1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet

Computer Network
 A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to
share information and resources.
 The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable
media or wireless media.
 The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Figure 1: Computer Network

Advantages of Computer Networks
 File sharing
The major advantage of a computer network is that allows file sharing and remote file access. A
person sitting at one workstation that is connected to a network can easily see files present on
another workstation, provided he is authorized to do so.
 Resource sharing
All computers in the network can share resources such as printers, fax machines, modems, and
scanners.
 Better connectivity and communications
It allows users to connect and communicate with each other easily. Various communication
applications included e-mail and groupware are used. Through e-mail, members of a network
can send a message and ensure safe delivery of data to other members, even in their absence.
 Internet access
Computer networks provide internet service over the entire network. Every single computer
attached to the network can experience the high-speed internet.
 Entertainment
Many games and other means of entertainment are easily available on the internet.
Furthermore, Local Area Networks (LANs) offers and facilitates other ways of enjoyments, such
as many players are connected through LAN and play a particular game with each other from a
remote location.

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 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet

 Inexpensive system
Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files mean reduction in memory
requirement, which indirectly means a reduction in file storage expenses. A particular software
can be installed only once on the server and made available across all connected computers at
once. This saves the expense of buying and installing the same software as many times for as
many users.
 Flexible access
A user can log on to a computer anywhere on the network and access his files. This offers
flexibility to the user as to where he should be during the course of his routine.
 Instant and multiple access
Computer networks are multiple processes. Many users can access the same information at the
same time. Immediate commands such as printing commands can be made with the help of
computer networks.
Disadvantages of Computer Networks
 Lack of data security and privacy
Because there would be a huge number of people who would be using a computer network to
get and share some of their files and resources, a certain user’s security would be always at risk.
There might even be illegal activities that would occur, which you need to be careful about and
aware of.
 Presence of computer viruses and malware
If even one computer on a network gets affected by a virus, there is a possible threat for the
other systems getting affected too. Viruses can spread on a network easily, because of the inter-
connectivity of workstations. Moreover, multiple systems with common resources are the
perfect breeding ground for viruses that multiply.
 Lack of Independence
Since most networks have a centralized server and dependent clients, the client users lack any
freedom whatsoever. Centralized decision making can sometimes hinder how a client user
wants to use his own computer.
 Lack of Robustness
As previously stated, if a computer network’s main server breaks down, the entire system would
become useless. Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking server that fails, the entire
network would also come to a standstill.
 Need an efficient handler
For a computer network to work efficiently and optimally, it requires high technical skills and
know-how of its operations and administration. A person just having basic skills cannot do this
job. Take note that the responsibility to handle such a system is high, as allotting permissions
and passwords can be daunting. Similarly, network configuration and connection is very tedious
and cannot be done by an average technician who does not have advanced knowledge.
Use (Applications) of Computer Networks
 Financial services
Nowadays, almost all the financial services depend on the computer network. You can access
the financial services across the world. For example, a user can transfer money from one place
to another by using the electronic fund transfer feature. You can use networking in various
financial areas such as ATM, foreign exchange and credit history search.
 Business

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 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet

Nowadays, most of the works of businesses are done over the computers. To exchange the data
and ideas, you need effective data and resources sharing features. To do this, you need to
connect the computer with each other through a network. For example, a person of one
department of an organization can share or access the electronic data of other departments
through a network.
 Email services
A computer network provides you the facility to send or receive emails across the globe in few
seconds.
 Mobile applications
By using mobile applications, such as cellular or wireless phones, you can communicate
(exchange your views and ideas) with one other.
 Directory services
It provides you the facility to store files on a centralized location to increase the speed of search
operation worldwide.
 Teleconferencing
It contains voice conferencing and video conferencing which are based on networking. In
teleconferencing, the participants need not be presented at the same location.
Types of Computer Networks interconnect computers within a limited area
ex : residence, school, university, office building etc.
LAN (Local Area Network)
 It is privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in
size.
 They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices and
factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information. provide common physical medium to
 LANs are easy to design and troubleshoot transfer data.
provide easy access to data
 In LAN, all the machines are connected to a single cable.
 Different types of topologies such as Bus, Ring, Star, and Tree are used.
 The data transfer rates for LAN is up to 10 Gbits/s.
 They transfer data at high speeds. The high transmission rate is possible in LAN because of the
short distance between various computer networks.
 They exist in a limited geographical area.
 Advantages
 LAN transfers data at high speed.
 LAN technology is generally less expensive. low delay
low error rate
broadcast capability
transmitting data at very fast rate

area is limited
limited number of device is connected

Figure 2: Local Area Network

Prof. Maulik Trivedi, CE Department | 2140709 – Computer Networks (CN) 3

 computer network that interconnects computer in a metropolitan area
like city.
also used to connect several LAN

1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 MAN is a larger version of LAN which covers an area that is larger than the covered by LAN but
smaller than the area covered by WAN.
 A metropolitan area network or MAN covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the
cable television network available in many cities.
 MAN connects two or more LANs.
 At first, the companies began jumping into the business, getting contracts from city
governments to wire up an entire city.
 The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only.

