Unit # 7

Working with Database

Introduction of Database:

What Is a Database?
A database, in the most general sense, is an organized collection of data. More specifically, a
database is an electronic system that allows data to be easily accessed, manipulated and updated.

In other words, a database is used by an organization as an electronic way to store, manage and
retrieve information. The database is one of the cornerstones of enterprise IT, and its ability to
organize, process and manage information in a structured and controlled manner is the key to
many aspects of modern business efficiency.

However, databases go way beyond simply storing data. As we’ll see later, the inherent logic and
efficiency in how the data is stored and retrieved can provide an incredibly powerful business
tool to an organization. This is especially true when databases are properly exploited for their
reporting and business intelligence capabilities.

What is DBMS?
o Database management system is a software which is used to manage the database. For
example: MySQL, Oracle, etc are a very popular commercial database which is used in
different applications.
o DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database creation, storing
data in it, updating data, creating a table in the database and a lot more.
o It provides protection and security to the database. In the case of multiple users, it also
maintains data consistency.

DBMS allows users the following tasks:

o Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of definition that
defines the organization of data in the database.

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 o Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data
in the database.
o Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which can be used by
applications for various purposes.
o User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring users, maintain data
integrity, enforcing data security, dealing with concurrency control, monitoring
performance and recovering information corrupted by unexpected failure.

Database Management Systems (DBMS) are software systems used to store, retrieve, and run
queries on data. A DBMS serves as an interface between an end-user and a database, allowing
users to create, read, update, and delete data in the database.

DBMS manage the data, the database engine, and the database schema, allowing for data to be
manipulated or extracted by users and other programs. This helps provide data security, data
integrity, concurrency, and uniform data administration procedures.

DBMS optimizes the organization of data by following a database schema design technique
called normalization, which splits a large table into smaller tables when any of its attributes have
redundancy in values. DBMS offer many benefits over traditional file systems, including
flexibility and a more complex backup system.

Database management systems can be classified based on a variety of criteria such as the data
model, the database distribution, or user numbers. The most widely used types of DBMS
software are relational, distributed, hierarchical, object-oriented, and network.

Advantages of DBMS

o Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because it stores all the
data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed in the database.
o Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share the data
among multiple users.
o Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized nature of the
database system.
o Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.

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 o Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create automatic backup of
data from hardware and software failures and restores the data if required.
o multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like graphical user
interfaces, application program interfaces

Disadvantages of DBMS

o Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed of data processor and large
memory size to run DBMS software.
o Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them efficiently.
o Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and requirements.
o Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database because in most of the
organization, all the data stored in a single database and if the database is damaged due to
electric failure or database corruption then the data may be lost forever.

Types of DBMS

Distributed database management system

A distributed DBMS is a set of logically interrelated databases distributed over a
network that is managed by a centralized database application. This type of DBMS
synchronizes data periodically and ensures that any change to data is universally
updated in the database.
Hierarchical database management system
Hierarchical databases organize model data in a tree-like structure. Data storage is
either a top-down or bottom-up format and is represented using a parent-child
relationship.

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Network database management system
The network database model addresses the need for more complex relationships by
allowing each child to have multiple parents. Entities are organized in a graph that can
be accessed through several paths.
Relational database management system
Relational database management systems (RDBMS) are the most popular data model
because of its user-friendly interface. It is based on normalizing data in the rows and
columns of the tables. This is a viable option when you need a data storage system
that is scalable, flexible, and able to manage lots of information.

RDBMS (Relational Database Management System)

The word RDBMS is termed as 'Relational Database Management System.' It is represented as a

table that contains rows and column.

RDBMS is based on the Relational model; it was introduced by E. F. Codd.

A relational database contains the following components:

o Table
o Record/ Tuple
o Field/Column name /Attribute
o Instance
o Schema
o Keys

Relational database properties

o Atomicity
o Consistency
o Integrity
o Durability
o Concurrency
o Query processing

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 Difference between DBMS and RDBMS

The main differences between DBMS and RDBMS are given below:

No. DBMS RDBMS

1) DBMS applications store data as file. RDBMS applications store data in a tabular form.

2) In DBMS, data is generally stored in In RDBMS, the tables have an identifier called primary
either a hierarchical form or a key and the data values are stored in the form of
navigational form. tables.

3) Normalization is not present in Normalization is present in RDBMS.

DBMS.

