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PART - 1 GENERAL STUDIES PAPER-II | SECTION -C
Indian Socio-Cultural Heritage with Special Reference to Tripura
Salient Features of Art and Architecture of Ancient India - Pallavas &Cholas
08-08-2023 A. B

SALIENT FEATURES DF ART AND ARCHITCCTURE

OF ANCIENT INDIA: PALLAVAS
The Pallavas emerged as a formidable power in the South around the 4" century AD and were at the height
of their power in the seventh century AD. They were able to sustain their
cities, centres of learning, temples, and rule for about 500 years. They built great
sculptures and influenced a large part of
Southeast Asia in culture. KASHMIR 625 AD
There is no clarity on the name of the
founder of Pallava dynasty but the rise of PUNJAB
Pallavas in the last quarter of the 6th century is Shtanvisvåra
attributed to Simha Vishnu.
Mahendravarman Iis considered to Mathuta
MAUKHARE

PRATIH S
be the greatest ruler of the Pallavas. $0NDH Kannauj
His reign was marked by many
architectural and literary achievements
EMPIRE OF HARSHA
Vidisha
ATEGUPTAS
Pataputra GAUDA:
VARMANS

which woutd laid the foundations of MALNA

MAITRAKAS Karnasubana
future Art and Culture of South India. VjainACHURIÇ
Kanchipuram was the capital of the aabhioe
Pallavas porukaccha Tamralipti
KÄUNGA
Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram Ajnta
and the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple at
Kanchipuram are famous temples that were CHALUKYAS Vengi
Core ro of Harshe Vrhens

constructed during the reign of Pallavas. boundades l Hacsbe

Vardhns Emgire
Pallava Dynasty Revatldvip Badai
A part of southern India was ruled by PALLAQAS inpir

the Pallava Dynasty, an Indian monarchy that Kahchipuram

lasted from 275 CE to 897 CE. After the Gud tngdore
PANDYAY
*zOutor bonts
Satavahana Dynasty, in which the Pallavas ERAS
served as feudatories, was overthrown, they GLILNC kngdorn
Outor boundardos
rose to prominence. The Pallava Dynasty rose
to prominence during the reigns of Mahendravarman I (571-630 CE) and
Narasimhavarman I (630-668 CE). They
ruled the Telugu and northern regions of the Tamil area for almost 600 years tillthe end of the ninth eeni
The Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the best example of the
patronage of architecture. (1484) Pallavas'
The Pallavas laid the groundwork for South Indian mediaeval architecture, leaving behind stunning statues
and temples.
In addition to building cave and structural temples, such as the monolithic rathas and stone
carvings of
legendary themes in Mahabalipuram, the Pallavas promoted the study of art.
The Pallayas provided the foundation for the style by creating the rock cut and the structural, two of its
forms.
The Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram, the Shore Temple, and the Pancha Rathas of Mahabalipuram are
Some of the finest specimens of Pallava art and architecture. The best sculptor of this period was Akshara.

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 Difference between Nagara and Dravidian Style - Nagara Style vs Dravidian
An important difference between Nagara and Dravidian Stle is that Nagara style
towers, whereas Dravidian style architecture has a single central tower. Temple architecture has multiple
forms of Hindu architecture and has many styles. Moreover., architecture is one of the primary
architectural styles. according to history, different countries have distinct
The difference between Nagara and Dravidian style also lies in
the case of Nagara, and the pyramid-like shape the shape of the central tower is curvilinear in
below. in Dravidian stvle. Let us explore the differences in detail given
Nagara Style vs Dravidian
Parameters for Nagara Style architecture
Difference Dravidian Style architecture
Location
Temples in the north Indian region are known as Temples in the South Indian region are
Nagara style temples.
Main temples spire Multiple known as Dravidian-styletemples.
Shikharas
style of temples.
are present in the
Nagara Dravidian style has one single
Central Tower The shape of the central tower is shikhara.
the case of Nagara style temples. curvilinear in The shape of the central tower is a
pyramid in the case of Dravidian style
Pedestal Pedestals are higher than the ground. temples.
Pedestals are not higher than the
Boundaries ground.
Not much importance is given to the
boundaries. Boundaries of the temple are given a
Nagara and Dravidian Style of Architecture lot of importance.
Nagara and Dravidian styles of
prevailing dynasties. The buildings of both architecture
types
were developed and designed with the
of temples are engraved and full of assistance of their
Both showcase Indian literature and culture. sculptures.
