Bridge Design Manual

8770 W. Bryn Mawr Ave. | Suite 1150 | Chicago, IL 60631-3517 | 312-786-0300 | www.pci.org

1st Edition, 1997

2nd Edition, 2003

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

3rd Edition, First Release, November 2011
Part One (Introduction – Chapter 9)

MNL-133-11
1st Edition, First Printing, 1997
2nd Edition, First Printing, 2003

3rd Edition, 2011

3rd Edition, 2014

MNL 133 4th Edition, 2023

Precast and Precast, Prestressed Concrete

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Fourth Edition, First Release, 2023

MNL-133-23

8770 W. Bryn Mawr Ave., Phone: (312) 786-0300

Suite 1150 Fax: (312) 786-0353
Chicago, IL 60631 e-mail: PCIBridgeManual@pci.org
https://www.pci.org
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 MNL-133-23
Copyright © 2023
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute

First Edition, First Printing, 1997

Second Edition, First Printing, 2003
Third Edition, First Release, November 2011
Fourth Edition, First Release, 2023

All rights reserved.

No part of this printed or electronic document may be reproduced
in any form without the written permission of
the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute

ISBN Print: 979-8-9881395-3-9

ISBN ebook: 979-8-9881395-4-6
https://doi.org/10.15554/MNL-133-23

Substantial effort has been made to ensure that all data and information in this manual are accurate.
However, PCI cannot accept responsibility for any errors or oversights or for the use of material. The user
must recognize that no publication can substitute for experienced judgment. This document is intended for
use by personnel who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and able to
accept responsibility for the application of the material it contains.
This material is disseminated under the sponsorship of the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) in
the interest of information exchange. The Institute, its staff and members assume no liability for the use of
the information. PCI does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trademarks or manufacturers’ names
appear in this material only because they are considered essential to the objective of the material. They are
included for informational purposes only and are not intended to reflect a preference, approval, or
endorsement of any one product or entity.

Printed in the U.S.A.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL _______________________________________________________________________________________________

Fourth Edition, First Release, 2023

The PCI Bridge Design Manual is sponsored by the PCI Committee on Bridges and the PCI Bridge Producers
Committee under the purview of the Technical Activities Council and the Transportation Activities Council. The
project required the special talent and expertise of many individuals. While it is not possible to properly and
completely recognize and acknowledge the contributions of all, a partial listing includes the following persons:
Bridge Design Manual Steering Committee, part of the Transportation Activities Council
Troy Jenkins, Chair Richard C. Potts
Stephen J. Seguirant, Vice Chair Mehedi Rashid
J. P. Binard Gregg Reese
Kevin R. Eisenbeis Rita Seraderian
Roy L. Eriksson Catrina Walter
Todd Lang Lee Wegner
Glenn Myers Chris White
Serving as Technical Activities Council liaison: Stephen J. Seguirant
Fourth Edition principal chapter update authors and quality control persons
Oguzhan Bayrak Kevin R. Eisenbeis Henry G. Russell
Richard Brice Emily Lorenz Francesco M. Russo
Krista M. Brown Tim Mays Steven L. Schwarz
Rachael A Chicchi Richard A. Miller Maher K. Tadros
John A. Corven William N. Nickas Edward P. Wasserman
Ralph Dornsife
Committee on Bridges reviewers, who significantly contributed during the voting process
Richard Brice Brent Koch Taya Retterer
Reid W. Castrodale Todd Lang Bruce Russell
David Deitz Mike Laviolette Francesco Russo
Kevin R. Eisenbeis John Ma Thomas K. Saad
Roy L. Eriksson Mustafa Mashal Julie Sarson
Jim Fabinski Eric Matsumoto Steven L. Schwarz
Sam Fallaha Richard A. Miller Stephen J. Seguirant
Gregg Freeby Andy Mish Adam Sevenker
David Garber Glenn Myers Eric Steinberg
Silvio Garcia Jim Nelson Maher K. Tadros
Amgad Fawzy Girgis William N. Nickas Catrina Walter
Benjamin Graybeal Andrzej Nowak Edward P. Wasserman
Greg Hunsicker Scot Phelan Chris White
Bijan Khaleghi Tanarat Potisuk Carin Roberts-Wollmann
Andy Ko Gregg Reese Yuhe Yang

Document Assembly Contractor: Cover Design:

Michael W. Robertson Walt Furie

Project Manager: Trina R. Brown

Editor-in-Chief: William N. Nickas
Several others that deserve special recognition for their contributions these include: Rick Brice for his vision to
create an appendix to Chapter 8 of this document and Mike Robertson, Kris Brown and Henry Russell who
helped tirelessly with the overall balloting and technical editing to create the final publication.

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Third Edition, First Release, November 2011

Under the direction of the Bridge Design Manual Steering Committee, part of the Transportation Activities
Council
Chuck Prussack, Chair Kevin R. Eisenbeis
Andrew J. Keenan, Vice Chair Roy L. Eriksson
Heinrich O. Bonstedt R. Jon Grafton
Reid W. Castrodale Michael L. McCool
Vijay Chandra Mary Lou Ralls
Serving as Technical Activities Council liaison: Stephen J. Seguirant
Third Edition Principal chapter authors and quality control persons
Mantu C. Baishya Emily Lorenz Mohsen A. Shahawy
Steve C. S. Cai Dennis R. Mertz John Stanton
John A. Corven William N. Nickas Chuanbing Sun
John S. Dick Henry G. Russell Wallace N. Turner
Kevin R. Eisenbeis Francesco M. Russo
Blue Ribbon Panel reviewers
Sameh S. Badie Ralph Dorsife Chuck Prussack
Shrinivas B. Bhide Roy L. Eriksson Hugh D. Ronald
Richard Brice Amgad Fawzy Girgis Thomas K. Saad
Heinrich O. Bonstedt R. Jon Grafton Stephen J. Seguirant
Reid W. Castrodale Benjamin Graybeal Bala Shivakumar
Vijay Chandra Bijan Khaleghi PCI Sustainability Council
David Chapman Andrew J. Keenan Maher K. Tadros
W. Randy Cox Richard A. Miller Edward P. Wasserman
Dennis Drews Carin Roberts-Wollmann Stephen Zendegui
Andre V. Pavlov Toorak Zokaie

Document Assembly Contractor: Cover Design:

Michael W. Robertson Paul Grigonis

Project Manager and Editor-In-Chief:

William N. Nickas

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL _______________________________________________________________________________________________

First Edition, 1997

Second Edition, 2003

Under the direction of the Bridge Design Manual Steering Committee

Chuck Prussack, Cochair Reid W. Castrodale, Cochair
Heinrich O. Bonstedt Scott E. Olson
Roy L. Eriksson Joe Roche
Richard R. Imper
Principal Second Edition chapter authors
Alex Aswad Henry G. Russell Maher K. Tadros (principal
author)
Hussein Khalil Stephen J. Seguirant Stephen Zendegui
Mary Lou Ralls
Contributing Second Edition chapter authors
Sameh S. Badie Steve L. Cheney Manouchehr Karshenas Mohsen A. Saleh
Kris G. Bassi Deborah Derrick (editing) M. Keith Kaufman Eric J. Schindler
Karen A. Bexten James G. Gallt Robert F. Mast Mohsen A. Shahawy
Heinrich O. Bonstedt Richard J. Golec Dennis Merwood Q. D. Spruill, Jr.
Reid W. Castrodale James S. Guarre Mary Lou Ralls Maher K. Tadros

Blue Ribbon Panel

Heinrich O. Bonstedt Ned M. Cleland Daniel P. Jenny
Reid W. Castrodale Greg Force C. Douglas Sutton

Manual Review Panel

Ernie Acree Jeffrey Davis John B. Kelly Chuck Prussack
James M. Barker Jeffrey Ehler Sudhakar R. Kulkarni Omar Qudus
Robert M. Barnoff Roy L. Eriksson Gordon Nagle Joe Roche
Heinrich O. Bonstedt Larry G. Fischer Scott E. Olson Steve Sabra
Reid W. Castrodale Jack J. Gabriel S. K. Pal Rita L. Seraderian
Vijay Chandra James R. Hoblitzell Rick Phillips Lynden VanderVeen
William Clawson Richard R. Imper Phillip C. Pierce Edward P. Wasserman
William Gene Corley Mostafa Jamshidi Kent Preston Harold E. Wescott, Jr.

Project Manager and Editor-in-Chief

John S. Dick

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FOREWORD
BACKGROUND AND REVISIONS
Starting in the mid-1980s, the PCI Bridge Producers Committee and the PCI Committee on Bridges created plans
for the development of this comprehensive bridge design manual. It was the consensus of bridge designers and
producers alike that the 1980 publication Precast/Prestressed Concrete Short Span Bridges―Spans to 100 Feet and
the 1985 Design Supplement to Short Span Bridges had served their original purposes. The First and Second
Editions of this manual incorporated information needed to reflect the extensive changes occurring at the time in
the AASHTO Standard Specifications, and coverage of the requirements of the then new AASHTO LRFD
Specifications. The First and Second Editions of this manual also included such timely topics as continuity
considerations, seismic requirements, and spliced-beam innovations. This manual was and is intended for
multiple types of users, including owner agencies, practicing consulting bridge engineers, contractors, industry
material suppliers and fabricators, and university professors and students. The Third Edition focused entirely on
the LRFD Specifications except in Chapter 18: ―Load Rating Procedures. Almost all references to the Standard
Specifications were deleted. This Fourth Edition incorporates changes made in the LRFD Specifications and other
documents since the Third Edition was published.
In preparation for development of the contents of the original manual, several surveys of design professionals,
owner agencies, regional associations, and precast concrete producers were conducted over a span of 10 years,
the latest of which was in June 1994. The contents of this revised manual include the most important topics
identified by these surveys, plus several new subjects. Based on the results of the surveys, a planning report was
prepared for PCI in August 1994 by Richard R. Imper, Maher K. Tadros, and Stephen Zendegui. The information
from the report was further refined by the PCI Bridge Design Manual Steering Committee and became the outline
and plan for the first edition. In June 1995, a team of 26 authors, under the direction of Maher K. Tadros, began
preparing the First Edition of this manual. It should be emphasized that the manual is intended to be expanded
and updated as needed, especially as the LRFD Specifications are revised.
Much of the material included in this manual did not exist in other publications. For example, this manual was the
first PCI publication to include hand-calculation examples using the LRFD Specifications, discussion of the
fabrication and erection of precast, prestressed concrete products, and preliminary design aids. The manual also
provides new examples and charts given for concrete strengths representative of state-of-the-art, rather than
conventional values. The Third Edition included examples using various precast, prestressed concrete bridge
beams and products. These examples illustrate several new alternate code provisions including prestress losses,
shear design, and transformed sections. Many, but not all, of those examples have been retained and updated in
the Fourth Edition.
The manual is intended to be a national document reflecting the latest knowledge and successful practices. Since
precast, prestressed concrete bridges have been in existence for almost 50 years, designers have consulted a
variety of resources, including company brochures, state highway agency manuals, reference books, and
computer software. These resources were fully used in the development of this manual. The authors, however,
avoided making recommendations based on individual local practices, or on ideas or concepts that have not been
implemented in actual field conditions. It is hoped that state highway agencies will use this manual as their
principal design guide and supplement it with local criteria and details as needed.
There are several computer programs for design of precast concrete bridges. Neither the authors nor PCI certify
or endorse any of these programs. Rather, this manual is intended to explain the theories and practices of bridge
design, regardless of the type of software used in design. Some of the work presented in the manual is based on
computer runs using several programs for verification purposes. However, the manual’s use by designers does
not require accessibility to any of these programs. A popular application of personal computers in design uses
spreadsheet software and Mathcad. The Mathcad-like examples provided throughout the manual are documented
in step-by-step detail to allow designers to develop their own spreadsheet programs for similar design tasks. This
new, fully searchable electronic publication allows the user to search by any word or by code equation, or to find
the source of a calculation value anywhere in the text.

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OBJECTIVES
This manual is intended to provide a comprehensive document for the design, fabrication, and construction of
bridges using precast or precast, prestressed concrete components, including precast, post-tensioned products.
The document addresses precast concrete products produced in PCI-certified manufacturing plants. It presents
recommendations that recognize the best current industry practices available for use by designers. Its flexible
format allows for changes that occur in the industry. It is intended to provide both advanced information for
experienced designers and basic information to designers, students, and educators who are not familiar with
bridge design. It explains the application of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications provisions pertaining to prestressed
concrete beams in addition to the AASHTO Standard Specifications criteria still in use for load rating. In addition, it
provides preliminary design aids to help in selecting cost-effective bridge systems and in sizing of precast
concrete members.

