing of materials without any unexpected
interruptions.
In summary, a comprehensive preventive maintenance approach, including lubrication oil
changes, pinion shaft lubricant inspection, mantle life inspection, and high-pressure pump
inspections, contributes to the overall reliability and efficiency of the crusher. Regular
maintenance not only extends the equipment's lifespan but also reduces the risk of
unplanned breakdowns, ultimately improving operational continuity.

Gyratory Crushers Design

The MKII 54’-75’ Superior Gyratory primary Crusher, supplied by the METSO manufacturing
industry, is a substantial crushing apparatus that operates by employing gyratory motions within
the enclosed space of a conical cavity, leading to the compression, fracturing, and bending of
materials, thereby facilitating the crushing of ores or rocks with varying levels of hardness. This
Gyratory crusher comprises several components, including a transmission system, an engine
base, an eccentric bushing, a crushing cone, a central frame structure, supporting beams, the
primary dynamic component, an oil cylinder, a pulley, various auxiliary parts, and a system for
either dry or thin oil lubrication.

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 Figure 1.0: Gyratory crusher, inside view and its Main parts

Basic principle

The SUPERIOR® gyratory crusher is a compressive style crusher for primary-stage applications.
Its steep crushing chamber and long crushing surfaces provide exceptionally high capacity and
long liner life.
A gyratory crusher consists of a concave surface and a conical head; both surfaces are typically
lined with manganese steel. The top of the shaft attached to the crushing cone is supported
centrally in the bushings, and the bottom of the shaft is positioned in an eccentric bushing. The
feed material is crushed between the fixed concave surface and a movable mantle. The bigger
rock material is crushed against the mantle and the concave. The crushing action is caused by the
closing of the gap between the moving mantle liner mounted on the central vertical shaft and the
fixed concave liners mounted in the top shell of the crusher. At Nchanga Open pit New East mill,
the Gap setting of the Primary Superior Gyratory Crusher is 150mm (6’’). All the ore, which is
fed into the crusher, is crushed to 150mm discharge size. The gap is opened and closed by an
eccentric assembly in the bottom shell, which causes the central vertical shaft to gyrate. The
vertical shaft is free to rotate about its own axis. Gyratory crushers are one of the main primary

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crusher types used in mines and quarries. The size designation of gyratory crushers is based on
the size of the feed opening and the mantle diameter.

The MKII 54-75 superior Gyratory crusher engineering design is in the form such that it is able
to withstand compressional stress during its operation. The MKII implies that the crusher is a
second Generation and the 54’-75’ represents the feed opening and the bottom diameter of the
mantle.

This type of Crusher is one of major primary crushers used at Konkola Copper Mines, Nchanga
open pit.

Figure 1.1Gyratory Crusher operating principle

A Gyratory Cone Crusher represents a key category of primary crushers found in mining or ore
processing plants. Their dimensions categorize these crushers, which can be determined either by
the gap between the crushing surfaces (referred to as the gape) and the diameter of the mantle or
by the size of the intake opening. Gyratory cone crushers are adaptable for both primary and
secondary crushing operations.

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The spider

When you first look at the spider arm assembly, it appears that it only support the mantle.
However, in reality, it has two other important functions to perform. The first is to split the ore
load as it enters the crusher, this helps in distributing the ore evenly over the crushing
surface. The other function is to provide a protected passage for the lubrication lines that service
the spider cap bearing.

Figure 1.2: the spider of the crusher. Captured at Nchanga Primary crusher during the
operation.

Main features

Steep crushing chamber and long crushing surfaces for exceptionally high capacity and
maximum liner life.

Extra heavy-duty frame, integral large diameter main shaft assembly, and high performance
bearing arrangement provide long life and reliable operation.

Accurate crushing chamber design for optimized production.

Dual counterbalance design minimizes the dynamic forces transmitted to the supporting
structure.

Large-diameter main shaft upper journal with threaded, replaceable alloy steel sleeve.

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Hydraulically operated and controlled main shaft positioning system for quick and effective
adjustment of the main shaft to compensate for liner wear.

Easy maintenance and service.

Current model sizes

Recognized as the world leader, Metso Mining and Construction Technology offers the complete
range of primary gyratory crushers to meet all application requirement.

Machine size* Feed opening mm (in ) Mantle diameter

mm (in)
42-65 1065 (42) 1650 (65)
50-65 1270 (50) 1650 (65)
54-75 1370 (54) 1905 (75)
62-75 1575 (62) 1905 (75)
60-89 1525 (60) 2260 (89)
60-110 1525 (60) 2795 (110)

Table 1.1 showing the different types of Gyratory crusher sizes

*1st number = feed opening in inches,
2nd number = mantle diameter in inches

However, regardless of having so many different sizes of Gyratory crushers, at Konkola Copper
Mine Nchanga open pit we use the 54-75 inches Gyratory crusher.

Spider design
Metso’s primary gyratory crusher range includes 4 basic head sizes (65”, 75”, 89” and 110”), in
addition to which the Super Spider upgrade provides two additional larger feed openings.
The Arched spider arms create a less restricted feed opening to reduce material bridging

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Open side setting
The superior gyratory crusher’s discharge setting is referred to as the Open Side Setting (OSS).

Figure 1.3 showing the mantle and demonstrating the open side setting
This is a single pre-determined setting at which the crusher and it’s crushing chamber are
designed to operate. The setting cannot be operationally changed to produce different product
sizes instead the setting change is made by modifying the bottom tier of the concave.

Main shaft positioning system

The main shaft position system is a hydraulic method of vertical adjustment to compensate wear.
It consists of a pump, controlled by a push-button, and a heavy-duty hydraulic cylinder that
supports and adjusts the position of main shaft assembly.
• In lowest position with a new mantle and new concaves, there is about 1” (25mm) of oil under
the piston
• In highest position the minimum distance between the head nut and the spider is 1” (25mm)
The main shaft positioning system is only used to compensate mantle and concave wear, not to
change the crusher setting. The Superior Gyratory Crusher is designed for one setting only with a
given set of concaves.

HYDRAULIC SHELL SEPARATORS

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Fas ter removal wi th l ess man pow er

Figure 1.4: showing the hydraulic shell separators

These easy to install kits allow for faster and safer separation of spider and top shells minimizing
needed maintenance work force during component removal. Hydraulic jacking components are
used at each shell separation reducing the downtime for their removal.
SPIDER BUSHING AUTO LUBE

Consi s ten t lub ri cati on

Improvements to spider lubrication systems have provided a more maintenance friendly

alternative to previous generations. New systems have integrated lubrication level sensing into
the spider cavity providing feedback, to automatically replenish oil to the spider cavity as
needed. Built-in alarms to the system will alert maintenance personnel to potential issues.

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 Figure 1.5 showing the spider bushing auto lube system

EXTERIOR GEAR BACKLASH ADJUSTMENT

This upgrade allows for quicker maintenance thanks to the ability to now adjust the gearing
backlash outside of the crusher. The result is a simplified, faster, and safer process for all

involved Pinion bearing & oil level sensors

figure 1.6 showing the exterior gear backlash adjustment

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 I MPRO VE D PL ANNING : With sensors built-in, you now have the capability to monitor
the pinion shaft assembly. This increased visibility allows for better maintenance planning as you
can now get ahead of potential issues.

Figure 1.6: inspection sensor assembly

BALANCE CYLINDERS

Figure 1.7: Balancing cylinder

Over the life of a mine, changes to operation or ore characteristics can lead to the need for
increased balance cylinder capacity. Proper balance cylinder capacity keeps internal crusher

21
components in proper alignment during tough crushing events. This allows your machine to
continue operating at peak efficiency for reliable long-term operation.

ROTABLE TOP SHELL

This solution saves time, as you do not need to install concaves during shutdown. Fewer
components are being lifted during the outage period, allowing maintenance to be done in a more
controlled and safe environment. During the shutdown, the shells are separated (optionally with
hydraulic shell separators), lifted, and replaced with the relined shells.

Figure 1.8: Ratable top shell of the crusher

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FLOW METER STATIONS

Figure 1.9: Moni toring capabil iti es

Flow meter stations on your primary gyratory provide insight into the health of the lubrication
system and assures monitoring of lubrication flow into the machine.

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Drive System Specifications:
Induction Motor:

Figure 2.0: showing the three-phase induction motor of the superior Gyratory crusher with
Engineer Francis Yamba about to accomplish the task.

On October 25, 2023, I, as an Electromechanical Engineering student, received a significant

assignment from the section engineer, Michael, at the New East Mill. The task at hand involved
conducting preventive maintenance on the drive system of the Superior MKII Gyratory Crusher
and gaining a comprehensive understanding of the drive motor's specifications.

The drive motor, pivotal to the crusher's functionality, operates at 3300V and 150kW power,
with a full load current of 100A and a speed of 985 rpm . To execute this maintenance
effectively, a well-defined job procedure was established. This encompassed acquiring essential
safety documents, including the Job Safety Analysis, work permit, and electrical isolation

24
procedures. Adherence to all safety measures was paramount throughout the entire process –
before, during, and after the maintenance work.

The assigned task came with a stringent time frame, requiring completion within 30 minutes.
This added an extra layer of challenge, but my training equipped me with the necessary skills to
efficiently handle such tasks within specified time constraints.

The meticulous approach to safety, coupled with adherence to the job procedure and the timely
completion of the task, culminated in the successful energization of the crusher. This experience
not only showcased my ability to navigate complex maintenance procedures but also highlighted
the importance of precision and efficiency in ensuring the reliable functionality of critical
industrial equipment.

Motor Speed:
The induction motor operates at a speed of 985 revolutions per minute (rpm).
The specific speed is carefully calibrated to ensure the optimal performance of the crusher while
handling the required feed rate and material size.
Function in the Drive System:
The induction motor serves as the primary power source for driving the Superior MKII 54''-75''
Gyratory Crusher.
It provides the rotational force necessary to power the crusher's main shaft, enabling the gyratory
motion essential for the crushing process.
Voltage and Power Requirements:
The motor operates at a voltage of 3.3kV, meeting the electrical requirements of the crusher
system.
With a power rating of 150kW, the motor delivers the necessary torque and horsepower to
efficiently crush large volumes of ore.
Efficiency and Reliability:
The induction motor is selected for its efficiency and reliability in providing consistent power
output to drive the crusher.
Regular maintenance and monitoring ensure the motor's continued efficiency and prevent any
operational issues that may affect crusher performance.

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Control and Safety Measures:
Control systems are integrated into the drive system to manage the motor's speed and operation,
ensuring safety and efficient crusher performance.
Safety measures, including emergency shutdown protocols and protective devices, are in place to
prevent accidents and protect personnel working near the crusher.
Contributions to Crusher Performance:
The induction motor's specific ratings, voltage, power, and speed are carefully selected to
optimize the performance of the Superior MKII 54''-75'' Gyratory Crusher.
The motor's capability to deliver consistent power at the required speed plays a crucial role in the
crusher's ability to efficiently crush large volumes of ore, contributing directly to the copper
extraction process at KCM's New East Mill.
The induction motor's specifications, designed specifically for the drive system of the Superior
MKII 54''-75'' Gyratory Crusher, ensure the reliable and efficient operation of the crusher,
playing a vital role in the copper extraction process at KCM.

The choice of using V-belts is because they have so much greater grip than flat belts. This
reduces the length of belts to 30% of that required if flat belts were used. This results not only in
saving space but also in greater safety, since the drive is easier to protect and there is no danger
of accidents such a might occur if a long belt were to pull through its fasteners. Moreover, the
short drive makes it possible for any stretch to be taken up by moving the motor back on its rails
without the necessity of cutting and rejoining the belts.

Nevertheless, the motor is not directly linked to the crusher; instead, a sequence of shafts
transfers the mechanical power from the motor to the crusher's shaft. Among these shafts are the
floating shaft and the pinion shaft assembly. Connecting the pinion to the eccentric is achieved
using bevel gears. The material selection for these gears is meticulous, ensuring they withstand
the substantial loads experienced by the crusher in its typical functioning. The primary driving
force for the motor's rotation is electrical energy.

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figure 2.1a Bevel Gear assembly for the eccentric figure 2.1b. Pinion shaft assembly

Power consumption

Gyratory crushers are typically powerful machines that have a crushing power ranging from
1000 to 5000 horsepower. This makes them incredibly effective at crushing large amounts of
material and breaking down rocks into smaller pieces.