Each type of temple shows the mythologies of the specific
Some similar features dynasty.
between the Nagara and Dravidian style temples are:
Sacred pools
Mandaps with pillars
Temple grounds sCHCCL
Prakara walls
Multiple entrances in the temple.
Nagara Style of Architecture
In the Nagara style of architecture, temples are built on a platform. Also, these
boundary walls or gateways. The mandaps are constructed anterior to the main Shrine. temples do not have any
Unlike the Dravidian style temples, there are no water reservoirs.
Rather, the images of the Ganga and Yamuna are encrypted.
The two major characteristics of this style are the cruciform ground plan and the curvilinear tower.
Some examples of temples built in the Nagara style are Sun Temple at Konark, Lakshman temple at
Khajuraho and Kandariya Mahadeva temple in Madhya Pradesh.
Dravidian Style of Architecture
The Dravidian style is the oldest style of architecture with many distinct features. Most of these styles of
temples have short pillars, and they also have boundary walls and gateways.
A
wall bounds Dravidian-style temples.
The Gopuram is the entrance.
In Dravidian style temples, Dvarapalas are placed to guard the entrance.
The water reservoirs are the essential feature of these temples which exists in each of them.
Some exanmples of temples built in the Dravidian style are the Kailashnath temple at Ellora, Brihadeshwara
Temple, etc.
Pallava Architecture
Pallava architecture can be sub-divided into two phases:
The Rock Cut Phase
The Mahendra and Mamalla groups were the two monuments that made up the rock-cut phase, which lasted
from 610to 668 AD.
The structures built under Mahendravarman I's rule are the Mahendra group (610 - 630 AD). This group's
monuments are almost often pillared halls carved out of mountain faces.
These mandapas, or pillared halls, are modelled after the Jain temples of the time. The cave temples in
Mamandur, Pallavaram, and Mandagapattu are outstanding examples of the Mahendra group of monuments.
The second collection of rock-cut monuments dates from 630 to 668 AD and is from the Mamalla group.

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 on to pillared halls, free-standing monolithic shrines known as rathas were built during this time.
The Pancha Rathas and Ariuna's Penance at Mahabalipuram are outstanding illustrations of this style.
The StructuralPhase
Free-standing shrines were built during the structural phase using specially imported stone and mortar. The
Rajasimha group (690to 800 AD) and the Nandivarman group have monuments from this time (800to 900 AD).
The Pallavas experimented extensively in their carly structural temples, including in the Rajasimha group.
Ihe Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram, built by
Narasimhavarman II, also knowm as Rajasimha, are the best specimens of this era.
The Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram best represents the Nandivarman group of monuments.
The impressive Brihadeswarar Temple of the Cholas at Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and other
notable architectural works were built on models of Pallava architecture, which was at its peak at this time.
Characteristics of Pallava Architecture
From A.D. 600 to 900, the Pallava dynasty maintained its many architectural styles. Its creations can be
divided into two periods, the first in the seventh century and the second in the eighth and ninth centuries. The
examples in the former were fully rock cut, whilst the latter was entirely structural.
The works of each phase were separated into two groups, totaling four groups, each of which was called after
the monarch inpower at the time. There were four prominent kings during the period of their rule.
1" Phase: Mahendra Group, A.D. 610 to 640; Mamalla Group, A.D. 640 to 690.
2nd Phase: Rajasimha Group, A.D. 690 to 800; Nandivarman Group, c. A.D. 800 to c. 900.
Rock Cut Architecture Under Pallava Dynasty
The Pallava dynasty was the apex of rock-cut architecture, carving enormous rocks into various sizes and
shapes that were then utilised to construct temples. The front side of the rocks that serve as the Mandapa' are cut
with pillars, andthe back side is left unfinished to construct the Sanctum of the Gods.
Mahendravarman I was a renowned supporter of the arts and built many beautiful buildings. He also
authored a drama in Sanskrit called Mattavilasa Prahasana."
Many temples replaced the design of rock-cut temples after Mahendravarman I's reign.
The first rock-cut temples were made entirely of rock; they lacked any bricks, metal, or other building
materials.
Dwarapalakas, or royal gatekeepers, were carved in this temple's entryway and appeared in most south
Indian temples.
Pallava Art
Kudumianmalai and
The Pallava kings were supporters of the arts. Their passion for music can be seen in the
Thirumayam music inscriptions. Some musical instruments used throughout the Pallava era included the Yaazhi,
Mridhangam, and Murasu. Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman Iwere both still musically accomplished. The
was referred to as
Pallava period's temple sculptures show how well-liked dance was at the time. Mahendravarman I
Chittirakkarapuli", and his paintings at Chittannavasal are examples of the style of Pallava painting.
