DEFINITION OF ESP  It became crucial to concentrate on the learning  General English courses provide general fundamentals

 Wright, 1992 - English for Specific (or Special, strategies, abilities, learning schemas, and and basics of the English language.
Specified, Specifiable) Purposes is meant that type of motivations of the students.  ESP is based on facts about language learning and
language learning which has its focus on all aspects of  The requirements of learners took priority over the teaching, focusing on learners' desires, goals, and
language pertaining to a particular field of human means of language diffusion. needs.
activity.  ESP courses are mainly for adults, targeting specific
 Mackay and Mountford (1978) - “ESP is generally used professions.
to refer to the teaching of English for a clearly  ESP courses require a certain level of English
utilitarian purpose.” proficiency, requiring basic knowledge of English to
 Basturkmen (2006) - language that is learned “not for CHARACTERISTICS OF ESP by Carver (1983) states that add professional English.
its own sake or for the sake of gaining a general there are three features common to ESP courses:  ESP courses cannot start with a learner who does not
education, but to smooth the path to entry or greater 1. Authentic material - ESP should to be taught at an know English.
linguistic efficiency in academic, professional or advanced or intermediate level, at which point it is  ESP aims to speed learners and direct them to a
workplace environments.” perfectly possible to employ real learning resources. known destination to reach specific objectives.
 Saber (2016) - “a ‘variety of English’ that can be 2. Purpose-related orientation - refers to the simulation of BENEFITS OF ESP
observed in a given perimeter of society, delineated communicative tasks required of the target setting.  Learning Speed - ESP offers faster acquisition of
by professional or disciplinary boundaries”. 3. Self-direction - the learners must have a certain degree linguistic items, following native speakers' specific
 Sarre and Whyte (2017) - “the branch of English of freedom to decide when, what, and how they will study. learning patterns in authentic, content-based
language studies which concerns the language, contexts. This accelerated, intensive learning
discourse, and culture of English-language TYPES OF ESP by David Carver (1983) identifies three types environment enhances the speed of language
professional communities and specialized groups, as of ESP: learning.
well as the learning and teaching of this object from a 1. English as a restricted language;  Learning efficiency - Trainees utilize learning
didactic perspective.” 2. English for academic and occupational purposes; resources effectively to acquire pre-identified
 Kennedy and Bolitho - ESP is based on an investigation 3. English with specific topics. linguistic items and skills, relying on needs analysis to
of the purposes of the learner and the set of identify their specific requirements.
communicative needs arising from these purposes‟. "in theory nothing, in practice a great deal“  Learning Effectiveness - The trainees are ready to use
- Hutchinson et al. (1987) language appropriately and correctly in job related
GENESIS OF ESP tasks, which have been identified prior to the course
 End of World War II: Expansion in scientific, technical,  General English courses do not require a needs by means of a needs analysis.
and economic activity led to English as the analysis, focusing on reading comprehension,
international language. vocabulary, grammar, and language usage content. It IMPORTANCE OF ESP
 Oil Crisis of the early 1970s: Western money and does not require extensive study, indicating a  Tailored communication: ESP focuses on language
knowledge flowed into oil-rich countries, transforming different teaching methodology. skills relevant to specific fields or professions,
English into the language of knowledge.  ESP courses require a needs analysis before and after enabling learners to effectively communicate within
 Pioneers in linguistics began to focus on how language the course to understand learners' exact needs and their specialized contexts.
is used in real communication. target them.  Enhanced career prospects: Proficiency in ESP can
 One significant discovery was in the ways that spoken  ESP courses are more complex for instructors due to significantly boost job opportunities and career
and written English vary. In other words, given the the need to study unfamiliar vocabulary and prepare advancement in industries such as medicine,
particular context in which English is used, the variant for class questions. engineering, business, and law.