4) DBMS does not apply any RDBMS defines the integrity constraint for the
security with regards to data purpose of ACID (Atomocity, Consistency, Isolation and
manipulation. Durability) property.

5) DBMS uses file system to store data, in RDBMS, data values are stored in the form of tables,
so there will be no relation between so a relationship between these data values will be
the tables. stored in the form of a table as well.

6) DBMS has to provide some uniform RDBMS system supports a tabular structure of the data
methods to access the stored and a relationship between them to access the stored
information. information.

7) DBMS does not support distributed RDBMS supports distributed database.

database.

8) DBMS is meant to be for small RDBMS is designed to handle large amount of data.
organization and deal with small it supports multiple users.
data. it supports single user.

9) Examples of DBMS are file Example of RDBMS are mysql, postgre, sql
systems, xml etc. server, oracle etc.

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Object-oriented database management system
Object-oriented models store data in objects instead of rows and columns. It is based
on object-oriented programming (OOP) that allows objects to have members such as
fields, properties, and methods.

Examples of DBMS

There is a wide range of database software solutions, including both enterprise and open source
solutions, available for database management.

Here are some of the most popular database management systems :

Oracle
Oracle Database is a commercial relational database management system. It utilizes enterprise-
scale database technology with a robust set of features right out of the box. It can be stored in the
cloud or on-premises.

MySQL
MySQL: is a relational database management system that is commonly used with open-source
content management systems and large platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Youtube.

SQL Server
Developed by Microsoft, SQL Server is a relational database management system built on top of
structured query language (SQL), a standardized programming language that allows database
administrators to manage databases and query data.

Features of Database :
There are many features of databases; here are some of the most common:


Data storage and retrieval: Databases are designed to store and manage large amounts of data,
and provide efficient ways to retrieve that data when it is needed.
 Data organization: Databases use tables, rows, and columns to organize data, making it easy to
find specific pieces of information.

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 Data integrity: Databases include constraints and validation rules to ensure that the data
entered into the database is accurate and consistent.
 Data security: Databases provide various security measures such as authentication and
authorization to protect data from unauthorized access.
 Concurrency control: Databases manage multiple users accessing and modifying the same data
simultaneously to avoid conflicts.
 Backup and recovery: Databases provide mechanisms for creating backups of the data, and for
restoring the data in case of failure.
 Scalability: Databases can handle a large amount of data and can scale to meet the needs of
growing businesses.
 Indexing and querying: Databases allow to speed up the searching of data by creating indexes
on the most queried columns, and also they support querying languages like SQL.
 Data replication and distribution: Databases can replicate and distribute data across multiple
servers to improve performance, provide redundancy, and support geographic distribution

DBMS Architecture
o The DBMS design depends upon its architecture. The basic client/server architecture is
used to deal with a large number of PCs, web servers, database servers and other
components that are connected with networks.
o The client/server architecture consists of many PCs and a workstation which are
connected via the network.
o DBMS architecture depends upon how users are connected to the database to get their
request done.

Types of DBMS Architecture

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1-Tier Architecture
o In this architecture, the database is directly available to the user. It means the user can
directly sit on the DBMS and uses it.
o Any changes done here will directly be done on the database itself. It doesn't provide a
handy tool for end users.
o The 1-Tier architecture is used for development of the local application, where
programmers can directly communicate with the database for the quick response.

2-Tier Architecture
o The 2-Tier architecture is same as basic client-server. In the two-tier architecture,
applications on the client end can directly communicate with the database at the server
side. For this interaction, API's like: ODBC, JDBC are used.
o The user interfaces and application programs are run on the client-side.
o The server side is responsible to provide the functionalities like: query processing and
transaction management.
o To communicate with the DBMS, client-side application establishes a connection with
the server side.

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3-Tier Architecture
o The 3-Tier architecture contains another layer between the client and server. In this
architecture, client can't directly communicate with the server.
o The application on the client-end interacts with an application server which further
communicates with the database system.
o End user has no idea about the existence of the database beyond the application server.
The database also has no idea about any other user beyond the application.
o The 3-Tier architecture is used in case of large web application.

Database Languages in DBMS

o A DBMS has appropriate languages and interfaces to express database queries and
updates.
o Database languages can be used to read, store and update the data in the database.

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Types of Database Languages

1. Data Definition Language (DDL)

o DDL stands for Data Definition Language. It is used to define database structure or
pattern.
o It is used to create schema, tables, indexes, constraints, etc. in the database.
o Using the DDL statements, you can create the skeleton of the database.
o Data definition language is used to store the information of metadata like the number of
tables and schemas, their names, indexes, columns in each table, constraints, etc.

