Characteristics of neutrons:

Uncharged particle in the atomic nucleus with Mass

1.008amu(1.68 10-24 gm): slightly greater than proton..

Neutron outside the nucleus, decays with Half life: 12.8min

1 1 +- 1e0 + ‫ טּ‬+ 782 keV.
0n ------1H

Neutrons interacts with matter and produces secondary particles:

useful for detection/estimation of neutron dose.

It can cause biological damage, 10 to 20 times greater than

the damages produced by an equal dose of gamma photon.

Neutron spectra covers nine decades of energy and the fluence to

dose equivalent conversion factor varies by a factor of sixty.
Neutron sources
 Reactor produced: Fission neutrons
 Accelerator produced: High velocity particles
impinge on suitable targets producing neutrons
(monoenergetic)
 Laboratory sources
 (α,n) - 241Am-Be , 226Ra-Be
 (γ ,n) –photoneutron sources, 124Sb-Be
 Spontaneous fission neutron sources- 252Cf
 Fuel Reprocessing plants also generates
neutrons through (α,n) reaction and
spontaneous fission of Pu and Cm isotopes
Laboratory Neutron sources

source Half -life avg.energy yield

252Cf 2.65yrs 2.3MeV 2.3 X 106n/s/
n/s/μμg
241Am
Am--Be 432 yrs 4.4MeV 2.5X 105 n/s/Ci
226Ra
Ra--Be 1600yrs 5MeV 1.7 X 105 n/s/Ci
124Sb
Sb--Be 60 days 0.024 1.9 X 105 n/s/Ci
239Pu
Pu--Be 24000yrs 4MeV 106 n/s/Ci
Basis for method of detection for
neutrons
 Neutron induced transmutations which
produce particles which are detected eg.
Protons, alpha , gamma.
 Neutron induced transmuations which
produce radio-active elements eg.
32P(beta) etc.

 Elastic scattering which produce recoil

particles like protons
Neutron classification

Thermal : < 0.4eV

Epithermal: 0.4 eV to 100 eV
Intermediate: 100eV to 200 keV
Fast: 200 keV to 20 MeV
Relativistic: > 20 MeV
PRODUCTION OF NEUTRONS

1. Reactors : thermal column- Graphite.

2. Acelerators (monoenergetic) Vandegraff,
Cyclotron, pelletron
(d,n), (t,n) (p,n) (αn),
Eg: 2H1 + 2H1 → 1n0 + 3He2
2H + 3H + 4He2
1 1 → 1n0
3H + 1P → 1n + 3He
1 1 0 2
3. Fuel reprocessing Plants:
17O (αn),21Ne
19F (αn), 23Na
PRODUCTION OF NEUTRONS……..

4. Laboratory Neutron Sources;

Should have low gamma activity, reproducable neutron yield,
long half life, known energy spectrum,small size, and cheap.
Targets : Li, Be, B, C, D.

9Be is best suited target : 100 % abundance ; maximum yield of

2.5 x 106 n/s/cm2 ; Thresh hold 1.66 MeV for γn , Least cost.
9Be (αn) 12C6 (α from Am, Pu, Ra,Po)
4
9Be (γn) 10B (γ from Sb,Na, )
4 5

252Cf spontaneuos Fission source

Applications of neutron sources
Properties of neutron -Moderation, Activation and
selective absorption -makes it useful in various
industries
 Coal - Coal ash, calorific value, Analysis of Si, Al, C
 oil well logging/ Oil refining- oil water interface,
 Steel- Elemental analysis of C,N,O
 Mining/ Ores - Elemental analysis and moisture
gauging
 Research - agriculture, Nuclear labs
 Activation of nuclides in the reactor for medical /
industrial purposes
Neutron energies and half life of
some sources
 Source (MeV) Half life
 116In-Be 0.30 54 min
 124Sb-Be 0.024 60 days
 24Na-Be 0.83 15 hrs
 241Am- Be 4.4 470 yrs
Characteristics of a good personnel
Monitor

 Should record dose equivalents from fraction

to multiples of dose equ. Limits.
 Useful over Wide range of energies
 Insensitive to beta and gamma radiation.
 Energy independent
 Linear dose response curve.
 Good signal stability with less fading.
 Easy to handle and less expensive and non
toxic to environment.
Interactions of Neutron with matter