The crushing power of a gyratory crusher is determined by the width of the mantle and the
distance between the mantle and concave, as well as the speed at which the mantle oscillates. A
typical gyratory crusher has a crushing power of around 300 to 800 tons per hour. However, this
can vary depending on the size and design of the crusher, as well as the feed material and its
characteristics. For example, a smaller gyratory crusher may have a crushing power of around
200 tons per hour, while a larger one may have a crushing power of over 1,000 tons per hour.

Nevertheless, our crusher at Old West Mill is among the biggest crushers, which has a
production rate of 1200 tons per hour when working at a full load current of 110A. However, the

27
current operation is at 67.5A, which suggests that the crusher can further be loaded more to
maximize the production.

Looking at the major role of the crusher, there is usually maximum frictional forces accompanied
with the crushing of the material. These frictional forces generate huge amounts of heat and
sound, which results, is power losses thereby affecting the efficiency of the process. This as well
makes the induction motor to draw much more current in order to compensate for the production
rate.

CONVEYOR BELTS

A conveyor belt is a looped belt that is driven by and wrapped around one or more pulleys. It is
powered by an electric motor and supported by a metal plate bed or rollers upon which the
conveyor belt rests. The pulley that powers a conveyor belt is referred to as the drive pulley and
has an unpowered idler pulley.

Pulley drives at the discharge end of a conveyor belt are referred to as head drives, while ones
located at the infeed end are known as tail drives. The preferred type of pulley drive is a head
drive located at the discharge end and uses pull force to move a conveyor belt.

There is an endless number of types and uses for conveyors. All of the varieties serve the
purpose of transporting materials and goods along a continuously moving path. Though
motorized conveyor belts are the traditional form of a conveying system, some systems use
rollers without a motor to move materials.

Types of Conveyor Belts

The range and uses of conveyor belts cover several industrial settings and applications. The
efficiency of conveyor belt systems assists in improving productivity, saves on labor costs, and
decreases lead times. Conveyor belts move large quantities of goods quickly and reliably for
transport, further assembly, or storage.

The principal reasons so many conveyor systems are in use are the savings in labor costs,
efficient movement of goods, and protection of products and materials from damage. They
provide the best possible service at the lowest possible cost.

Roller Bed Conveyor Belt

28
The surface of a roller-bed conveyor belt consists of a set of rollers chosen to meet the needs of
production requirements, such as speed, weight, and the type of products being moved. The
length of a roller-bed conveyor belt determines the number of rollers required.

Roller-bed conveyors are ideal for conditions needing increased weight capacity. The roller bed
design minimizes the amount of friction transferred to the belt, allowing for smooth product
movement.

figure 2.2: Roller belt conveyor system

Flat Belt Conveyor Belt

A flat belt conveyor belt uses a series of pulleys to move materials and supplies. Its belt is made
of natural or synthetic materials; this makes it versatile and adaptable to varying conditions and
applications. In some instances, a flat belt conveyor belt has a center drive and nose bars.

29
 figure 2.3

Modular Conveyor Belt

A modular belt conveyor consists of interlocked pieces made of hard plastic with segments that
can be easily removed and replaced. The design of modular belt conveyors makes them easier to
clean, and the material is resistant to sharp and abrasive substances. Modular belt conveyors
come in varying configurations and use a single belt to go around corners, in a straight line, and
up and down declines.

30
 figure 2.4

Cleated Conveyor Belt

Cleated belt conveyors have sections, pockets, or dividers that secure products when the belt
declines or inclines. The cleats can be equally or unequally spaced and come in different styles
and shapes, depending on the product and the design of the belt.

Timing Conveyor Belt

Timing conveyor belts are used for precision indexing and product placement. They are ideal for
the positive placement of products regardless of the size of the product. Timing belt conveyors
have a timing pulley and idler pulley with the timing belt looped around them. The teeth of the
timing belt match the teeth of the pulleys with a support structure, conveyor frame, and support
belt to hold the pulleys in place.

Precision conveying and accurate placement of products differentiate timing belt conveyors from
conveyor belts in general. Timing belt conveyors can have different spacing between their teeth,
which can be rounded or trapezoidal.

Sandwich Conveyor Belt

31
A sandwich conveyor belt has two face-to-face belts, with one belt on top of the other to firmly
hold materials. They have a rotating wheel for adjusting the pressure and gap between the belts.
The materials to be moved are sandwiched between the two conveyor belts and hugged by the
belts. The upper belt is not motorized and is moved by the force of the lower belt.

Figure 2.5

Anti-Static Conveyor Belt

Electrostatic charge on a conveyor belt can be created by friction between the belt and the bed,
the movement of the conveyed product, or ionization in the air. In most cases, the static current is
of low intensity but can cause problems if materials stick to the belt. Though the charge is very
low, it may cause sparks, leading to hazardous conditions.

Various devices can be installed on conveyor belt systems to dissipate and eliminate static
charges. For example, anti-static belts might use carbon particles to make the belt anti-static or
static-dissipative fabrics.

32
 Figure 2.6

How Conveyor Belts Work

Conveyor belts resemble a band or loop of rollers connected to rotors powered by a motor. The
belts can be as narrow as one inch (25 mm) or as wide as five feet (1.5 m), with plastic modular
belts as wide as ten feet (3 m). Conveyor belts are made of highly durable and sturdy materials,
much like heavy-duty machinery.

The design of the belt provides structure and traction for the movement of goods and materials.

Conveyor Belt Motors

The motor on a conveyor belt turns the pulleys that move the conveyor belt. A sufficient amount
of friction between the belt and the pulleys will adhere the belt to the pulleys. The force of the
conveyor motor rotates a drive pulley that moves the conveyor belt.

Conveyor Belt Pulleys

33
Pulleys are positioned at either end of the conveyor belt and near the drive motor. The drive
pulley drives the conveyor belt and has external bearings driven by a motor and reducer. Pulleys
are crowned with lagging to reduce belt slippage.

Return, idler, or tail pulleys redirect the conveyor belt back to the drive pulley, have internal
bearings, and are located at the end of the conveyor bed or at both ends of the conveyor with a
center drive. The purpose of tail pulleys is to provide tension in the conveyor belt.

Figure 2.7

Rubber Conveyor Belts

Rubber has been a conveyor belt material for many years and is one of the more durable choices
due to its abrasion resistance. The types of rubber used for conveyor belts include neoprene,
nitrile, and styrene butadiene, all of which are reinforced with cloth fabric.

The durability of rubber makes it ideal for harsh conditions where abrasion resistance and impact
absorption are necessary. The cloth reinforcement prevents the rubber from stretching and
deforming.

34
 Figure 2.8

Nchanga New East Mill Conveyor belts

At Nchanga New East mill, we have a number of conveyor belts, which transport the copper Ore
from the crushing zone to the milling plant. After the Ore is crushed, the material is discharged
into the surge Bin that has a capacity of 100 tons where it is then discharged onto the Apron
feeder. The apron feeder acts as an intermediate between the surge Bin and the W1 conveyor
Belt. It is designed to feed the W1 conveyor belt at the required production rate. However, the
apron feeder sometimes behaves as the bottleneck to the discharge rate of the crusher due to its
small discharge opening. Nevertheless, modifications are made to compensate for the downtime.

When the copper ore is received on the apron feeder, the apron feeder then feeds the W1
conveyor belt, which then transmit the ore to W2 conveyor. In order to estimate the production
rate per hour, W1 conveyor is designed with a weight-scale, which measures the amount of ore
that is crushed per hour. The magnetic separator is also inserted to ensure that no metallic
material pass through, which may damage the belts.

35
W1 conveyor after transportation of the ore, it offloads its material onto W2 conveyor, through
the discharge chute. Below is an illustration of the discharge chute and W2 conveyor belt.

Figure 2.9

36
 Figure 3.0

W2 conveyor belts dissipates its material onto W3 conveyor then W3 offloads onto BC1
conveyor before finally discharging at the stockpile. All these mentioned conveyor belts have
been designed with counter weights for the purpose of tensioning and different gear boxes which
are coupled to the drive motors by means of fluid couplings. At the stockpile, we have 7
reciprocating feeders which feed the BC2 conveyor belt and transmit the ore to BC3 where it is
then discharged into the Semi-Auto Genius (SAG) grinding mill.

The conveyor belts are throughout the way supported by different types of rollers, which will be
discussed in detail in the next subtopic.

Rollers

Impact Rollers

Impact rollers are used at the loading point of the conveyor. The loading points of the conveyor
belts are known as the Chutes. The rubber rings are mounted side by side on the full length of the

37
steel tube to absorb the impact and weight of the material falling onto the belt. The diagram
bellow shows the impact rollers;

figure 3.1a

figure 3.1b

38
Carrying Rollers

These rollers carry the belt and the material. The carry rollers are not lined and are placed further
apart than at the feed point. The space between the various carry rollers partly depends on the
weight of the conveyor belt and the amount of load on it per meter in length.

Figure 3.2a

Figure 3.2b

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Troughing Idlers

It is a carrying idler consisting of two or more rollers, mostly contains three rollers, arranged to
turn the edges of the belt upwards to form the belt into a moving trough. These are essential
rollers of the mining industries. They support conveyor belts by positioning them towards a
specific direction, minimizing the potential for deposits spilling over the belt and allowing the
belt to hold more copper deposits. The main material mined at Nchanga copper mine is copper,
therefore, the deposit conveyed on belts is copper ore.

Figure 3.3

40
 Figure 3.4

Return idlers

The purpose of the return flat idler is to support the belt from the return side to prevent
stretching, sagging and failure of the belt, which increases the service life of the conveyor belt.

Figure 3.5

41
FEEDERS

Aggregate production plants have components such as feeders and scalping units to direct
material to be crushed, separated or stored for later use. Feeders are mainly used to handle input
material for the plant. They of two types: the apron feeders and mechanical or reciprocating-plate
feeders.

Reciprocating feeder

The next feeder on the list is the PAN FEEDER, this one may also be called the reciprocating
feeder and it works like this. The pan moves back under the ore picking up a load, it then slides
forward carrying the ore with it. The pan is pushed forward then retracted. As the pan is
withdrawn, the ore is forced off by the weight of the ore behind the original load. The tonnage is
controlled by the speed that the pan completes a cycle, the faster the pan moves the higher the
tonnage.s

An area of concern for the operator is that it doesn’t handle wet ore well as it tends to wash the
load off of the pan. This will create a lot of spillage, which will have to be cleaned up. If the ore
is too wet, it can also be very hard to control the tonnage

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Worm Gear Chain Cover
box

Ore Bin

Reciprocating
Pan

Base

Sprocket Drive Arm

Figure 3.6: Reciprocating feeder

Apron feeders

Apron feeder must always be employed to ensure that the feed to a crushing machine is drawn at
a constant rate from the bin, which serves it. Of the many designs in existence, by far the most
widely used are the apron and pan feeders, although the Ross Chain feeder is coming into favor
for handling coarse material.

Apron feeders or grizzlies are generally used to feed the conveyor belts which then transport the
ore to the milling plant. They are of a heavy-duty construction to take the shock from rocks
dumped directly on them. To cushion the blow of material dumped on the feeder, a large hopper
may be used to receive the dumped loads. The apron feeder consists of a series of overlapping
pans or plates, which form a continuous chain like a conveyor belt. They are generally installed
on a slight decline and driven to throw material in the downward direction. Width of feeders
range from one to 15ft and length vary from one (for largest) to five times their width. Feeders

43
are driven by less than one horsepower up to 40 horsepower motors, depending on feeder size
and expected load. The approximate expected load discharge for the Nchanga New East mill
Apron feeder is about 1200 tons per hour. Which suggest a highly heavy-duty Apron feeder. The

Figure 3.7: apron feeder

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The main point to consider on selecting the feeder is that it must provide an even flow of
material to the primary crusher. The size of the feeder and its speed should provide a capacity
25-35% greater than the capacity of the crusher. It may be necessary to provide for hand controls
to regulate the feeder in the case of irregular dumping of the material.