of English will change.  General English courses cover all language skills and  Precision and accuracy: ESP equips learners with the
social features of English communities. vocabulary, jargon, and language structures necessary
 for precise and accurate communication within their classrooms by teachers and learners. They are ESP CURRICULUM
specialized domains. concerned with the specification and planning of what  In the ESP curriculum, the objective or goal is more to
 Facilitates international collaboration: English is often is to be learned. the practical aspect: applying the language in a job-
the common language used for global cooperation in  As an Expression of Opinion - Syllabuses are an specific- situation. Corresponding to this goal, ESP
various fields. ESP proficiency enables professionals expression of opinion on the nature of language and requires a curriculum that facilitates the use of the
from different linguistic backgrounds to collaborate learning. They act as a guide for both the teacher and English language in a job-related situation. This
effectively on international projects. learner by providing goals to be attained. curriculum contains the following aspects (besides the
 Adaptability to evolving industries: ESP evolves other core aspects of the curriculum such as goals and
alongside changes in industries and professions, COURSE VS SYLLABUS syllabus):
ensuring that learners stay abreast of the latest A course is an instructional programme (Dudley-  Specific task, vocabulary, and language in context
developments and trends within their fields. Evans & St John, 1998; Feez, 1998) with a name such as (Higgins in Swales, 1988),
 Cross-cultural understanding: ESP not only teaches “English for Engineering Students 1.” Syllabus is most often  The starting point based on the learners’ background
language skills but also fosters an understanding of defined as specifications of content to be taught in a knowledge,
cultural nuances and communication norms specific course, and is concerned with course objectives (Dubin &  Operational, communicative, and notional syllabus
to different professional contexts, enhancing Olshtain, 1986; Jordan, 1997; Nunan, 1988; Richards, and Learner-centered task
intercultural competence. 2001). ESP students have realistic expectations in learning the
language.
COURSE, SYLLABUS, AND CURRICULUM CURRICULUM • The curriculum and syllabus are learner-centered,
 Course refers to a series of lessons delivered to a Curriculum encompasses philosophical, social, and focusing on learners' needs and progress.
group of students. administrative factors in educational planning, focusing on • ESP teachers are expected to facilitate learning, not just
Definition and Role of Syllabus what teachers do rather than what should be, as defined lecturing.
 Syllabus refers to the content or subject matter of a by Allen (1984). Barnes (1976) added that a school • P’Rayan (2008) argues that English Language Teaching
specific subject. curriculum should be enacted by both pupils and teachers, (ELT) should be learner-centered, responding to the
 A syllabus will be defined narrowly as the specification as it becomes a form of communication within an language needs of the learner.
and ordering of content of a course or courses (Graves institution. It is generally understood that curriculum • The spread of communicative language teaching (CLT)
1988) development comprises three main stages: design, has led to more emphasis on learner-oriented instruction in
 It is a statement of the plan for any part of the implementation, and evaluation (Brown, 1995; Johnson, second language (L2) methodology.
curriculum, excluding curriculum evaluation itself 1989; Richards, 2001) • The need for need analysis in ESP courses is emphasized.
(Shaw 1975) Brown (1995) and Richards (2001) emphasize the
 Noss and Rodgers (1976) define a language syllabus as process/product orientation framework in curriculum SYLLABUS DESIGN
a set of educational objectives specified in terms of development, focusing on needs analysis, goals, objectives, • Munby (1984) and Webb (1976) define syllabus design as
linguistic content. testing, materials development, and evaluation. They specifying the content to be taught and organizing it into a
 Syllabus as an Administrative Instrument - Syllabuses emphasize the importance of learners' needs, alternative teaching syllabus of appropriate learning units.
are part of an administrative instrument, a guide to perspectives, and evaluation in the planning and decision- • Garcia (1976) provides more comprehensive criteria for
the teacher, a statement of what is to be taught, and making process. syllabus design, including social forces, prejudices, habits,
how.They are also a statement of an approach to and motives of the student population, relation of student
language teaching. CURRICULUM VS SYLLABUS characteristics to universal concepts in language learning
 Syllabus Inventory - refers to the items to be taught. Shaw's 1975 study distinguishes between a processes, contemporary insights into the nature of the
It is a list or inventory of items or units with which curriculum and a syllabus, stating that the curriculum language, and teaching methods to non-native speakers.
learners are to be familiarized. encompasses all learning experiences, while the syllabus is • Maley (1984) explains that syllabus design encompasses
 Social Construction of Syllabuses - Syllabuses are specific to a specific subject. the whole process of designing a language program, from
social constructions produced interdependently in
needs analysis to methodology, techniques, and evaluation  decisions about what needs evaluating and how to • Interprets the syllabus as the teacher influences the
procedure. evaluate. clarity, intensity, and frequency of any item.