CONTENTS
The manual is being updated with several releases. Unless stated otherwise, the updated chapters are included in
this first release.
A Glossary is not included due to the fully searchable electronic format of the BDM and the availability of the
following publications:
• AASHTO. 2020. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 9th Edition, Section 5.2. American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
https://store.transportation.org/item/collectiondetail/202 (Fee)
• ACI. 2020. ACI Concrete Terminology, ACI CT-20, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
https://www.concrete.org/store/productdetail.aspx?ItemID=CT23&Format=PROTECTED_PDF&Languag
e=English&Units=US_Units
• ASBI 2019 Construction Practices Handbook for Concrete Segmental and Cable Supported Bridges. Third
Edition, Chapter 2. American Segmental Bridge Institute, Austin, Texas
http://www.asbi-assoc.org/index.cfm/publications/handbook-download
Introduction – Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridges—The High-Performance Solution
This is a general promotional section with extensive illustrations. It includes the benefits of precast concrete
bridges for both new construction and rehabilitation. It gives examples of successful projects. This chapter
introduces various types of precast concrete products made nationally for bridge construction, and offers
examples of bridge beam shapes.
Chapter 1 – Sustainability
This chapter introduces bridge engineers to sustainability concepts and provides new approaches and
considerations for bridge design and construction. The Fourth Edition has been updated with additional
information related to sustainability concepts that are relevant to bridge design. A new section on embodied
carbon has been added, as well as additional discussion on carbonation benefits related to reabsorption of carbon
dioxide. A new figure adds to the discussion on life-cycle stages.
Chapter 2 – Material Properties
Key properties of all major materials currently used for precast, prestressed concrete bridge structures are
explained in this chapter. The chapter also reviews concrete constituent materials and mix requirements for
strength and durability, hardened concrete properties, pretensioning and post-tensioning reinforcement,
nonprestressing reinforcement, and concrete grouts. High-performance concrete is discussed. The chapter
features a reference list of more than 120 relevant standards and publications by AASHTO, the American Concrete
Institute, and ASTM International. A useful chart cross-references identical AASHTO and ASTM standards. The
Fourth Edition lists the latest versions of these standards.
Chapter 3 – Fabrication and Construction
This chapter describes the complete fabrication process and the implications of fabrication for design. It will help
design professionals understand general precast concrete industry practices and explains product components
and details. It explains the impact that different materials have on production. Quality and fabrication control are
described. Also covered are product evaluation and repair, camber, sweep, and accelerated curing. Transportation
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and erection topics include the use of cranes, launching trusses, and temporary support towers. Field-placed
concrete for decks and diaphragms is discussed.
The Fourth Edition includes new equations for transfer and development lengths based on the PCI Recommended
Practice. New material and references on the use of ultra-high-performance concrete and 0.7-in.-diameter strands
have been added. Guidance on the use of 0.6-in.-diameter strands for lifting loops is provided.
Chapter 4 – Strategies for Economy
The chapter discusses the options that designers have to further improve the cost-effectiveness of precast,
prestressed concrete bridges. Six sections outline and describe topics such as geometry (span/depth, vertical and
horizontal curves, skewed ends, and flared spans); designer options (structural system selection, diaphragms,
strand profiles, reinforcing details, bearing systems, and high-strength concrete); fabrication systems; shipping
and erection methods; and the use of additional economical precast concrete products. The Fourth Edition has
been updated to include references to recent PCI publications on curved bridges and bridge geometry and recent
research on the use of debonded strands in precast, prestressed concrete bridge members.
Chapter 5 – Aesthetics
This chapter sets forth guidelines by which aesthetics can become a part of an engineer’s design technique, with
topics including geometry, superstructure type, pier shape, abutment shape, surface treatment, signing, lighting,
and landscaping. The Fourth Edition includes the latest versions of these details. This edition of chapter 5
includes 26 case studies as examples.
Chapter 6 – Preliminary Design
This chapter addresses the criteria that must be considered early in bridge planning and provides numerous
charts and design graphs to assist in the selection of common bridge beams. Issues discussed include structure-
type, hydraulics, construction, utilities, safety, and aesthetics. Piers, abutments, and foundations are covered.
Beam design charts are included for voided and solid slab beams, box beams, AASHTO I-beams, AASHTO-PCI
bulb-tee beams, deck bulb-tee beams, and double-stemmed beams.
The Fourth Edition has been updated to include information and references on lateral stability. Design tables and
charts for precast concrete slabs have been added.
Chapter 7 – Loads, Load Factors, and Load Distribution
This chapter addresses the AASHTO LRFD Specifications. Live load effects are emphasized, and moments and
shear forces discussed. Live load distribution factors are listed and described for common types of precast
concrete superstructures. Findings and recommendations concerning refined methods of analysis are presented.
The Fourth Edition includes sections on reliability analysis, resistance factors, redundancy and ductility, and
design life versus service life. A new section addresses live load factors for the Service III load combination. The
reference section has also been updated.
Chapter 8 – Design Theory and Procedure
This chapter is an extensive review of design procedures. It includes an introduction to prestressed concrete
fundamentals, as well as discussion of critical section and fiber locations, estimation of number of strands,
cracking moment, ultimate flexure, and maximum and minimum reinforcement limits. The chapter also covers
bond, transfer, and development lengths; shear; loss of prestress; deflection; deck slab design and analysis;
detailing for creep effects at pier joints; lateral stability; and strut-and-tie modeling.
The Fourth Edition discusses live load factors for the Service III limit state and a new procedure for the
calculation of service level stresses. An appendix shows the derivation of the new procedure. Other sections,
including those on lateral stability and strut-and-tie modeling, have been updated.
Chapter 9 – Design Examples
Eight bridge design examples are included to illustrate the step-by-step process for design. Each design example
is based on past and current versions of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications. The basic bridge type is a typical simple-
span AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beam bridge. Other simple-span design examples use box beams, U-beams, precast
concrete deck panels, I-beams, or wide-flange girders. One example is a three-span bulb-tee beam bridge made
continuous for live load and impact. Each example solution provides details, explanations, and references to the

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applicable specification section. Three updated examples are included in the first release of the Fourth Edition.
Others are scheduled for a future release.
Chapter 10 – Bearings
The chapter includes selection and detailing guides for elastomeric bearings and an introduction to other types of
bearings. Newly updated examples illustrate AASHTO Method A and B according to procedures set forth in the
LRFD Specifications. The Fourth Edition has been updated to reflect changes in bearing materials, practices, and
the LRFD Bridge Design and Construction Specifications. The examples for bearing pad design using AASHTO
Method A and Method B of the LRFD Specifications are updated.
Chapter 11 – Extending Spans
This chapter describes the effectiveness of various methods for extending span capacity such as the use of high-
strength concrete, continuity, spliced beams, and post-tensioned beams. It discusses effects on substructure
geometry and provides numerical design examples and successful details of recently constructed bridges.
The Fourth Edition includes the use of beams with larger bottom flanges, larger-diameter strands, and lightweight
concrete. Other innovations include haunched beam segments at piers, new details for beam splicing and post-
tensioning, and new techniques for erecting beam segments. Lateral stability for longer beams is discussed.
Chapter 12 – Skewed and Curved Bridges
This chapter covers ordinary highway and specialty bridges. It emphasizes stringer bridge systems. The chapter
describes the effects of skew and curvature on design and detailing of both superstructures and substructures.
Issues related to handling and transportation are also covered. The Fourth Edition has been updated to reflect
industry practices and the recommendations of PCI’s Bridge Geometry Manual and Guide Document for the Design
of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges.
Chapter 13 – Integral Bridges
This chapter is based on a PCI state-of-the-art report. It discusses analysis, design techniques, and current
practices and reviews several case studies. The Fourth Edition has been updated to incorporate recent research
findings, as well as new abutment details and practices of state transportation agencies. The design example has
been revised.
Chapter 14 – Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges
This chapter describes the two most common methods of precast concrete segmental bridge construction:
balanced cantilever and span by span. The chapter now includes a detailed description of the fabrication process
and extensive discussion of the longitudinal design, including secondary moments due to post-tensioning. The
effects of staged construction using the balanced-cantilever and span-by-span methods are presented. New
photos and figures have been added.

Chapter 15 – Seismic Design

The chapter illustrates both force-based and displacement-based calculations for seismic design published in the
Third Edition. The updated version is scheduled for a future release.

Chapter 16 – Additional Bridge Products

This new chapter discusses design and detailing of precast concrete bridge products, including piers, abutments,
full-depth deck panels, stay-in-place composite deck panels, piles, pile caps, railings, culverts, and earth-retaining
systems.
Chapter 17 – Railroad Bridges
This chapter covers the specific requirements for railroad bridges, and the benefits of precast concrete for these
types of structures. It provides typical product details and construction considerations as well as detailed
examples. The Fourth Edition includes updates to reflect minor changes from Chapter 8, “Concrete Structures and
Foundations,” in the 2022 Manual for Railroad Engineering published by the American Railway Engineering and
Maintenance-of-Way Association.

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Chapter 18 – Load Rating Procedures
The chapter describes strength evaluation, including rating factors and load testing. It covers analysis and load
distribution methods according to the AASHTO Standard Specifications and LRFD Specifications. It includes
lessons learned and the tools to consider when load rating older structures using the LRFD methods.
The Fourth Edition includes updates to reflect changes from the Third Edition of the AASHTO Manual for Bridge
Evaluation through the 2022 interim revision. New information on rating using emergency vehicles, as required
by the Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act (FAST Act), is provided. The references have been updated.
Chapter 19 – Repair and Rehabilitation
This chapter includes the following topics: repair of new products prior to shipment; repair of deterioration or
damage during construction and during service life; and strengthening techniques. It is based on PCI’s Manual for
the Evaluation and Repair of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Products (MNL-137-06) and has been updated
for the Fourth Edition.
Chapter 20 – Precast, Prestressed Concrete Piles
This chapter is a comprehensive presentation of practical information on current design procedures and details
for prestressed concrete piles. It includes considerations, procedures, and details used in design, fabrication,
transportation, and installation of prestressed concrete piling. The past release is available in the PCI bookstore as
a separate download.
In early 2024, The Fourth Edition, second release will be updated to comply with the AASHTO LRFD Specifications
and the recommendations and commentary of PCI Standard 142, Specifications for Precast, Prestressed Concrete
Piles. Example problems are solved in accordance with both documents. Design spreadsheets (PCI PD-01, 2015)
are used for axial load – moment interaction diagrams. The updated version is scheduled for future release.
Chapter 20 will also be available as PCI publication BM-20-24.
Chapter 21 – Recreational Bridges
In addition to pedestrian bridges, this chapter includes similar bridges that may be used for other purposes such
as equestrian or wildlife crossings and snowmobile bridges. The chapter is a guide for the use of precast concrete
in these structures. It provides the unique considerations for pedestrian facilities, including the Americans with
Disabilities Act requirements for design. The Fourth Edition has updated references.
Appendix A – Notation
This appendix compiles the notations from each chapter.
Appendix B – AASHTO/PCI Standard Products
Drawings of national standard bridge products are provided.
Appendix C – PCI Regional Products
Drawings of some regional bridge products are provided.
Appendix D – Sample Specifications
Specifications for concrete bridges from two states are provided.
Appendix E – PCI Certification Programs
Descriptions of PCI plant and personnel quality certification programs are provided. (Note: The glossary, which
was Appendix E in the Third Edition, has been deleted because glossaries are available elsewhere and terms can
be searched in the electronic Fourth Edition.)

THE REVIEW PROCESS

This manual has undergone an extensive series of reviews by PCI committees during its preparation and revision.
The PCI Transportation Activities Council (TrAC) serves as the PCI Bridge Design Manual Blue Ribbon Panel. This
panel sets the order and selects the primary subject matter expert (SME) to lead the update for each chapter. This
revised chapter is then compared to the previously released version and a PDF with track changes is made for
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information only. A clean version with the line numbers is then balloted by the PCI Committee on Bridges (COB).
For a few sections of the this manual, a select group of the members of the COB serves as the review advisory
committee (RAC). Their comments and changes are included in the balloted version of the chapter. A minimum of
two weeks is allowed for the ballot by the COB. A voting member of the COB can add comments in the ballot. The
reviews by the RAC and COB provide a broad review by technical experts. All comments are reviewed by the SME,
and accepted changes are incorporated into the manuscript. All negative votes are resolved with engagement with
the COB. The manuscript is given another edit with the supervision of the COB chair and the Bridge Design
Manual’s editor-in-chief.
The manuscript is then sent to a copy editor for journalistic style editing. The edited copy using track changes is
returned to the SME to ensure no technical changes. A new clean copy with line numbers for tracking is then sent
to the Technical Activities Council (TAC) for review and balloting. After the TAC ballot, the COB leadership
reviews the comments and, with the oversight of the TAC Liaison, makes appropriate changes. These changes are
verified by TAC and the chapter is released for publication.
Future changes to the manual will undergo a similar review procedure. The process was developed to ensure that
the manual meets the quality standards of the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, that it includes state-of-
the-art information, and that it is representative of industry practices and procedures. Members of TrAC serving
as the Manual Steering Committee and the Blue Ribbon Panel work together with TAC on behalf of the PCI Board
of Directors. Committee members are listed at the beginning of this manual. Past and current members of these
committees have received awards for their tireless energy to bring you this consensus-based, balloted document.
PCI hopes that you enjoy this resource and provide feedback on improvement opportunities. The lower right
corner of each page indicates the release date.

Disclaimer
Substantial effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information presented in this manual. PCI,
however, cannot accept responsibility for errors, oversights, or the misuse of the information contained herein.
The user must recognize that no manual or regulation can substitute for experience and sound judgment. This
publication is intended for use by personnel who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of the
information it contains and accept responsibility for its proper interpretation and application.
The use of the names of proprietary products or manufacturers is for illustrative purposes only and does not
constitute an endorsement.

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USER INSTRUCTIONS
UI 1.0 USING THIS MANUAL
The PCI Bridge Design Manual has been designed for complete flexibility and ease of updating. The electronic
version and optional loose-leaf format make it easy to revise and insert material. You may wish to add, for
example, pages of notes or additional material of your choosing.

UI 1.1 LOCATION IN THE MANUAL

The electronic version contains links (and DOI numbers) to sections within the manual and to websites. The user
may use a page number or section number to jump to a topic. On the top of each page is a section number and the
topic shown on the page. The section titles quickly identify the subject of the text.

UI 1.1.1 Section Numbers

Each section in the text is identified with a decimal numbering system similar to the system in the AASHTO LRFD
Specifications. This system is used here to organize the section you are reading. The outline organization of these
numbers can be easily scanned in the Table of Contents at the beginning of each chapter. The hierarchy of the
system is also apparent by the type sizes and fonts. All of the design examples in Chapter 9 include an identical
section numbering system so that a specific topic of design will have the same number in every example.

UI 1.1.2 Page Header

Each page contains a header that identifies:
• Manual title.
• Chapter number.
• Chapter title.
• Numbers and titles of the subsections of text that begin and end on the page.
• Chapters 8 and 9 also show the primary section number in the header.
By referring to this header, you can quickly locate a general area of a chapter. Then, by looking at the paragraph
numbers and titles, you can locate specific topics.

UI 1.1.3 Page Footer

The lower right corner of each page shows the month and year of publication. There is a chapter number and page
number on each page. Revised sheets will contain “a, b, . . .” after the page number with a new date. This will prove
useful in keeping your hard copy of the manual current with revised pages. In each new release of electronic and
loose-leaf format, pages that have been changed will have the new release date.