Mahendravarman wrote Thatchina Chitram and the satirical play Maththavilasam Prakasanam. Therefore.
drama, music, and dance were quite popular during the Pallava era. The Pallavas had positively impacted the
development of culture in this way.
Pallava Painiting at Canjeevaram
45 miles west-southwest of Madras in Canjeevaram, the former Pallava capital, has several temples and
murals.
shrines. The most significant of the Kailasanatha and Vaikunthaperumal temples have historical the little cells that line the
Paintings from the 7th and 8th century A.D. can be found on the inside walls of
outside walls of the courtyard of the Kailasanatha temple, which was constructed during the reign of the
Pallava king Narasimhavarman alias Rajasimha (680-722 AD).
Images from Hindu mythology are shown in them. temple.
Except for a tiny head under one of the eaves of the main tower, or the Vimana, the paintings in this However.
which are thought to have been created during the eighth and, ninth century A.D., are all but gone,
found under the eaves and in the niches of the main tower.
paint remnants can be
The mechanical foundation of the paintings immediately supporting the ground is made up of theniches inner walls
Kailasanatha temple, as well as the eaves and walls of the of the
of the cells in the courtyard of the
Vimana of the Vaikunthaperumaltemple.
The Kailasanatha and Vaikunthaperumal temples include the colours Yellow ochre, Red ochre, Terre Verte,
Carbon, and Líme.
Pallava Paintings at Kailasanatha Temple
Although Rajasimha's sculptures are still intact, their paintings are gone. There are rumours that vibrantly
coloured murals previously covered the walls of the Kailasanatha temple's pradakshina-patha. However, the majority
of it has been reduced to traces.
At Kailasanatha, there are no complete paintings; only remnants have survived.
However, the vestiges at Talagishwara temple in Panamalai and the fragments at Kailasanatha are significant
because they are the only two remaining instances of Pallava mural paintings.
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 Additionally, they represent a critical period in the evolution of South Indian painting.
Pallava Art: Sculptures
Pallava sculptures were created between the fourth and ninth centuries. The
in the development of rock-cut era of the Pallavas saw a boom
AD. Contrarily, the other templesarchitecture,
were built
Pallava art and architecture were first documented between 610 and 60
The Pallava Dynasty also saw arisebetween 690 and 900 AD.
in the popularity of rock-cut
construction and sculptures quickly displaced the prominent caves. For thefirst time, the unique rock
component of the South Indian temples.
0. Give examples of
Pallava Architecture?
Some of the best examples of Pallava art and architecture are the
Shore Temple and the Pancha Rathas Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram, the
architecture can be sub-divided into twoof Mahabalipuram, Akshara was the greatest sculptor of their time. Pallava
Q. What innovation did the phases - the rock cut phase and the
Pallavas bring in temple architecture? structural phase.
The Pallavas patronized learning art and temple building both cave temples and
monolithic rathas and stone carvings of mythological scenes in structural temples including
foundation of this style were responsible for Mahabalipuram.
two of its forms, the rock - cut The Pallavas who laid ne
and the structural.
Political History of PallavaS
Some historians say they are a branch of the
South India. Parthian people (a tribe from Iran) who
Some say they are an indigenous gradually migrated to
tribes. dynasty that arose within the Southern region and
were a mix of various
Some experts believe them to be of Naga
Madras. origin who first settled around the
Another theory says that they are descendant from a Tondaimandalam region near
island off Jaffna, Sri Lanka). Chola prince and a Naga princess of
Some others are of the opinion that the Manipallavam (an
The first Pallava kings ruled during the Pallavas were feudatories of the Satavahanas.
three kingdoms in southern India vying forbeginning of the 4th century AD. By the 7" century
AD, there were
Madurai and the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. supremacy namelythe Chalukyas of Badami, the Pandyas of
Salient Features of the Pallava Architecture
The Pallava architecture shows the
The earliest examples of the Pallavatransition from the Rock Cut Architecture to the Stone
art are the rock cut temples of the 7 built temples.
examples are of structural temples built in 8 and 9th century. century AD, while the later
The rock cut reliefs of the Pallavas are
At the end of 6" century, King the earliest surviving royal portraits after the
Harsha ruled
South, Pallavas expanded themselves from the much ofinthe the North and he patronized the Kushana images.