 Classroom Syllabus
Course Design is concerned precisely with how much TYPES OF SYLLABUS • Plans a lesson and achieves it in the classroom.
design should go into a particular course, that is, how much Linear Syllabus: • Classroom conditions can affect the planned lesson.
should be negotiated with the learners, how much • Traditional language courses were linear, presenting new  Learner Syllabus
predetermined by the teacher, and how much left to points in a line.
chance and the mood of the participants on the day. This • Each point was fully utilized before moving on to the
notion is bound up with the idea of the “focus on the next.
learner”. • Learning points were isolated and presented in a specific
Curriculum Design is more general as it includes all order.
processes in which the designers should look into the • These courses required extensive practice before moving
needs of the learners, develop aims, determine an on to the next item.
appropriate syllabus, and evaluate it. Cyclic or Spiral syllabus:
• Presents language items multiple times.
SYLLABUS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING • Each unit comprises 4 lessons, including language items.
Halim (1976) categorizes all relevant variables into • The fourth unit is a revision.
linguistic and non-linguistic variables. • Cyclical revision aids in general level learning.
 linguistic variables, which include the linguistic • Offers greater pedagogical and psychological benefits.
relations, between the language to be taught and the • Difficult to organize, similar to "linear" syllabuses.
language or languages that the student uses in his or
her daily activities; and  External and Internal Syllabus
 non-linguistic variables which range from policy to • Exemplifies external specifications of future learning.
social, cultural, technological and administrative • Internal syllabus shows internal constructs developed by • An internal syllabus that develops in the learner’s brain.
variables. the learner. • It is a retrospective record of what has been learnt rather
• External syllabus is interpreted when course designer has than a prospective plan of what will be learnt.
HOW TO DESIGN ESP SYLLABUS input, uninterpreted otherwise.
From the above explanations on syllabus design, it  Evaluation Syllabus
can be concluded that syllabus design involves a logical • Statement of what is to be learned by ministries and/or
sequence of three main stages, that is, regulatory bodies. Factors Affecting ESP Course Design: Language Description
i) needs analysis, • Reflects an official assumption about the nature of
ii) content specification, and language and linguistic performance. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) define language description
iii) syllabus organization. • Uninterpreted as the teacher has no input in its design as identifying topic areas, student needs, and language
and is expected to implement it whole. aspects.
This follows very closely the general model  Organizational Syllabus • Course syllabus design involves setting course goals and
advocated by Taba (1962) which gave the following steps: • Implicit statement about the nature of language and objectives.
 needs analysis learning. • Language description aims to understand development
 formulation of objectives • Lists what should be learnt and states the order in which stages and incorporate ideas into course design.
 selection of content organization of content it should be learnt. • Six main stages of development of language include
 selection of learning activities • Different from evaluation syllabus as it carries Classical or Traditional Grammar, Structural Linguistics,
 organization of learning activities assumptions about the nature of learning and language. Transformational Generative Grammar, Language
 Teacher Syllabus
Variation and Register analysis, Functional/Notional • Noam Chomsky's Syntactic Structures in 1957 introduced  the function that the language is being used
Grammar, and Discourse (Rhetorical) Analysis. transformational-generative grammar. for (such as the language of advertising, and
• Chomsky proposed a deep structure of language, the language of government).