UI 1.1.4 Figures and Tables

All figures and tables contained in the manual are numbered to the section where they first appear. Example:
Figure 3.2.4.3-1 is the first figure found in Section 3.2.4.3, and Figure 3.2.4.3-2 is the second figure to appear in
that same section. When figures and tables are referenced in the text, they are in bold type.

UI 1.1.5 Equations
Equations from the AASHTO LRFD Specifications are identified by [LRFD] with exception being Chapter 18, ”Load
Rating Procedures,” and Appendix A, “Notations,” that references both LRFD and Standard Specifications to help
create a cross reference for terminology. Other equations are numbered according to the section of the manual
where they first appear, in the same manner described in Section UI 1.1.4 for figures and tables.

UI 1.1.6 Electronic Document Navigation Help

Instructions for using and navigating the electronic version of this document are available from the publisher of
your selected navigation/viewing software (for example, Adobe or Bluebeam).

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL _______________________________________________________________ USER INSTRUCTIONS

UI 1.2 REVISIONS
Revisions to this manual are to be expected. The AASHTO specifications on which this manual is based are revised
periodically. To receive revisions or notices of revisions to the manual, it is necessary to register your copy of the
manual as described elsewhere. There is no cost or obligation for you to do so. To register your copy, use the web
links and portal provided to you when you received the notice for this manual, or call or write PCI (contact
information is provided at the start of the manual). You will then receive a notice at your registered email when
you need to download an updated release. The only way you are registered is to get the PDF from the PCI
Bookstore. If a friend sent you this book, please go to the PCI Bookstore and redownload it.
For each additional release to the Fourth Edition, you will need to go to the PCI Bookstore and download the
latest release of the entire manual.

UI 1.2.1 Errors and Omissions

UI 1.2.1.1 Your Help Needed
PCI appreciates your help in locating errors and identifying omissions. Please contact PCI with your suggestions.
Email your input to PCIBridgeManual@pci.org.

UI 1.2.1.2 Dissemination of Corrections

Error corrections will be assembled and emailed to registered manual-holders at regular intervals. The
replacement pages will readily identify the revision and the page will be identified as revised in the footer.
Revisions will be emailed free of charge. Users who have a paper copy will need to print and insert the revised
pages.

UI 1.2.2 Revisions Due to Specifications Changes

When the AASHTO specifications are revised, significant revisions to this manual may be required. Major
revisions may require the payment of a fee for paper(print-on-demand). Registered manual-holders will be
notified of these opportunities to update their books for no cost.

UI 1.2.3 Additions
Periodically, new material will be offered for this manual. Additional updates are being developed on:
• Seismic design
• Design examples Precast, prestressed concrete piles
Tabs have already been prepared and included for these additions in the print-on-demand version.

UI 1.3 SUGGESTIONS
UI 1.3.1 Your Suggestions
Your suggestions and comments concerning this manual will be greatly appreciated. Please email comments to
PCIBridgeManual@pci.org.

UI 1.3.2 Our Suggestion

We strongly urge the designer, in the early stages of a project, to contact one or more PCI-certified precast
concrete manufacturers. These manufacturers can advise about locally available precast concrete sections, spans,
prestressing capabilities, locally accepted methods of construction, and so on. The producers can often help with
framing solutions and cost estimates. They can provide specific design information about special local, state, or
regional precast concrete sections. Some have prepared inserts for Appendix C, “PCI Regional Products,” of this
manual. PCI can supply a current list of PCI-certified producers. A current list is also readily available on the PCI
website (pci.org).

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Chapter 1 – Sustainability
1.1 Scope
1.2 General Sustainability Concepts
1.3 Life Cycle
1.4 Environmental Labels
1.5 Sustainability Considerations
1.6 Sustainable Features of Precast Concrete
1.7 Simplified Tools and Rating Systems
1.8 North American Precast Concrete Sustainable Plant Program
1.9 References

Chapter 2 – Material Properties

Notation
2.1 Scope
2.2 Plant Products
2.3 Concrete Materials
2.4 Selection of Concrete Mixture Requirements
2.5 Concrete Properties
2.6 Grout Materials
2.7 Prestressing Strand
2.8 Nonprestressed Steel Reinforcement
2.9 Post-Tensioning Materials
2.10 Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement
2.11 Reinforcement Sizes and Properties
2.12 Relevant Standards and Publications

Chapter 3 – Fabrication and Construction

Notation
3.1 Scope
3.2 Product Components and Details
3.3 Fabrication
3.4 Plant Quality Control and Quality Assurance
3.5 Transportation
3.6 Installation
3.7 Diaphragms

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3.8 Precast Concrete Deck Panels

3.9 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Bridge Deck Panels
3.10 References

Chapter 4 – Strategies for Economy

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Geometry
4.2 Design
4.3 Production
4.4 Delivery and Erection
4.5 Other Products
4.6 Additional Consideration
4.7 Summary
4.8 References

Chapter 5 – Aesthetics
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Aesthetics Design Concepts
5.3 Project Aesthetics
5.4 Component Aesthetics
5.5 Appurtenance Aesthetics
5.6 Maintenance of Aesthetic Features
5.7 Cost of Aesthetic feature
5.8 Summary
5.9 References for Further Study
5.10 Appendices

Chapter 6 – Preliminary Design

Notation
6.0 Scope and Disclaimer
6.1 Preliminary Plan
6.2 Superstructure
6.3 Substructure
6.4 Foundations
6.5 Preliminary Member Selection
6.6 Description of Design Charts
6.7 Preliminary Design Examples
6.8 References
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

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6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Chapter 7 – Loads, Load Factors and Load Distribution

Notation
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Scope
7.2 Load Types
7.3 Load Combinations and Design Methods
7.4 Simplified Distribution Methods
7.5 Refined Analysis Methods
7.6 Future Considerations
7.7 References

Chapter 8 – Design Theory and Procedure

Notation
8.0 AASHTO LRFD Specification References
8.1 Principles and Advantages of Prestressing
8.2 Flexure
8.3 Strand Transfer and Development Lengths
8.4 Shear
8.5 Horizontal Interface Shear
8.6 Loss of Prestress
8.7 Camber and Deflection
8.8 Deck Slab Design
8.9 Transverse Design of Adjacent Box Beam Bridges
8.10 Lateral Stability of Slender Members
8.11 Bending Moments and Shear Forces Due to Vehicular Live Loads
8.12 Strut-and-Tie Modeling of Disturbed Regions
8.13 Detailed Methods of Time-Dependent Analysis
8.14 Cited References
8.15 ASTM References
8A Notation
8A.1 Introduction
8A.2 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete
8A.3 Stress in Beam Concrete due to Shrinkage of Deck Concrete
8A.4 Prestress Gain Due to Shrinkage of Deck Concrete in Composite Section
8A.5 Treatment of Deck Shrinkage for Transformed Section Analysis
8A.6 Reference

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Chapter 9 – Design Examples

Notation
9.0 Introduction
9.1a Design Example – Bulb-Tee (BT-72), Single Span with Composite Deck. Designed
using Transformed Section Properties, General Shear Procedure, and Refined
Estimates of Prestress Losses (updated in 4th Edition)
9.1b Design Example – Bulb-Tee (BT-72), Single Span with Composite Deck. Designed
using Gross Section Properties, Appendix B5 Shear Procedure, and Refined
Estimates of Prestress Losses (updated in 4th Edition)
9.1c Design Example – Bulb-Tee (BT-72), Single Span with Composite Deck. Designed
using Transformed Section Properties, Simplified Shear, and Approximate
Prestress Losses (retained from 3rd Edition)
9.1d Design Example – Bulb Tee (BT-72) Single Span with Composite Deck Designed
using Gross Section Properties and Approximate Estimate of Prestress Losses
without Elastic Gains (updated in 4th Edition)
9.2 Design Example – Bulb-Tee (BT-72), Three Spans with Composite Deck.
Designed using Transformed Section Properties, General Shear Procedure, and
Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses (retained from 3rd Edition)
9.3 Design Example – Deck Bulb-Tee (DBT-53), Single Span with Noncomposite
Surface. Designed using Transformed Section Properties, General Shear
Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses (retained from 3rd Edition)
9.4 Design Example – Box Beam (BIII-48), Single Span with Noncomposite Surface.
Designed using Transformed Section Properties, General Shear Procedure, and
Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses (retained from 3rd Edition)
9.5 Design Example – Box Beam (BIII-48), Single Span with Composite Deck.
Designed using Transformed Section Properties, General Shear Procedure, and
Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses (retained from 3rd Edition)
9.6 Design Example – U-Beam (TX-U54), Single Span with Precast Panels and
Composite Deck. Designed using Transformed Section Properties, General Shear
Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses (retained from 3rd Edition)
9.7 Design Example – Double-Tee Beam (NEXT 36 D), Single Span with
Noncomposite Surface. Designed using Transformed Section Properties, General
Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses (retained from 3rd
Edition)
9.8 Design Example – Double-Tee Beam (NEXT 36 F), Single Span with Composite
Deck. Designed using Transformed Section Properties, General Shear Procedure,
and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses (retained from 3rd Edition)
9.9 Reserved for future use.
9.10 Design Example – Precast Concrete Stay-in-Place Deck Panel System. Designed
using Transformed Section Properties and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses
(retained from 3rd Edition)
9.11 Design Example – Florida I-Beam (FIB-102), 200-ft Single Span with Composite

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Deck and Straight Strands. Designed using Transformed Section Properties,

General Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses
Scheduled for future release.
9.12 Design Example – Washington State Wide Flange Girder (WF100G), 200-ft Single
Span with Lightweight Concrete Girders, harped strands, and Lightweight
Concrete Composite Deck. Designed using Transformed Section Properties,
General Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses without
Elastic Gain
Scheduled for future release.

Chapter 10 – Bearings
Notation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 History of Elastomeric Bearings
10.3 Specifications
10.4 Loads and Movements for Design
10.5 Planning the Bearing Layout
10.6 Types of Elastomeric Bearings
10.7 Behavior of Elastomeric Bearings
10.8 Design of Elastomeric Bearings
10.9 Bearing Selection Guide
10.10 References

Chapter 11 – Extending Spans

Notation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 High-Performance Concrete
11.3 Continuity
11.4 Spliced-Beam Structural Systems
11.5 Examples of Spliced-Beam Bridges
11.6 Post-Tensioning Analysis
11.7 Post-Tensioning Anchorages in I-Beams
11.8 Design Example: Two-Span Beam Spliced Over Pier
11.9 Case Study: Single Span, Spliced Beam
11.10 References

Chapter 12 – Skewed and Curved Bridges

Notation

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12.1 Scope
12.2 Skew and Grade Effects
12.3 Curved Bridge Configurations
12.4 Useful Geometric Approximations
12.5 Structural Behavior of Curved Bridges
12.6 Design Considerations for Curved Bridges
12.7 Fabrication
12.8 Handling, Transportation, and Erection
12.9 Design Example
12.10 Detailed Final Design
12.11 References

Chapter 13 – Integral Bridges

Notation
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Fundamentals of Integral (Jointless) Bridges
13.3 Superstructure Design
13.4 Abutment Design
13.5 Pier Design
13.6 Analysis Considerations
13.7 Current Practice
13.8 Case Studios
13.9 Conclusion
13.10 Cited References
13.11 Bibliography

Chapter 14 – Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges

Notation
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Precast Concrete Segments
14.3 Segmental Bridge Construction Methods
14.4 Longitudinal Design
14.5 Transverse Analysis
14.6 Diaphragms, Anchor Blocks and Deviation Details
14.7 Cited References
14.8 PCI Journal Segmental Bridge Bibliography

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Chapter 15 – Seismic Design

Published in the Third Edition Updated version scheduled for future release
Notation
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Structural System Considerations
15.3 Seismic Design Criteria
15.4 Seismic Analysis
15.5 Connection Details
15.6 Design Examples
15.7 Cited References

Chapter 16 – Additional Bridge Products

Notation
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Miscellaneous Substructure Elements and Systems
16.3 Miscellaneous Superstructure Elements and Systems
16.4 Other Transportation Products
16.5 References

Chapter 17 – Railroad Bridges

Notation
17.0 Introduction
17.1 Typical Components and Details
17.2 Construction Considerations
17.3 The American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association Load
Provisions
17.4 Current Design Practice
17.5 Case Study No. 1— Truss Bridge Replacement
17.6 Case Study No. 2— Timber Trestle Replacement
17.7 Case Study No. 3— Through Plate Girder Replacement
17.8 Design Example— Double-Cell, Single Span, Noncomposite, Box Beam Designed
in Accordance with AREMA Specifications
17.9 References

Chapter 18 – Bridge Load Rating

Notation
18.1 Overview of Bridge Load Rating
18.2 Loads and Distribution

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18.3 Rating Methodology

18.4 Rating by Load Testing
18.5 Load Rating Report
18.6 Rating Example
18.7 References

Chapter 19 – Repair and Rehabilitation

19.1 Scope
19.2 Repair of New Products
19.3 Repair of Products Damaged During Construction and Service Life
19.4 Strengthening Techniques
19.5 Specifications and Manuals
19.6 References

Chapter 20 – Piles
Published in the Third Edition and as PCI publication No. BM-20-04. Updated version
scheduled for future release.