The feeder is usually installed under an opening in the bottom of the bin and takes the weight of
the column of the ore falling on it. The plates as they travel forward draw out a continuous
stream of ore, which is discharged as they turn over the head sprocket. An adjustable gate placed
immediately in front of the opening in the bin can regulate the depth or the ore stream, but the
clearance between the bottom edge of the gate and the plates must always be sufficient to allow
passage of the largest lump likely to be encountered. If too much ore is being delivered when the
gate is in the lower allowable position, the quantity can be reduced to the required amount by
adjustment of the speed regulator.

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GEAR BOXES

The gearbox is an integral part of machines used in a variety of industries and areas. The aim
of gearboxes is to enhance the output torque or alter the motor’s speed (RPM). The shaft of the
motor is linked to one end of the gearbox, and the gear ratio determines the output torque and
speed provided by the gear arrangement. Different designs and specifications of gearboxes are
used in agricultural, industrial, construction, mining, and automotive equipment and are available
in a combination of configurations. This article will examine the various kinds of transmissions
and their primary characteristics.

Various Forms of Industrial Gearboxes

The six most common kinds of industrial gearboxes are outlined here.

46
Helical Gearbox

The helical gearbox is small and energy efficient. This equipment is utilized for a wide variety of
industrial purposes but is primarily used for heavy-duty tasks. The helical gearbox is prevalent in
the plastics, cement, and rubber industries and other heavy industrial contexts. Low-power
applications such as crushers, extruders, coolers, and conveyors may benefit from this material.

Figure 3.8

These type of Gearboxes are the most commonly used in The Nchanga Copper production. The
helical gearbox is unusual in that it is mounted at an angle, allowing more teeth to interact in the
same direction while in motion. This ensures continuous communication for a certain duration.
Helical Gearboxes are mainly used to Drive Conveyor belts at Nchanga Mineral Resources. They
have the greater ability to withstand heavy loads.

Coaxial Helical Inline Gearbox

47
The coaxial helical gearbox is suited for applications requiring heavy-duty performance. The
quality and effectiveness of coaxial helical inlet lines are well known. These are produced to
exacting standards, allowing you to optimize load and transmission ratios.

Bevel Helical Gearbox

This kind of gearbox is distinguished by a series of curved teeth positioned on the cone-shaped
surface near the unit’s rim. The bevel helical gearbox is used to generate rotational motion
between non-parallel shafts. Common applications include quarries, the mining sector, and
conveyors.

Figure 3.9

Skew Bevel Helical Gearbox

The strong and monolithic construction of the skew bevel helical gearbox makes it suitable for
use with large weights and other applications. Once fitted on the appropriate motor shaft output,
these industrial gearboxes provide mechanical benefits. Based on the number of teeth and gears,
they are very configurable. Therefore, you can often discover one that meets your requirements.

Worm Reduction Gearboxes

Worm reduction gearboxes propel heavy-duty tasks. These gearboxes are used when higher
speed reduction is required between crossing axis shafts that do not intersect. This kind of
industrial gearbox employs a large-diameter worm wheel. The worm or screw links with the
teeth on the gearbox’s outer region. Due to the screw-like movement caused by the worm’s

48
rotation, the wheel moves in a similar fashion. The majority of these gearboxes are used in heavy
industries, like fertilizers, chemicals, and minerals. At Konkola Copper mines, this type of
gearboxes are used on the Reciprocating feeders at BC2 conveyor tunnel and New west mill
conveyor tunnel.

The sizes of these gearboxes are all uniform on the feeders, with a speed reduction ratio of 10:1,
premium gearboxes. Nevertheless, Worm gear box is also employed at BC1 conveyor on the
Drive end, with a speed reduction ratio of 30:1 and gearbox type being U1000, manufactured by
Premium Transmission Limited in India.

Figure 4.0: Worm Gearbox

49
 Figure 4.1: Worm shaft and a worm

Planetary Gearbox

Three or four Planet Gears encircle the Sun Gear in the center of a Planetary Gearbox. A ring
gear with internal teeth holds all of them together. This design allows a Planetary Gear System to
generate high torque in a short area by distributing power evenly throughout the gears.
This Gearbox type is prevalent in cutting-edge technology like robots and 3D printing.

The planetary gearbox is perfect for precise applications because of its durability, accuracy, and
specific functionality. This sort of gearbox boosts the durability and performance of your
equipment. Planetary gearboxes are available in either a solid or hollow configuration and with a
range of mounting options, such as a flange, shaft, or foot.

50
There are a variety of gearbox specifications for each machine or motor that may increase torque
output via gear reduction. To ensure the greatest performance, it is important to compare
characteristics before making a decision. It’s not uncommon to see both worm and bevel helical
gears utilized in diverse industries. Check out this quick guide to ensure you have the necessary
torque and power transmission.

Worm Gears Definition

It’s a type of gear system where the worm (screw) meets a gear, which is a worm gear. The client
has complete control over the speed of this kind of equipment because of the special materials
used in its construction. Additionally, worm gears may be employed to boost torque.

The worm can turn the gear; however, the gear is unable to do so and turn it. This idea indicates
self-locking. A common use for worm gears is in high-speed reduction gearing. Implementations
including conveyor systems, in which the locking mechanism functions as a brake, are common.
Worm gears are often utilized in various applications. Besides that, they are frequently used to
calibrate instruments, lifts, and gates.

To improve the effectiveness of industrial gear systems, it is important to understand the

differences between worm and helical gears and their advantages and disadvantages.

51
Bevel Helical Gearbox Definition

Helical bevel gearboxes are angular gearboxes where the output shaft of the gear unit turns 90
degrees in reference to the rotor shaft of the motor. Solid or hollow shafts are typical.

Gearboxes with helical bevels, which may provide high power density and output torques, are
appropriate for angular geared motor applications that need high power density and output
torque.

Bevel helical gearboxes are often employed in baggage conveyors, rope lifters, and industrial
mixers because of their small size and great power density.

Stable power and energy transmission are made possible by the teeth being engaged.

The Three Differences Between Worm And Bevel Helical Gearboxes

Working mechanism

Worm Gearbox

This gearbox utilizes a big diameter worm wheel that links to the teeth on the worm shaft
perimeter. The engine generates rotational energy through the non-intersecting & perpendicular
axis of the worm wheel. Due to the fact that the meshing gears travel through one another, they
might result in a significant drop in speed, which is advantageous for a wide variety of
applications.

Bevel Helical Gearbox

A distinguishing characteristic of bevel helical gearboxes is that their curving teeth are contained
inside a cone-shaped base at the device’s edge. This design generates rotational motion between
non-parallel shafts, resulting in a quiet and sturdy functioning.

Applications

Worm Gearbox

The chemical and fertilizer industries are prominent users of worm reduction gearboxes. Worm
gearboxes are also advantageous for shock-loading applications. This category covers heavy-
duty devices such as crushing equipment, packing equipment, and conveyor belts. Additionally,

52
worm gearboxes may be used in situations where noise is an issue. The sliding movements are
more silent, which is advantageous for building airports, theatres, and elevators.

Bevel Helical Gearbox

These gearboxes are well suited for applications requiring a high torque output and good
efficiency ratio. Additionally, they are configurable. Concrete, steel, plastic, automotive, and
minerals are just a few of the sectors that rely on this industrial gearbox for its durability and
heavy-duty applications.

Power Transmission Capacity

Gearboxes’ primary function is to transfer torque, mechanical energy, and mobility from one
location to another. As a result, it is prudent to assess both power transmission options’ power
transmission capabilities.

Worm Gearbox

Worm Gearboxes are renowned for their low-power, low-speed applications. However, it has
limited capability for power transmission.

Bevel Helical Gearbox

The Bevel Helical Gearbox enables a wide variety of applications. They have a better capacity
for power transfer than worm gearboxes. Additionally, bevel helical gearboxes have a high ratio
of efficiency.

Conclusion

Now that you are aware of the distinct qualities of both industry gearboxes, it is critical to choose
the one that is most suited to your business’s needs. Due to technical improvements, gearboxes
can now handle the demanding power transmission requirements necessary to reach the specified
output speed. By contacting us at Premium Transmission, a reputable gearbox manufacturer ,
you may get further information about their specifications and features and make an educated
purchase.

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 Figure 4.2

What are gears and gearboxes? A gear is a rotating machine part featuring cut teeth or cogs,
which is supposed to mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque. In a layman’s
language, gears are one of the most crucial parts of any motors and machine which help to
increase the torque output by providing gear reduction and adjusting the direction of rotation.
Two or more gears working together in tandem are called transmission or gearbox. Geared
devices are more likely to change the speed, torque, direction of a power source.

54
Types of Gears and How Are They Different From Each Other?

Spur Gears

Spur gears are the most common products used in a series for large gear reduction. The teeth of
spur gears are straight and are mounted in parallel on different shafts.

Advantages:-

They offer constant velocity ratio

They are highly reliable

They are simple and easy in terms of making/ manufacturing

They are mostly used to transmit large amount of power

Helical Gears

Unlike Spur gears, Helical gears and Helical Gearbox both have the capacity to conduct a
smooth operation. The teeth on a helical gear cut at an angle to the face of the gear. So, during
the process when two of the teeth start to engage, the contact is gradual- starting at one end of the
tooth and maintaining contact as the gear rotates into full engagement. When it comes to
transmissions, helical is the most commonly used gears and it even generates large amounts of
thrust.

Advantages:-

55
The angled teeth engage more gradually than spur gear teeth so that they can run more smoothly.

Helical gears, as well as helical gearboxes, are highly durable and ideal for high-load
applications.

It has the capacity to transmit motion and power between either parallel or right-angle shafts.

Bevel Gear

Bevel gears are mostly used to change the direction of the shaft’s rotation. They have teeth in
straight, spiral, hypoid shapes. Each one of a kind, for example, straight teeth have similar
characteristics to spur gears while spiral operates the same as helical gears as they produce less
vibration.

Advantages:-

Bevel are such kind of gears that makes it possible to change the operating angle.

The variety of teeth on each wheel allows mechanical advantage to be changed.

Worm Gears

Most of the Industrial Gearbox Suppliers prefer providing Worm Gears to their valuable
clients as it is used for large gear reductions. The setup is designed in such a way that setup can
turn the gear, but the gear cannot turn the worm. The angle of the worm is shallow and as a
result, the gear is used in conveyor systems for brake or emergency stops.

56
Its Advantages

Worm Gears operate more silently and smoothly

They are self-locking

They occupy less amount of space

They have good meshing effectiveness and thus, can be used to reduce speed and increase
torque.

Why Helical Gears?

Helical gears are cylindrical gears whose teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation. The teeth
are angled and appear as a segment of a helix which makes it transmit power between parallel or
right angle axes. The main difference between a helical gearbox and others is that the teeth form
a helix and have the potential to run more quietly. Another advantage of using these gears are
that they will have more capability to transmit load between two parallel shafts as compared to
the similar module and equivalent width of spur gears. And of course, there will be less wear and
tear as the load will be distributed between several teeth.

Application

Most of the reputable Industrial Gearbox Suppliers suggest helical gears to work under heavy
load efficiency and of course when we need silent operation such as automotive applications.

Mineral processing industries, printing industries, and earth-moving industries

Steel, rolling mills, power, and port industries

Textile industries, plastic industries, food industries, conveyors, elevators, blowers, compressors,
oil industries & cutters.

In addition to the above applications, there are many others. The overall application of helical
gears and helical gearboxes is widespread. Keep an eye on the space to know more.

What is a Coupling?

57
Couplings are mechanical devices that connect two shafts and transmit torque from one shaft to
the other. They are used to join the driveline components such as motors, gearboxes, and pumps.
Couplings are designed to accommodate misalignment and compensate for axial and radial
movement.

Main uses of Coupling

Following are the uses of Couplings:

 It is used to transmit torque from one shaft to another

 It is used to compensate for misalignment and to reduce shock loads
 Couplings are widely used in various industries, including automotive, manufacturing,
marine, and aerospace.
Types of Couplings

Couplings are broadly classified into 3 main types:

 Rigid Couplings
 Flexible Couplings
 Specialized Couplings
Rigid Couplings

Following are the types of Rigid Couplings:

 Sleeve or Muff Coupling

 Clamp or Split-Muff or Compression Coupling
 Flange Coupling

58
Sleeve or Muff Coupling

It consists of a hollow cylinder with internal splines that are fitted over the ends of the shafts that
needs to be connected. The coupling is secured to the shafts using keys.