It connects two or more computers that are apart but

reside in the same or different cities.
Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger
geographical area than LAN.
Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
use fiber optic transmission technology
provide high speed data transfer

Figure 3: Metropolitan Area Network

WAN (Wide Area Network) connect different LAN
and MAN
 WAN spans a large geographical area, often a country or region.
 WAN links different metropolitan's countries and national boundaries thereby enabling easy
communication.
 It may be located entirely within a state or a country or it may be interconnected around the
world.
 It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs.
We will follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts.
 The communication between different users of WAN is established using leased telephone
lines or satellite links and similar channels. provide long distance transmission of
data and voice.

Covers large geographical areas and

can connect remote locations.

difficult to design and maintain.

Devices used for the transmission of

data through WAN are Optic wires,
Microwaves, and Satellites.

Can be used to support multiple

users and applications
simultaneously.
Figure 4: Wide Area Network

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 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet

Difference between LAN, MAN, and WAN.

Parameter LAN MAN WAN
Area covered Covers a small area. i.e. Covers larger than LAN Covers large area
within building & smaller than WAN
Error rates Lowest Moderate Highest
Transmission speed High speed Moderate speed Low speed
Equipment cost Inexpensive Moderate-expensive Most expensive
Design & maintenance Easy Moderate Difficult
range 1 to 10 km ex: college,school 10 to 100 km ex: city ,town more than 100km ex: state, country

Internet
 The internet is a type of world-wide computer network.
 The internet is the collection of infinite numbers of connected computers that are spread across
the world.
 We can also say that the Internet is a computer network that interconnects hundreds of millions
of computing devices throughout the world.
 It is established as the largest network and sometimes called a network of a network that
consists of numerous academic, business and government networks, which together carry
various information.
 The Internet is a global computer network providing a variety of information and
communication facilities, consisting of interconnected networks using standardized
communication protocols.
 When two computers are connected over the Internet, they can send and receive all kinds of
information such as text, graphics, voice, video, and computer programs.

Figure 5: Some pieces of the Internet

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 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet

Protocol
 A protocol is a set of rules that govern (manages) data communications.
 Protocols define methods of communication, how to communicate when to communicate etc.
 A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to
proceed.
 Important elements of protocols are
1. Syntax 2. Semantics 3. Timing
 Syntax:- Syntax means format of data or the structure how it is presented e.g. first eight bits are
for sender address, next eight bits are for receiver address and rest of the bits for message data.
 Semantics:- Semantics is the meaning of each section of bits e.g. the address bit means the
route of transmission or final destination of a message.
 Timing:- Timing means, at what time data can be sent and how fast data can be sent.
 Some protocols also support message acknowledgment and data compression designed for
reliable and/or high-performance network communication.
 Example: HTTP, IP, FTP etc…

standers:
provide guidelines to the
manufacturers, Venders, and
service provider.

it ensure the inter-connectivity

and compatibility of device.

it is help in maintaining market

inter-operability.

Figure 6: A human protocol and a computer network protocol

The Network Edge

 Computers
It defines and
thoseother devices are
computers connected
of the networkat the edge
used at (end) of the(end)
the edge network.
of the network. These
These computers are known as hosts or end
computers are known as hosts or end system. systems.
 A host can be classified into the following two types:
 Clients: Refer to the computer systems that request servers for the completion of a task.
The clients are generally called desktop PCs or workstations.
 Servers: Refer to the computer systems that receive requests from the clients and
process them. After the processing is complete, the servers send a reply to the clients
who sent the request.

Client: Request servers for a task.

Prof.Receive
Server: Maulik Trivedi, CE Department
requests | 2140709
from the clients. – Computer
Process andNetworks
response(CN)them. 6
 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet

 The concept of clients and servers is essential in the network design. The various networks
design models are as follows:
1. Peer to Peer network 2. Client-Server network
Peer to Peer network
 In this network group of computers is connected together so that users can share resources and
information.
 There is no central location (server) for authenticating users, storing files, or accessing resources
and each of them works as both client and server.
 This means that users must remember which computers in the workgroup have the shared
resource or information that they want to access.
 Advantage:
 It is easy to set up.
 There is no need for any committed server as each peer acts as both server and client.
 The network implementation is quite cheap.
 The resources of a peer can be shared with other peers very easily in the network.
 Disadvantage:
 The speed of the network decreases due to heavy usage.
 It is not easy to keep track of information on each computer.
 There is no central backup of files and folders.
 Network and data security are weak.

Figure 7: Network Edge - Client/Server Network and Peer to Peer

Client/Server network
 A client/server network is a system where one or more computers called clients to connect to a
central computer named as a server to share or use resources.
 The client requests a service from a server, which may include running an application,
querying a database, printing a document, performing a backup or recovery procedure. The
request made by the client is handled by a server.
 A client/server network is that in which the files and resources are centralized. This means
that the server can hold them and other computers (Client) can access them.