 Elastic Scattering
4M aM n
Et  E n  Cos 2 
M a  M n 2

 Inelastic Scattering(nn’γ) ,
 Non elastic Scattering: np, nα, nt, nd,
 Neutron absorption :nγ,:113Cd, 1H, 115In
• Nuclear Fission: nf, (235U)
 Spallation: No of light fragments
Interactions of Neutron with tissue

 Elastic scattering with 1H– recoil proton

 Inelastic Scaterring
12C(nn’, γ) 12C

 Nonelastic scatterring
16 O(n α)13C

 Neutron capture (n,p) (n γ)

14N (np) 14C 660 keV proton
7 6
1H (n γ) 2H 2.2 Mev photon
23Na (n γ) 24Na in blood
Some important thermal neutron
cross sections:
Cross Section Versus Neutron Energy for some
reactions of interest in neutron detection

 5B10 (n α) 3Li7 +2.792 MeV

 2He3(n,p) 1H3 + 0.765 MeV
 3Li6 (n α) 1H3 + 4.78 MeV
Fast Neutron detection and spectroscopy

• BF3 Counters: neutron Moderation- 2 layers of

polyethylene and a perforated Boron plastic
inbetween -- following rem response curve.
• 3 Li6 (n α) H3
1
used in Li I (Europium activated) Scintillation
detectors
 2He3(n,p) 1H3 and
B 10 (n α) Li7
5 3
used in Proportional counters
Detection by Recoil proton

Maximum fractional energy transfer in

neutron Elastic scattering
Target nuclei
• 1H1 1
 1H2 0.889
 1H3 0.75
 2He3 0.64
 6 C 12 0.284
 8 O 16 0.221
Dosimeters used for Individual monitoring

 Nuclear track Emulsions

 Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors (SSNTD)
 Activation foils(threshold detectors)
 Albedo Dosimeters
 Bubble or Superheated drop Detectors
 Semiconductor Detectors,
Kodak NTA films

 It consists of Nuclear Emulsion of 30 µm coated on one

side of a cellulose acetate base
 Nuclear Emulsion acts as a radiator for protons
 Film is wrapped light tight in black paper
 Recoil protons produced due to interaction of fast
neutrons with emulsion/base are recorded as
photographic tracks in the emulsion
 The cross section for neutron- hydrogen interaction
decreases with neutron energy
 The protons are scattered in the forward direction wrt the
incident neutron in the laboratory system.
Comparison of Kodak NTA Vs CR-39 SSNTD for
Neutron dosimetry

Characteristics Kodak NTA CR-39

Threshold energy 500keV 100keV

Energy Response Energy dependant Flat response

Post irradiation fading Severe No fading

Response to β & γ Considerable None

Inherent Back ground Not much Considerable

Minimum Measurable dose 0.05mSv 0.02mSv

Cont…….
Kodak NTA Vs CR-39 for personnel monitoring Services

Despatch Double sealing in Brittle, simple sealing

a N2 atmosphere cutting needs skill

Processing 200 nos at-a-time 16 nos at a time

Evaluation tedious – using Image analysis system

microscope automatic track counting
Magnification x 750 X42

Shelf life 3-4 yrs 1-2 yrs

Availability imported imported

 2. CR-39 SSNTD
 CR-39 is a clear, colorless rigid plastic, sensitive to the
tracks of energetic protons, alpha-particles and heavier
nuclei. For neutrons, a 1 mm polyethlene radiator is used.
 Chemical name: Poly allyl diglycol carbonate (PADC).
 Chemical formula and structure of monomer: C12H18O7

 Density: 1.30g.cm-3 and Thickness: 625 micron

 It is most suitable for n monitoring due to higher number of
hydrogen atoms available for elastic collision with incident
fast neutrons.
CR-39 foil exposed to 200 mR and processed
(track diameter ranging from 70 -130 micron)
Electro-chemical etching (ECE)

 Electro-chemical etching is a two-step

process with 7N KOH solution at 1400V
at 60°C
1st step-L.F.- 100Hz for 4hrs
2nd step-H.F.- 3.5kHz for 40 mins
 Radiation induced damage can be
enhanced by a factor 10-15 by ECE
method.
Etching Cell
Chemical etching