Here are some tasks that come under DDL:

o Create: It is used to create objects in the database.

o Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.
o Drop: It is used to delete objects from the database.
o Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.
o Rename: It is used to rename an object.
o Comment: It is used to comment on the data dictionary.

These commands are used to update the database schema that's why they come under Data
definition language.

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. It is used for accessing and manipulating data in
a database. It handles user requests.

Here are some tasks that come under DML:

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 o Select: It is used to retrieve data from a database.
o Insert: It is used to insert data into a table.
o Update: It is used to update existing data within a table.
o Delete: It is used to delete all records from a table.
o Merge: It performs UPSERT operation, i.e., insert or update operations.
o Call: It is used to call a structured query language or a Java subprogram.
o Explain Plan: It has the parameter of explaining data.
o Lock Table: It controls concurrency.

3. Data Control Language (DCL)

o DCL stands for Data Control Language. It is used to retrieve the stored or saved data.
o The DCL execution is transactional. It also has rollback parameters.

(But in Oracle database, the execution of data control language does not have the feature
of rolling back.)

Here are some tasks that come under DCL:

o Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

o Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

4. Transaction Control Language (TCL)

TCL is used to run the changes made by the DML statement. TCL can be grouped into a logical
transaction.

Here are some tasks that come under TCL:

o Commit: It is used to save the transaction on the database.

o Rollback: It is used to restore the database to original since the last Commit.

ACID Properties in DBMS

DBMS is the management of data that should remain integrated when any changes are done in it.
It is because if the integrity of the data is affected, whole data will get disturbed and corrupted.
Therefore, to maintain the integrity of the data, there are four properties described in the database
management system, which are known as the ACID properties. The ACID properties are meant
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for the transaction that goes through a different group of tasks, and there we come to see the role
of the ACID properties.

ACID Properties

The expansion of the term ACID defines for:

1) Atomicity

The term atomicity defines that the data remains atomic. It means if any operation is performed
on the data, either it should be performed or executed completely or should not be executed at
all.

2) Consistency

The word consistency means that the value should remain preserved always. In DBMS, the
integrity of the data should be maintained, which means if a change in the database is made, it
should remain preserved always. In the case of transactions, the integrity of the data is very
essential so that the database remains consistent before and after the transaction. The data should
always be correct.

3) Isolation

The term 'isolation' means separation. In DBMS, Isolation is the property of a database where no
data should affect the other one and may occur concurrently. In short, the operation on one
database should begin when the operation on the first database gets complete. It means if two
operations are being performed on two different databases, they may not affect the value of one
another. In the case of transactions, when two or more transactions occur simultaneously, the
consistency should remain maintained. Any changes that occur in any particular transaction will
not be seen by other transactions until the change is not committed in the memory.

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4) Durability
Durability ensures the permanency of something. In DBMS, the term durability ensures that the
data after the successful execution of the operation becomes permanent in the database. The
durability of the data should be so perfect that even if the system fails or leads to a crash, the
database still survives. However, if gets lost, it becomes the responsibility of the recovery
manager for ensuring the durability of the database. For committing the values, the COMMIT
command must be used every time we make changes.

ER (Entity Relationship) Diagram in DBMS

o ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model. It is a high-level data model. This
model is used to define the data elements and relationship for a specified system.
o It develops a conceptual design for the database. It also develops a very simple and easy
to design view of data.
o In ER modeling, the database structure is portrayed as a diagram called an entity-
relationship diagram.

For example, Suppose we design a school database. In this database, the student will be an
entity with attributes like address, name, id, age, etc. The address can be another entity with
attributes like city, street name, pin code, etc and there will be a relationship between them.

Component of ER Diagram

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1. Entity:

An entity may be any object, class, person or place. In the ER diagram, an entity can be
represented as rectangles.

Consider an organization as an example- manager, product, employee, department etc. can be

taken as an entity.

A. Weak Entity

An entity that depends on another entity called a weak entity. The weak entity doesn't contain
any key attribute of its own. The weak entity is represented by a double rectangle.

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2. Attribute
The attribute is used to describe the property of an entity. Eclipse is used to represent
an attribute.

For example, id, age, contact number, name, etc. can be attributes of a student.

a. Key Attribute

The key attribute is used to represent the main characteristics of an entity. It represents a primary
key. The key attribute is represented by an ellipse with the text underlined.