Advantages of Sleeve or Muff Coupling

 Easy to Install: Sleeve or muff couplings are easy to install and require minimal tools,
making them ideal for quick coupling applications.
 Inexpensive: Sleeve or muff couplings are relatively inexpensive compared to other
coupling types, making them a cost-effective solution for low-torque applications.
 Easy to Maintain: Sleeve or muff couplings are simple in design, making them easy to
maintain and repair.
Disadvantages of Sleeve or Muff Coupling

 Limited Torque Capacity: Sleeve or muff couplings have a limited torque capacity,
making them unsuitable for high-torque applications.
 Prone to Misalignment: Sleeve or muff couplings are prone to misalignment due to their
simple design, which can cause excessive wear and tear.
 Limited Damping Capacity: Sleeve or muff couplings have limited damping capacity,
making them unsuitable for applications where shock and vibration need to be absorbed.

59
Applications of Sleeve or Muff Coupling

 Pumps and Compressors: Sleeve or muff couplings are commonly used in pumps and
compressors due to their ease of installation and low cost.
 Low-torque Applications: Sleeve or muff couplings are suitable for low-torque
applications where precise alignment is not critical.
 General Machinery: Sleeve or muff couplings are used in a wide range of machinery
applications, including conveyors, mixers, and fans.
Clamp or Split-Muff or Compression Coupling
Clamp or split-muff or compression coupling is a type of coupling used to connect two shafts
together. It consists of two halves with a set of screws that are tightened to compress the
coupling onto the shafts.

Advantages of Clamp or Split-Muff or Compression Coupling

 High Torque Capacity: Clamp or split-muff or compression couplings have a higher

torque capacity compared to sleeve or muff couplings, making them suitable for
moderate to high-torque applications.
 Easy to Install: Clamp or split-muff or compression couplings are easy to install and
require minimal tools.

60
  Easy to Maintain: Clamp or split-muff or compression couplings are simple in design,
making them easy to maintain and repair.
Disadvantages of Clamp or Split-Muff or Compression Coupling

 Prone to Misalignment: Clamp or split-muff or compression couplings are prone to

misalignment due to their simple design, which can cause excessive wear and tear.
 Limited Damping Capacity: Clamp or split-muff or compression couplings have limited
damping capacity, making them unsuitable for applications where shock and vibration
need to be absorbed.
 Limited Torsional Flexibility: Clamp or split-muff or compression couplings have
limited torsional flexibility, making them unsuitable for applications that require high
flexibility.
Applications of Clamp or Split-Muff or Compression Coupling

 Industrial Machinery: Clamp or split-muff or compression couplings are commonly

used in industrial machinery applications, including conveyors, mixers, and pumps.
 General Machinery: Clamp or split-muff or compression couplings are used in a wide
range of machinery applications where moderate to high torque capacity is required.
 Power Transmission: Clamp or split-muff or compression couplings are used in power
transmission applications, including generators and motors

Flange Coupling

61
Flange coupling is a type of coupling used to connect two shafts together. It consists of two
flanges with bolt holes that are connected by bolts to transmit torque from one shaft to another.

Advantages of Flange Coupling

 High Torque Capacity: Flange couplings have a high torque capacity, making them
suitable for heavy-duty applications.
 Precise Shaft Alignment: Flange couplings maintain the precise alignment of the
connected shafts, reducing wear and tear and increasing the lifespan of the equipment.
 High Torsional Flexibility: Flange couplings have high torsional flexibility, making
them suitable for applications that require high flexibility.
Disadvantages of Flange Coupling

 Complex Design: Flange couplings have a complex design, making them more difficult
to install and maintain compared to other coupling types.
 Higher Cost: Flange couplings are generally more expensive compared to sleeve or
clamp couplings due to their complex design.
 Limited Damping Capacity: Flange couplings have limited damping capacity, making
them unsuitable for applications where shock and vibration need to be absorbed.
Flexible Couplings

Following are the types of Flexible Couplings:

 Bushed Pin-Type Coupling

 Universal Coupling
 Oldham Coupling
Bushed Pin-Type Coupling

A bushed pin-type coupling is a flexible coupling that transmits torque between two shafts using
a pin that connects two hubs with a rubber or plastic bushing in between.

62
Advantages of Bushed Pin-Type Coupling

 High Torque Capacity: Bushed pin-type couplings have a high torque capacity, making
them suitable for heavy-duty applications.
 Dampens Vibrations: The rubber or plastic bushing used in bushed pin-type couplings
helps dampen vibrations, reducing wear and tear on the connected equipment.
 Easy to Install: Bushed pin-type couplings are relatively easy to install and maintain.
Disadvantages of Bushed Pin-Type Coupling
 Limited Misalignment: Bushed pin-type couplings have limited misalignment
capabilities compared to other coupling types.
 Limited Torsional Flexibility: Bushed pin-type couplings have limited torsional
flexibility, making them unsuitable for applications where high flexibility is required.
 Limited Operating Speed: Bushed pin-type couplings have limited operating speed due
to the potential for wear on the rubber or plastic bushing.
Applications of Bushed Pin-Type Coupling

 Agriculture: Bushed pin-type couplings are commonly used in agriculture equipment,

including tractors and harvesting machinery.
 Construction: Bushed pin-type couplings are used in construction equipment, including
bulldozers, backhoes, and excavators.
 Pumps and Compressors: Bushed pin-type couplings are used in pumps and
compressors, where high torque and vibration damping capabilities are required.

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Universal Coupling
A universal coupling, also known as a Cardan joint, is a flexible coupling that transmits torque
between two non-parallel shafts.

Advantages of Universal Coupling

 Misalignment Compensation: Universal couplings can compensate for both angular and
offset misalignment between the connected shafts.
 High Torsional Flexibility: Universal couplings have high torsional flexibility, making
them suitable for applications where flexibility is required.
 Simple Design: Universal couplings have a simple design, making them relatively easy
to install and maintain.
Disadvantages of Universal Coupling

 Lower Torque Capacity: Universal couplings have a lower torque capacity compared to
other coupling types, making them unsuitable for heavy-duty applications.
 Higher Vibration: Universal couplings can transmit higher levels of vibration compared
to other coupling types, which can cause wear and tear on the connected equipment.
 Limited Operating Speed: Universal couplings have limited operating speed due to the
potential for wear on the connected bearings.

64
Applications of Universal Coupling

 Automotive: Universal couplings are commonly used in automotive drive shafts,

including trucks, buses, and cars.
 Industrial Machinery: Universal couplings are used in industrial machinery
applications, including printing presses, packaging machinery, and conveyors.
 Aerospace: Universal couplings are used in aerospace applications, including aircraft
control systems and helicopter transmissions.
Oldham Coupling

An Oldham coupling is a flexible coupling that transmits torque between two parallel shafts
using a sliding disc with slots that connect the hubs of the coupling.

Advantages of Oldham Coupling

 Misalignment Compensation: Oldham couplings can compensate for both angular and
offset misalignment between the connected shafts.
 Low Vibration: Oldham couplings transmit low levels of vibration, reducing wear and
tear on the connected equipment.
 Easy to Install: Oldham couplings are relatively easy to install and maintain.

65
Disadvantages of Oldham Coupling

 Limited Torsional Flexibility: Oldham couplings have limited torsional flexibility

compared to other coupling types, making them unsuitable for applications where high
flexibility is required.
 Lower Torque Capacity: Oldham couplings have a lower torque capacity compared to
other coupling types, making them unsuitable for heavy-duty applications.
 Limited Operating Speed: Oldham couplings have limited operating speed due to the
potential for wear on the sliding disc.
Applications of Oldham Coupling

1. Automation: Oldham couplings are commonly used in automation equipment, including

robotics, conveyors, and pick-and-place machines.
2. Medical Equipment: Oldham couplings are used in medical equipment, including MRI
machines and radiation therapy devices.
3. Food and Beverage Industry: Oldham couplings are used in the food and beverage
industry, including bottling and packaging equipment.
Specialized Couplings

Following are the types of Specialized Couplings:

 Gear Coupling
 Bellow Coupling
 Jaw Couplings
 Diaphragm Couplings
 Fluid Coupling
 Constant Speed Coupling
 Variable Speed Coupling

66
Gear Coupling

A gear coupling is a type of coupling that is used for high torque applications. It consists of two
hubs with teeth that mesh together. The gear coupling can accommodate axial and radial
misalignment and is widely used in the steel and mining industries.

Advantages of Gear Coupling

 High Torque Capacity: Gear couplings have a high torque capacity and can handle
heavy-duty applications.
 Easy Maintenance: Gear couplings require little maintenance due to their simple design.
 Angular Misalignment: Gear couplings can accommodate angular misalignment
between shafts.
Disadvantages of Gear Coupling

 High Cost: Gear couplings are more expensive compared to other coupling types.
 Limited Flexibility: Gear couplings have limited flexibility, making them unsuitable for
applications requiring high flexibility.

67
  Noise and Vibration: Gear couplings can generate noise and vibration, especially at high
speeds.
Applications of Gear Coupling

 Heavy Machinery: Gear couplings are commonly used in heavy machinery, including
turbines, pumps, and compressors.
 Marine Industry: Gear couplings are used in the marine industry, including ship
propulsion systems and offshore drilling equipment.
 Power Generation: Gear couplings are used in power generation equipment, including
generators and turbines.
Bellow Coupling

A bellow coupling is a type of coupling that is used for high-speed applications. It consists of
two hubs and a center bellow. The bellow coupling can accommodate angular misalignment and
is widely used in the aerospace and medical sectors.

Advantages of Bellow Couplings

 High Flexibility: Bellow couplings can accommodate high levels of misalignment and
provide flexibility between shafts.
 Zero Backlash: Bellow couplings have zero backlash, making them suitable for
precision applications.

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  Protection: Bellow couplings can protect sensitive equipment from shock loads and
vibrations.
Disadvantages of Bellow Couplings

 Low Torque Capacity: Bellow couplings have a lower torque capacity compared to
other coupling types.
 Sensitivity to Temperature: Bellow couplings can be sensitive to temperature changes,
which can affect their performance.
 Installation: Bellow couplings require precise installation to ensure proper alignment.
Applications of Bellow Coupling

 Medical Equipment: Bellow couplings are used in medical equipment, including

imaging machines and surgical robots.
 Aerospace: Bellow couplings are used in aerospace applications, including satellites and
rockets.
 Semiconductor Industry: Bellow couplings are used in the semiconductor industry,
including wafer processing equipment.
Jaw Couplings

69
Jaw couplings are a type of coupling that is used for low to medium torque applications. They
consist of two hubs with three jaws that fit together. The jaw coupling can accommodate axial
and angular misalignment and is widely used in the HVAC and food processing industries.

Advantages of Jaw Couplings

 Easy Maintenance: Jaw couplings require little maintenance due to their simple design.
 High Torque Capacity: Jaw couplings have a high torque capacity and can handle
heavy-duty applications.
 Dampening: Jaw couplings can dampen vibrations, reducing wear on equipment.
Disadvantages Jaw Couplings

 Limited Misalignment: Jaw couplings have limited misalignment capabilities compared

to other coupling types.
 Noise: Jaw couplings can generate noise, especially at high speeds.
 Wear and Tear: Jaw couplings can experience wear and tear over time, especially in
applications with high levels of vibration.
Applications of Jaw Coupling

 Conveyor Systems: Jaw couplings are commonly used in conveyor systems for the
transportation of goods.
 HVAC Systems: Jaw couplings are used in HVAC systems, including fans and pumps.
 Automotive Industry: Jaw couplings are used in the automotive industry, including
steering systems and drive shafts.

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Diaphragm Couplings

A diaphragm coupling is a type of coupling that is used for high torque and high-speed
applications. It consists of two hubs and a flexible diaphragm. The diaphragm coupling can
accommodate axial and angular misalignment and is widely used in the aerospace and marine
industries.

Advantages of Diaphragm Coupling

 High Misalignment Capacity: Diaphragm couplings can accommodate high levels of

misalignment between shafts.
 Zero Backlash: Diaphragm couplings have zero backlash, making them suitable for
precision applications.
 No Lubrication: Diaphragm couplings do not require lubrication, reducing maintenance
requirements.
Disadvantages Diaphragm Coupling

 Limited Torque Capacity: Diaphragm couplings have a lower torque capacity compared
to other coupling types.
 Limited Flexibility: Diaphragm couplings have limited flexibility, making them
unsuitable for applications requiring high flexibility.