 Advantage:
 The server system holds the shared files.
 The server system can be scheduled to take the file backups automatically.
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 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet

 Network access is provided only to authorized users through user security at the
server.
 The server system is a kind of central repository for sharing a printer with clients.
 Internet access, e-mail routing, and such other networking tasks are quite easily
managed by the server.
 The software applications shared by the server are accessible to the clients.
 Disadvantage:
 The implementation of the network is quite expensive.
 An NOS (Network Operating System) is essential.
 If a server fails, the entire network crashes.
 There may be congestion if more than one client requests for a service at the same
time.
Techniques used in data communications to transfer data
1. Connection-oriented method 2. Connectionless method
Connection-oriented method
 Connection-oriented communication includes the steps of setting up a call from one computer
to another, transmitting/receiving data, and then releasing the call, just like a voice phone call.
 However, the network connecting the computers is a packet switched network, unlike the
phone system's circuit switched network.
 Connection-oriented communication is done in one of two ways over a packet switched
network:
1. Without virtual circuits
It involves setting up a connection, transmitting data, and
2. With virtual circuits. then releasing the connection.
Without virtual circuits:
 This is what TCP does on the Internet.
 The only two machines on the Internet are aware of the connection which is established
between the two computers at the endpoints.
 The Internet itself, its routers and links have no information about the presence of a connection
between the two computers.
 This means that all of the packets flowing between the two computers can follow different
routes.
 One benefit of establishing the connection is that the flow of packets from the source to the
destination can be slowed down if the Internet is congested and speeded up when congestion
disappears.
 Another benefit is that the endpoints can anticipate traffic between them, and agree to
cooperate to ensure the integrity and continuity of the data transfers. This allows the network
to be treated as a "stream" of data.
With virtual circuit:
 This is not used on the Internet, but is used in other types of networks (eg. the "X.25" protocol,
still popular in Europe).
 The routers within the network route all packets in one connection over the same route. The
advantage is that video and voice traffic is easier to carry because routers can reserve memory
space to buffer the transmission.

Prof. Maulik Trivedi, CE Department | 2140709 – Computer Networks (CN) 8

 Packet switching without a connection setup or release. Messages
are divided into packets.
1 – Introduction
Commonly used bytoUDP
Computer Networks &
in packet-switched Internet
networks.

Connectionless method
 Connectionless communication is just packet switching where no call establishment and release
occur.
 A message is broken into packets, and each packet is transferred separately. Moreover, the
packets can travel a different route to the destination since there is no connection.
 Connectionless service is typically provided by the UDP (User Datagram Protocol). The packets
transferred using UDP are also called datagrams.

Feature Connectionless Connection-oriented

How is data sent? One packet at a time Continuous stream of packets
Do packets follow the same route? No Virtual circuit: yes
Without virtual circuit: no
Are resources reserved in the No Virtual circuit: yes
network? Without virtual circuit: no
Are resources reserved in No Yes
communicating hosts?
Is connection establishment done? No Yes
Is state information stored at No Virtual circuit: yes
network nodes? Without virtual circuit: no
What is the impact of node/switch Only packets at a node All virtual circuits through node fail
crash? are lost
What addressing information is Full source and Virtual circuit: virtual circuit number
needed on each packet? destination address Without virtual circuit: full source and
destination address

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 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet

Transmission Media
 A transmission media can be defined as anything
medium that can carry information from a source to a
destination.
 On the basis of transmission of data, the transmission media can be classified into two
categories:
1. Guided (Physical) transmission media
2. Unguided (Wireless) transmission media

Transmission Media

Guided Media wired Unguided Media wireless

Twisted-Pair Coaxial Fiber Optic Radio Microwave Infrared

Cable Cable Cable Wave Wave

Figure 8: Classification Transmission Media

Guided Transmission Media wired

 Guided media are those that provide a channel from one device to another.
 The three Guided (Physical) media commonly used for data transmission are:
1. Twisted-Pair 2. Coaxial 3. Fiber Optics
1. Twisted Pair
 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically about 1 mm thick.
 The wires are twisted together in a helical form, just like a DNA molecule.
 Twisting is done because two parallel wires constitute a fine antenna.
 When the wires are twisted, the waves from different twists cancel out, so the wire radiates less
effectively.