Chapter 21 –Pedestrian Bridges

21.1 Introduction
21.2 Descriptions, Guidelines, and Examples
21.3 Special-Use Pedestrian Bridges
21.4 References

Appendix A - Notation
Appendix B – AASHTO/PCI Standard Products
Appendix C – PCI Regional Products
Appendix D – Sample Specifications
Appendix E – PCI Certification Programs

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION

Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridges –

The High-Performance Solution

Since its introduction in the United States in 1949, precast, prestressed concrete has become the preferred
composite material for bridge design and construction. Today, it remains the solution of choice for transportation
agencies and bridge designers across the United States. This growth came, and will continue to come, from the
commitment of precasters and material suppliers to develop, improve, and implement advanced materials,
products, and technology to enhance the performance of these bridges and the options available to the designer.
This manual is intended to provide the designer with an understanding of the precast, prestressed concrete
industry and its application to bridge design and construction.
This introduction provides background on the concept of prestressing and the advancements of the precast,
prestressed concrete industry in the United States. It highlights the advantages provided when prestressed
concrete is used for bridges. Case studies and examples are presented to illustrate the range of applications and
structures in which precast and precast, prestressed concrete can provide an efficient, cost-effective, and durable
solution. New technologies that may open even more possibilities for future applications of prestressed concrete
are also presented.
This introduction is intended to inspire designers to use time-tested solutions and to demonstrate how some have
been creative in the use of prestressed concrete members for bridges or related structures. Although this manual
discusses precast, prestressed concrete for highway, railway, and pedestrian bridges, the attributes of prestressed
concrete also apply to transit, aircraft, and wildlife bridges.

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History of the Industry

The combination of high-strength steel prestressing strand to counteract tensile stresses and high-performance
concrete to provide compressive strength makes prestressed concrete well suited for many structures, especially
bridges.
Professor Gustave Magnel, one of the pioneers of prestressed concrete, explained
the theory very simply to his students by using a stack of books. When concrete is
precompressed, as the lower row of books are in the illustration, a concrete
structure can carry not only its own weight but also a significant superimposed
load, as represented by the books on top.
There are two methods of introducing prestress into a concrete member:
pretensioning and post-tensioning.
• In pretensioning, steel strands are tensioned between abutments before the
concrete is placed in the forms. After the concrete has hardened, force in the
strands is transferred to the concrete member by releasing anchors at the
abutments and by cutting the strands between members within the prestress
bed. The transfer of prestressing force from the strands to the concrete occurs through the bond between
concrete and strands.

• In post-tensioning, the concrete member is cast with ducts that run through it. After the concrete hardens,
strands or bars are placed in the ducts and are anchored at one end. The strands or bars are then tensioned
against the concrete at the other end and are anchored at that end. The transfer of prestressing force from the
strands to the concrete occurs through the anchorage hardware at each end. After tensioning, cement grout or
a flexible filler (wax) is usually pumped into the duct to fill it.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION

The event that is credited with launching the precast, prestressed (Photo: Hank Bonstedt)
concrete industry in North America was the construction in 1949
and 1950 of the Walnut Lane Memorial Bridge in Fairmont Park,
Philadelphia, Pa. From a technical perspective, this bridge was an
innovative structure, and from an historical perspective, it is
fascinating that it was constructed with prestressed concrete
considering that there was very little published information on
the subject and no one in the United States at the time had
experience with linear prestressing. The bridge became a reality
through the vision, courage, and persistence of a few
extraordinary individuals.

In the 1950s, seven-wire prestressing strand, plant pretensioning, long-line steel casting beds, chemical
admixtures, high early-strength concrete, steam curing, and many other innovations were introduced. These
developments—coupled with the technical and logistical support provided by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute (PCI), which was chartered in 1954—fostered the rapid growth of the industry. Precast and prestressed
concrete designs quickly began to be applied in a wide variety of
structures. By 1958, there were more than 200 prestressing
plants in the United States; today, there are over 260 PCI-certified
plants.
Precast, prestressed concrete members, which were designed in
accordance with rapidly evolving design standards, gained an
excellent reputation because the industry recognized from its
start the need for quality. PCI’s Plant Certification program quickly
became an integral part of plant production. PCI plant certification
assures specifiers, designers, and owners that the certified

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION

manufacturing plant has developed processes for ensuring high quality in the fabrication of prestressed concrete
members and has been audited for the implementation of these processes and the plant’s capability to
consistently produce quality members.

Performance of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridges

Prestressed concrete bridges have performed well over the years and are continuing to gain market share. A
study based on the 2020 National Bridge Inventory (NBI) database showed that out of 618,451 bridges in the
inventory, 22.2% were prestressed concrete structures and another 4.5% were classified as prestressed
continuous. Of the bridges constructed between 1970 and 2020, 30.8% were prestressed concrete and another
7.0% were continuous prestressed concrete. NBI data about the condition ratings of the bridges constructed since
1970 show that 37.7% of the bridges rated as “poor” were steel structures whereas only 22.2% of the bridges
rated as “poor” were prestressed concrete structures. What is more impressive is that 66.5% of the prestressed
concrete bridges built between 1970 and 2020 were rated as being in “good” condition, 31.5% were rated as
“fair” condition, and only 2% were rated as “poor” condition. Prestressed concrete bridges are clearly a good
investment.
Owners and designers have long recognized the low initial cost, low maintenance requirements, and extended life
expectancy of prestressed concrete bridges. Prestressed concrete is the only structural material to have
experienced continual growth during the last 60 years. This growth is not only reflected in short-span bridges, but
is also now occurring for spans over 150 ft. These longer spans have been the exclusive domain of structural steel
for many years.
Bridge Types and Market Share for 100- to 150-ft Spans (Adapted from National Bridge Inventory Data)

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION

Bridge Types and Market Share for 150- to 200-ft Spans (Adapted from National Bridge Inventory Data)

Precast, prestressed concrete bridges have also been shown to be highly durable and resilient . Precast concrete
bridges can be installed during all seasons and opened to traffic more rapidly than any other type of permanent
bridge.
Since the introduction of prestressed concrete in 1950, nearly 170,000 prestressed concrete bridges have been
built throughout the United States.
They range from short spans (Photo: Winter 2023 ASPIRE®)

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION

to medium spans (Photo: Fall 2021 ASPIRE®)

to long-span, high-clearance, spliced-girder structures. (Photo: Summer 2021 ASPIRE®)

From Florida (Photo: Summer 2022 ASPIRE® file photo)

to Alaska (Photo: Spring 2019 ASPIRE®)

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION

Advantages of Prestressed Concrete Bridges

There are many reasons why precast, prestressed concrete bridges have gained such wide acceptance. In many
cases, the initial costs for precast, prestressed concrete bridges are lower than the initial costs for other types of
bridges. Because they also offer long-term savings from reduced maintenance requirements, precast concrete
bridges offer maximum economy. Furthermore, they can provide attractive solutions that are welcome additions
to a community or rural environment.

Low Initial Cost

There are many examples where precast concrete bridges were the low-cost solutions. In a few situations, market
conditions may favor other materials when only initial costs are considered, but precast concrete bridges are
typically very cost competitive even on a first-cost basis. This is demonstrated by the widespread use of precast
concrete structures for both design-bid-build procurement and for alternate delivery methods, such as design-
build. All parties involved in the construction of a project benefit when the use of precast, prestressed concrete
shortens project duration. The lower initial cost of projects using precast concrete members can be attributed to a
number of factors, including the following:
• Precast concrete structural members are made in manufacturing plants under controlled conditions and are
stored for “just-in-time” delivery and erection.
• In-plant manufacturing of precast concrete members using high-quality concrete contributes to the superior
corrosion resistance of the members.
Contractors can benefit from a project that uses precast concrete members in the following ways:
• Personnel are less exposed to traffic hazards.
• A greater dollar volume of work can be accomplished in a shorter time period.
• Delays due to adverse weather conditions are minimized.
• Construction is less dependent on remote delivery of ready-mixed
concrete.
• Projects are not delayed while cast-in-place concrete cures.
• Precast concrete structural members are substantially cured when they are
delivered to the site. Therefore, the members have reduced potential for
deformations due to shrinkage and creep.
• The need for on-site forms, skilled field labor, scaffolding, and shoring is
lessened.
Owners and agencies benefit from shorter project durations, resulting in the
following:
• Reduced inconvenience and accident exposure for the traveling public
• Fewer detours and motorist complaints
• Reduced cost of maintaining traffic control

Minimal Maintenance
The overall economy of a bridge structure should be measured in terms of the
total cost of the structure over its life, which includes the initial cost of the structure plus the total operating costs.
For stationary bridges, the operating cost is the cost of maintenance and repairs. Precast, prestressed concrete
bridges designed and built in accordance with AASHTO or AREMA specifications should require minimal
maintenance. Because of the high-quality and inherently durable materials used and plant manufacturing
techniques employed, prestressed concrete members are extremely durable. Fatigue problems are almost
nonexistent because traffic loads induce only minor fluctuations of stresses.
Most precast concrete bridges require little or no painting. Some bridge engineers estimate the lifetime cost of
repainting steel bridges to be 15% to 25% of the initial cost. Painting bridges is environmentally unfriendly and
can be especially expensive over busy highways, streams, railroads, and rugged terrain.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION

Durable and Resilient

Precast, prestressed concrete members provide for a durable bridge. Many existing prestressed concrete bridges
are achieving a service life that extends well beyond their design service life. Even in harsh environments and
with minimal maintenance a 100-year design service life can be achieved.
The resiliency of precast, prestressed concrete is evident in its exceptional ability to withstand floods, high winds,
earthquakes, fire, and impact loads in addition to usual long-term demands.

Excellent Riding Characteristics

Integral abutments and continuous spans eliminate or reduce the number of expansion joints, provide a smooth
ride, and reduce the need for maintenance.
The traveling public feels safe and
comfortable on concrete bridges
that do not respond to vibrations
caused by traffic in contrast to some
steel girder bridges. The natural
frequency of vibration of
prestressed concrete bridges,
because of their mass and stiffness,
does not coincide with vehicle
frequencies, whereas lighter, more-
flexible structures may have natural
frequencies closer to those of traffic,
which can lead to resonance and
amplification of vibrations.

All-Weather Construction
Other types of bridge construction can be greatly affected by weather conditions and resulting delays. The
following case study illustrates how prestressed concrete bridge construction surmounted the challenges of a
remote site, poor weather, and a short construction season.
The Brotherhood Bridge over the Mendenhall River near Juneau, Alaska, is located about 5 miles downstream of
the Mendenhall Glacier. As if cold Alaskan weather and dark winter days are not enough of a challenge for bridge
construction, designers had to consider outbursts of glacier-dammed lakes that might carry large chunks of ice
and wood debris as well as possible soil liquefaction during a seismic event.

(Photo: Spring 2019 ASPIRE®)

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION

A 378-ft-long, three-span, prestressed concrete (Photo: Spring 2019 ASPIRE®)

decked bulb-tee girder bridge was found to be
the most cost-effective solution to replace a 1965
steel truss bridge. Prestressed concrete decked
bulb-tee girder bridges, which have been used in
Alaska since the mid-1970s, are more durable
than bridges with cast-in-place decks and can be
constructed rapidly during Alaska’s short
construction season. For this project, the forty-
two 65-in.-deep girders were fabricated in
Washington state, placed on a barge at the
precaster’s facility, and shipped to Juneau, where
they were loaded onto trucks and delivered to
the jobsite. High-strength grout, with a
compressive strength of 9.0 ksi ,was used in the
longitudinal keyways between the girders. The
semi-integral abutments resulted in a jointless
bridge that would reduce future maintenance.
The deck was covered with a waterproofing
membrane and a 4-in.-thick layer of asphalt
concrete.
The 99.5-ft-wide bridge, which opened in 2015,
carries multiple lanes of traffic; water, electric,
and telecommunication utilities; a 14-ft-wide
multiuse pedestrian pathway; and a 6-ft-wide
sidewalk. As a tribute to the Alaska Native
Brotherhood, 10 bronze medallions from the 1965 structure were incorporated into the railings, and concrete
replicas of the medallions, made using a formliner, are featured in the cast-in-place concrete wingwalls.

Emergency Replacement
The replacement of bridges cannot always be planned in advance. Fires, floods, and collisions are but a few
reasons for emergency replacements or repairs. The precast concrete industry manufacturers have consistently
demonstrated remarkable response to disasters, large and small.
On March 30, 2017, a fire severely damaged several spans of an Interstate 85 bridge in Atlanta, Ga. The structure
carried 243,000 vehicles per day and portions of the structure had to be replaced as soon as possible. Through
extraordinary efforts by the Georgia Department of Transportation, contractor, and precaster, the bridge was
reopened in 44 days.
Immediately after the fire, it was (Photo: Fall 2017 ASPIRE®)
determined that three spans in each
direction needed to be replaced. The
project involved designing and
casting sixty-one 63-in.-deep
prestressed concrete bulb tees. The
beam lengths ranged from 76 to 120
ft, and most beams had skewed ends,
adding to the complexity of their
design and fabrication. To accelerate
the schedule, the beams were cast in
two different precasting plants. The
first beams were set on April 17, and
erection was completed on April 25.
The bridge was opened to traffic on
May 13.

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(Photo: Fall 2017 ASPIRE®)

(Photo: Fall 2017 ASPIRE®)

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Quality Assurance
Prestressed concrete is economical because it is an efficient composite of high-
strength steel and high-performance concrete. To take advantage of this efficiency,
precast concrete plants have developed quality-control (QC) and quality-
assurance (QA) programs to assure customers that members meet exacting
specifications.
Precast, prestressed concrete members are rigorously inspected and quality is
controlled at the precast plant. Each operation in the manufacturing process
provides for a point of scheduled inspection and documentation.
PCI certification of a plant assures the engineer and owner of the following:
• The facility has demonstrated production, QC, and QA procedures that meet
national industry standards.
• An independent consulting engineering firm has conducted at least two
unannounced audits each year.
• Each plant maintains a comprehensive Quality System Manual (QSM) based on national standards and
approved by PCI. The QSM is available for review by owners and agencies.
The rigorous audits cover more than 150 items and are based on the PCI Manual for Quality Control for Plants and
Production of Structural Precast Concrete (MNL-116). The audits evaluate concrete materials and stockpiles,
concrete mixing, transporting, placing, consolidation, and finishing. Procedures and documentation are carefully
reviewed for tensioning of strands and transfer of prestress; concrete curing and temperature controls; and
member handling and storage. Auditors also thoroughly review in-plant QC procedures. In addition, engineering,
shop drawings, recordkeeping, and other practices related to quality production are examined. Finally, QC
personnel must be PCI certified; this certification is attained by passing written and practical examinations.
Given these rigorous audit and certification requirements, owners and designers can be assured that the producer
has the personnel, organization, experience, procedures, knowledge, equipment, capability, and commitment to
produce quality work.