71
  Wear and Tear: Diaphragm couplings can experience wear and tear over time,
especially in applications with high levels of vibration.
Applications of Diaphragm Coupling

 Printing Industry: Diaphragm couplings are used in printing machines for precision
printing.
 Robotics: Diaphragm couplings are used in robotics for precise movements and control.
 Food Processing Industry: Diaphragm couplings are used in the food processing
industry for machinery that requires frequent cleaning.

72
Fluid Coupling

73
A fluid coupling is a type of coupling that is used to transmit torque between two shafts. It
consists of an impeller and a turbine that are immersed in a fluid. The fluid coupling can
accommodate misalignment and is widely used in the automotive and construction industries.

Advantages of Fluid Coupling

 Smooth Operation: Fluid couplings provide smooth and gradual acceleration and
deceleration, reducing wear on equipment.

 Overload Protection: Fluid couplings can protect equipment from overloads by

absorbing and dissipating excess energy.
 No Mechanical Contact: Fluid couplings do not have any mechanical contact between
the input and output shafts, reducing wear and maintenance requirements.

74
Disadvantages of Fluid Coupling

 Inefficient: Fluid couplings can be less efficient compared to other coupling types,
resulting in energy loss.
 Limited Torque Capacity: Fluid couplings have a lower torque capacity compared to
other coupling types.
 Sensitivity to Temperature: Fluid couplings can be sensitive to temperature changes,
which can affect their performance.
Applications of Fluid Coupling

 Mining Industry: Fluid couplings are commonly used in mining equipment, including
conveyor systems and crushers.
 Pump Systems: Fluid couplings are used in pump systems, including irrigation and
wastewater treatment.
 Construction Equipment: Fluid couplings are used in construction equipment, including
excavators and bulldozers.
Constant Speed Coupling

A constant speed coupling is a type of coupling that is used to maintain a constant speed between
two shafts. It consists of a governor that controls the speed of the coupling. The constant speed
coupling is widely used in the marine and power generation industries.

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Advantages of Constant Speed Coupling

 High Efficiency: Constant speed couplings are highly efficient, resulting in minimal
energy loss.
 Low Maintenance: Constant speed couplings require little maintenance due to their
simple design.
 Protection: Constant speed couplings can protect sensitive equipment from shock loads
and vibrations.
Disadvantages of Constant Speed Coupling

 Limited Flexibility: Constant speed couplings have limited flexibility, making them
unsuitable for applications requiring high flexibility.
 Limited Misalignment: Constant speed couplings have limited misalignment capabilities
compared to other coupling types.
 Cost: Constant speed couplings can be more expensive compared to other coupling types.
Applications of Constant Speed Coupling

 Industrial Machinery: Constant speed couplings are commonly used in industrial

machinery, including fans and pumps.
 HVAC Systems: Constant speed couplings are used in HVAC systems, including air
handlers and chillers.
 Power Transmission: Constant speed couplings are used in power transmission
equipment, including generators and turbines.
Variable Speed Coupling

A variable speed coupling is a type of coupling that is used to vary the speed between two shafts.
It consists of a variable speed drive that controls the speed of the coupling. The variable speed
coupling is widely used in the HVAC and food processing industries.

Advantages of Variable Speed Coupling

 Flexible Operation: Variable speed couplings provide flexibility in operation, allowing

for variable speed control and energy savings.

76
  Overload Protection: Variable speed couplings can protect equipment from overloads
by absorbing and dissipating excess energy.
 No Mechanical Contact: Variable speed couplings do not have any mechanical contact
between the input and output shafts, reducing wear and maintenance requirements.
Disadvantages Variable Speed Coupling

1. Cost: Variable speed couplings can be more expensive compared to other coupling types.
2. Complexity: Variable speed couplings can be more complex compared to other coupling
types, requiring specialized knowledge for installation and maintenance.
3. Sensitivity to Temperature: Variable speed couplings can be sensitive to temperature
changes, which can affect their performance.
Applications of Variable Speed Coupling

 Wind Turbines: Variable speed couplings are used in wind turbines to adjust the blade
speed and optimize energy output.
 Industrial Machinery: Variable speed couplings are commonly used in industrial
machinery, including pumps and compressors.
 Marine Propulsion: Variable speed couplings are used in marine propulsion systems,
including ships and boats.
FAQ’s

What is the purpose of a coupling?

The purpose of a coupling is to connect two shafts and transmit torque.

What types of couplings are available?

There are three types of couplings: rigid, flexible, and specialized. They are further divided into
various types which we have discussed in the article above.

What is the advantage of using a flexible coupling?

The main advantage of using a flexible coupling is that it can accommodate misalignment and
reduce shock loads.

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What is the disadvantage of using a rigid coupling?

The main disadvantage of using a rigid coupling is that they do not allow for misalignment.

What is a gear coupling?

A gear coupling is a type of coupling that is used for high torque applications.

Conclusion

In conclusion, couplings are essential components in driveline systems. They are designed to
connect two shafts and transmit torque. When selecting a coupling, it is essential to consider the
torque capacity, misalignment, and application. Each type of coupling has its advantages and
disadvantages, and the right coupling should be selected based on the specific application.

SAG (Semi-Autogenous Grinding) mill is a type of grinding equipment widely used in the
mining industry. It is a combination of machines used to break down large pieces of rock into
smaller pieces of rock, gravel, or even dust. SAG mills are often used in conjunction with ball
mills, but they are not the same. The purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive guide
on SAG mill operation, including its components, working principle, and maintenance.

78
Components of a SAG Mill
A SAG mill consists of a rotating drum filled with steel balls or rods, and the rock that needs to
be ground. The drum is mounted on a stationary structure, which houses the motor, gear, reducer,
and bearings. The mill shell is lined with steel or rubber plates to protect it from wear caused by
the impact of the rock and grinding media.

79
Working Principle of a SAG Mill
The rock and grinding media are placed in the mill and rotated, causing the grinding media to
tumble and crush the rock into smaller pieces. The mill operates in a closed circuit with screens
that size the ore and send it back to the mill for further grinding. The product from the mill is
then sent to a cyclone for separation of the desired material.

80
SAG Mill Operation
SAG mills operate differently from ball mills, which rely on the impact of balls to break down
the material. SAG mills use a combination of impact and attrition to grind the material. The
grinding media in a SAG mill are larger than in a ball mill, and there are fewer of them per ton of
ore. The larger grinding media also contributes to a coarser grind, which is beneficial for
downstream processes like flotation.

SAG mills are typically operated at a constant speed, with the feed rate controlled by the mill
weight. The mill weight is measured by load cells or a strain gauge, and the controller adjusts the
feed rate accordingly. SAG mills can be operated in open or closed circuit, depending on the
downstream process requirements.

Maintenance of a SAG Mill

The maintenance of a SAG mill is critical to its operation and longevity. Regular inspection and
maintenance of the mill components, including the liners, trunnion bearings, and gears, can
prevent costly downtime and repairs. The mill should be inspected on a regular basis to identify
any wear or damage to the components, and repairs should be carried out promptly.

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82
MILL CHARGE VOLUME
The power draw of an autogenous mill is directly proportional to the charge volume, which, in
turn, is maintained by feed rate. This investigation showed no significant difference in the
grinding power requirement, or the metallurgy of the product, with changes in volume. However,
if an autogenous mill level is too high centrifuging will begin. This was observed to begin
around the 40% level while operating at 76% of critical speed. P. M. & Co. commercial
installations are designed to draw full power at 30% mill volume. The commercial autogenous
mills are controlled by setting power draw and automatically regulating feed rate to maintain this
set point. Therefore, it is impossible for the mills to centrifuge, or shut down because of motor
overload.

PERCENT SOLIDS
The effect of percent solids in the autogenous mill was tested. With a trunnion discharge mill,
varying the % solids showed no change in either mill throughput or power requirement. A
peripheral discharge mill produced a coarser grind with a corresponding increase in throughput
at lower % solids. This is probably caused by faster transport through the mill giving a product
sized closer to the mill discharge screen opening. The choice of mill solids must be made for
metallurgical and economic reasons and the optimum would vary with ore type and desired
grind.

The effect of a ball charge, equal to 2% of the autogenous mill volume, was a coarser grind in
open circuit. This transfers some of the grinding from the lower operating cost autogenous mills
to the higher cost ball mills, which is usually not economical. The use of balls in the primary mill
is also more expensive because of increased liner wear and the cost of the steel media itself.

POWER MEASUREMENT
The single most important element in pilot plant testing is the accurate determination of the
power. The power readings are a combination of grinding power and electrical-mechanical
inefficiencies. To obtain the net grinding power, a dynamometer, or Prony brake test, was
conducted on the pilot autogenous mill both empty and filled with crushed gravel. The brake was
attached to the feed end of the mill and by varying the pressure to the drum, the mill motor could

83
be varied from no load to maximum draw. The reason for completely filling the mill with
crushed rock was to duplicate the weight of the grinding charge, including water, at 30% mill
volume without adding torque. Therefore, the mechanical and electrical inefficiencies are the
same as when the mill is grinding ore. With this method, net grinding power is determined. The
horsepower requirement of a commercial size mill is calculated by adding the inefficiencies of its
power train to this net figure.

84
Semi Autogenous Design Factors
The design of large mills has become increasingly more complicated as the size has increased
and there is little doubt that without sophisticated design procedures such as the use of the Finite
Element method the required factors of safety would make large mills prohibitively expensive.

85
In the past the design of small mills, up to +/- 2,5 meters diameter, was carried out using
empirical formulae with relatively large factors of safety. As the diameter and length of mills
increased several critical problem areas were identified. One of the most important was the
severe stressing, which took place at the connection of the mill shell and the trunnion bearing
end plates. This further aggravated by the considerable distortion of the shell and the bearing
journals due to the dynamic load effect of the rotating mill with a heavy mass of ore and pulp
being lifted and dropped as the grinding process took place. Incidentally, the design calculation
of the deformations of journal and mill shell is based on static conditions, the influence of the
rotating mass being of less importance.

Investigations carried out by Polybius/Aero fall revealed that practical manufacturing

considerations dictated some aspects of trunnion end design. Whereas the thickness of the
trunnion in the case of small diameter mills was dictated by foundry practice which required a
minimum thickness of metal the opposite was the case in the design of large diameter mills
where the emphasis was not to exceed a maximum thickness both from the mass/casting
temperature point of view and the cost aspect.

While the deformation of shell and end plates was acceptable in the case of small mills due in
some extent to the over stiff construction, the deformation in the large, more flexible, mills is
relatively high. The ratio of the trunnion thickness to trunnion diameter in a mill of 2,134 m
diameter is almost twice that of a mill of 5,8 m diameter, i.e. a ratio (T/D) of 0,116 to 0,069 for
the large mill.

However, the design stress levels at the trunnion/head transition in the case of the large mill are
almost 250% of those in the small mill.

The use of large memory high speed computers coupled with finite element methods provides
the means of performing stress calculations with a high degree of accuracy even for the complex
structures of large mills. The precision with which the stress values can be predicted makes the
use of safety factors based on empirical formulae generally unnecessary.

86
In the case of large diameter, trunnion bearing mills the distortion, which takes place, is further
compounded by the fact that the deformation varies across the width of the bearing journal due to
the fact that the end of the journal attached to the mill end plate is less liable to distortion than
the outlet free end of the journal. This raises serious complications as far as the development of
the hydrodynamic fluid oil film of the bearing is concerned since the minimum oil gap may be
only 0,05 mm.

An exaggerated indication of trunnion deformation is shown in Figure 2.

Obviously a thinner oil film is adequate where the deformation of the journal is less while at the
unsecured end of the journal widely varying oil film thickness is necessary to maintain the
correct oil pressure to support the mill. A solution to this problem has been the advent of the
hydrostatic bearing with a supply of high pressure oil pumped continuously into the bearings.

Incorporating the mill bearing journals as part of the mill shell reduced the magnitude of the
problem of distortion although there is always out of round deformation of the shell. The
variation across the width of the journal surface is less pronounced than is the case with the
trunnion bearing.