 In Chemical etching the foils are immersed in

7N KOH for 7 hrs at 60°C in incubator.
 The track size is 10 times smaller than ECE
and requires higher magnification for
analysis (microscope with 20Xmagnification).
 It is useful for evaluation of high doses.
 3. Activation detectors for measuring
neutron fluence / dose
A good activation detector should have
 High activation cross section for neutron induced
reaction
 Half life of induced activity should not be too
short or too long
 Very high purity of material to avoid interference
from other neutron induced reactions
 The active element should have a simple decay
scheme.
 Activity (At) induced in the foil

wN
At 
A
 
 1  e   T e   t
A(t)=activity at any time t in the detector
N = Avagadro Number
A= Atomic wt of foil element
w= wt of foil
σ =activation cross section
ф= neutron flux
T =time of irradiation
t = time after irradiation to the counting of foil
λ = is the disintegration constant of the radioactive element
Measurement of induced activity

 NaI (Tl) Detector is used for measurement of activities in

198Au and 64Cu

 The 64 Cu activity is measured by counting the 0.51 MeV

annihilation radiation
 Ge(li) Gamma ray spectrometer is used for
measurement of 115m In activity
 Platic scintillators are used for counting 32 P activity
induced in 32S
 The spectrometers are calibrated using standard
sources
 The neutron dose can be derived using appropriate
fluence to dose conversion factors.
Activation detectors

Energy Activation Reaction Half life

foils
Thermal 197Au 197Au (n,γ)198Au 2.695 d

2eV -1 MeV 63Cu 63Cu (n,γ)64Cu 12.87hrs

1 – 2.9 MeV 115 In 115 In (n,n’)116 In 54.12 hrs

2.9 - 6.3MeV 32S 32S (n,p)32P 14 days

6.3 - 8.1 MeV 24Mg 24Mg(n,p)24Na 15 hrs

> 8.1 MeV 27Al 27Al (n,α) 24Na 15 hrs

4.Albedo dosimeters

 An albedo neutron dosimeter is designed to measure the

flux of thermal neutrons which leave the body when a
person is exposed to fast energy neutrons.
 The fast neutrons are scattered and moderated in the body,
and many have lost most of their initial energy and emerge
as thermal neutrons.
 The albedo neutron dosimeter is designed to detect this
flux of thermal neutrons by using a thermal neutron
detector.
 This could be any type of thermal neutron detector but in
practical applications lithium fluoride (LiF) TLDs are most
frequently used.
6. Thermo-luminescent dosimeters
Following TL Dosimeters are used in pairs
 6LiF (Li-600): sensitivity to both neutrons
and gamma
 and 7LiF (Li-700): Sensitivity to gamma
and insensitive to neutrons
 Both the above dosimeters are equally
sensitive to gamma
 Difference in the two readings will give
neutron dose
Neutron badge using Albedo dosimeter
5.Bubble detector

 Direct reading neutron dosimeter which is energy

dependant.
 Prepared by suspending super heated droplets in a
polymer gel.
 Response depends strongly on the degree of superheat
 Droplets are triggered by Neutrons giving rise to vapor
bubbles which are trapped at the site of formation
 The bubbles can be counted by naked eye or by
capturing the image in a monitor
 The sensitivity is greater than 10 bubbles per µSv
Bubble detectors
6.Electronic neutron Pocket Dosimeter-BARC

Development of a Pocket Neutron Dosemeter using two Si-

Si-PIN
diodes
One coated with Boron for thermal Neutron
Second for fast neutron response

Also boron carbide based semiconductor material is being

developed for neutron detection.
7. Lithium scintillator 6LiI(Eu)
LiI (Lithium Iodide) scintillator are used for slow
neutron spectroscopy. They are similar in chemical
composition to NaI (Sodium Iodide) and exhibit high
light output (around 35%).
 The LiI crystal is hygroscopic and must be sealed in a
canning material for its protection.
 The use of 6Li offers a high signal response and the
compound has a refraction index of 1.66. This
detector can be fabricated in thin layers.
8.Gas filled detectors

 BF3 propotional counter (lined or gas)

 3He counter
These are used for neutron detection and
spectrometry
For high neutron fluxes BF3 and 3H ionization
chambers are used
3He proportional counter