Figure 9: Twisted Pair Cable

Why cable is twisted?
 If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires
because they are at different locations relatives to the noise or crosstalk sources.
 This results in a difference at the receiver.
 By twisting the pair, a balance is maintained.
cheap
installation is easy
two wire twisted together helps to
Prof. Maulik Trivedi, CE Department | 2140709 – Computer Networks (CN)
reduce noise
10
 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet

Types of Twisted-Pair Cable widely used in telecommunication

1) Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) weak immunity against noise, use for shorter distance
 Twisted pair cabling comes in several varieties, two of which are important for computer
networks.
 Category 3 twisted pairs consist of two insulated wires gently twisted together.
 Most office buildings had one category 3 cable running from a central wiring closet on each floor
into each office.
 Category 5 is the more advanced twisted pairs were introduced.
 They are similar to category 3 pairs, but with more twists per centimeter, which results in less
crosstalk and a better-quality signal over longer distances, making them more suitable for high-
speed computer communication.
 Up-and-coming categories are 6 and 7, which are capable of handling signals with bandwidths of
250 MHz and 600 MHz, respectively (versus a mere 16 MHz and 100 MHz for categories 3 and 5
respectively).

Figure 10: Unshielded twisted-pair

2) Shielded twisted-pair (STP).
 STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated
conductors.
 Metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk.
 It is bulkier and more expensive.
higher data transmission rate
 Applications: installation is easy
 Used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
 The DSL lines use by telephone companies use the high-bandwidth capability of UTP
cables.
 LANs, such as 10Base-T, 100Base-T also uses twisted-pair cables.
2. Coaxial Cable
 It has better shielding than twisted pairs, so it can span longer distances at higher speeds.
 Two kinds of the coaxial cable are widely used. One kind is a 50-ohm cable which is commonly
used when it is intended for digital transmission from the start.
 The other kind is a 75-ohm cable which is commonly used for analog transmission and cable
television but is becoming more important with the advent of the Internet over cable.
 A coaxial cable consists of stiff copper wire as the core surrounded by an insulating material.
 The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a closely-woven braided mesh.
 The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.
 The construction and shielding of the coaxial cable give it a good combination of high bandwidth
and excellent noise immunity.
 The bandwidth possible depends on the cable quality, length, and signal-to-noise ratio of the
data signal. Modern cables have a bandwidth of close to 1 GHz.
high speed
better shielding
higher bandwidth
Prof. Maulik Trivedi, CE Department | 2140709 – Computer Networks (CN)
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 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet

 Coaxial cables used is widely used within the telephone system for long-distance lines but have
now largely been replaced by fiber optics on long-haul routes.

Figure 11: Coaxial Cable

3. Fiber Optics
 A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
 Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
 A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
 The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through
a core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.

faster data transmission

small size and weight
high data rate
Figure 12: Fiber Optic Cable

 Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the braid.
 The figure shows a single fiber viewed from the side. At the center is the glass core through
which the light propagates.
 The core is surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower index of refraction than the core, to keep
all the light in the core.
 Next comes a thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding. Fibers are typically grouped in bundles,
protected by an outer sheath. The figure shows a sheath with three fibers.
Unguided (Wireless) transmission media
 Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type
of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
1. Radio Transmission 3. Infrared
2. Microwave Transmission 4. Lightwave Transmission

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 the wave sent by the sending antenna & received by receiving antenna
ex fm radio

one sender many receivers

1cover
– Introduction
large area to Computer Networks & Internet
mainly used for wide area networks
1. Radio Transmission
 Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances, and can penetrate buildings easily,
so they are widely used for communication, both indoors and outdoors.
 Radio waves also are omnidirectional, meaning that they travel in all directions from the source,
so the transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully aligned physically.
 The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent.
 At low frequencies, radio waves pass through obstacles well, but the power falls off sharply with
distance from the source, roughly as 1/r2 in the air.
 At high frequencies, radio waves tend to travel in straight lines and bounce off obstacles. They
are also absorbed by rain.
 At all frequencies, radio waves are subject to interference from motors and other electrical
equipment.

Figure 13: Ground wave

 In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth.
 In the HF they bounce off the ionosphere.
2. Microwave Transmission
 Since the microwaves travel in a straight line, if the towers are too far apart, the earth will get in
the way. Consequently, repeaters are needed periodically.
 Unlike radio waves at lower frequencies, microwaves do not pass through buildings well. In
addition, even though the beam may be well focused at the transmitter, there is still some
divergence in space.
 Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in straight lines and can, therefore, be narrowly focused.
Concentrating all the energy into a small beam using a parabolic antenna gives a much higher
signal to noise ratio. Microwaves travel in straight lines, and so
 Advantages: the transmitter and receiver stations
 No right way is needed (compared to wired media). should be aligned to each other.
 Relatively inexpensive.
 Simple to install. Microwaves do not pass through
buildings. ->unidirectional
 Disadvantages:
 Do not pass through buildings well. Applications:
 Multipath fading problem (the delayed waves cancel the signal).
Long distance telephone communication,
 Absorption by rain above 8 GHz. Cellular phones, Television networks,
 A severe shortage of spectrum. Satellites,Wireless LANs
3. Infrared
 Unguided infrared and millimetre waves are widely used for short-range communication.
 The remote controls used on televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use infrared communication.

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 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet
Applications

It can use the infrared signals for short-range

communications.