Concrete Technology
Advances in concrete technology have extended the design service lives of bridges to as long as 100 years, and
have led to significant improvements in the use of prestressed concrete girders for longer spans, wider girder
spacings, and shallower sections. These developments in concrete are advantages for prestressed concrete
bridges and are briefly discussed here. More details and references are given in Chapter 2.

High-Performance Concrete
Decades ago, typical concrete design compressive strengths for prestressed concrete girders were in the range of
5 to 6 ksi. However, with advancements in concrete technology, typical concrete design compressive strengths
have increased to 7 to 8 ksi, with some projects using design concrete compressive strengths of 10 ksi or higher.
Along with the increased compressive strength, other properties of high-performance concrete (HPC) are usually
enhanced, such as modulus of elasticity, abrasion resistance, and reduced permeability. The improved properties
of HPC are generally accomplished by using supplementary cementitious materials, such as fly ash, blast furnace
slag, or silica fume, and chemical admixtures.
Beginning in the late 1990s, the Federal Highway Administration, PCI, and several state departments of
transportation promoted the use of HPC because of its improved compressive strength and other properties. The
types and levels of improvement in properties that can be achieved generally depend on the geographic location
of the bridge, available materials for making concrete, and the type of member for which the concrete will be
used.
The benefits of HPC include the following:
• Reduced initial construction costs resulting from wider beam spacings, longer spans, or shallower beams
• Reduced long-term costs because repairs or replacements are less frequent
• Enhanced durability

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Use of concrete with enhanced properties has now become commonplace, so the term “high-performance
concrete” has been discontinued in many cases.

High-Slump and Self-Consolidating Concrete

Another advance has been the development of chemical admixtures that provide increased workability of
concrete with low water–cementitious materials (w/cm) ratios. Low w/cm ratios are needed to achieve improved
durability and high compressive strengths in HPC.
Further advancements in admixtures have enabled the development of self-consolidating concrete (SCC)
mixtures, which have workability measured by concrete spread rather than concrete slump. When SCC mixtures
are used, compaction effort is reduced and consolidation of the concrete improves, even where there is significant
congestion of reinforcement near the ends of girders. Another benefit of SCC is a smooth form finish that requires
little or no additional finishing.

Reduced-Density and Lightweight Concrete

While not a new development, the use of lightweight aggregate to produce lightweight concrete is being more
widely used for pretensioned girders in some areas of the United States to reduce girder weights for handling,
transportation, and erection. The use of lightweight concrete may also allow a slight increase in span lengths.
Lightweight concrete used for prestressed concrete girders can achieve compressive strengths of 7 to 10 ksi with
a unit weight of 120 to 125 lb/ft3. Lightweight concrete can also be used for bridge decks, which will generally
result in a more significant increase in span lengths than can be achieved by using lightweight concrete girders.
An example of the use of lightweight concrete for a prestressed concrete bridge girder is the longest girder, 223 ft,
cast to date in the United States. Without the use of lightweight concrete, the girder would have been too heavy to
transport.
(Photo: Fall 2019 ASPIRE®)

Ultra-High-Performance Concrete
Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) is a combination of aggregate and powder gradations that are
formulated to provide optimized particle packing using a very low w/cm ratio and a high cementitious content
along with high-strength steel fibers. UHPC, which was introduced to the United States in the late 1990s, has a
minimum 17.4-ksi compressive strength, and, more importantly, it has a relatively high tensile strength and the
capacity for additional tensile straining after cracking. UHPC has been used most often for connections between
precast concrete members such as full-depth deck panels, adjacent slab beams, and decked girders. Recently, it
has been considered for prestressed concrete girders and piles where the excellent durability and crack
resistance could allow it to be used in narrow-web cross sections that have no conventional shear reinforcement.

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Design specifications are being developed and are anticipated to initiate a fast-paced development of new, lighter
concrete sections made possible by the unique characteristics of UHPC.

Aesthetics
Aesthetic enhancements (treatments) for bridge structures (Photos: Winter 2023 ASPIRE®)
can be created by various means and applied to any bridge
members. Formliners, coatings, thin-brick inlays, member
shapes, ornamental railings, and lighting features can
make a structure appealing. The shape of the piers can be
made alluring. In addition, aesthetics can enrich the
experience of the traveling public and other user groups
such as pedestrians, cyclists, and people spending time
beneath the structure. Sometimes, the bridge adopts a
theme that is complementary to the natural beauty of the
region or reflects the history of the community.

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(Photo: Fall 2017 ASPIRE®)

(Photo: Bettina K. Brown)

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The 568-ft-long Rich Street Bridge in Columbus, Ohio, is a signature bridge. Sixty-eight precast concrete
components were post-tensioned together to form the four lines of gracefully tapered arches that support the
bridge. The design was both economical and aesthetically pleasing.
(Photo: Summer 2019 ASPIRE®)

(Photo: Fall 2012 ASPIRE®)

Girder Lengths, Depths, and Cross Sections

Although some designers may think of prestressed concrete bridges as being limited to simple-span structures in
the 50- to 135-ft span range, spans can be as short as 20 ft or can extend to over 200 ft, and they can be made
continuous over intermediate supports. Prestressed concrete bridges now account for about 70% of the market
share of bridges with 100- to 150-ft spans. Advances in technology, materials, and hauling rigs along with
optimization of beam sections—deeper sections, larger bottom flanges that hold more prestressing strands, and
wider top flanges to improve lateral stability—have resulted in an increase of market share in 150- to 200-ft
spans as well.
A common requirement of bridges is that the superstructure be as shallow as possible to provide maximum
clearance with minimum approach grades. For prestressed concrete structures, span-to-depth ratios as high as
35:1 can be achieved with solid slabs, voided slabs, box beams, multi-stemmed units, I-beams, and bulb-tee
sections, each within their respective span ranges. Even though deeper sections will require fewer prestressing
strands, the overall economy of a project may dictate the shallowest available section. Several states such as
Illinois and Minnesota and regions such as New England have developed their own cross sections that best suit
their specific span ranges and needs.

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Long Spans (Photo: Fall 2019 ASPIRE®)

Several prestressed concrete girders over 200 ft have
been produced in Washington, Utah, and Florida. The
current record is a 223-ft-long (230-ft-long
considering the extreme skew), 100-in.-deep
prestressed, lightweight concrete simple-span girder
weighing 239 kips for a bridge in Washington state. An
important consideration for long girders is their
lateral stability during handling, shipping, and
erection. Temporary top strands are often
incorporated to increase stability as well as control
stresses during handling, shipping, and erection. PCI’s
Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast,
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (CB-02) should be
used for guidance.

(Photo: Spring 2019 ASPIRE®)

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Spliced Girders (Photo: Winter 2022 ASPIRE®)

Longer girders are not the only means of
increasing span lengths. By making
prestressed concrete girder bridges
continuous over piers, spans exceeding 300
ft have been achieved. Designers of the
Sargent Beach Bridge over the Gulf
Intracoastal Waterway in Sargent, Tex., used
this concept with spliced prestressed
concrete girders to create a 300-ft main
span and 195-ft end spans. The main span
unit used a 178-ft drop-in girder. Because
the weight of the assembled drop-in girder
would have exceeded shipping weight limits, the girder was assembled from two prestressed concrete girder
segments spliced together on site. The spliced drop-in girder was then hoisted onto the previously erected
prestressed concrete pier girders, which are 120 ft long with depths that vary from 96 to 150 in. to accommodate
the negative moment caused by continuity. After closure pours were made, post-tensioning was installed and
tensioned for the full length of the continuous girders.
The Sargent Beach Bridge, located in a harsh marine environment, is designed for a 100-year service life. The
bridge also features 15-in.-thick prestressed concrete slab beams for the 150-ft-radius approach spans and 4-in.-
thick precast concrete partial-depth deck panels for the girder spans.

(Photo: Winter 2022 ASPIRE®)

(Photo: Summer 2021 ASPIRE®)

In Vermont, twin 863-ft-long, four-span post-
tensioned, precast concrete spliced-girder bridges
carry Interstate 91 across a deep ravine. Each of
the five girder lines consists of four 79-in.-deep
Northeast bulb-tee beam segments and three
haunched pier segments based on the same beam
section but with a thickened bottom flange to
create a maximum 10-ft depth at the pier.
The concept of constructing continuous bridges
by splicing prestressed concrete pier girders with
drop-in girders and post-tensioning has been
used to create a 320-ft main span bridge in
Florida and a record-setting 325-ft span in
Kentucky. Coordination and careful planning are
paramount. The girders must also be designed for
capacity, stability, and stresses during every
phase of construction.

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U-Beams—Curved and Straight

Earlier curved bridges were designed and constructed by laying out straight girders, typically I-beams or U-
beams, on chords and having deck overhangs form the curve. Proven to be competitive and constructable,
horizontally curved precast concrete U-beam bridges are being built in several regions with spans approaching
300 ft and radii as tight as 765 ft. The smooth bottom flange and sloped webs of the U-beam result in clean lines
and no ledges. Because the curved U-beam solution delivers an aesthetically appealing superstructure that
uniformly follows the curvature of the roadway, it is desired in highly visible locations.

Innovation in reusable, adjustable steel forms provides precasters with the capability to adapt to a range of
conditions, including variable radii. Since pretensioning is typically not practical in curved U-beams, post-
tensioning is incorporated both in the precast concrete plant to control stresses during handling and
transportation, and after erection to splice shorter sections and provide continuity at piers. Curved precast
concrete U-beams are quite heavy and segments are often spliced on site, typically after erection, to limit shipping
weight. However, unique hauling equipment has been developed that can safely transport permitted loads
weighing up to about 340 kips on public roads.
When U-beam construction is used, project teams must consider many details such as shoring requirements;
equipment selection for lifting and transporting heavy U-beam sections; erection and field engineering: and
monitoring movement of temporary foundations during erection and post-tensioning operations. In-depth
coverage of the design and fabrication of curved precast concrete U-beams is available in PCI’s Guide Document for
the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (CB-03-20) and the companion Curved Bridge U-
Girders e-Learning webinars. Local precasters and regional PCI chapters are also excellent resources.

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The following are examples of precast concrete U-beam projects:

• The Wekiva #204 Parkway Interchange in Orlando, Fla., includes eight precast concrete U-beam bridges,
some with spliced, haunched, curved, post-tensioned U-beams. Modified Florida U 48, U 63, and U 72
beams were used. The project also used prestressed concrete piles.
(Both Photos: Spring 2021 ASPIRE®)

• The Genesee Avenue Viaduct in San Diego, Calif., is the first curved precast concrete spliced U-beam light-
rail viaduct in California. The 5726-ft-long light-rail transit bridge consists of 35 spans with two lines of
precast concrete spliced U-beams. The longest span is 225 ft, and the radius of the curved viaduct is
typically 990 ft, although a short section has a 500-ft radius. Of the 140 modified PCI U-96 beams, 48
were curved. The precast concrete U-beams were a maximum of 60 ft in length and had a 100-ton
maximum haul weight. The use of precast concrete U-beams not only reduced the total construction time,
but also significantly reduced night construction.

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(Photo: Spring 2020 ASPIRE®)

(Figure: Spring 2020 ASPIRE®)

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• The PHX Sky Train Stage 2 in Phoenix, Ariz., is an (Photo: Summer 2020 ASPIRE®)
extension of a light-rail automated train system that
includes a 676-ft-long, five-span, continuous post-
tensioned superstructure unit with drop-in segments.
The structure includes 60-in.-deep and 78-in.-deep
precast concrete U-beams. The 60-in.-deep U-beams
(296 total) varied in length from 55 to 103 ft and were
pretensioned for the simple-span portions. For the
continuous post-tensioned portion, the 78-in.-deep U-
beams (24 total) achieved the 163- and 198-ft spans
needed to cross a future taxiway and an existing
terminal, respectively. Because of multiple site
restrictions, the drop-in segments were supported by
corbels instead of falsework.

(Photo: Summer 2020 ASPIRE®)

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Decked Beams
Precast, prestressed concrete beams are easy to erect, particularly when the tops of the beams constitute the
entire deck slab—called an integral deck or predecked bridge. With decked beams the need for formwork and
site-cast concrete is minimal. Northeast Extreme Tee beams (often referred to as NEXT beams), decked bulb-tee
beams, box beams, and voided slabs and solids are shapes that can have integral decks.
(Photo: Summer 2018 ASPIRE®)

Connections between these adjacent girders typically consist of continuous joint filled with high-strength
concrete, nonshrink grout, or UHPC . Beams with integral decks can achieve high span-to-depth ratios. In addition,
they can be installed and put into service very quickly.

Precast Concrete Segmental

Bridges (Photo: Fall 2019 ASPIRE®)
Since the 1970s, precast concrete
segmental bridges have played a
role in major bridge construction
in the United States. Precast
concrete segmental bridges are
composed of short, full-bridge-
width concrete segments that are
fabricated either in an established
precast concrete fabrication plant
or a project-specific casting yard
located near the project. The
segments are transported to the
jobsite, erected, and post-
tensioned to form the bridge.
Although specialized precasting
and construction methods are
required, segmental bridges are
cost-effective solutions to complex
highway geometries, long spans,
and limited work areas.
Precast concrete segmental bridges are built either using the span-by-span or balanced-cantilever method. Span
lengths for this bridge type range between 130 to 500 ft. The shorter spans typically have a constant-depth box
girder, whereas the longer spans usually have a variable-depth box girder superstructure, with the larger depth at
the supports and smallest depth at midspan. Cable-stayed and extradosed bridges are forms of segmental bridges.