The replacement of a single bearing with a number of individual self-adjusting bearing pads
which together support the mill has lessened the undesirable effects of deformation while
improving the efficiency of the bearing.

The ability of each individual bearing-pad to adjust automatically to a more localized area of the
shell journal gives rise to improved contact of the oil film with both the bearing surface and the
journal and in the case of hydrodynamic oil systems makes it unnecessary to supply oil at
constant high pressure once the oil film has been established. A cross-section of a slip

87
88
89
 Crushing Action of Ball Mills
The action of the balls and the principles of crushing have been studied by several investigators.
Their conclusions are confirmed by results obtained by the writer in experimenting with a small
machine built at the Allis-Chalmers factory, and serve to explain the reasons for some of the results
obtained in practice. A ball mill may be revolved so fast that the balls will cling to the shell during
the entire revolution, while at slow speeds they will be carried up only a short distance and roll back.
On the other hand, at the critical speed, they will cascade as shown in Fig. 1. At the critical speed the
balls ascending on the layer next to the shell start from rest at a point S and cling to the shell without
revolving or rolling, which has often been ascribed to them. These balls are held at rest by centrifugal
force until they reach a point G, the location of which is dependent on the speed of rotation. Beyond
the point G, gravity overcomes centrifugal force and the balls fall with increasing velocity in a
parabolic curve which is the resultant of the above two forces, striking at a point W, the force of the
impact being expended in crushing the material.

The several layers of balls lying on top of those next to the shell follow a similar cycle except that,
due to relative difference in the two forces, their paths become more nearly vertical. The outer layers,
spreading more than the inner layers, increase the area in the zone of the falling balls. Within the
circuit thus formed is a neutral axis or a sluggishly rotating kidney-shaped mass in which little actual
work is performed.

90
The material being crushed is thoroughly distributed throughout the mass by filling the
interstices between the balls, and follows in the same circuit. It is, therefore, evident that the
material is crushed mainly by impact of the striking balls as the whole mass falls. There can be
very little grinding by attrition due to the rotation of balls, except at the point S where the shell
picks up the mass and accelerates it to the relative speed of the shell. The argument has often
been advanced that fine material cannot be produced by impact alone and that fine grinding is
done entirely by attrition or rubbing of adjoining balls. It is only necessary to break up a few
small pieces of rock on an anvil with a hammer to prove that fines are unavoidably produced by
impact. Screen analyses of the discharges from tube-mills in open and in closed circuits lead to
the conclusion that in many instances an ore fragment may pass through the mill six to eight
times before it is crushed to the desired fineness. Quoting directly from the article by Hermann
Fischer referred to above:
The grinding action, therefore, depends upon the height of the drop of the balls, i.e.:, the height of the
curve vertex above the point where the ball strikes, the speed of the shell, the weight and number of
balls.

The speed of the drum must be so determined that the curves can develop themselves properly. The
weight of the balls and the height of drop are interrelated and their product must be sufficient to
break the ore according to its size and hardness. Hard materials require heavier balls or greater height
of drop than soft ones and steel balls in small diameter cylinders will do the same work as flint
pebbles in large diameter cylinders.

What Affects Ball Mill Capacity

Capacity of ball mills depends upon the following factors: fineness of grinding, weight or volume of
ball charge, hardness of material, size of grate openings, and size of balls, other factors remaining
constant. Practically speaking, the most important limiting factors for capacity have

91
been the size of the feed opening in the trunnion, the type of trunnion liner, and the type of feeder.

As previously shown, tonnage and fineness are interrelated and the capacity of a ball mill should be
figured on the following basis when sufficiently reliable figures have been collected. The kw.-hours
required to crush a ton of ore from and to a certain mesh should be arrived at from average operating
conditions. A ball mill has a certain definite maximum power rating depending upon its ball load.
Multiplying the kw.-hours per ton by the tons required to be crushed per hour, the product will
represent the power required, and the mill nearest to that power rating should be selected. Fig. 4 is a
preliminary power curve based on the recommended maximum ball charge, together with all
available data at hand at the present time; however, 60 or more carefully taken power records would
be needed for even an approximately correct curve.

Operating a mill at less than its maximum capacity for a given ball charge will result in excessive
wear on lining and balls and produce a finer product than necessary. To crush a ton of ore of a certain
hardness and size to a given fineness represents a definite amount of work; hence the capacity of a
mill depends upon (a) the hardness, and (b) the ratio of reduction, the latter affecting capacity far
more than the former.

It is useless to expect a large capacity from a mill operated with balls of a size too small to crush the
ore, or when the balls are of a composition that will not withstand the shock of impact and shatter

92
themselves to fragments. Hard ores, when fed direct from a crusher, require a proper percentage of 5-
in. steel balls to do effective work. A 4-in. steel ball is often sufficient for some of the softer
porphyry ores. Smaller steel balls may be used for regrinding work, but the charge should contain a
per-

centage of 2-in. steel balls when working on hard ores. For regrinding soft ores, cast iron or
composition balls may be used.

Where a fine product is desired together with a minimum amount of oversize, the grate opening
should not be diminished. Smaller grate openings will reduce the amount of oversize but the
decreased tonnage is not compensated. In such cases it is advisable to depend on an external

93
classifier and operate the mill in closed circuit; the grate bars should be set with at least 1/8-in.
opening. Where a coarse product is desired, for example for concentrating table work, the grate may
be used as a sizer and an open-circuit scheme adopted.

Fig. 5 shows a typical example of the variation as to both tonnage and product that can be obtained
with different grate openings.

When the mill is operated in closed circuit the efficiency of the classifier directly affects the capacity
and it is important that the classifier be of proper size and properly operated. In one case observed, a
classifier of the mechanical drag type was set with the wrong slope; correcting the slope
approximately doubled the capacity of the mill. Classifiers of the mechanical drag type, in order to
make an efficient separation, must be operated with proper consistency of pulp in the classifying
zone, the slope and length of the sand plane must be correct, and the speed of the drag must be suited
to the material.

94
 Conditions Affecting Ball Mill Power
Power depends principally upon the weight of ball charge, an approximate figure being 9 to 10 hp.
per ton. However, the power per ton of balls will vary according to the percentage of volume the ball
charge occupies in the mill. An approximate curve from data at hand is given in Fig. 6, from which it
will be seen that the power required per ton of balls is least when the mill is loaded half full and that
the curve rises very rapidly as the ball load is reduced. A charge greater than half full causes a
balancing effect until, when the mill is full, the power required is practically only that necessary to
take care of friction after starting.

95
When the volume of ball charge is reduced, within certain limits, the power consumption per unit of
ball charge is increased, because the center of gravity of the charge is further from the axis of the
mill; but as the mass of balls is more active and circulates more freely, the crushing efficiency is
increased proportionately to the increase in power consumption per-ton of ball load.

There are a number of ball mill installations for fine crushing in the West. Most of these are arranged
in two or more stages where a product finer than 100-mesh is desired, and there seems to be little
difference of opinion as to the advantage of such an arrangement. Where coarser products are desired
say, through 48-mesh, both single-reduction and stage-crushing installations are found. Stage
crushing seems to have higher efficiency, but when first cost and simplicity are considered, the
single-reduction installation seems to be more desirable, especially for small plants.

The curves (Fig. 7) plotted from recent tests show the power required per ton of material crushed
under-varying capacities. It can be seen that the power rises rapidly at the expense of capacity when a
fine product

is desired, and when compared with an average power curve it would make a saving to run a large
tonnage through several stages. The phrase “single reduction” as applied to ordinary ball mill

96
practice is misleading, because in the most common application of the ball mill, running in closed
circuit for preparing feed for flotation, a great deal of the material is returned from once to six or
seven times before it is finally reduced. The most efficient installations in practice are undoubtedly
those which have a large return circuit and the mill is crowded, making a small reduction at each pass
through the mill, but handling a large tonnage at the same time.

Ball Mill Crushing

The ball mill is not to be recommended for all and sundry problems in the milling field. It is not
suitable for concentration work where the ore contains a large amount of coarse mineral easily
pulverized. Where crushing to 12-mesh and finer is necessary to release the mineral, the ball mill
makes a suitable product when properly operated, and is as good as any other regrinding machine.
The installation of concentrating

97
98
tables within the mill circuit, as practised at Stoddard, Ariz., is a notable advance in this class of
work. The special field of the ball mill, however, is for products 20-mesh and finer.

The use of ball mills for reducing crusher product to 85 per cent,: below 200-mesh in two stages, as
practised at the United Eastern, Tom Reed, and Montana mines, in Arizona, is a distinct advance in
fine crushing. The simplicity, small floor space and large capacity of these installations are especially
notable.

While there is not such economy in power nor so small a number of repairs as compared with a
stamp- battery and tube-mill plant of the same capacity, the operating troubles and attendance are
much reduced.

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The curves in Figs. 8 and 9 show typical screen analyses of ball mill products, to give a better
indication of the class of work that may be expected.

How to Feed a Ball Mill

The most desirable method of feeding coarse material is the arrangement as installed at the Tom
Reed mill. The crusher product is fed direct from a bin to an apron feeder, the speed of which is
controlled by a Reeves variable-speed transmission device, having a small hand crank, sprocket, and
chain conveniently situated for the mill operator. This insures absolute control and allows quick
changes.

When a ball mill having a proper crushing load is rotated at the critical speed, the balls strike at a
point on the periphery about 45° below horizontal, or S in Fig. 1. An experienced operator is able to
judge by the sound whether a mill is crushing at maximum efficiency, or is being over- or under-fed.
Excessive rattling denotes under-feeding; a sound of impact at W (Fig. 1) indicates overloading;
while under proper conditions, the impact will be heard near S.

When a ball mill fitted with a diaphragm is over-fed, the mill fills up to a certain level, then stops,
crushing and discharges any additional feed back through the feed trunnion. Once over-fed, it takes
from 30 min. to 2 hr. to free itself. Ball mills, therefore, should be provided with a central opening in
the diaphragm connecting with the discharge trunnion, to prevent over-feeding and the delays
incidental thereto.

The greatest difficulty in feeding most ball mills, when running on large tonnages and coarse feed,
say, ½ to 3 in., is due to the restricted area of the feed trunnion, which limits the quantity of coarse
material that can be fed through it. A few simple calculations will show the velocity necessary to
pass a given quantity feed through the trunnion. It can also be shown mathematically that the average
spiral in the trunnion liner does not advance the feed rapidly enough; therefore, instead of aiding, it
retards the feeding. These results are confirmed in practice. A smooth liner, tapering from the feeder
into the mill, does not retard the flow of the feed, and is, therefore, more efficient than the spiral.
Experiments with small models, as well as experiments in the field, corroborate these conclusions. A
short trunnion with large diameter is essential for feeding a large tonnage to a ball mill.

100
The engineering department of the Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Co. has recently conducted some
experiments with feeders modeled after the various types in use, on a scale of 1 in. per foot. The
feeders were operated at constant speed conformable with present practice, the material delivered in a
given time being weighed. The following con-

101
clusions were drawn: ” The intake of a single-scoop feeder has far greater capacity than the throat or
trunnion of the mill, and there is no good reason for using a double- or triple-scoop feeder, the
capacity of the feeder not being controlled by the quantity it will pick up, but by the quantity that it
can discharge through the throat or trunnion.” These experiments further demonstrated that the
capacity of a spiral feeder is in direct proportion to the length of the path of the spiral. In other words,
a spiral feeder embodies all the principles of the Frenier sand pump, in which the long path of the
spiral increases the pressure which forces the feed into the trunnion opening.

Fig. 10 shows a double-scoop feeder without a partition; Fig. 11 shows the same feeder with the two
spirals connected across the center of the trunnion opening, making a partition so that the material
taken up cannot drop from one scoop into the other. Fig. 12 shows a single-spiral feeder; Fig. 13
shows a triple-spiral feeder; and Fig. 14 shows a standard combination feeder which has a single
spiral.

Disregarding the influence of the trunnion liner as determining the relative capacity of feeders, the
experiments demonstrated that No. 12, the single-spiral feeder, has the greatest capacity; No. 11,
double-spiral feeder with the partition across the trunnion opening, gave the next best capacity,
which, however, was less than 50 per cent., that of No. 12. The capacity of No. 10 was only about 25
per cent, that of No. 12. The capacity of the triple-scoop feeder, Fig. 13, was but very little greater
than that of No. 11. The results clearly demonstrate that increasing the number of spirals of scoops
does not add to the capacity of a feeder.