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b. Composite Attribute

An attribute that composed of many other attributes is known as a composite attribute. The
composite attribute is represented by an ellipse, and those ellipses are connected with an ellipse.

C. Multivalued Attribute

An attribute can have more than one value. These attributes are known as a multivalued attribute.
The double oval is used to represent multivalued attribute.

For example, a student can have more than one phone number.

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d. Derived Attribute

An attribute that can be derived from other attribute is known as a derived attribute. It can be
represented by a dashed ellipse.

An attribute can have more than one value. These attributes are known as a multivalued attribute.
The double oval is used to represent multivalued attribute.

For example, a student can have more than one phone number.

d. Derived Attribute

An attribute that can be derived from other attribute is known as a derived attribute. It can be
represented by a dashed ellipse.

For example, A person's age changes over time and can be derived from another attribute like
Date of birth.

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3. Relationship
A relationship is used to describe the relation between entities. Diamond or rhombus is used to
represent the relationship.

Types of relationship are as follows:

a. One-to-One Relationship

When only one instance of an entity is associated with the relationship, then it is known as one to
one relationship.

For example, A female can marry to one male, and a male can marry to one female.

b. One-to-many relationship

When only one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of an entity on the
right associates with the relationship then this is known as a one-to-many relationship.

For example, Scientist can invent many inventions, but the invention is done by the only
specific scientist.

c. Many-to-one relationship

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When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and only one instance of an entity on the
right associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-one relationship.

For example, Student enrolls for only one course, but a course can have many students.

d. Many-to-many relationship

When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of an entity on
the right associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-many relationship.

For example, Employee can assign by many projects and project can have many employees.

Notation of ER diagram
Database can be represented using the notations. In ER diagram, many notations are
used to express the cardinality. These notations are as follows:

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 Fig: Notations of ER diagram

Keys
o Keys play an important role in the relational database.
o It is used to uniquely identify any record or row of data from the table. It is also used to
establish and identify relationships between tables.

For example, ID is used as a key in the Student table because it is unique for each student. In the
PERSON table, passport_number, license_number, SSN are keys since they are unique for each
person.

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Types of keys:

Primary key
o It is the first key used to identify one and only one instance of an entity uniquely. An entity can
contain multiple keys, as we saw in the PERSON table. The key which is most suitable from
those lists becomes a primary key.
o In the EMPLOYEE table, ID can be the primary key since it is unique for each employee. In the
EMPLOYEE table, we can even select License_Number and Passport_Number as primary keys
since they are also unique.
o For each entity, the primary key selection is based on requirements and developers.

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2. Candidate key
o A candidate key is an attribute or set of attributes that can uniquely identify a tuple.
o Except for the primary key, the remaining attributes are considered a candidate key. The
candidate keys are as strong as the primary key.

For example: In the EMPLOYEE table, id is best suited for the primary key. The rest of the
attributes, like SSN, Passport_Number, License_Number, etc., are considered a candidate key.

3. Super Key

Super key is an attribute set that can uniquely identify a tuple. A super key is a
superset of a candidate key.

The super key would be EMPLOYEE-ID (EMPLOYEE_ID, EMPLOYEE-NAME), etc.

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For example: In the above EMPLOYEE table, for(EMPLOEE_ID, EMPLOYEE_NAME), the
name of two employees can be the same, but their EMPLYEE_ID can't be the same. Hence, this
combination can also be a key.

4. Foreign key
o Foreign keys are the column of the table used to point to the primary key of another table.
o Every employee works in a specific department in a company, and employee and department are
two different entities. So we can't store the department's information in the employee table. That's
why we link these two tables through the primary key of one table.
o We add the primary key of the DEPARTMENT table, Department_Id, as a new attribute in the
EMPLOYEE table.
o In the EMPLOYEE table, Department_Id is the foreign key, and both the tables are related.

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5. Alternate key

There may be one or more attributes or a combination of attributes that uniquely identify each
tuple in a relation. These attributes or combinations of the attributes are called the candidate
keys. One key is chosen as the primary key from these candidate keys, and the remaining
candidate key, if it exists, is termed the alternate key. In other words, the total number of the
alternate keys is the total number of candidate keys minus the primary key. The alternate key
may or may not exist. If there is only one candidate key in a relation, it does not have an alternate
key.