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(Photo: Fall 2019 ASPIRE®)

Handling, Transportation, and Erection of Precast Concrete Members

During handling, transportation, and erection, portions of prestressed concrete members can be subjected to
some of the highest stresses they will ever encounter as structural members; such stresses may even exceed those
experienced in service. Members must be designed for stresses and lateral stability during handling, shipping, and
erection processes.
As larger, longer, and
heavier precast concrete (Photo: Spring 2022 ASPIRE®)
members and more
challenging jobsites have
become more common,
innovations in
transportation and erection
have been developed to
address these challenges.
Special haul vehicles and
barges may be used to
transport precast concrete
members to jobsites.
Sometimes, due to weight
or size limitations for
hauling, precast concrete
components are assembled
into larger members—even
entire bridge spans—at the
jobsite before erection.
Once precast, prestressed concrete members are at the jobsite, cranes are no longer the only method of erection
available. Unique solutions for erecting girders that have been employed include rubber-tired gantries, self-
propelled modular transporters (SPMTs), strand jacks, and launching or lateral-slide systems. Regardless of the
method used, the stability of the individual member, as well as the system, must be evaluated.

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(Photo: Summer 2021 ASPIRE®)

Additional Precast Concrete Bridge Members

Work-zone safety and detours are challenges faced by agencies and owners when a bridge is being constructed or
replaced. When precast concrete members are used, the project duration and associated traffic disturbances are
minimized because plant-produced members are readily delivered to the site and erected, which reduces the
amount of on-site work needed to complete the bridge.
The versatility of the precast, prestressed concrete industry provides the designer with many options. There are
many ways to construct a bridge using precast concrete members. In addition to the well-known superstructure
members (girders and deck slabs), substructure and even foundation members can also be precast.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION

Piles
Prestressed concrete piles provide excellent resistance to
environmental conditions (including saltwater exposure), provide
durable and economical deep foundations, and have a long service
life. They can be driven through deep water or thick layers of
unsuitable soils to provide support for bridge structures. Prestressed
concrete piles can be designed to support the heavy vertical loads
imposed by bridge structures and the lateral loads caused by traffic,
wind, waves, vessel impact, earthquakes, and other actions.
Prestressed concrete piles are typically cast in long lines in reusable
steel forms. Because the concrete is batched, placed, and cured with
strict QC procedures, the piles are consistently manufactured to high
standards of quality and uniformity. Pretensioning introduces
compression into the pile, which counteracts the tensile stresses from
handling, driving, and design loads. Prestressed concrete piles can be
made to any practical length. Depending on the limitations imposed
by transportation and the precaster’s capabilities, 200-ft piles can be
produced. Another option is to splice the piles.
(Photo: Fall 2019 ASPIRE®)

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Prestressed concrete piles can be square, octagonal, or cylindrical and can be made in different sizes.

Prestressed concrete piles can either be shipped by truck or, where precasters have dock facilities, by barge.

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Deck Panels
Precast concrete deck panels can be partial or full depth. Partial-depth concrete deck panels are typically
designed to be made composite with the cast-in-place concrete to form part of the structural deck; however, in
some cases, they are used as stay-in-place forms.
Full-depth concrete panels, where the precast concrete makes up the entire thickness of the structural deck, can
be nonprestressed or prestressed. HPC or UHPC may be used for the connection of full-depth deck panels to the
girders and for the joints between panels. The use of UHPC in the connections provides exceptional strength,
resistance to cracking, exceptional bond to the concrete, and low permeability, which are all highly desired
qualities for the application. Full-depth precast concrete deck panels can sometimes be put into service within a
few days of installation, and they provide a high-quality riding surface. The panels are also suitable for use on
steel bridges.

Other Precast Concrete Members

The applications for precast concrete members are boundless. Pier caps, columns, piers, abutments, wingwalls,
footings, railings, and barriers are several of the possibilities. Precast concrete members can be readily assembled
on site and their use often saves contractors time, improves worker safety, and reduces project duration.

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Discussions among engineers, contractors, and owners early in the project concept and planning stages can lead
to solutions beneficial to both cost and schedule.
(Photo: Winter 2022 ASPIRE®)

(Photo: Spring 2017 ASPIRE®)

As a result of the value-engineering process for the cable-stayed

Oakley C. Collins Memorial Bridge crossing the Ohio River,
several innovative precast concrete solutions were developed.
They included precast concrete transverse beams, precast
concrete cable-stay anchorage blocks, and precast concrete
footing coffercells for the submerged footings of the pylons.

(Photo: Fall 2017 ASPIRE®)

(Photo: Fall 2017 ASPIRE®)

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Accelerated Bridge Construction

Accelerated bridge construction (ABC) is often thought of as a project delivery method, but it does not need to be
an all-or-nothing scenario. Rather, ABC can be thought of as a collection of components, materials, methods, or
techniques that can be either combined with or substituted for traditional bridge construction methods. Anything
that can result in efficiency of schedule, labor, or materials; reduced environmental impact; and increased jobsite
safety are beneficial for all stakeholders. ABC techniques also lend themselves to remote locations with limited
availability of materials and skilled labor, or limited access for construction equipment. In the bridge industry,
ABC often includes the use of precast, prestressed concrete girders and other members, which also equates to
high quality.
ABC is not just for new construction. Bridge replacement and rehabilitation projects are often good applications.
In some cases, existing abutments can be used; in other situations, it can be easier and more economical to build
new ones. Precast concrete abutments and wingwalls supported on cast-in-place or precast concrete footings may
be viable options.
For planners and designers, early consideration of ABC is important. Several states and agencies have their own
ABC decision-making processes and ABC methods and techniques. Four ABC case studies are presented here to
demonstrate a few of the many creative solutions that can be achieved using precast concrete members.

Pioneer Crossing over Interstate 15

The Pioneer Crossing project in Utah included twin two-span prestressed concrete girder structures. As part of
the design-build project to replace an existing Interstate 15 interchange, the contractor and designer chose to use
SPMTs to reduce on-site construction time and traffic impacts and to improve work-zone safety, as well as
material quality and durability. The four spans of the twin two-span structures were constructed on temporary
falsework in staging areas less than ¼ mile from the bridge site. Each of the spans, which had a 53-degree skew,
used 94.5-in.-deep prestressed concrete girders spaced at 7.75 ft with an 8.5-in.-thick cast-in-place composite
concrete deck. The 191-ft-long, 69-ft-wide single-span units weighed 2300 tons. At the time they were
constructed, they were the longest and heaviest multi-girder spans moved with SPMTs in the United States.
(Photo: Summer 2020 ASPIRE®)

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It took four nights to move the four spans. Two lines of SPMTs supported each span at its ends, and special tower-
stand jacks raised each span off the temporary supports and lowered it onto the new abutments. For each
structure, the two spans were positioned and then connected with a closure pour over the interior support.
The decks were designed with additional reinforcement to account for the temporary tensile stresses during the
move. The end diaphragms and the last 10 ft at each end of the deck were cast after the spans were moved.

Pennsylvania Interstate 78 Bridge Underclearance Project

During the 2016 and 2017 construction seasons, the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT)
District 5 replaced six single-span bridges located along an 8-mile stretch of Interstate 78 (I-78) in Berks County,
Pa. The project used precast concrete members for the superstructures, substructures, and foundations, coupled
with ABC techniques, to reduce the average construction duration for each structure from 1 year to 45 calendar
days. The six structures used a total of over 500 precast concrete members: footings consisting of stem pieces,
pedestals, backwalls, full-depth deck panels, approach slabs, sleeper slabs, and moment slabs, as well as
prestressed concrete bulb tees. The project was the first use of full-height precast concrete cantilever abutments
(supported on spread footings) for PennDOT.
The weight of individual precast concrete pieces was limited to 50 tons with some pieces being joined on site.

(Photo: Winter 2019 ASPIRE®)

The precast concrete footing components were up to 2
ft 9 in. thick, 18 ft 6 in. long, and 14 ft 6 in. wide; the
stem components were up to 3 ft 6 in. thick, 30 ft tall,
and 12 ft wide; and the full-depth deck panels were
typically 8 in. thick and less than 14 ft wide.
The precast concrete beams and deck panels were
erected at night while I-78 traffic was maintained with
the use of a ramp around the construction or temporary
15-minute closures of I-78.

(Photo: Winter 2019 ASPIRE® file photo)

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Five Replacement Structures for the Texas Department of Transportation’s Amarillo District
In Texas, five bridges were replaced using (Photo: Fall 2022 ASPIRE®)
36-in.-deep prestressed concrete NEXT D
beams with precast concrete bent caps and
precast concrete abutments with wingwalls.
A common bridge width of 46 ft was used
along with beam lengths that were
standardized to 60 or 70 ft. The bridges
consisted of two to five spans and varied in
total structure length from 140 to 300 ft.
Closure pours were detailed to use UHPC
with design compressive strengths of 14 ksi
within 4 days and 21 ksi within 28 days. For
each structure, the time from start of
demolition to opening to traffic was 10 to 12
days.

Lake Pontchartrain Causeway Safety Bay Improvements

As noted, ABC is not limited to new construction. The Pontchartrain Causeway project included constructing
twelve 1008-ft-long safety shoulders (bays) along the existing bridge alignment. The project team collaborated to
resolve challenges and minimize project risk and let constructability, schedule, and budget help guide the design.
In less than 9 months, the project moved from preconstruction to construction, a process that typically takes
much longer.
To minimize traffic disruptions, (Photo: Summer 2021 ASPIRE®)
precast concrete piles, pile caps,
and deck span modules were
chosen. All deck span modules
were completed off site in an
assembly-line fashion. Precast,
prestressed concrete AASHTO-type
girders were delivered to the
contractor’s yard, where a
composite deck was applied before
the completed units were barged to
the bridge. Two lines of SPMTs
completed the installation from the
barge.
One hundred ninety-two 54-in.-
diameter prestressed concrete piles
were used on the project.

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Interstate 15 Box Tunnel

ABC has been used for tunnel projects, too. In 2017, for an Interstate 15 project in Utah, a construction manager
and general contractor team developed a three-sided box tunnel (123 ft 5 in. long, 22 ft high, and 37 ft 4 in. inside
width) with a lateral slide solution. This innovation allowed the contractor to build the three-sided structure
outside the existing traffic lanes. By using the lateral slide technique, a road closure of only 16 days was needed,
whereas traditional construction would have likely taken 9 months and closed traffic lanes.

(Photo: Summer 2020 ASPIRE®) A full-bottom precast concrete slab solution was used for the
footing to distribute the loads. The greatest design efficiency
was that the 15 by 10 by 4 ft precast concrete footing sections
also provided a solid and level surface for the slide. After the
slide, the full-bottom slab was completed by a closure pour in
the midsection between the parallel footings.
In 3 hours, crews slid the structure, which weighed 3 million
lb, a distance of 150 ft, so it could be connected with a 60-ft
section of the underpass on the north side.

The Future
Innovation in bridge construction has been, and will continue to be, an ongoing focus in the precast concrete
bridge industry.

Materials
Material properties, such as corrosion resistance, fire resistance, and durability have been improved in a process
of continual evolution. These inherent qualities of precast, prestressed concrete together with a high degree of
design flexibility also make it ideal for a wide variety of applications such as piles, pier caps, abutments, and deck
panels.
Synthetic, organic, and steel fibers mixed into concrete have been shown to improve toughness and resistance to
shrinkage cracking for concrete. In UHPC, the use of relatively high volumes of steel fibers has led to an increase
in concrete tensile and flexural strengths. This emerging class of fiber-reinforced concrete holds great promise in
terms of performance and cost effectiveness. Wider use of UHPC in piling and girders with reduced cross sections
to provide economy, while still providing exceptional durability and performance, may result.
Strands of larger diameters and higher strengths may be used more frequently with higher concrete compressive
strengths as the demand for higher prestress force increases. To better use the higher prestress force and higher
concrete strengths, engineers have developed new girder cross sections that provide more space for prestressing
strands in the bottom flange, as well as larger top flanges that provide improved stability to achieve longer spans.
Prestressing strand of 0.7-in.-diameter is currently available, but is yet to see significant use and the same applies
to 300-ksi strand. Epoxy-coated strand, stainless steel strand, and carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer strand can
also be used to further enhance the durability of prestressed concrete members in severe, corrosive
environments.

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Nonmetallic reinforcement, such as glass, carbon, basalt, and aramid fiber composites, are being used for
applications where high-corrosion-resistant reinforcement is desired to provide an extended service life.

Sustainability
The precast concrete industry takes sustainability seriously. There are two aspects of sustainability: one is the
members of the bridge while in service and the other is the precasting process itself.
Due to the tighter tolerances and high-quality materials used, precast, prestressed concrete members can be
designed to optimize (or lessen) the amount of concrete and other materials consumed. Fly ash, slag cement, and
silica fume, which are industrial waste products, can be used as partial supplement for cement, thereby reducing
the amount of cement and embodied carbon in concrete. Portland-limestone cement can also be used to replace a
portion of portland cement.
In a precasting plant, multiple-use forms are typically used. For bridge girders and piling, the reusable steel forms
can have a life that spans decades. In addition, materials, including water, can be reused or recycled. In response
to the needs of the industry, PCI has developed a Sustainable Plants Program. The goal of the program is to give
PCI-certified precast concrete plant operators the tools and resources to measurably improve their
environmental and economic performance.