Buddhist Institutions. In
Pallava Kings are known to be one of the greatest Andhra Pradesh of today to much of Tamil Nadu. The
Mahendravarman was a poet and a playwright patrons of the art, music, architecture, dance and
literature. King
Prahasana. Another King of Pallava Dynasty namedwhoRajsimha wrote a satire on contemporary life titled
"Mattavilasa
that he used the title "Kalasamudra" for himself. (Narsimhamvaraman) was such a great lover of art

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 SALIENT FEATURES OF ART AND
ARCHITECTURE
OF ANCIENT INDIA: CHOLAS
The Chola Dynasty, aTamil I dynasty, ruled
Cholas,
period Tamil Nadu reached new heights of excellence primarily in southern India until the thirteenth century. Under the
the formmarked the in art, religion, and literature. In all of these areas, the
of majesticculmination of movements that had begun earlier under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture Chola
Art and
Architecture temples
-
and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a level of finesse never before seen in
India,
in
1. The
period of theFeatures
and refinement of imperial Cholas (c. 850 CE- 1250 CE) in South India was one of continuous improvement
Chola art and
. Iney used the wealth gained architecture.
exquisite bronze sculptures in anfrom their extensive conguests to construct
almost entirely Hindu cultural setting. long-lasting stone temples and
3. The Cholas built their
schoolof architecture. temples in the style of the Pallava dynasty, which was influenced by the Amaravati
4. Chola artists and artisans drew
further
elevating the Chola temple design to newinspiration from other contemporary art and architectural schools,
S. The Chola kings constructed
numerous heights.
plains, Central and Northerm Tamil temples throughout their kingdom, which typically
Nadu, included the
parts of modern Karnataka and Andhra and at times the entire state of Tamil Nadu, as well as adjoining
6. We
can roughly see three major phasesPradesh.
in the evolution of Chola temple
early phase of Vijayalaya Chola and continuing architecture,
until Sundara Chola, the middle phase of beginning with the
Rajendra Chola when achievements scaled heights Rajaraja Chola and
the Chalukya Chola period of Kulottunga I until the never reached before or since, and the final phase during
7. In addition to temples, the Cholas Chola empire's demise.
constructed
structures are mentioned in inscriptions and in hospitals, public utility buildings, and palaces. Many such
8. The golden palace allegedly built by contemporary accounts.
structure.
Aditya Karikala for his father Sundara Chola is an example of such a
9. However, such structures were made of
withstood the test of time.
perishable materials, such as wood and fired bricks, and have not
Chola Sculpture
1. Stone and metal sculptures abound in Chola temples. They
depict Chola
Nataraja sculpture is famous not only for its beauty, but also for its spiritual period socio-religious ideas. The
significance.
2. In Vaishnava temples, there is a Vishnu idol. In sculptural
representations of Alwars, a spiritual calmness is
depicted. The Cholas used sculptures to decorate the walls, pillars, and roofs.
3. The importance of sculpture is palpable in Chola works. The decorative
4. During the Chola period, realism dominated sculpture. Scenes fromsculptures
are still in place.
the Ramayanam Mahabharatam,
Puranas, and the lives of the 63 Nayanmars are sculpted in narrative panels on temple walls.
Chola's Contribution to Art
Portraits
1. Inthe art of portraiture, the Cholas outperformed the Pallavas. The best portraits can be found on the walls of
Koranganatha and Nageswarasamy temples.
2. In Kalahasti temple,there are portraits of Cholamadevi and Kulothunga-II. They are excellent examples of
Chola portraiture.
Paintings
1. Paintings flourished, and figures were painted with realism. The Choia painters' skillcan be seen in their
paintings. Paintings in the Big Temple are excellent examples.
2. Scenes from Periyapuranam are beautifully depicted, and the Kailasanathar termple in Kanchipuram and the
Vishnu temple in Malaiyadipatti both house fine examples of Chola paintings.
3. During the Chola period, Rajaraja-I and Rajendra made greater contributions to the development of the art of
painting.
Music
1. The art of music flourished during the Chola period. In music, twenty-three panns were used. The seven
music alphabets were used: sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, da, and ni. In every temple, Aiwar and Nayanmar hymns were
sung.
2. Nambiandar nambiand Nathamuni made significant contributions to the advancement of music.
3. Music has inspired the creation of books. In the Brahadeeswarar temple, several musicians were appointed.
Drums, udukkai, veena, and flute were well-known musical instruments.