For example, employee relation has two attributes, Employee_Id and PAN_No, that act as
candidate keys. In this relation, Employee_Id is chosen as the primary key, so the other candidate
key, PAN_No, acts as the Alternate key.

6. Composite key
Whenever a primary key consists of more than one attribute, it is known as a composite key.
This key is also known as Concatenated Key.

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For example, in employee relations, we assume that an employee may be assigned multiple
roles, and an employee may work on multiple projects simultaneously. So the primary key will
be composed of all three attributes, namely Emp_ID, Emp_role, and Proj_ID in combination. So
these attributes act as a composite key since the primary key comprises more than one attribute

7. Artificial key

The key created using arbitrarily assigned data are known as artificial keys. These keys are
created when a primary key is large and complex and has no relationship with many other
relations. The data values of the artificial keys are usually numbered in a serial order.

For example, the primary key, which is composed of Emp_ID, Emp_role, and Proj_ID, is large
in employee relations. So it would be better to add a new virtual attribute to identify each tuple in
the relation uniquely.

SQL
o SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is used for storing and managing data in relational
database management system (RDMS).
o It is a standard language for Relational Database System. It enables a user to create, read, update
and delete relational databases and tables.
o All the RDBMS like MySQL, Informix, Oracle, MS Access and SQL Server use SQL as their
standard database language.
o SQL allows users to query the database in a number of ways, using English-like statements.

Rules:
SQL follows the following rules:

o Structure query language is not case sensitive. Generally, keywords of SQL are written in
uppercase.

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 o Statements of SQL are dependent on text lines. We can use a single SQL statement on one or
multiple text line.
o Using the SQL statements, you can perform most of the actions in a database.
o SQL depends on tuple relational calculus and relational algebra.

SQL process:
o When an SQL command is executing for any RDBMS, then the system figure out the
best way to carry out the request and the SQL engine determines that how to interpret the
task.
o In the process, various components are included. These components can be optimization
Engine, Query engine, Query dispatcher, classic, etc.
o All the non-SQL queries are handled by the classic query engine, but SQL query engine
won't handle logical files.

Characteristics of SQL
o SQL is easy to learn.
o SQL is used to access data from relational database management systems.
o SQL can execute queries against the database.
o SQL is used to describe the data.
o SQL is used to define the data in the database and manipulate it when needed.
o SQL is used to create and drop the database and table.
o SQL is used to create a view, stored procedure, function in a database.
o SQL allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures, and views.

SQL Datatype
o SQL Datatype is used to define the values that a column can contain.
o Every column is required to have a name and data type in the database table.

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Datatype of SQL:

SQL Commands
o SQL commands are instructions. It is used to communicate with the database. It is also used to
perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of data.
o SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add data to tables, drop the table, modify the
table, set permission for users.

Types of SQL Commands

There are five types of SQL commands: DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.

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1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
o DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a table, deleting a table, altering a table, etc.
o All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save all the changes in
the database.

Here are some commands that come under DDL:

o CREATE
o ALTER
o DROP
o TRUNCATE

a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

Syntax:

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1. CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[,....]);

Example:

1. CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB DAT

E);

b. DROP: It is used to delete both the structure and record stored in the table.

Syntax

1. DROP TABLE table_name;

Example

1. DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

c. ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This change could be either to modify
the characteristics of an existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.

Syntax:

To add a new column in the table

1. ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition;

2. Data Manipulation Language

o DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form of changes in the
database.
o The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently save all the changes
in the database. They can be rollback.

o NSERT
o UPDATE
o DELETE

a. INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert data into the row of a
table.

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 Syntax:

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. (col1, col2, col3,.... col N)
3. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

Or

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

For example:

1. INSERT INTO javatpoint (Author, Subject) VALUES ("Sonoo", "DBMS");

b. UPDATE: This command is used to update or modify the value of a column in the table.

Syntax:

1. UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value1,...column_nameN = valueN] [WHERE CO

NDITION]

For example:

1. UPDATE students
2. SET User_Name = 'Sonoo'
3. WHERE Student_Id = '3'

c. DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row from a table.

Syntax:

1. DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

For example:

1. DELETE FROM javatpoint

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 3. Data Control Language
DCL commands are used to grant and take back authority from any database user.

Here are some commands that come under DCL:

o Grant
o Revoke

a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

Example

1. GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

b. Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

Example

1. REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2;

4. Transaction Control Language

TCL commands can only use with DML commands like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE only.