Consistency of Pulp in Ball Mill

The ratio of moisture to solids is important in ball mill work. From actual operation it has been
observed that fine grinding is best done when water constitutes 33 to 40 per cent, of the pulp, or the
water-to- solids ratio is 1 : 2 or 1 : 1½. Where a minimum of fine material is desired, 50 per cent, and
upward of water is desirable.

Grinding Ball Consumption

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Ball consumption varies with the fineness of the product, hardness of the ore, quality of ball, and
whether a mill is run in closed or open circuit. The ball, consumption for mills delivering a coarse
product, all passing 8-mesh- and containing 10 to 20 per cent. below 200-mesh, the mill being run in
open circuit, is about ½ lb. per ton for steel balls and 1 lb. for cast composition balls.

Ball Mill Liner Consumption

Average consumption of shell liners, for both chrome and manganese steel, is 1/3-lb. per ton of ore
crushed. The consumption of lining seems to be fairly constant regardless of the hardness of the ore,
fineness of product, or other conditions. The greatest wear on the lining is probably caused by the
impact of the balls and by their slippage on the shell during the period of acceleration. If the mill is
running below capacity the wear will increase.

There are numerous types of liners on the market, and improvements are constantly being made, but
the greatest improvement made recently

103
is the general increase in weight and thickness. The proportion of scrap has been very high, and the
consumption stated above may be reasonably expected to be diminished with heavier and thicker
liners. Regarding the shape of liner, there is considerable difference of opinion. The smooth liner is
probably as efficient as any of the others if run at slightly higher speed.

Hard-iron liners have not been found satisfactory when used with balls of 5 and 4-in. diameter, as,
they have invariably failed by cracking and breaking, but with balls of 2-in. diameter and smaller
they are sufficiently durable. It is possible that a heavy hard-iron liner backed and set in cement
mortar might be successful, but this has not yet been tried as far as we know.

The loosening of liners may be avoided by using deeply countersunk bolts of large diameter with
double nuts. When the liners are first put in place, after running the mill for several hours the bolts
should be gone over again and the nuts tightened with a short wrench and hammer. Later, after the
feed is on, they should be gone over once more. Leakage around bolt holes is caused entirely by
loosening of the bolts due to lack of tightening or a worn-out lining. If candlewicking is used as
packing around a bolt; between the shell and the washer, and the nut is kept tight, no leakage will
occur until the liners are worn out.

104
HYDROCYCLONES

105
 The third type
of classification used in mining is the Hydrocyclone, commonly called a Cyclone. Unlike the
others it has no moving parts and is worked in conjunction of another piece of equipment, a
pump. To understand the Hydrocyclone Working Principle we must first know its
components. Beginning at the top, there is the OVERFLOW DISCHARGE.
Unlike the rake and spiral classifiers, the overflow of the cyclone is the exit point for the fine
material instead of the other way around as it is in the case of the other two. Extending from the
overflow discharge into the body, which is the feed entry point of the cyclone, is the VORTEX
FINDER.

This is simply a length of pipe, its purpose is to provide a point of separation between the coarse
and fine material. A better explanation will be possible once we begin explaining how it works.
Next in our list of cyclones components is the UPPER and LOWER CONE, not
all hydrocyclones have this section divided into two cones. Some are designed this way do to
make repairs easier, and to isolate wear points, Their function is to help create a VORTEX.

106
This is done by guiding the slurry to the underflow at the same time presenting a smooth surface
that will not restrict the generation of the CENTRIFUGAL FORCE that makes classification
possible. Connected to the lower cone is the APEX. The apex is the discharge point of the
cyclone, this discharge is referred to as the UNDERFLOW. The material that exits at this point
will be the material that requires further grinding. The last part of the cyclone is the cyclone
SKIRT. It is there only to limit spillage and splashing it isn’t important to the operation of the

cyclone.

I would suppose you are asking yourself, why and how does this piece of equipment separate the
different sizes of rock? To answer that, we have to get into the operational theory of the cyclone.
To start with, the slurry is directed into the cyclone along the wall of the body. Due to the ore
being pumped, the slurry has VELOCITY. It is this velocity and point of entry helps in creating a
spiral path around the outside of the body, the upper and the lower cone.

The entrance to the cyclone was designed this way to allow the incoming feed to help generate
and not interfere with the spiral path that the ore must take inside the cyclone. The centrifugal
force (the central Hydro cyclone Working Principle) that is generated by this spin, forces the
“bigger particles outwards towards the wall of the cyclone. If you were able to do a cross section
of a cyclone while it is operating, you could see that the ground rock will become finer the closer
that you get to the centre of the cyclone.

107
It is the APEX at the bottom of the cyclone that is the most responsible for creating the spin
required for the CENTRIFUGAL SIZING of the slurry.

108
 Hydrocyclone Working Principle

The centre of this spiral is called the VORTEX. The purpose of the apex is to cause internal
pressure for the cyclone and to create a vortex that extends all of the way to the top of the
cyclone.

In all hydrocyclones there are two outlets, one for the coarse material, this is the APEX, and the
other for the fine material, which is the VORTEX FINDER. The purpose of the Vortex finder is
to separate the fine material from the coarse as it spirals around the vortex. The WIDTH of
the Vortex finder will determine how far into the coarser material the separation point will be.

109
The Volume of slurry that is being fed into the cyclone must not exceed the capacity of these two
outlets that allow it to escape. The size of the apex and the vortex finder is crucial. If the apex of
the cyclone, like the size of the drain in your sink, is made smaller it won’t allow as much slurry

110
out of the underflow of the cyclone. This will cause the vortex to be smaller the internal volume
of the slurry inside the cyclone will be greater and the amount of material that the vortex finder
separates to become part of the overflow will be increased.
As it is the DISTANCE across the vortex finder that determines where in the vortex the ore flow
is separated at, the SIZE OE THE APEX will determine the degree of classification that the ore
will be subjected to.
The size of the apex in relationship with the volume of slurry that is being fed to the cyclone,
will create and maintain the PRESSURE NECESSARY to force the fine material out of the
cyclone. The greater the pressure the greater the volume of overflow. To increase the overflow
requires either a higher volume fed to the cyclone or a smaller underflow discharge opening. As
the pressure in the cyclone climbs the amount of coarser material in the overflow increases. The
reason that this pressure is generated is because the volume of the feed is greater than apex
discharge capacity. The pressure is generated as the volume of slurry is built up over the apex.

These three factors then become your operating Variables when dealing with cyclones, APEX
SIZE, the SIZE of the VORTEX FINDER, and the VOLUME of the feed. The CYCLONE
PRESSURE becomes a control indicator for the adjustment of the apex size and the volume of
the feed. The vortex finder is a FIXED VARIABLE, meaning that it can be changed to affect the
sizing of the overflow, but not as a normal operating practice. The cyclone must be removed
from service and taken apart to make that adjustment.

If the variables become unbalanced to the point where the pressure is too high, the cyclone will
overload. What this means is that when a vortex is generated, an air column is formed in the
center of the vortex. If this air column collapses, the velocity of the spiral will decrease far
enough to lose the centrifugal force that causes the ore to classify. As the internal pressure of the
cyclone represents the volume of slurry that is in the cyclone it only follows that the reason that
the air column should collapse is that there isn’t room left in the cyclone for the air.

111
 Hydrocyclone Working Principle

If the variables become unbalanced in the opposite extreme then there won’t be enough pressure
to cause an overflow. Either the volume will be too low or the apex size too large. This will
result in all of the feed being discharged out of the underflow.
By what you have just learned it is apparent that to maintain an even pressure on the cyclone is
very important. If the cyclone is dependent on pressure to function effectively then a constant
pressure would ensure positive control over the classification of the ore. This means the pump
that feeds the hydrocyclone is very important to the effective working of that hydrocyclone.
To understand how pumps work we will have to leave their relationship to cyclones until we
have discussed their components and functions. Once we have finished discussing the pumps by
themselves, we will come back to this relationship and explain the other variables that effect the
performance of these two machines.

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113
The FLOTATION PROCESS is one of the commonest methods of extracting the valuable
minerals from certain classes of ores, and it is generally more efficient as regards the recovery of
the minerals than any other process applicable to the treatment of similar types of ores. The
metallic contents of the minerals are recovered from the concentrates in a subsequent series of
metallurgical operations—e.g., smelting, refining, etc. —the final product of ingot metal
constituting the manufacturer’s raw material. There are very few cases where a flotation
concentrate is marketed direct without further treatment. As a rule, a flotation plant comprises
one stage in the series of operations for extracting the metallic constituents of an ore with the
final production of one or more marketable metals. It receives the crude ore from the mining
department, and delivers one or more concentrates of sufficiently high grade and in a suitable
form to the next department where the extraction of the metals is commenced, generally, but not
necessarily, by smelting or leaching.
What is Ore

Ore may be defined as rock containing enough mineral of economic value to make its extraction
from the remainder commercially profitable. There may be more than one type of mineral in the
ore and not all of them may be of economic value ; those of economic value are often termed
VALUABLE MINERALS, the remainder of the ore being classed as GANGUE.

In the process of extraction it is frequently desirable to collect the valuable minerals in the form
of a CONCENTRATE which should contain the bulk of the minerals with the least possible
amount of gangue. More than one concentrate may be made if the ore contains two or more types
of valuable mineral and it is possible to extract each of them separately. That part of the ore
which does not enter a concentrate is finally rejected as a TAILING.

What Ore is Suitable for Flotation

The largest class of ores treated by the flotation process consists of those containing the sulphide
minerals of copper ; these sometimes contain native copper and also gold and silver, all of which
can generally be floated with the sulphide minerals in one concentrate. Any pyrite or other iron
sulphide present can usually be prevented from floating and made to pass out of the plant in the

114
tailing. The oxidized minerals of copper, chiefly the carbonate, can be extracted from ores
containing them by methods which differ somewhat from those required for the flotation of the
sulphide minerals ; the flotation of ores in which sulphide and oxidized minerals occur together
has not been very successful up to the present.

The second largest class of ores amenable to flotation are those containing the mixed sulphides
of lead and zinc with or without pyrite.

By modern methods it is generally possible to remove separate concentrates in successive stages

of flotation, each concentrate containing one of the minerals more or less uncontaminated by the
others. The treatment of an ore in which a lead or a zinc sulphide occurs alone is normally a
simple matter, but most of these ores are concentrated by other methods. The oxidized minerals
of lead can generally be concentrated by flotation but require a special method of treatment; their
occurrence is comparatively rare. The use of flotation to supplement or replace the cyanidation
of gold and silver ores is slowly increasing.

Standard Flotation Procedure

Although the method of treatment of every individual ore may present problems which demand
special consideration, the general procedure for the flotation of each of the above classes of ore
has become to a large degree standardized. In this volume only those methods of milling and
flotation are described which can be reduced to a more or less standard basis ; the few special
methods included are developments of standard procedure and indicate the trend of
progress. Many minerals in addition to those already mentioned can be concentrated by flotation,
such as molybdenite, graphite, sulphur, and even coal, but their treatment calls for specialized
methods.

FROTH FORMATION

The froth is generated as the result of injecting the finely divided air into the bottom of the
already emulsified pulp; it continues to form and to overflow so long as it is furnished with pulp
of the proper consistence, properly mixed with the right quantity and kind of oil or frothing

115
agent. Measured from the water-level within the tank, the froth produced may be from 14 to 16
inches in depth or thickness, and according to the character of ore, kind and quantity of oil
introduced, will be more or less voluminous, coarse or fine grained, dry or watery—all of these
conditions being adjusted by the regulation of the kind or quantity of oil and the quantity of air
injected.

In the case of some ores, rich in sulphides, when a comparatively low-grade concentrate will
suffice, the ‘cleaner’ may not be necessary, but on low-grade ores having a high ratio of
concentration and demanding a concentrate of maximum purity, a cleaner is desirable.