National Concrete Bridge Council

The National Concrete Bridge Council (NCBC) is a council of allied concrete industry organizations dedicated to
expanding the concrete bridge market through promotion of the benefits of concrete bridges. The organization
promotes quality in concrete bridge construction and preservation by gathering and disseminating information
on design, construction, maintenance, and condition assessment of concrete bridges; establishing and maintaining
communication with federal, state, and local transportation agencies, consulting engineers, contractors, and
material suppliers; and providing information on behalf of the concrete industries to codes and standards groups.
The future of precast, prestressed concrete bridges will be enhanced through the activities of NCBC.
Through its member organizations, NCBC works closely with the Federal Highway Administration, the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, the American Concrete Institute, ASTM International,
and fib (International Federation for Structural Concrete).
NCBC has a commitment to improving the nation’s infrastructure through concrete bridges. Council members
work together on common projects to improve the quality, durability, and efficiency of concrete bridges.
Objectives adopted by NCBC include a focus on sustainability and resiliency, as well as the stewardship of existing
concrete bridges. As new materials and technologies become available, NCBC will help communicate these
innovations to bridge professionals.
Concrete industry organizations currently involved in NCBC are:
• American Segmental Bridge Institute
• Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute
• Epoxy Interest Group of CRSI
• Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate Institute
• International Concrete Repair Institute Inc.
• National Ready Mixed Concrete Association
• Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
• Post-Tensioning Institute
• Silica Fume Association
• Wire Reinforcement Institute

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION

Conclusion
Prestressed concrete originated as a creatively engineered combination of high-strength steel and high-quality
concrete. Further developments by the industry and its suppliers have continued to refine the performance of the
product for a wide range of bridge applications that have come to provide the public with extraordinarily good
value for their money.
The reputation of the precast, prestressed concrete industry has been built on the strength, imagination,
consistency, and integrity of its people and products alike. These attributes will continue to make precast
concrete the solution of choice—for new construction, replacement structures, and rehabilitations—for the
nation’s bridges, not only today, but far into the future.
(Photo: Standard Concrete Products)

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Table of Contents

1.1 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1-3

1.2 GENERAL SUSTAINABILITY CONCEPTS ............................................................................................................................................ 1-3
1.2.1 Triple Bottom Line .............................................................................................................................................................................. 1-3
1.2.2 The Cost of Green................................................................................................................................................................................. 1-4
1.2.3 Holistic/Integrated Design .............................................................................................................................................................. 1-4
1.2.4 Reduce, Reuse, Recycle ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1-4
1.2.4.1 Reduce the Amount of Material Used and the Toxicity of Waste Materials ..................................................... 1-4
1.2.4.2 Reuse Products and Containers ........................................................................................................................................... 1-5
1.2.4.3 Recycle as Much as Possible .................................................................................................................................................. 1-5
1.2.5 Terminology ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 1-5
1.3 LIFE CYCLE ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1-7
1.3.1 Life-Cycle Cost and Service Life..................................................................................................................................................... 1-7
1.3.2 Environmental Life-Cycle Inventory and Life-Cycle Assessment .................................................................................. 1-8
1.3.2.1 LCI Boundary ................................................................................................................................................................................ 1-8
1.3.2.2 Concrete and Concrete Products LCI .............................................................................................................................. 1-10
1.3.2.2.1 Raw Materials .................................................................................................................................................................. 1-10
1.3.2.2.2 Fuel and Energy .............................................................................................................................................................. 1-10
1.3.2.2.3 Emissions to Air .............................................................................................................................................................. 1-11
1.3.2.3 Life-Cycle Impact Assessment ........................................................................................................................................... 1-11
1.3.2.4 Interpretation and Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................ 1-11
1.3.3 Embodied Carbon ............................................................................................................................................................................. 1-12
1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL LABELS ................................................................................................................................................................... 1-12
1.4.1 Product Category Rules ................................................................................................................................................................. 1-12
1.4.2 Environmental Product Declaration ........................................................................................................................................ 1-13
1.5 SUSTAINABILITY CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 1-14
1.5.1 Durability ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 1-14
1.5.1.1 Corrosion Resistance ............................................................................................................................................................. 1-14
1.5.1.2 Vermin and Insect Resistance ............................................................................................................................................ 1-14
1.5.1.3 Ultraviolet Resistance ............................................................................................................................................................ 1-14
1.5.1.4 Radiation and Toxicity .......................................................................................................................................................... 1-14
1.5.2 Resilience ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 1-14
1.5.2.1 Tornado, Hurricane, and Wind Resistance .................................................................................................................. 1-15
1.5.2.2 Flood Resistance ...................................................................................................................................................................... 1-15
1.5.2.3 Earthquake Resistance .......................................................................................................................................................... 1-15
1.5.2.4 Fire Resistance .......................................................................................................................................................................... 1-15
1.5.3 Aesthetics ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 1-15
1.5.3.1 Section Shapes, Sizes, Color, and Texture ..................................................................................................................... 1-15
1.5.3.2 Lighting ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 1-15
1.5.4 Mitigating the Urban Heat Island Effect ................................................................................................................................. 1-15

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Table of Contents

1.5.4.1 Smog .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 1-16

1.5.4.2 Albedo (Solar Reflectance) .................................................................................................................................................. 1-16
1.5.4.3 Emittance .................................................................................................................................................................................... 1-16
1.5.4.4 Mitigation approaches .......................................................................................................................................................... 1-16
1.5.5 Environmental Protection ............................................................................................................................................................ 1-16
1.5.5.1 Protection of Waterways ..................................................................................................................................................... 1-16
1.5.5.2 Reduced Site Disturbance .................................................................................................................................................... 1-17
1.5.6 User Considerations ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1-17
1.5.6.1 Construction Delays ............................................................................................................................................................... 1-17
1.5.6.3 Resistance to Noise (Sound Barriers) ............................................................................................................................ 1-17
1.5.6.4 Context-Sensitive Solutions ................................................................................................................................................ 1-17
1.6 SUSTAINABLE FEATURES OF PRECAST CONCRETE ................................................................................................................. 1-17
1.6.1 Constituent Materials ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1-18
1.6.1.1 Concrete ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 1-18
1.6.1.2 Portland Cement ...................................................................................................................................................................... 1-18
1.6.1.2.1 White Cement ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1-18
1.6.1.3 Fly Ash, Slag Cement, and Silica Fume ........................................................................................................................... 1-18
1.6.1.4 Portland-Limestone Cement .............................................................................................................................................. 1-19
1.6.1.5 Recycled Aggregates .............................................................................................................................................................. 1-20
1.6.1.6 Admixtures ................................................................................................................................................................................. 1-20
1.6.2 Carbonation ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 1-21
1.6.3 Abundant Materials ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1-21
1.6.4 Local Materials................................................................................................................................................................................... 1-21
1.6.5 Factory Control .................................................................................................................................................................................. 1-21
1.6.5.1 Reduced Waste, Site Disturbance ..................................................................................................................................... 1-21
1.7 SIMPLIFIED TOOLS AND RATING SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................................. 1-21
1.7.1 Greenroads .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 1-21
1.7.2 GreenLITES ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 1-22
1.7.3 CEEQUAL .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 1-22
1.7.4 Envision ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 1-23
1.8 NORTH AMERICAN PRECAST CONCRETE SUSTAINABLE PLANT PROGRAM ............................................................... 1-23
1.9 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 1-23

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1.1 Scope/1.2.1 Triple Bottom Line

Sustainability
1.1 SCOPE
There is no universally accepted definition of sustainability. Most often, sustainability is explained in terms of
sustainable development, which the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) defined as
“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.” Sustainability is a developing, dynamic, and fundamental concept for all engineering
applications. This process generates a variety of terms and acronyms; Section 1.2.5, Terminology, is presented for
reference and to assist with reading this chapter.
Materials can have a significant effect on the environmental impact of the construction, maintenance,
rehabilitation, and operation of a bridge. The inherent properties of precast concrete make it a natural choice for
achieving sustainability in bridges. Precast concrete contributes to sustainable practices by incorporating
integrated design, using materials efficiently, and reducing construction waste, site disturbance, and noise.
Although many consumers are concerned with the present and future health of the natural environment, they are
not always willing to pay more for a product, process, or innovation that minimizes environmental burdens
(VanGeem, 2006). The concept of sustainability, however, balances sustainable design with cost-effectiveness (see
Section 1.2.1). When integrated design (also called holistic design) is used, a bridge’s materials and systems are
examined from the perspective of all project team members and users. The American Association of State
Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) have always
encouraged a life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) approach in bridge-type selection studies. Items such as cost,
durability (or service life), environmental impact, constructability, work zone impact, and quality of user
experience are also considered when decisions are made regarding the selection of a bridge’s design.

1.2 GENERAL SUSTAINABILITY CONCEPTS

Best practices related to sustainable design apply regardless of the project type. A life-cycle perspective when
making decisions, whether related to the environment or costs, ensures that burdens are not shifted to other life-
cycle stages. Furthermore, by simultaneously being mindful of the triple bottom line of environmental, social, and
economic costs and benefits, owners and designers can ensure that designs and projects emphasize positive
impacts and minimize adverse effects on the environment, society, and the economy. Sustainable design
strategies do not have to cost more than traditional strategies. Because more-efficient designs can often optimize
the use of materials or save energy, they can often save more money over the life cycle of the structure. A key
strategy is designing holistically, and working collectively with the entire project team, to be environmentally,
socially, and fiscally responsible and advocate for sustainable development.

1.2.1 Triple Bottom Line

The concept of the triple bottom line emphasizes that economic design decisions have environmental and social
consequences. Although not discussed in detail in this chapter, consequences to society include impacts on users
and communities, such as construction delays and access. As the following examples illustrate, reducing the
materials, energy, and emissions used to design, build, maintain, and dispose of bridges can offer environmental
benefits that extend far beyond those of the bridges themselves:
• Using smaller quantities of materials means fewer new quarries are needed.
• Using less energy means fewer new power plants need to be constructed, less pollution is emitted into
the air, and dependence on foreign energy sources is reduced.
• Reducing emissions into the atmosphere means cleaner air and less risk of respiratory conditions, such
as asthma.
• Using less water decreases demands on the infrastructure to find and deliver new sources of water and
reduces energy consumption to process, treat, and transport water

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1.2.1 Triple Bottom Line/1.2.4.1 Reduce the Amount of Material Used and the Toxicity of Waste Materails

All of these examples demonstrate how choices we make during the design and construction of bridges can affect
local communities. These are especially important since most communities do not want new power plants,
quarries, or landfills built near them.

1.2.2 The Cost of Green

A sustainable design can result in reduced project costs and a bridge that is resource-efficient. Reusing materials
such as demolished concrete for base or fill material can reduce costs associated with hauling and disposing of
materials. When sustainability is an objective at the outset of the design process, the cost of a sustainable bridge is
competitive. Typical state highway procedures for bridge and transportation facility designs must consider many
sustainable attributes such as context-sensitive solutions, durability, reduced construction-related user delays,
environmental impact, and noise during construction, among others.

1.2.3 Holistic/Integrated Design

A key tenet of sustainable design is the holistic or integrated design approach. This approach requires
coordinating the structural, site, and other requirements early in the schematic design phases to discern possible
system interactions, and then deciding which beneficial interactions are essential for project success. For
example, if deck drainage can be incorporated into the pedestrian sidewalk or shoulder design, that design choice
could require fewer pipes and perhaps allow for quicker construction.
A holistic viewpoint will also take into account the surrounding site environment by seeking answers to questions
such as the following:
• Can bike paths be incorporated for those who live in the community?
• Can native landscaping be used to reduce the need for irrigation?
• Does placing plantings on a bridge affect future durability concerns?
• Can using concrete as a road surface reduce the number of light fixtures required on a bridge?
The following are integrated design priorities:
• Emphasize the integrated process.
• Consider the structure as a whole—many structures are interactive or multifunctional.
• Focus on the life cycle.
• Have disciplines work together as a team from the start.
• Conduct relevant assessments to help determine requirements and set goals.
• Develop tailored solutions that yield multiple benefits while meeting requirements and goals.
• Evaluate solutions.
• Ensure requirements and goals are met.
Contracts and requests for proposals should clearly describe sustainability requirements and project
documentation required (PCA, n.d.).

1.2.4 Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

One of the most-well-recognized slogans of the environmental movement is “reduce, reuse, recycle.” This slogan
can also be applied to the bridge industry.

1.2.4.1 Reduce the Amount of Material Used and the Toxicity of Waste Materials
Precast, prestressed concrete can be designed to optimize (or lessen) the amount of concrete used. When
elements are made in a production environment, closer tolerances can be met, which decreases material use.
Industrial wastes such as fly ash, slag cement, and silica fume can be used as partial replacements for cement—
with certain aesthetic (color) and early compressive strength considerations—thereby reducing the amount of
cement used in concrete. Precast concrete generates a low amount of waste with a low toxicity. It is generally
assumed that 2.5% of the concrete at a plant is waste, but because it is generated at the plant, 95% of the waste is
used beneficially (Marceau, et al., 2010A). For more information on how precast concrete plants can reduce
waste, see Section 1.8.

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1.2.4.2 Reuse Products and Containers/1.2.5 Terminology

1.2.4.2 Reuse Products and Containers

Precast concrete bridge girders can be reused for pedestrian crossings or for other applications. More-sustainable
bridge projects can incorporate simplified deconstruction as a design criterion (VanGeem, 2018). To reuse
components effectively, engineers need to be able to determine the residual service life of the components. Long
(2007) emphasized the need for testing equipment that could be used to determine the durability or remaining
life of bridges in place.
Other ways that the concept of reuse is facilitated with precast concrete components include the following:
• Concrete pieces from demolished structures can be reused to protect shorelines and create
fisheries.
• Because the precasting process is self-contained, formwork and finishing materials are reused.
• Wood forms can generally be used 25 to 30 times without major maintenance; fiberglass,
concrete, and steel forms have significantly longer service lives.

1.2.4.3 Recycle as Much as Possible

Concrete in most urban areas is recycled as fill or road base. In mild climates where recycled concrete is not
contaminated with road salts, recycled concrete can be used as coarse aggregate in new concrete. Wood and steel
forms are recycled when they become worn or obsolete. Virtually all reinforcing steel is made from recycled steel.
Many cement plants burn waste-derived fuels such as spent solvents, used oils, and tires in the manufacture of
cement.
To the extent possible, bridge projects should be designed to use products made with recycled content.