These operations are automatically committed in the database that's why they cannot be used
while creating tables or dropping them.

Here are some commands that come under TCL:

o COMMIT
o ROLLBACK
o SAVEPOINT

a. Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions to the database.

Syntax:

1. COMMIT;

Example:

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1. DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS
2. WHERE AGE = 25;
3. COMMIT;

b. Rollback: Rollback command is used to undo transactions that have not already been saved to
the database.

Syntax:

1. ROLLBACK;

Example:

1. DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

2. WHERE AGE = 25;
3. ROLLBACK;

c. SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction back to a certain point without rolling back the
entire transaction.

Syntax:

1. SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

5. Data Query Language

DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.

It uses only one command:

o SELECT

a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of relational algebra. It is used to select
the attribute based on the condition described by WHERE clause.

Syntax:

1. SELECT expressions
2. FROM TABLES
3. WHERE conditions;

For example:

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1. SELECT emp_name
2. FROM employee
3. WHERE age > 20;

Normalization
What is Normalization?

o Normalization is the process of organizing the data in the database.

o Normalization is used to minimize the redundancy from a relation or set of relations. It is
also used to eliminate undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update, and Deletion
Anomalies.
o Normalization divides the larger table into smaller and links them using relationships.
o The normal form is used to reduce redundancy from the database table.

Why do we need Normalization?

The main reason for normalizing the relations is removing these anomalies. Failure to eliminate
anomalies leads to data redundancy and can cause data integrity and other problems as the
database grows. Normalization consists of a series of guidelines that helps to guide you in
creating a good database structure.

Advantages of Normalization

o Normalization helps to minimize data redundancy.

o Greater overall database organization.
o Data consistency within the database.
o Much more flexible database design.
o Enforces the concept of relational integrity.

Disadvantages of Normalization

o You cannot start building the database before knowing what the user needs.
o The performance degrades when normalizing the relations to higher normal forms, i.e.,
4NF, 5NF.

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 o It is very time-consuming and difficult to normalize relations of a higher degree.
o Careless decomposition may lead to a bad database design, leading to serious problems.

Types of Normal Forms:

Normalization works through a series of stages called Normal forms. The normal forms apply to
individual relations. The relation is said to be in particular normal form if it satisfies constraints.

First Normal Form (1NF)

o A relation will be 1NF if it contains an atomic value.
o It states that an attribute of a table cannot hold multiple values. It must hold only single-valued
attribute.
o First normal form disallows the multi-valued attribute, composite attribute, and their
combinations.
o Example: Relation EMPLOYEE is not in 1NF because of multi-valued attribute
EMP_PHONE.
o EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385, UP
9064738238

20 Harry 8574783832 Delhi

12 Sam 7390372389, Punjab

8589830302

o The decomposition of the EMPLOYEE table into 1NF has been shown below:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385 UP

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14 John 9064738238 UP

20 Harry 8574783832 Delhi

12 Sam 7390372389 Punjab

12 Sam 8589830302 Punjab

Second Normal Form (2NF)

o In the 2NF, relational must be in 1NF.
o In the second normal form, all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the
primary key

Example: Let's assume, a school can store the data of teachers and the subjects they teach. In a
school, a teacher can teach more than one subject.

TEACHER table

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT TEACHER_AGE

25 Chemistry 30

25 Biology 30

47 English 35

83 Math 38

83 Computer 38
TEACHER table

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 In the above table, non-prime attribute TEACHER_AGE is dependent on TEACHER_ID which
is a proper subset of a candidate key. That's why it violates the rule for 2NF.

To convert the given table into 2NF, we decompose it into two tables:

TEACHER_DETAIL table:

TEACHER_ID TEACHER_AGE

25 30

47 35

83 38

TEACHER_SUBJECT table:

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT

25 Chemistry

25 Biology

47 English

83 Math

83 Computer

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Third Normal Form (3NF)
o A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and not contain any transitive partial dependency.
o 3NF is used to reduce the data duplication. It is also used to achieve the data integrity.
o If there is no transitive dependency for non-prime attributes, then the relation must be in third
normal form.

A relation is in third normal form if it holds atleast one of the following conditions for every
non-trivial function dependency X → Y.