4. Sagadakkottigal assembled a band of musicians. Endowments have been established to promote music. The
kings rewarded musicians.
3. Temples and mutts provided vocal and instrumental music instruction.
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 Dance
1. The Chola kings supported the art of dance. During the Chola period, two types of dances
Bharatanatyam and Kathakali. Lord Siva was depicted as a performer of the Karana dance. were pertormed:
2. Lord Nataraja can be seen dancing at the Natarajar temple in
Kumbakonam. Chidamparam and the Sarangapani temple in
3. Rajaraja I assigned 400 dancing girls to the Tanjore Big
4. There were two dance directors incharge of Temple.
5. Dance dramas were also coordinating these dancing girls.
performed
promote the art of dancing.
on stages during festival times. Chola kings
established endowments to
Drama
1. Drama was promoted by the
2. Dramas were performed on aCholas. Drama was linked to music and dance.
variety of stages and theatres. During the festival, two
Rajarajeswara natakam and
3. The Chola kings rewarded Rajarajavijayam.
dramas were performed:
drama
koothu, and Santhikoothu are all actors within the honours. One type of drama is Koothu.
4 The mentioned
Cholas' cultural glory is reflected in Chola inscriptions.
Ariyakuthu, Chakki
monuments include theliterature. Chola kings constructed hundreds of
5. The Cholas' cultural
Tanjore temple Brahadeeswarar (Big Temple) temples.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram
6. The glorious Chola culture temple. and the
bakthi. had a large impact on Tamil society, instilling many cultural
Cholas as Builders of Temples values such as
1
Innumerable temples were built and patronised by the Cholas. The
Chozhapuram, and Darasuram are the repositories of Dancingroyal temples of Thanjavur, Gangaikonda
Brihadishvarar temple architecture, sculpture, paintings, and Chola arts woman accompanied by musician,
2. The temples became a focal
3. The temple point for social, economic, cultural, and iconography.
paraphernalia, which includes temple officials, political activities.
dancers,
instruments, and their masers led by priests worshipping the gods, musicians, singers, players of musical
Architecturally, are simple and modest in thereflects
4 the royal court.
the Chola
padai) were also built wheretemples
the kings were buried. early stages. Sepulchral temples (pallip
Temple Architecture During the Cholas
Brihadeeshvarar Temple
1 The Grand Temple of Thanjavur, also
example of Chola architecture, painting,known as Rajarajisvaram and
sculpture, and iconography. Brihadishvarar Temple, is a magnificent
2. Rajaraja's polity was greatly
topped with an 80-ton stone. legitimised by this temple. The sanctum, which has a 190-foot vimana, is
3. The figures of Lakshmi,
Vishnu,
walls of the sanctum are notable. Ardhanarisvara, and Bikshadana, a mendicant form of Siva, on the
4. The fresco paintings and outer
Chola rulers' miniature sculptures of scenes from puranas and
epics in the temple walls reveal the
5. Dancing girls,religious ideology.
musicians,
attached to this temple.
and music masters were chosen from
various settlements across TamilNadu and
6. Singers had been
assigned to recite the bhakti hymns in the temple
Gangaikonda
1. In Chozhapuram grounds.
commemoration of his victory in North India,
of Brihadisvarar temple in Rajendra Ibuilt Gangaikonda Chozhapuram on the
2. He constructed the Thanjavur. model
Chola-gangam irrigation tank
coronation centre, which became a Chola landmark. near the capital of Jalastambha (water-pillar). It
3. The sculptures of became the
of the idols of godsArdhanariswarar, Durga, Vishnu, Surya, Chandesa, and
Darasuram Temple
placed in the
niches of the sanctum's outer wall. Anugrahamurty are the
best pieces
1. Darasuram Temple, built by
architecture. Rajaraja II (1146-1172), is yet another significant
2. In the form of Chola contribution to temple
miniatures,
(sanctum sanctorum) wall. incidents from the Periyapuranam are depicted on the temple's garbhagriha
Features of Chola Architecture
1The dvarapalas, or guardian figures, at
the entrance to the
period, became a distinctive
, After a transition from feature of Chola Temples. mandapa, or hall, which began in the Palava
the Pallava Period's rock cut
3 In comparison to the
colossal structures, the
of the Imperial Cholas, theDravidian Style was fully developed.
Kaveri River were smaller and buildings
made of brick. early Chola temples on the banks of the

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 4
The Imperial Chola
5
The Siva temples are adorned with exquisite, well-composed sculptures and frescoes.