Wireless alternatives to linking tools, including a

laptop to a printer.

Infrared signals are used for transmission

between keyboard, mouse, computers and
printers.
Figure 14: Infrared wave connection

 They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build but have a major drawback: they do not
pass through solid objects (try standing between your remote control and your television and
see if it still works).
 In general, as we go from long-wave radio toward visible light, the waves behave more and more
like light and less and less like a radio.
 On the other hand, the fact that infrared waves do not pass through solid walls well is also a
plus.
 It means that an infrared system in one room of a building will not interfere with a similar
system in adjacent rooms or buildings.
 Furthermore, security of infrared systems against eavesdropping is better than that of radio
systems precisely for this reason.
 Therefore, no government license is needed to operate an infrared system, in contrast to radio
systems, which must be licensed outside the ISM bands.
Topologies (Network Topologies) the manner in which nodes are arranged. physical layout of network
Topology defines Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
the structure of the nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
network  A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
-> how all the connected to each other. it must be flexible , cost must be minimum , should not have any single point
components are  Types of network topologies : of complete failures.
interconnected to
each other. 1. Bus 3. Star 5. Tree
2. Ring 4. Mesh 6. Hybrid
Bus Topology
 Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable.
all network device are
connected through a single
cable known as a backbone
cable.
transmits data in only one
direction

When one computer wants to

send a message , it puts a
message over the network. All
Prof. Maulik
the stations available Trivedi, CE Department
in the | 2140709 – Computer Networks (CN) 14
network will receive the
message. but only one accepts
the information.
 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet

Features: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly

 It transmits data only in one direction. used.
 Every device is connected to a single cable.
Advantages: easy to use and install The cost of the cable is less compared to
 It is cost effective (cheaper). other topologies, but it is used to build
small networks.
 Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
 Used in small networks. If the common cable fails, then the whole
 It is easy to understand. system will crash down
 Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages: difficult to truoubleshoot
 Cables fail then the whole network fails.
 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
 Cable has a limited length.
Ring Topology
 It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.

signals travel on the cable in only one

direction

failure in one node can affect the

whole network

The data flows in one direction, i.e. it

is unidirectional, but it can be made transmission is unidirectional &
bidirectional by having 2 connections sequential
between each Network Node, it is
called Dual Ring Topology. adding new nodes increase the
communication delay

Features:
 A number of repeaters are used and the transmission is unidirectional.
 A date is transferred in a sequential manner that is bitten by bit.
Advantages:
 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes
having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand.
Disadvantages:
 Troubleshooting is difficult in a ring topology.
 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
Star Topology
 In this type of topology, all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

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easy to control 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks & Internet
traffic flow is simple

data travels from sender to central hub and then

to the receiver

easy to modify and add new nodes

easy to troubleshoot

failure to one node does not bring down whole

network

Features:
 Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
 Acts as a repeater for data flow.
 Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages:
 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to set up and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages:
 Cost of installation is high.
 Expensive to use.
 If the hub is affected then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
 Performance is based on the.
Mesh Topology
 It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices.
 Traffic is carried only between two devices or nodes to which it is connected.
each node is connected with every other
node in network

easy to troubleshoot

difficult to expand the system

costly to maintain links.

Features:
 Fully connected.
 Robust.
 Not flexible.

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Advantages:
 Each connection can carry its own data load.
 It is robust.
 A fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages:
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 Cabling cost is more.
 Bulk wiring is required.
Tree Topology
 It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
 It is also called hierarchical topology.
 It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features:
 Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
 Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages:
 Extension of bus and star topologies.
 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages:
 Heavily cabled.
 Costly.
 If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Central hub fails then network fails.
Hybrid Topology
 A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology.
combination of two or more topology

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 For example, if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star,
topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and
star topology).

Features:
 It is a combination of two or more topologies
 Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages:
 Reliable as error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.
 Scalable as size can be increased easily.
 Flexible.
Disadvantages:
 Complex in design.
 Costly.
The Network Core
 Network core defines the connection of different network segments together and the process to
transmit the data packets across the network.
 The network core is implemented through the use of switching techniques.
 The classification of a switching network is shown below:

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Switched
Networks

Circuit-Switched Packet-Switched Message-Switched

Networks Networks Networks

Datagram Virtual-Circuit
Networks Networks

Circuit Switching
 Circuit switching is used in public telephone networks and is the basis for private networks built
on leased-lines.
 Circuit switching was developed to handle voice traffic but also digital data (although inefficient)
 With circuit switching a dedicated path is established between two stations for communication.

Establishes a dedicated path

between two stations for
communication.