FLOTATION CAPACITIES

A normal capacity per standard roughing-cell is 50 tons per 24 hours. This, of course, will vary
with the nature of the ore. In one plant that employs gravitation previous to flotation the fine
sand and slime only are treated at the rate of 50 tons per rougher. The Inspiration Copper Co.
uses flotation as the prime process, and its 800 tons per section is treated by 24 roughing-cells
and 4 cleaners. In this case the cells are run in series, the primary cells treating the original feed
and the secondary cells re-treating only the slime from the primary tailing after the sand has
been removed. This gives an average of 33.3 tons per roughing-cell. The Arizona Copper Co.’s
plant will treat the slime and re-crushed sand from previous gravity-treatment; out of an original
tonnage of 4000 there will be about 3600 tons of flotation feed. This will be handled on 63
roughers run in parallel, and 18 cleaners, or an average of approximately 57 tons per roughing-
cell, or 45 tons per cell for roughing and cleaning.

Some tests have shown little difference in recovery, whether running 45 tons to the cell or 65;
but the recoveries commence to decline as soon as the feed exceeds 75 tons. In the Coeur
d’Alene, on zinc-lead ore, 35 tons per cell is an average capacity.

OILS. The oils used may be broadly divided into ‘frothers’ and ‘collectors.’ The pine-oils are
good frothers; coal-tar and its various subdivisions are good collectors. On some ores crude pine-
tar will in itself combine both the properties of frothing and collecting. On others, this may have

116
to be enriched by the addition of some one of its more volatile constituents, such as refined pine-
oil, turpentine, or wood-creosote.

Generally speaking, the coal-tar products are poor frothers; to get a sufficient volume of froth to
insure a high recovery, it is often necessary to add refined or crude pine-oil, creosote, etc. At the
Inspiration, for instance, the mixture is 80% crude coal-tar, 20% coal-tar creosote; at another
plant on similar ore 45% El Paso coal-tar, 40% coal-tar creosote, 10% cresol, and 5% pine-oil.
At the Daly-Judge we used 40% crude coal-tar, 40% creosote, 20% pine-oil. In the Coeur
d’Alene on zinc ore we used straight wood- creosote; on the National Copper ore plain
turpentine will work,

117
but pine-oil is better. At the Inspiration we used from 1½ to 2 pounds of the mixture per ton of
ore; at the Daly-Judge, 1 to 1½ lb.; and at the National 0.3 lb. oil is sufficient. In the
experimental work at another plant the consumption of oil was approximately one pound of
mixture per ton, but since the entire plant has been in operation and the circuit-water is reclaimed

118
and used over again, the oil consumption has dropped from 1 t0 0.35 lb. The proper kind or kinds
of oil and the quantity requisite can only be determined at present by tentative experiment; so far
no scientific short-cut is known.

CHARACTER OF FROTH

The nature of the froth made by the pneumatic method has the distinctive characteristic of being
unstable or ephemeral, that is, it quickly dies when removed from the action of the injected air.
The bubbles composing the froth, being generated under a hydraulic pressure varying from 15 to
40 inches, on rising above the water and to the froth-level, burst by reason of the lower
surrounding atmospheric pressure. On bursting, they release the mineral attached to them, but
this in turn is caught up by those bubbles immediately following behind. The instability or
stability of the bubbles will depend, to some extent, upon the oil used and the nature of the
gangue. Pine-oil makes a very brittle froth, which dies immediately on arriving at the surface.
Creosote and light oil make a more elastic envelope, which at times will expand into bubbles 3 to
4 inches in diameter before bursting. The pine-oil bubbles will rarely be over ¼ or ½ inch
diameter. Castor-oil, olive-oil, candle- makers’ oil (oleic acid), palm-oil, sperm-oil, and other
oils of a lubricating nature, have in general been replaced by oils more or less soluble or miscible
in water—such as turpentine, pine-oil, and all the coal and wood-tar distillations. The very
volatile oils, such as naphtha, gasoline, ether, alcohol, seem to serve very little purpose except as
a means for making the pitchy ingredients of the tars more soluble or miscible.

A large, coarse, and elastic bubble seems necessary to the recovery of coarse-grained mineral,
but for the very fine or colloidal mineral, a small and comparatively brittle bubble is necessary.

SLURRY PUMPS

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The heavy-duty ZH(R) series pumps are designed for conveying strongly abrasive slurries. This
range of pumps are mainly used in mining, electric power, metallurgy, coal, environmental protection
and other industries to convey slurries containing strong abrasive solid particles.

Specifications

Discharge size range: 25mm to 450mm [1’’ to 18’’]

Flow rates to: 5000m³/hr [22,000GPM]
Heads to: 73m [240ft]

120
 Key Features

Double pump casing construction with interchangeable rubber and metal lined design[Figure3]
provides ease of maintenance and minimal downtime.
Bolt-connection design pump casing achieves easy disassembly and maintenance with lower cost.
Wear resistant and corrosion materials were proved to extend the wear life with lower cost.
Diverse selections of shaft seals tailored to each specific application
Expeller Seal -- Dry Seal: no need for flushing water [Figure 1]
Gland Seal -- Wet Seal: clean flushing water is necessary [Figure 2]
Mechanical Seal--Wet Seal:clean flushing water is necessary
Upgraded technology of “WRT" type of impeller and throat-bush combination [Figure4] designed to
enhance efficiency, lower NPSHr and improve wear performance.

121
122
 Typical Applications

Flotation process in metal processing plant: regrinding, flotation

Tailings long-distance Transport
Cyclone Feeding
Wet Crushers
(Ball) Mill Discharge
Coarse sand
Mineral Processing
Coal beneficiation

123
124
CONCENTRATE THICKENING AND FILTRATION PROCESS AT KCM NEW EAST
MILL:
At KCM New East Mill, the concentrate thickening and filtration process is a crucial stage in
mineral processing. This process involves separating valuable minerals from the ore slurry,
concentrating them, and then dewatering the resulting concentrate. Here's a step-by-step
overview:

Ore Slurry Intake:

The process begins with the intake of ore slurry, a mixture of crushed ore and water, into the
thickening and filtration system.

Concentrate Thickening:
The ore slurry is directed to a thickener, where water is removed, and the valuable minerals
begin to concentrate. This is achieved by settling and removing excess water, leading to a denser
material.

Thickened Slurry Transfer:

The thickened slurry, now enriched with concentrated minerals, is transferred to the filtration
stage. This transfer is typically facilitated through slurry pumps or gravity flow.

Overview and Function of the Larox Filter at KCM Old West Mill:

The Larox filter at KCM Old West Mill is a crucial component in the copper concentrate
production process. It serves as a key stage in dewatering and filtering copper concentrate slurry,
ultimately leading to the extraction of valuable copper minerals. The Larox filter is a pressure-
driven filter designed for efficient solid-liquid separation in mineral processing.

Function of the Larox Filter:

Thickened Slurry Intake:

The Larox filter receives thickened copper concentrate slurry from the thickeners at KCM New

125
East Mill. This slurry is a concentrated mixture of crushed ore and water, where water has been
partially removed through the thickening process.

Filtration Process:
The Larox filter utilizes a pressure-driven mechanism to separate the remaining water from the
concentrated copper minerals. The slurry is fed into a series of filter chambers, and under
pressure, the water is forced out through the filter cloth, leaving behind a filter cake containing
the concentrated copper.

Dewatering and Cake Formation:

As the slurry progresses through the Larox filter, the water is efficiently removed, resulting in a
dewatered filter cake. This cake is composed of the concentrated copper minerals and is ready
for further processing.

Cake Discharge:
Once the filtration is complete, the dewatered filter cake is discharged from the Larox filter. The
discharged cake typically contains a high percentage of copper, making it a valuable material for
subsequent stages of copper production.

Obtaining Copper Concentrate Slurry from Thickeners at New East Mill into the Larox at Old
West Mill:

Copper Concentrate Slurry Production at New East Mill:

At KCM New East Mill, the copper concentrate slurry is produced through the mineral
processing steps, including crushing, grinding, and thickening. Thickeners are employed to
remove excess water from the ore slurry, resulting in a more concentrated mixture.

Pipeline Transfer to Old West Mill:

Once the copper concentrate slurry is sufficiently thickened, it is transferred through a pipeline
from the thickeners at New East Mill to the Larox filter at Old West Mill. This pipeline
facilitates the efficient and continuous transportation of the concentrated slurry to the next stage

126
of the production process.

Larox Filtration at Old West Mill:

The Larox filter at Old West Mill receives the incoming copper concentrate slurry. The filtration
process within the Larox filter separates the remaining water from the concentrate, producing a
dewatered filter cake rich in copper minerals.

Further Processing:
The dewatered filter cake obtained from the Larox filter is then subjected to additional
processing steps, such as drying or smelting, to extract the final copper product.

In summary, the Larox filter at KCM Old West Mill plays a pivotal role in the efficient
extraction of copper from concentrate slurry received from the thickeners at New East Mill.
Through its filtration and dewatering capabilities, the Larox filter contributes to the production of
high-quality copper for further refining and utilization.
Learning Opportunities as an Electromechanical Engineering Student:

As an Electromechanical Engineering student involved in this process at KCM New East Mill,
there are several key learning opportunities which I found myself lucky enough to aqcuire.

System Understanding:
Understanding the entire concentrate thickening and filtration system provided insights into the
integration of mechanical and electrical components. This includes pumps, filters, and control
systems.

Instrumentation and Control:

Learning about the instrumentation and control systems used in the thickening and filtration
process enhanced my knowledge of how automated systems are employed to regulate and
monitor the operations.

Maintenance Practices:

127
Involvement in the process allowed me to observe and potentially participate in routine
maintenance tasks. This includes inspecting and troubleshooting electromechanical components
to ensure smooth and reliable operations.

Safety Protocols:
Being exposed to a real-world industrial setting reinforced the importance of adhering to strict
safety protocols. Understanding and implementing safety measures during maintenance and
operation were critical aspects of my learning.

Efficiency and Optimization:

Observing the process gives you insights into the optimization of electromechanical systems for
efficiency. This includes identifying areas for improvement, reducing downtime, and enhancing
overall system performance.

Team Collaboration:
Working within an industrial environment exposed me to collaborative efforts with
multidisciplinary teams. This experience helped me develop communication and teamwork
skills, essential for successful project execution.

In essence, participating in the concentrate thickening and filtration process at KCM New East
Mill provided me with a holistic understanding of industrial processes, allowing me to apply my
electromechanical engineering knowledge in a practical setting and contributed to the efficient
operation of mineral processing facilities.

128
CONCLUSION

It is with great satisfaction that I conclude my training period as an Electromechanical Engineer

at the Concentrator Department in KCM Zambia, representing the Copperbelt University. This
experience has been instrumental in broadening my practical knowledge, refining my technical
skills, and offering invaluable insights into the dynamic realm of mining operations.
During my tenure, I have had the privilege to work alongside dedicated professionals who have
generously shared their expertise and experiences. This exposure has enriched my understanding
of electromechanical systems and their crucial role within the mining industry. Engaging with
various projects, troubleshooting equipment, and participating in daily operations have honed my
problem-solving abilities and provided me with hands-on experience that complements my
academic background.
I am deeply appreciative of the mentorship provided by the experienced team at KCM. Their
guidance, patience, and willingness to impart knowledge have been pivotal in my growth.
Additionally, the collaborative environment fostered within the department has not only
enhanced my technical competencies but has also instilled in me a greater appreciation for
teamwork and effective communication.
Moreover, the exposure to the state-of-the-art technologies utilized in the extraction and
refinement processes of copper ore has been invaluable. Witnessing the seamless integration of
engineering principles and innovative methodologies in a real-world setting has been an eye-
opening experience that will undoubtedly shape my future endeavors.
I am profoundly grateful to KCM Zambia and the Copperbelt University for providing me with
this exceptional opportunity. The insights gained during this training period have not only
bolstered my technical prowess but have also cultivated a deeper passion for contributing
meaningfully to the electromechanical engineering field.
As I move forward in my career, I carry with me a wealth of knowledge, experiences, and
lessons learned from my time at the Concentrator Department in KCM Zambia. I am confident
that the skills acquired here will serve as a solid foundation for my future professional pursuits.
Once again, I express my heartfelt gratitude for the support, guidance, and opportunities afforded
to me during this enriching training experience.

Sincerely,

Francis Yamba (Mr.)

Email: francisyamba3@gmail.com

Electromechanical Engineering Student

The Copperbelt University

Jambo Drive, Riverside,

P.O. Box 21692,
Kitwe, ZAMBIA

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