6. Among the Temple of Tanjore, the largest and tallest of all Indian temples, was built during the Chola period.
Significance of sculptures at the temple, Ganas are the most memorable
Chola Architecture figures created in Chola temples.
: nola temples had a beautiful
shikara stone at the top. It intricate and
Samazing how these structures, weighing hundreds of had
2
tonnes, are
meticulously carved carvings.
placed
DDuring their reign, the Cholas built temples in Nageshwara, without the use of cranes.
Chidambaram. Brihadeshwara, Airavatesvara, and
4. Other kingdoms in South India and Sri Lanka adopted their style.
Untilthe arrival of the Cholas, the art was supported by the common people and the community. During the
Tegn of the Chola Kings, however, the Kings themselves
of grand temples. The sophistication of art in these gujded and advanced large donations for the construction
Astime passed, the size and grandeur of the temples temple structures reflected the atmosphere of the imperial court.
began
the Chola temples built in the later half of the period were to trump the earlier emphasis on art. It can be seen that
deity while also depicting the majesty of the rulers vast structures proclaiming the majesty and power of the
who built them.
Pallavas were the first recognisable South Indian dynasty who indulged in the pursuit of architectural
innovations. The first seeds of Chola temple architecture in Tamil Nadu were possibly sown during this period. The
temple architecture evolved from the early cave temples and monolith temples of Mamallapuram to the Kailasanatha
and Vaikuntaperumal temples of Kanchipuram. This architecture style formed the foundation from which the Cholas,
who were in close contact with the Pallavas during their periods of decline, took
Nilakanta Sastri, in his A History of South India". some valuable lessons according to
The early Cholas built numerous temples. Aditya I and Parantaka I were
Inscriptions of Aditya Irecord that he built a number of temples along the banks of prolific builders for their faith.
the river Kaveri. These temples
were much smaller in comparison to the huge monumental structures of the later Cholas
structures rather than stone.
and were probably brick
The Vijayalacholeswaram near Pudukkottai in Tamil Nadu is an example of a surviving early
building. The style of this structure clearly shows Pallava influences in the design. It has an unusual Chola
arrangement of a
circular garba griha (where the deity resides) within a square prakara - circumbulatory corridor. Above this rises the
vimana or the tower in four diminishing storeys of which the lower three are square and the top circular. Each level
is separated from the next by acornice. The whole structure is surmounted bya dome which inturnis topped with a
stone kalasa -a crest. Very faint traces of paintings can be seen inside on the walls. These paintings are dated not
earlier than the 17th century. The little temple of Nageswara at Kumbakonam is also of the same period.
The Koranganatha Temple at Srinivasanallur near Hirapalli is an example of the period of Parantaka I. This
temple is situated on the banks of the river Kaveri, and is a small temple with beautiful sculptures on every surface.
The base of the wallhas a row of sculpted mythical animals that were a unique feature of Chola architecture. The
first floor is made of bricks which have been plastered.
Muyarkovil Temple in the Pudukkottai area was built by a feudatory of Parantaka II during the second half
of the tenth century. As the name suggests, the temple complex has three main shrines standing side by side in a row,
along the north-south direction, facing west. Out of these three, only two, the central and southern vimanams
(towers) are now extant. Of the thirdor the northern shrine, the basement alone remains. The architectural style of
these shrines exhibit clear concordance with the later Chola temples.
The Cholas of the Tanjore line, also known as the Imperial Cholas ruled over most of South India for about
four centuries i.e., 875 -1175 AD.
The political and ceremonial centre of the Cholas was Thanjavur (Tanjai). The Cholas linked themselves to
the Solar dynasty.
The Cholas conquered parts of Gujarat, Malwa, Deccan and Indonesia, Lakshadweep, Maldives and Sri
Lanka in entirety.
Bay of Bengalcame to be known as the "Chola Lake' as they dominated the area with their powerful navy.
The entire coast from Kanyakumari to Bengal came to be captioned 'Cholamandalam'. Coromandel is the
anglicised name of Cholamandalam.
other two seas.
It is also noteworthy that they dominated the
stability in South India. That very
Owing to the Chola rule, during this period, there was remarkable politicalIndia.
culture in South
period was a flourishing time of a great and sophisticated
Construction of some of the finest temples and sculptures took place during this period.