Involves direct physical

connections between devices

 Switching and transmission resources within the network are reserved for the exclusive use of
the circuit for the duration of the connection.
 The connection is transparent: once it is established, it appears to attach devices as if there
were a direct connection.
 Communication via circuit switching involves three phases:
1. Circuit Establishment
2. Data Transfer
3. Circuit Disconnect

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 Connection path must be established before data transmission begins. Nodes must have
switching capacity and channel capacity to establish a connection.
 Circuit switching is inefficient
1. Channel capacity dedicated for a duration of a connection
2. If no data, capacity wasted
 Set up (connection) takes time
 Once connected, a transfer is transparent to the users
1. Data is transmitted at a fixed data rate with no delay (except for the propagation delay)
 Developed for voice traffic (phone)
1. May also be used for data traffic via modem
 Interconnection of telephones within a building or office.
 In circuit switching, a direct physical connection between two devices is created by space-
division switches, time-division switches, or both OR Circuit switching use any of below two
technologies:
Space Division Switching
 In a space-division switch, the path from one device to another is spatially separate from other
paths.
 Developed for the analogue environment.
 A crossbar is the most common space-division switch. It connects n inputs to m outputs via n ×
m cross points.
 Crossbar switch.

Figure 15: Space Division Switching

Time Division Switching

 In a time-division switch, the inputs are divided in time, using TDM. A control unit sends the
input to the correct output device.
 Use digital time division techniques to set up and maintain virtual circuits.

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Figure 16: Time Division Switching

Packet Switching
 Packet switching was designed to provide a more efficient facility than circuit-switching for burst
data traffic.
 With packet switching, a station transmits data in small blocks, called packets.
 At each node, packets are received, stored briefly (buffered) and passed on to the next node.
1. Store and forward mechanism
 Each packet contains some portion of the user data plus control info needed for proper
functioning of the network.
 A key element of packet-switching networks is whether the internal operation is datagram or
virtual circuit (VC).
1. With internal VCs, a route is defined between two endpoints and all packets for that VC
follow the same route.
2. With internal diagrams,
datagram each packet is treated independently, and packets intended for
the same destination may follow different routes.
 Examples of packet switching networks are X.25, Frame Relay, ATM and IP.
 Station breaks a long message into packets. Packets sent one at a time to the network.
 Packets handled in two ways:
1. Datagram
 Each packet treated independently
 Packets can take any practical route
 Packets may arrive out of order
 Packets may go missing
 Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover from missing packets
2. Virtual Circuit
 Pre-planned route established before any packets sent.

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 Once the route is established, all the packets between the two communicating
parties follow the same route through the network
 Call request and call accept packets to establish a connection (handshake)
 Each packet contains a Virtual Circuit Identifier (VCI) instead of a destination
address
 No routing decisions required for each packet
 Clear request to drop circuit Less commonly used compared to circuit and packet switching.
 Not a dedicated path also called store and forward network.
Message Switching no limit on block size it reduce network traffic
 This technique was somewhere in the middle of circuit switching and packet switching.
 In message switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is transferred in its
entirety.
entirely
 A switch working on message switching first receives the whole message and buffers it until
there are resources available to transfer it to the next hop.
 If the next hop is not having enough resource to accommodate large size message, the message
is stored and switch waits.
Protocols layers and their service model
OSI Layer Architecture
 OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as
the first step toward international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers.
 It was revised in 1995.
 The model is called the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals
with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for communication with other
systems.
 The OSI model has seven layers.
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

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Figure 17: OSI Reference Model

Physical Layer
 The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the transmission and
reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium.
 It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical medium,
and carries the signals for all of the higher layers. It provides:
 Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC to better
accommodate the characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in a bit and frame
synchronization.
 Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted by baseband
(digital) or broadband (analog) signalling.
 Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals appropriate for the
physical medium.

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Data link Layer

 The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over
the physical layer, allowing layers above it to assume virtually error-free transmission over the
link.
 To do this, the data link layer provides:
 Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the logical link between two
nodes.
 Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off" (stop) when no frame buffers are
available.
 Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.
 Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and recovers from
errors that occur in the physical layer by retransmitting non-acknowledged frames and handling
duplicate frame receipt.
 Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
 Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
 Media access management: determines when the node "has the right" to use the physical
medium.
Network Layer
 The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which physical path the data
should take based on network conditions, a priority of service, and other factors.
 To do this, the data link layer provides:
 Routing: routes frames among networks.
 Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a sending
station to "throttle back" its frame transmission when the router's buffer fills up.
 Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum transmission unit
(MTU) size is less than the frame size, a router can fragment a frame for transmission and re-
assembly at the destination station.
 Logical-physical address mapping translates logical addresses or names, into physical addresses.
 Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames forwarded by
subnet intermediate systems, to produce billing information.
Transport Layer
 The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no
losses or duplications. It relieves (release) the higher layer protocols from any concern with the
transfer of data between them and their peers.
 The size and complexity of a transport protocol depend on the type of service it can get from the
network layer. For a reliable network layer with virtual circuit capability, a minimal transport
layer is required. If the network layer is unreliable and/or only supports datagrams, the
transport protocol should include extensive error detection and recovery.
 The transport layer provides:
 Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the message
into smaller units (if not already small enough), and passes the smaller units down to the
network layer. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with
acknowledgments.