 Classical or Traditional Grammar consisting of phrase-structure rewrite rules and  Tenor: The tenor of your language (e.g. how
• Languages described based on Greek and Latin. transformations. politely or formally you speak) changes according
• Languages described in terms of case-based (Nominative, • The result is a surface structure identical to a language's to
Genitive, dative, Instrumental cases). actual sentence after adding words and pronunciations. (a) who you are talking or writing to (e.g. the language we
• Inflections used to mark grammatical classes. • Language competence is the subconscious control of a use when talking to close friends compared with that used
• Traditional grammar seen as prescriptive and word linguistic system, while performance is the actual use of when talking to strangers or people who are socially distant
grammar. language. from us) and
• Grammar rules enable user to generate surface structure • The theory has been applied to phonological and (b) the social situation you find yourself in (e.g. a child
from deep meaning. semantic components of language. whose mother is a teacher will talk to her in different ways,
• Traditional grammar no longer accounts for all • Early ESP focused on performance, neglecting depending on whether they are at home or at school).
possibilities. competence.
• Register analysis uses terminology to understand • Language exists because people use it for information,  FUNCTIONAL/NOTIONAL GRAMMAR
language operations. promises, identification, classification, reporting, or • Function in language learning involves social behavior
excuses. and intention of the speaker.
 Structural Linguistics • Apart from form, the function of language should also be • Notion reflects human thought and language use to
• Emergence in the 20th century, focusing on overt formal considered. divide reality.
features of language, particularly phonology, morphology, • The functional view was adopted in the 1970s, leading to
and syntax. LANGAUGE VARIATION AND REGISTER ANALYSIS a shift from structural to functional syllabuses.
• Typically a synchronic approach, analyzing a language as Dialect variation is a semi-permanent language • This shift has significantly influenced English as a Second
an independent network of formal systems. variation that distinguishes individuals or groups from Language (ESP).
• Deals with languages at specific points in time, not others. However, rapid language variation, often occurring • Adult ESP learners are learning to use structures already
throughout their historical development. on the same day, is more rapid. Language varies according acquired, not just mastering language structure.
• Father of modern structural linguistics, Ferdinand de to context, such as writing, speaking, or formal situations. • The weakness of this syllabus type is its lack of systematic
Saussure, who viewed language as a systematic structure This type of variation, known as register, can vary minutely conceptual framework, hindering learners' organization of
linking thought and sound. on the same day, resulting in Legal English and Medical language knowledge.
• Treats language as an interwoven structure, with each English. The register can vary according to medium,
item's identity and validity only in relation to other items in domain, and tenor.  Discourse (Rhetorical) Analysis
the system. • Focuses on sentence-level language.
• All linguistic models in the 20th century are structural,  Medium (sometimes called 'mode'): Your • Develops functional/notional view of language.
unlike the 19th century work that traced the history of language changes according to the medium used • Emphasizes meaning generation between sentences.
individual words. (e.g. 'the language of speech', 'the language of • Considers sentence context for meaning creation.
• Developed in the US in the second quarter of the century, writing’).
with Leonard Bloomfield being the pioneer.  Domain (sometimes called ‘field’): Your language Factors Affecting ESP Course Design: Learning theories and
• Despite its refinement, structural linguistics has been changes according to the domain that the Needs Analysis
criticized by supporters of generative linguistics for being language is related to. This includes
too narrow in conception.  the subject matter being spoken or written Learning Theories
about (e.g. the language of science, the Hutchinson and Waters (1987) speak about
 Transformational Generative (TG) Grammar language of law) and “´learning theories´ which provide the theoretical basis for
the methodology, by helping us to understand how people  Behavioural or Operant conditioning occurs Constructivism emphasizes situated learning, where
learn” (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.23). when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. cognitive experiences are context-dependent and
It is the psychological processes involved in language use Basically, operant conditioning is a simple authentic. It promotes cognitive apprenticeships and case-
and language learning. It is natural that learning strategies feedback system: If a reward or based learning environments for richer experiences. Social
vary and corresponds with learners’ groups, their age, level reinforcement follows the response to a negotiation of knowledge is a key aspect, involving learners
or for what reason they study English. stimulus, then the response becomes more forming and testing their constructs in dialogue with others
probable in the future. For example, leading and society. Constructivism aligns with educational trends
 THE COGNITIVE THEORY behaviourist B.F. Skinner used like transitioning teachers from "sage on the stage" to
Cognitive theory, as defined by Cunnningsworth reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons "guide on the side," teaching higher order skills, and
(1984), involves conscious mental processes such as to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley. This fostering cooperative learning.