Medieval Period
and his son
Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola
period. Notable amongst
Rajendra Chola I. A number of smaller shrines were built during the early phase of this well composed sculptures
exquisite
these is the Tiruvalisvaram temple near Tirunelveli. The temple is covered withtower is embellished with designs of
The entire cornice of the temple
and friezes some containing comic figures. Vaidyanatha Temple at Tirumalavadi and
creepers and foliage. Other examples of such temples can be seen at the
the Utara Kailasa Temple at Thanjavur.
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 The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two
magnificent temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur,
completed around 1009 is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and
tallest of all Indian temples, it is a masterpiece constituting the high-water mark of South Indian architecture.
It is in this temple that one notices for the first time two gopuras (gateway towers, here oriented in the same
direction). They are architecturally coeval with the main vimana and are referred to in inscriptions as Rajarajan
tiruvasal and Keralantakan tiruvasal. In spite of the massive size of the gopuras, the vimana, rising
height of 190 feet, continues to dominate and it is only in the subsequent period that a change in majestically to a
magnitude takes place. the gradation or
Epigraphic evidence reveals that Rajaraja started
completed on 275" day of his 25" regnal year (1010). building this temple in his 19 regnal year and it was
taking only 6 years. Rajaraja named this temple as
Rajarajesvaram and the deity Shiva in Linga form as Peruyudaivar, the temple is also known in the
Peruvudaiyarkovil. In later period Maratha and Nayaks deity's name as
temple. In later period when the Sanskrit language was more rulers constructed various shrines and gopurams of the
in Sanskrit as popular during the Maratha rule the temple was named
Brihadisvaram and the deity as
This temple carries on its walls theBrihadisvara.
procedures concening the day-to-day administrationengraved evidence of the elaborate administrative and financial
comprehensive history of the times, a full enumeration ofofall the temple. The inscriptions give, apart rom a
the metallic images set up in the temple.
about sixty-six, these icons are referred to with a Numbering
This alone is a mine of information for the art description of the minutest details of size, shape and composition.
The temple stands within a fort, whose historian.
walls later additions built in the 16" century by the
Tanjore. The towering vimanam is about 200 feet are in height and is referred to as Dakshina Meru Nayaks of
Mountain). The octagonal Shikharam (crest) rests on a single (Southern
this block was carried up a specially built ramp built from a block of granite weighing 81 tons. It is believed that
(figures of the sacred bull) dot the corners of the Shikharam, and site 6 kilometres away from the temple. Huge
Nandis
the Kalasam on top by itself is about 3.8 metres
height. Hundreds of stucco figures bejewel the Vimanam, in
added on during the Maratha period. The main deity is a lingam although it is possible that some of these may have been
walls surrounding the sanctum delight visitors as a and is a huge, set in a two storeyed sanctum, and the
of granite in a place where there is no source of storehouse of murals and sculptures. The temple is built entirely
granite.
Though the temple of Gangaikonda
details it has characteristics of its own. FromCholapuram follows the plan of the great temple of
the remains it may be seen that it had only one Thanjavur in most
gopura while the Thanjavur temple has two gopuras and enclosures. It is larger in plan enclosure wall and a
being 100 feet square at the base and 186 feet high. The though not as tall, the
vimana
feet wide occupies the middle of an immense walled temple, which forms a large rectangle 340 feet long and 110
the same construction as in Thanjavur, but the numberenclosure
of tiers
mainly built for defensive purposes. The vimana has
making up the pyramidal body is only eight as against
13 in Thanjavur. The most important difference lies in the
introduction of curves in the place of the strong straight
lines of the Thanjavur vimana. The pyramidal body is slightly concave in its
curved to produce a somewhat convex outline. These curves enhance the beauty outline at its angles while the sides are
of form of the vimana though they
distract from its stateliness and power.
Later Period
The Chola style continued to flourish for a century longer and expressed itself in a
temples. Of these two large temples are worthy of comparison to those of Rajaraja and Rajendra.very large number of
The Airavateswara temple at Darasuram near Thanjavur built during the reign of Rajaraja II is a
structure typical of the stage of architectural development reached in the 12" century CE. magnificent
This temple has artistic
stone pillars and decorations on its walls, in a style bordering on mannerism, with an
and polished features. Best among them are the dark black basalt figures in the temple emphasis
on elongated limbs
niches of Dakshinamurti, the
image on the southern side of Shiva in a teaching attitude, and to the west, Shiva erupting out of the pillar of
light to
convince Brahma and Vishnu of his superiority. The front mandapam is in the form of a huge chariot drawn by
horses.