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 Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message buffers are
available.
 Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively large messages, but there are strict message
size limits imposed by the network (or lower) layer. Consequently, the transport layer must
break up the messages into smaller units, or frames, prepending a header to each frame.
 The transport layer header information must then include control information, such as message
start and message end flags, to enable the transport layer on the other end to recognize
message boundaries.
 In addition, if the lower layers do not maintain sequence, the transport header must contain
sequence information to enable the transport layer on the receiving end to get the pieces back
together in the right order before handing the received message up to the layer above.
Session Layer
 The session layer allows session establishment between processes running on different stations.
It provides:
 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: allows two application processes on
different machines to establish, use and terminate a connection, called a session.
 Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate over the
network, performing security, name recognition, logging, and so on.
Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application layer. It can be
viewed as the translator for the network. This layer may translate data from a format used by
the application layer into a common format at the sending station, then translate the common
format to a format known to the application layer at the receiving station.
 The presentation layer provides:
 Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
 Data compression reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
 Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password encryption.
Application Layer
 The application layer serves as the window for users and application processes to access
network services.
 This layer contains a variety of commonly needed functions:
1. Resource sharing and device redirection
2. Remote file access
3. Remote printer access
4. Inter-process communication
5. Network management
6. Directory services
7. Electronic messaging (such as mail)
8. Network virtual terminals
TCP/IP Reference Model (Internet Protocol Stack layers)
 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol suite is the engine for the
Internet and networks worldwide.
 TCP/IP either combines several OSI layers into a single layer or does not use certain layers at all.

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 TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to share resources across
the network.
 The TCP/IP model has five layers.
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Data Link Layer
5. Physical Network

Figure 18: TCP/IP Reference Model

 As we can see from the above figure, the presentation and session layers are not there in the
TCP/IP model. Also, note that the Network Access Layer in the TCP/IP model combines the
functions of Data link Layer and Physical Layer.
Application Layer
 The application layer is the topmost layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model.
 The application layer is present on the top of the Transport layer.
 Application layer defines TCP/IP application protocols and how host programs interface with
Transport layer services to use the network.
 Application layer includes all the higher-level protocols like DNS (Domain Naming System), HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol), Telnet, SSH, FTP (File Transfer Protocol), TFTP (Trivial File Transfer
Protocol), SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol),
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), X Windows, RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol) etc.

Transport Layer
 The purpose of the Transport layer is to permit devices on the source and destination hosts to
carry on a conversation.

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 Transport layer defines the level of service and status of the connection used when transporting
data.
 The transport layer provides the end-to-end data transfer by delivering data from an application
to its remote peer.
 The most-used transport layer protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which
provides:
 Reliable delivery data  Congestion control
 Duplicate data suppression  Flow control
 Another transport layer protocol is the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which provides:
 Connectionless  Best-effort service
 Unreliable
 UDP is used by applications that need a fast transport mechanism and can tolerate the loss of
some data.
Network Layer (Internet Layer)
 The internet layer also called the network layer.
 Internet layer pack data into data packets known as IP datagrams, which contain source and
destination address (logical address or IP address) information that is used to forward the
datagrams between hosts and across networks.
 The Internet layer is also responsible for the routing of IP datagrams.
 Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important protocol in this layer.
 It is a connectionless protocol that does not assume reliability from lower layers. IP does not
provide reliability, flow control or error recovery.
 IP provides a routing function that attempts to deliver transmitted messages to their
destination.
 These message units in an IP network are called an IP datagram.
 Example: IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, and RARP.
Network Interface Layer (Network Access Layer) datalink layer and physical layer
 Network Access Layer defines details of how data is physically sent through the network,
including how bits are electrically or optically signalled by hardware devices that interface
directly with a network medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted pair copper wire.
 The protocols included in Network Access Layer are Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame
Relay etc.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol /

OSI (Open System Interconnection)
Internet Protocol)
 It has 7 layers  It has 4 layers
 OSI provides layer functioning and also defines  TCP/IP model is more based on protocols
functions of all the layers. and protocols are not flexible with other
layers.
 In the OSI model, the transport layer  In the TCP/IP model, the transport layer
guarantees the delivery of packets does not guarantee delivery of packets.
 Follows horizontal approach  Follows a vertical approach.
 OSI model has a separate presentation layer  TCP/IP doesn’t have a separate presentation
layer

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 OSI is a general model.  TCP/IP model cannot be used in any other

application.
 The network layer of the OSI model provides  The Network layer in the TCP/IP model
both connection-oriented and connectionless provides connectionless service.
service.
 OSI model has a problem of fitting the  TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols in the model
 Protocols are hidden in the OSI model and are  In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
easily replaced as the technology changes.
 OSI model defines services, interfaces, and  In TCP/IP, it is not clearly separated its
protocols very clearly and makes a clear services, interfaces, and protocols.
distinction between them.