1. X is a super key.
2. Y is a prime attribute, i.e., each element of Y is part of some candidate key.

Example:

EMPLOYEE_DETAIL table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY

222 Harry 201010 UP Noida

333 Stephan 02228 US Boston

444 Lan 60007 US Chicago

555 Katharine 06389 UK Norwich

666 John 462007 MP Bhopal

Super key in the table above:

1. {EMP_ID}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, EMP_ZIP}....so on

Note: From page no. 1 to 37 is the note about the general

information for the Database Management System.
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 Unit #7 ( For Exam and Special purpose)

Need of Database in C#
A database is often used in C# applications to store, retrieve, and manipulate data. This can
include storing information about users, products, orders, or other types of data that the
application needs to function. By using a database, the data can be easily accessed and updated
by the C# application, and can also be shared among multiple users or systems. Additionally,
databases provide features such as indexing and querying, which can make it easier to find and
retrieve specific pieces of data.

Demonstration of database environment set up and how to configure the

requirement:

There are several steps involved in setting up and configuring a database environment:

1. Install the database management system (DBMS) software. This can be done on a server or local
machine, depending on the needs of your organization.
2. Create a new database or use an existing one. The database can be created using the DBMS's
command-line interface or a graphical user interface.
3. Configure the database settings. This includes setting up user accounts, granting permissions,
and configuring security settings such as encryption and firewalls.
4. Create tables and establish relationships between them. This can be done by writing SQL
statements or using a graphical tool provided by the DBMS.
5. Load data into the tables. This can be done by importing data from external sources, such as
CSV files, or by manually entering data.
6. Test the database environment. This includes checking for data integrity and consistency, and
verifying that the database can be queried and updated as expected.
7. Deploy the database in a production environment. This includes configuring backups,
monitoring, and performance tuning.
8. Regularly maintain the database with the goal of improving performance and security.

Please note that the above steps are general steps, the specific steps and configurations will
depend on the type of DBMS you are using.

Illustrate the connection of C# program with the database

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Connecting a C# program to a database involves several steps:


Add a reference to the appropriate database driver (such as ADO.NET, ODBC, or
OLEDB) in your C# project. This is typically done by right-clicking on the project in the
solution explorer and selecting "Add reference."
 Use the appropriate namespace in your C# code. For example, if you are using
ADO.NET, you would add "using System.Data.SqlClient;" at the top of your code file.
 Create a connection string that contains the necessary information to connect to the
database, such as the server name, database name, and credentials. This string will be
used to create a new connection object.
 Create a new connection object using the connection string. For example, if you are
using ADO.NET, you would create a new SqlConnection object and pass in the
connection string.
 Open the connection to the database. This is typically done by calling the Open()
method on the connection object.
 Execute SQL commands using the connection object. This can be done using a
command object, such as a SqlCommand in ADO.NET, or by calling stored procedures.
 Close the connection to the database when you are finished. This is typically done by
calling the Close() method on the connection object.

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csharp code

using System;
using System.Data.SqlClient;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
string connectionString = "Server=myServerAddress;Database=myDataBase;User
Id=myUsername;Password=myPassword;";
using (SqlConnection connection = new SqlConnection(connectionString))
{
connection.Open();
Console.WriteLine("Connection Successful!");
connection.Close();
}
}
}

Demonstrate the read and write operations from the database in C#

Sure, to demonstrate read and write operations from a database in C#, I will use an
example with SQL Server and the ADO.NET library.

First, you would need to add a reference to the System.Data.SqlClient library in your
project.

Then, you would need to establish a connection to the database using the
SqlConnection class:

For database Connection

using (SqlConnection connection = new SqlConnection("Data
Source=<server>;Initial Catalog=<database>;User
ID=<username>;Password=<password>"))
{
connection.Open();
}

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Write Operation for the database :

To write data to the database, you would use the SqlCommand class to execute a SQL INSERT
statement:

using (SqlCommand command = new SqlCommand("INSERT INTO users (name,

age) VALUES (@name, @age)", connection))
{
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@name", "John Doe");
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@age", 25);
command.ExecuteNonQuery();
}

Read Operation for the Database :

To read data from the database, you would use the SqlCommand class to execute a SQL
SELECT statement and the SqlDataReader class to read the results:

using (SqlCommand command = new SqlCommand("SELECT name, age FROM

users", connection))
using (SqlDataReader reader = command.ExecuteReader())
{
while (reader.Read())
{
Console.WriteLine("Name: " + reader["name"] + ", Age: " + reader["age"]);
}
}

This would output the names and ages of all users in the "users" table.

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