The final example of thisperiod is the Kampaheswarar temple at Tribhuvanam near Kumbakonam which has
survived in good repair as built by Kulothunga III. The architecture of this temple is similar to the temples at
Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram and Darasuram.
Sculpture and bronzes
The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. Among the existing specinmens in the
various museums of the world and in the temples of South India, may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various
forms accompanied by his consort Parvati and the other gods, demigods and goddesses of the Saivaite pantheon,
Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, the Nayanmars, other Saiva saints and many more. Though conforming generally to
the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptor could also exercise his imagination within
the boundaries of the canonical Hindu iconography and worked in greater freedom during the eleventh and the
twelfth centuries. As aresult, the sculptures and bronzes show classic grace, grandeur and taste. The best example of
this can be seen in the form of Nataraja, the Divine Dancer.
 Purpose of the Icons
ne ne stone sculpture and the inner sanctum image empowering the temple remained immovable,
engious concepts during the period around the 10th century demanded that the deities take part in a variety
Puo roles similar to those of ahuman monarch. As a result, large bronze images were created to be carried
uside he temple to participate in daily rituals, processions, and temple festivals. The round
eoaseS of many of these sculbtures are for the poles that were used to carry the heavy lugs and holes found on
oronze who participated in such festivities were sumptuously clothed and decorated with images. The deities in
every need and comfort were catered to by a battery of temple priests, musicians, cooks, precious jewellery. Ther
devadasis, deity for the
parOns. The lay public thronged the processional route to have a darshan and admired their belovedadministrators
lavish depiction of the figure and the grand
costumes and jewelry.
OUgn bronze casting has a long history into south india, a much larger and a much greater number of
oronze SCulptures in all sizes ranging from massive miniature were cast during the Chola period than before,
urner atesting to the importance of bronze sculpture during this period. When in worship, these images are
bedeCked in silk costumes, garlands, and gem encrusted jewels, befitting the particular avatar and religious context.
Decorating temple bronzes in this way is atradition at least a thousand years old and such decorations are referred to
in 10th-century Chola inscriptions.
In recent times, many of these priceless Chola bronzes have been stolen from their temples or museums,
Smuggled out of India and have found their way into the private museums of art collectors.
Lost wax technique
Chola period bronzes were created using the lost wax technique. It is known in artistic terms as "Cire
Perdue", The Sanskrit Shilpa texts call it the Madhu Uchchishtta Vidhana.
Beeswax and kungilium (a type of camphor) are mixed with a little oil and kneadedwell. The figure is
sculpted from this mixture fashioning allthe minute details. This is the original wax model.
The entire figure is then coated with clay made from termite hills untilthe mouldis of anecessary thicknes.
Then the whole thing is dried and fired in an oven with cow-dung cakes. The wax model melts and flows out, while
some of it vapourises.
The metal alloy of bronze is melted and poured into the empty clay-mould. This particular bronze alloy is
known as Pancha Loham. When the metal has filled all crevices and has settled and hardened and cooled, the mouli
is broken off. The bronze figure thus obtained is then cleaned, finer details are added, blemishes are removed,
smoothened, and polished well. Hence each bronze icon is unique and the mould cannot be used to create copies.
Style
Chola bronzes have little intricate ornamentation in comparison with the subsequent bronzes of the
Vijayanagar and Nayaka period. There is gentle grace, a restrained and quiet elegance, an ethereal, out-worldly
beauty,and above all else - a life that throbs and pulsates and thereby enlivens the bronze sculpture. By means of the
façialexpressions, the gestures or mudras the overall body posture and other accompanying bronzes we can imagine
the surroundings and the religious context of the figure of the god or goddess; what instrument or weapon he or she
is holding; what he or she is leaning on; and what he or she is doing or about to do.
For example, in the Rishabaandhika or the Vrishabavahana murthy pose, we see Shiva standing with one leg
youthfully erossed acros the other and his arm elegantly flexed and raised as if resting or leaning on something. In
this elegant posture, it can be surmised that the youthful and athletic Shiva is leaning on his bull-vahana, Nandhi. on
whose shoulders He is resting His arm.
The most famous of all the bronze icons is that of Nataraja or Adavallar. The symbolism presents Shiva as
lordof the cosmic dance of creation and destruction.
Notable collections of the bronzes are held by the museum inside the Thanjavur Maratha Palace. the
Government Museum, Chennai, Pondicherry Museum, and Indian Museum, Kolkata. Outside India. Chola bronze
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
sculptures are owned by the British Museum, New York's