analysis, understanding, learning, and applying rules to is like reinforcing a child each time he does
language. It assumes that responses are the result of something right.  HUMANISM AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS
intentional patterning and insight. Traditional grammar and  MENTALISM
language as an operation are two areas of focus. The This theory is of the opinion that thinking is rule-
grammar translation method, which dominated the 60s, is governed. Chomsky’s question in tackling behaviourism
essentially cognitive, requiring a clear understanding of was how the mind is able to transfer what was learnt
rules and the ability to apply them to new language from one stimulus- response situation to another.
examples. This approach allows for the assimilation of Behaviourist theory states that it is due to
learned or partially learned language and creates situations generalization but Chomsky thinks otherwise. He sees
where existing resources are inadequate, requiring learners as thinking beings who are capable of coping
adaptation. with infinite range of possible situations from a finite
range of experience. The mind uses individual
 BEHAVIORISM experiences to formulate hypothesis. For instance,
Behaviorism is a learning theory that only focuses knowing that words that end in ‘–y’ take ‘–ies’ to form
on objectively observable behaviors and discounts any their plural, while those that end in ‘–f’ will change to
independent activities of the mind. Behavior theorists ‘–ives’, the learner given these rules can form a lot of
define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of plurals even of words they have never seen before.
new behavior based on environmental conditions.
According to behaviorists, it wasn’t really necessary for  CONSTRUCTIVISM
learners to internalize rules; instead, they should learn the Constructivism is an educational philosophy
right patterns of linguistic behavior, and acquire the correct which holds that learners ultimately construct their
habits. own knowledge that then resides within them, so that
 Classic Conditioning occurs when a natural reflex each person's knowledge is as unique as they are.
responds to a stimulus. We are biologically Constructivist learning is based on students' active
“wired” so that a certain stimulus will produce a participation in problem-solving and critical thinking Humanism, a paradigm that emerged in the 1960s,
specific response. One of the more common regarding a learning activity which they find relevant and focuses on the human freedom, dignity, and potential. A
examples of classical conditioning in the engaging. They are "constructing" their own knowledge by central assumption of humanism, according to Huitt (2001),
educational environment is in situations where testing ideas and approaches based on their prior is that people act with intentionality and values. This is in
students exhibit irrational fears and anxieties like knowledge and experience, applying these to a new contrast to the behaviourist notion of operant conditioning
fear of failure, fear of public speaking and situation, and integrating the new knowledge gained with (which argues that all behaviour is the result of the
general school phobia. pre-existing intellectual constructs. application of consequences) and the cognitive
psychologist belief that discovering knowledge or
constructing meaning is central to learning. Humanists also
believe that it is necessary to study the person as a whole,
especially as an individual grows and develops over the
lifespan. It follows that the study of the self, motivation,
and goals are areas of particular interest.

 LEARNING AND ACQUISITION

 NEEDS ANALYSIS
Needs analysis was firmly established in the mid-
1970s as course designers came to see learners' purposes
rather than specialist language as the driving force behind
ESP. Needs analysis is the process of establishing what and
how of a course (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998).
Conducting a needs analysis is an important first step in the
development of a curriculum that is being developed from
scratch for a completely new program (Brown, 1995).
According to Brown (1995), needs analysis is “the
systematic collection and analysis of all subjective and
objective information necessary to define and validate
defensible curriculum purposes that satisfy the language
learning requirements of students within the context of
particular institutions that influence the learning and
teaching situation”
As the first stage in creating instructional
materials, learning activities, assessments, and evaluation
techniques, needs analysis is an essential part of curriculum
design.