Understanding of Delay, Loss, and Throughput in the Packet Switching

Network
Basics
 Recall that a packet starts in a host (the source), passes through a series of routers, and ends its
journey in another host (the destination).
 As a packet travels from one node (host or router) to the subsequent node (host or router)
along this path, the packet suffers from several types of delays at each node along the path.
 The most important of these delays are the
 Nodal processing delay  Transmission delay
 Queuing delay  Propagation delay
 Together, these delays accumulate to give a total nodal delay.
 The performance of many Internet applications—such as search, Web browsing, email, maps,
instant messaging, and voice-over-IP—are greatly affected by network delays.

Figure 19: Delay in Packet Switched Network

Processing Delay
 The time required to examine the packet’s header and determine where to direct the packet is
part of the processing delay.

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 The processing delay can also include other factors, such as the time needed to check for bit-
level errors in the packet that occurred in transmitting the packet's bits from the upstream node
to the router.
 It is typically on the order of microseconds or less.
Queuing Delay
 At the queue, the packet experiences a queuing delay as it waits to be transmitted onto the link.
 The length of the queuing delay of a specific packet will depend on the number of earlier-
arriving packets that are queued and waiting for transmission onto the link.
 If the queue is empty and no other packet is currently being transmitted, then our packet’s
queuing delay will be zero.
 On the other hand, if the traffic is heavy and many other packets are also waiting to be
transmitted, the queuing delay will be long.
 Queuing delays can be on the order of microseconds to milliseconds in practice.
Transmission Delay Once a packet gets a chance to be transmitted, it takes time to send its data over the link.
 Assuming that packets are transmitted in a first-come-first-served manner like packet-switched
networks.
 Now packet can be transmitted only after all the packets that have arrived before it have been
transmitted.
 Denote the length of the packet by L bits, and denote the transmission rate of the link from a
router to a router by R bits/sec.
 The transmission delay is L/R.
 Transmission delays are typically on the order of microseconds to milliseconds in practice.
Propagation Delay
 When
Once aabit
bitis issent
pushed into
into the the
link, link, ittime
it needs needs to propagate
to physically travelto
to router B. The (e.g.,
its destination time from
required to
one router to
another).
propagate from the beginning of the link to router B is the propagation delay.
 The bit propagates at the propagation speed of the link.
 The propagation speed depends on the physical medium of the link.
 Propagation delays are on the order of milliseconds.
 Propagations delay=d (Length of Physical Link) /s (Propagation speed in medium).
Packet Loss
 Packet loss is the failure of one or more transmitted packets to arrive at their destination.
 This event can cause noticeable effects on all types of digital communications.
 The loss of data packets depends on the switch queue. The loss of data packets increases with
the increases in the traffic intensity.
 It affects the performance of the network.
Throughput
 Throughput or Network Throughput is the rate of successful message delivery over a
communication channel.
 The data these messages belong to may be delivered over a physical or logical link or it can pass
through a certain network node.
 Throughput is usually measured in bits per second (bit/s or bps), and sometimes in data packets
per second (p/s or pps) or data packets per time slot.

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Problem:
In this problem, we consider sending real-time voice from Host A to Host B over a packet-
switched network (VoIP). Host A converts analog voice to a digital 64 kbps bit stream on the
fly. Host A then groups the bits into 56-byte packets. There is one link between Hosts A and
B; its transmission rate is 2 Mbps and its propagation delay is 10 msec. As soon as Host A
gathers a packet, it sends it to Host B. As soon as Host B receives an entire packet, it converts
the packet’s bits to an analog signal. How much time elapses from the time a bit is created
(from the original analog signal at Host A) until the bit is decoded (as part of the analog
signal at Host B)?

Host A Host B

Given:
 Analog to Digital conversion rate = 64 kbps
 Packet size = 56 bytes (Convert into bits so 56 bytes = 56 * 8 = 448 bits).
 Transmission rate = 2 Mbps
 Propagation delay = 10 msec

 Since this is a packet switched network, the data will be transmitted packet by packet.
 A packet is 56 byte and the analog to digital conversation rate is 64 kbps, thus the preparing
time
PT for a packet is 448/(64*1000)= 0.007 sec = 7 msec
 The transition delay TD for a packet is (Size or Length of packet) / (Speed or Transmission rate)
So, TD = (56*8) / (2*1000*1000) =0.000224 s = 0.224msec.
 Propagation delay PD = 10msec (Given in sum)
 Finally, the total time elapses from the time a bit is create until the bit is decoded is PT+TD+PD=
7+0.224+10 = 17.224 msec.

Unicasting:
Unicasting is a one-to-one communication technique in which data is sent from one
sender to one specific receiver.

Multicasting:
Multicasting is a one-to-many communication technique in which data is sent from one
sender to multiple selected recipients

Broadcasting:
Broadcasting is a one-to-all communication technique in which data is sent from one
sender to all devices within a network segment.

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