 Cross-section starts with 5400b for thermal

neutrons, varies smoothly for the entire energy
range of interest having no resonances, no
excited daughter products, reaction products
tritium and proton contain the entire neutron
energy.
 Major disadvantage is competing effect of elastic
scattering by 3He(twice as that of 3He(n,p)
reaction.
 Efficiency of gas counter is inversely proportional
to pressure.
Note that gamma rays produce relatively small pulses and these can
be easily rejected by properly setting the threshold. Increasing the
size of the detector reduces the wall effect seen in the above
spectrum and this makes it easier to distinguish gamma pulses from
those produced by neutrons.
THE BF3 SPECTRUM AND THE WALL EFFECT
In a large diameter detector, all the kinetic energy of the alpha particle and recoil Li-7 nucleus is deposited
in the detector gas. The pulse height spectrum therefore shows two peaks: a large one at 2.31 MeV (the
lithium nuclei were left in an excited state) and a small one at 2.792 MeV (the lithium nuclei were left in the
ground state).
For typical sized tubes (e.g., 2 - 5 cm diameter), smaller pulses are often produced because either the
alpha particle or Li-7 nucleus deposit some of its energy in the detector wall rather than the gas. Only
rarely would the alpha particle and Li-7 nucleus both strike the detector wall. If the neutron interaction
takes place in the gas close enough to one side of the tube for either the alpha particle or lithium nucleus
to strike the wall, the distance to the other side of the tube would be greater than the range of the particle
heading towards it.
 A typical BF3 detector consists of a cylindrical aluminum
(brass or copper) tube filled with a BF3 fill gas at a pressure
of 0.5 to 1.0 atmospheres. The boron trifluoride gas
accomplishes two things:

 it functions as the proportional fill gas.

 it undergoes an n alpha interaction with thermal neutrons:
B-10 + n ÿ Li-7 + α
To improve the detection efficiency, the BF3 is enriched in B-10.
Typical enrichments increase the B-10 component to 96%
(ordinary boron is 20% B-10 and 80% B-11). Aluminum is
typically used as the detector (cathode) wall because of its
small cross section for neutrons. The anode is almost always
a single thin wire running down the axis of the tube.

 A typical voltage for a BF3 detector might be 1500 to 2000

volts
DETECTION OF THERMAL AND FAST NEUTRONS

 "Bare" BF3 detectors almost exclusively respond

to slow (low energy) neutrons - the probability
that a fast (high energy) neutron would be
absorbed by boron-10 is very small. To be able
to detect fast neutrons, the BF3 tube can be
surrounded by a suitable moderator. The
thickness of the moderator (e.g., polyethylene)
might range from 1 to 6 inches depending on the
neutron energy spectrum and other constraints.
 Slow Neutron Interactions

Charged Particle Emission

1n + 10B  7Li + 4He

10B(n,
B(n,) 7Li
BF3 Detector
 Detection of Neutrons
Using 3He Reaction

1n + 3He  1H + 3T

Cross section for thermal neutrons:

 = 5,400 barns
3He Neutron Detectors
Extended Range
upto 17MeV BF3 Neutron Detector
Model 6060
 3He vs. BF3 Detectors

 Boron has a lower neutron cross section

(3840 barns) compared with 3He
(5550 barns), therefore boron counters
are less sensitive than their helium
counterparts.

 The energy released per reaction is

higher in B-10 than He-3 which enables
BF3 counters to discriminate against
gamma pulses.
9. Neutron Spectrometry with
Bonner Spheres
NEMUS (Neutron Multisphere
Spectrometer), PTB, Germany
DETECTION OF THERMAL AND FAST
NEUTRONS

 "Bare" BF3 detectors exclusively respond

to slow neutrons
 to detect fast neutrons, the BF3 tube can
be surrounded by a suitable moderator.
The thickness of the moderator (e.g.,
polyethylene) might range from outside
diameters of 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 6.0,
7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 9.5, 10.0, 12.0 inches.
References

 Radiation Dosimetry Vol I & III- Attix and

Roesch
 NCRP 38 and NCRP 151
 IAEA technical Report Series no 252
(1985) Neutron monitoring for radiological
Protection
 Fast neutron physics Part I (1963) –
Marion and Fowler
Drawbacks of CR-39

 It has inherent background which

increases with time/exposure to
light/high temperatures.
 Increase in the background decreases its
sensitivity.
 It is brittle and needs careful handling.
 Processing is time consuming.
 Personnel monitoring system based on CR-39

•Electro Chemical Etching of CR-39 using Multifoil etch

chamber placed in an Incubator maintained at 60°C

•Etchant is 7N KOH

•Programmable high frequency AC power supply

•Image Analysis system for Automatic Track counting

Characteristics of CR-39

 Threshold at 100 keV and flat response between

100KeV to 7MeV
 Negligible fading with environmental conditions
after processing.
 Insensitive to beta and Gamma radiation
 The charged particle tracks produced by neutrons
can be etched chemically or Electro chemically to
enlarge them
 Automated counting using image analysis system
with magnification of 20 is easy
 Equivalent dose range from 200uSv-10mSv