1.2.5 Terminology
Acidification potential—“acidifying effect of substances in water and soil. Acidification can occur when
substances such as carbon dioxide dissolve in water and lower the pH levels, increasing the acidity of the water.
(CLF 2019)”
Admixture—material, other than water, aggregate, and hydraulic cement, used as an ingredient of concrete,
mortar, grout, or plaster and added to the batch immediately before or during mixing. Chemical admixtures are
most commonly used to protect against freezing and thawing, to retard or accelerate the concrete setting time, or
to allow less water to be used in the concrete.
Albedo—solar reflectance. See reflectance.
Calcination—process of heating a source of calcium carbonate, such as limestone, to high temperatures, thereby
causing a chemical reaction that releases CO2. This CO2 is not related to the fuel used to heat the calcium
carbonate.
Carbon dioxide equivalent—a unit of measure used to combine multiple greenhouse gases with varying
atmospheric warming potentials.
Carbonation—a chemical reaction where CO2 in the air reactions with calcium hydroxide in concrete to form
calcium carbonate and water.
Cement—see portland cement.
Cementitious material (cementing material)—any material having cementing properties or contributing to the
formation of hydrated calcium silicate compounds. When proportioning concrete, the following are considered
cementitious materials: portland cement, blended hydraulic cement, fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag
(also called slag cement), silica fume, calcined clay, metakaolin, calcined shale, and rice husk ash.
Concrete—mixture of binding materials and coarse and fine aggregates. Portland cement and water are
commonly used as the binding medium for normal concrete, but concrete may also contain pozzolans, slag
cement, and/or chemical admixtures.
Embodied carbon—the total amount of CO2e emissions caused by raw material extraction, transportation,
manufacturing, construction, maintenance, renovation, and end of life of a product or system.

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1.2.5 Terminology

Embodied energy—the total amount of primary energy required to extract raw materials, transport,
manufacture, construct, maintain, renovate, and dispose of a product or system.
Emittance—the ability of the material to emit, or let go of, heat.
Eutrophication potential—“the effect of adding nutrients to soil or water, causing certain species to dominate
an ecosystem and compromise the survival of other species. (CLF 2019)”
Global warming potential—“describes potential changes in local, regional, or global surface temperatures
caused by an increased concentration of GHGs [greenhouse gases] in the atmosphere, which traps heat from solar
radiation through the ‘greenhouse effect.’ (CLF 2019)” The gases carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and
nitrous oxide (N2O) are considered greenhouse gases; therefore, they can be grouped together in the GWP impact
category.
Greenhouse gas emissions—emissions that have the potential to increase air temperatures at the Earth’s
surface, including CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, water vapor, and aerosols (particles of 0.001
to 10 μm diameter).
Ozone depletion potential—“weakening the ozone layer’s ability to prevent excessive ultraviolet radiation from
reaching Earth’s surface. (CLF 2019)”
Photochemical oxidant (smog) creation potential—“describes the presence of substances such as carbon
monoxide and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere, forming photochemical smog. Smog is
harmful to human health (e.g. causing respiratory issues) and ecosystems (e.g. causing deterioration of crops).
(CLF 2019)”
Portland cement—calcium silicate hydraulic cement produced by pulverizing portland cement clinker; usually
contains calcium sulfate and other compounds.
Portland-limestone cement (PLC)—a blend of portland cement and ground limestone conforming to ASTM
C595 or AASHTO M 240 and with a ground-limestone content ranging from 5% to 15% by mass.
Pozzolan—siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material such as fly ash or silica fume, which in itself possess
little or no cementitious value but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically
react in the presence of portland cement to form compounds possessing cementitious properties.
Primary energy—energy use directly measured at a facility within the system boundary of the assessment.
Reflectance—the ratio of the amount of light or solar energy reflected from a material surface to the amount
shining on the surface. Solar reflectance includes light in the visible, infrared, and ultraviolet (UV) range. For
artificial lighting, the reflectance refers to the particular type of lighting used in the visible spectrum.
Silica fume—very fine non-crystalline silica that is a byproduct from the production of silicon and ferrosilicon
alloys in an electric arc furnace; used as a pozzolan in concrete.
Slag cement (ground, granulated blast-furnace slag)—a nonmetallic hydraulic cement consisting essentially of
silicates and aluminosilicates of calcium developed in a molten condition simultaneously with iron in a blast
furnace. This slag is cooled and ground in a manner to produce slag cement. Slag cement can be used as a partial
replacement or addition to portland cement in concrete.
Supplementary cementitious materials—materials that when used in conjunction with portland cement
contribute to the properties of hardened concrete through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity or both.
Sustainable development—development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). In
more tangible terms, sustainability refers to the following: not compromising future quality of life; remediating
environmental damage done in the past; and recognizing that our economy, environment, and social well-being
are interdependent.
Sustainability rating systems—a set of criteria used to quantitatively assess that a bridge, building, or other
item in the built environment is sustainable, green, or energy-conserving.

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1.2.5 Terminology/1.3.1 Life-Cycle Cost and Service Life

Urban heat island—microclimates near urban or suburban areas that are warmer than surrounding areas due to
the replacement of vegetation with hardscape, bridges, pavements, and other structures.

1.3 LIFE CYCLE

There is no single tool that can concurrently assess the “triple bottom line” of the economic, environmental, and
equity (societal) impacts of design. However, a life-cycle analysis can be used for economic purposes (as with
LCCA) or environmental goals (life-cycle assessment [LCA]). Although the LCCA and LCA approaches are distinct,
they each consider the impacts of the design over the entire life of the bridge—from extraction of raw materials to
end of life—which is an essential part of sustainable design. Figure 1.3-1 defines the life-cycle stages for a project
and provides a common framework for attributing impacts to different stages (ISO, 2017). When the resource
impacts of sustainable design are considered over the life of the structure, a more cost-effective sustainable
design often becomes apparent.
Figure 1.3-1
Framework for Defining Life-Cycle Stages in Life-Cycle Assessment
Construction product life cycle system boundary •
Product stage• Construction Use stage End-of-life stage
stage Module D
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 C1 C2 C3 C4

Transport to waste processing or

Potential net benefits (beyond

Deconstruction/demolition
Extraction and upstream

Operational energy use

Operational water use

Transport to factory

system boundary)
Waste processing

Disposal of waste
Transport to site

Refurbishment
Manufacturing

Replacement
Maintenance
Installation
production

disposal
Repair
Use
•

•
Basing design decisions on a single environmental criterion such as carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (see Section
1.3.3) is similar to choosing designs based on first-cost alone. A full set of environmental impacts for a bridge
includes land use, resource use, climate change, health effects, acidification, and toxicity. To get the whole picture,
the entire structure (all components and systems) must be evaluated for a full range of environmental impacts for
the full service life.
Practitioners of sustainable bridge design believe that the key to sustainability is adaptable, durable bridges
designed to minimize environmental impacts and costs across its lifecycle, which may be achieved by minimizing
the use of materials. The material efficiency, durability, and longevity of precast concrete makes it an ideal choice
for sustainable bridge design.

1.3.1 Life-Cycle Cost and Service Life

LCCA is a tool used to guide economic decision-making when selecting materials and systems. This analysis
involves accounting for all expenditures incurred over the lifetime of a particular structure. Costs at any given
time are discounted back to a fixed date, based on assumed rates of inflation and the time-value of money. An
LCCA is equal to the construction cost plus the present value (in dollars) of future utility, maintenance, and
replacement costs over the life of the facility.
Using this widely accepted method, it is possible to compare the economics of different bridge alternatives that
may have different cash-flow factors but provide a similar standard of service. The result is financial information

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1.3.1 Life-Cycle Cost and Service Life/1.3.2.1 LCI Boundary

for decision-making, which can be used to balance capital costs and future operation, repair, or maintenance
costs. Quite often, designs with the lowest first costs will require greater repair and maintenance costs during the
service life of the structure. So, even with their low initial cost, these designs may have a greater life-cycle cost
than designs with higher first costs. Conversely, durable materials, such as precast concrete, often have a lower
life-cycle cost than other options. Owners and design professionals in the transportation industry are familiar
with the benefits of controlling life-cycle cost.

1.3.2 Environmental Life-Cycle Inventory and Life-Cycle Assessment

LCA is an environmental assessment of the life cycle of a product, process, or structure. An LCA considers all
aspects of a product life cycle—from the first stages of harvesting and extracting raw materials from nature to
transforming and processing these raw materials into a product, to using the product, and ultimately to recycling
it or disposing of it. When performing an LCA, financial impacts are not considered and monetary units are not
part of the analysis. Instead, an LCA accounts for environmental impacts in terms of mass or energy use (inputs)
and emissions to air, water, and land (outputs).
The LCA of a bridge project is necessary to evaluate its full environmental impact over its entire service life. Green
rating systems that focus only on a single criterion such as recycled content or carbon dioxide emissions or
consider only a portion of the service life provide only a partial snapshot of the environmental impact a structure
can have. An LCA of a bridge project includes environmental effects due to the following:
• Extraction of materials and fuel
• Manufacture of bridge components
• Transportation of materials and components
• Assembly and construction
• Operations, including energy consumption, maintenance, and repair as well as user vehicle fuel use and
emissions during repair
• Demolition, disposal, recycling, and reuse of the bridge at the end of its functional or useful life
As defined by ISO 14044, the four primary steps in an LCA are as follows:
1. Goal and scope definition
2. Life-cycle inventory (LCI) analysis
3. Life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA)
4. Interpretation and conclusions
In the second step of the LCA, an LCI accounts for all the individual environmental flows to and from a product,
process, or system throughout the life cycle. The LCI encompasses the materials and energy needed to make and
use a product, process, or system and the emissions to air, land, and water associated with making and using that
product, process, or system.
An LCA involves a time-consuming manipulation of large quantities of data. Modeling software provides data for
common materials and options for selecting LCA impacts. The Portland Cement Association (PCA) has published
reports with LCI data on cement and concrete (Marceau, et al., 2010A; Marceau, et al., 2010B). These data are also
found in the National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s U.S. Life Cycle Inventory Database (www.nrel.gov/lci).
Organizations such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) have documented standard
procedures for conducting an LCA (ISO 14040 and ISO 14044). These procedures are scientific, transparent, and
repeatable, and are generally consistent with each other.

1.3.2.1 LCI Boundary

The usefulness of an LCA or LCI depends on where the boundaries of a product are drawn. If two LCA analyses
will be compared, the boundaries of the compared studies must be the same. A common approach is to consider
all the environmental flows from extraction to deconstruction (including reuse, recycling, and disposal, if
necessary). For example, the system boundary for precast concrete operations should include most of the inputs
and outputs associated with producing concrete—from extracting raw material to producing mixed concrete
ready for placement in forms (Figure 1.3.2.1-1).

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1.3.2.1 LCI Boundary

Figure 1.3.2.1-1
System Boundary for Precast Concrete Operations

The system boundary should also include the upstream profile of manufacturing cement, as well as quarrying and
processing aggregates, and transporting cement, fly ash, and aggregates to the precast concrete manufacturing
facility. Energy and emissions associated with transporting the primary materials from their source to the
manufacturing plant are also included in the boundary.
A complete precast concrete LCI would also include upstream profiles of fuel, electricity, water, or supplementary
cementitious materials, form preparation, placing the concrete in the formwork, curing, and stripping. An
upstream profile can be thought of as a separate LCI that is itself a component of a product. For example, the
upstream profile of cement is essentially an LCI of cement, which can be imported into an LCI of precast concrete.
The LCI of precast concrete itself can then be imported into an LCI of a product, such as a bridge.
The LCI of materials generally does not consider embodied energy and emissions associated with construction of
manufacturing plant equipment and buildings, nor the heating and cooling of such buildings. This approach is
generally acceptable if the plant materials, energy, and associated emissions account for less than 1% of the
materials, energy, and associate emissions in the process being studied. For example, the Society of
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (1993) guidelines indicate that inputs to a process do not need to be
included in an LCI if they:
• are less than 1% of the total mass of the processed materials or product,
• do not contribute significantly to a toxic emission, and
• do not have a significant associated energy consumption.
Similarly, ISO 14044 requires that these “cut-off criteria” be based on mass, energy, and environmental
significance.

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1.3.2.2 Concrete and Concrete Products LCI/1.3.2.2.2 Fuel and Energy

1.3.2.2 Concrete and Concrete Products LCI

During the LCI phase of an LCA, all the individual environmental flows to and from a product throughout its life
cycle are quantified. The data gathered in an LCI are voluminous by nature and do not lend themselves well to
comparisons and concise summaries—that is the function of the LCA. The data in typical LCI reports are often
grouped into three broad categories: materials, energy, and emissions.

1.3.2.2.1 Raw Materials

Approximately 1.6 lb of raw materials (excluding water) are required to make 1 lb of cement (Marceau, et al.,
2010A; Marceau, et al., 2010B). This mass unbalance is primarily due to the calcination of limestone. In addition
to the mixture water, the LCI assumes that precast concrete consumes 17.5 gallon of water per cubic yard for
washout of the mixer and equipment used to transfer concrete to molds.
Solid waste from precast concrete plants is fairly insignificant. About 2.5% of the mass of concrete used in
production is wasted. About 95% of this waste is further beneficially reused through crushing and recycling at the
plant, resulting in about 0.2 lb/ft3 (about 0.1%) of actual waste.

1.3.2.2.2 Fuel and Energy

The amount of energy required to manufacture or produce a product can be shown in units of energy, such as
joules or Btu, or as amounts of fuel or electricity. Embodied energy per unit volume of concrete is primarily a
function of the cement content of the mixture. For example, cement manufacturing accounts for about 75% to
80% of total energy in 5,000-psi concrete (Marceau, et al., 2010A; Marceau, et al., 2010B). Energy used in
operations at the concrete plant contributes 10% to 20%, whereas aggregate processing and transportation each
contribute about 5% (Marceau, et al., 2010A).
The embodied energy of a concrete mixture increases in direct proportion to its cement content. Therefore, the
embodied energy of concrete is sensitive to the cement content of the mixture and to the assumptions about LCI
energy data in cement manufacturing.
Replacing cement with supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash, slag cement, or silica fume has the
effect of lowering the embodied energy of the concrete. Fly ash, slag cement, and silica fume do not contribute to
the energy and emissions embodied in the concrete (except for the small energy contributions from minor
processing, such as slag granulation/grinding, which are included in the LCI) (Marceau, et al., 2002). These
products are recovered materials from industrial processes (also called “postindustrial recycled materials”), and
if they were not used in precast concrete, they would take up valuable landfill space. When supplementary
cementitious materials are used, the proportioned concrete mixture using the project materials should be tested
to demonstrate that it meets the required concrete properties for the project. The optimum amounts of
supplementary cementitious materials used with portland or blended cement are determined by testing, the
relative cost and availability of the materials, and the specified properties of the concrete
With a 50% slag cement replacement for portland cement in a 5,000-psi concrete mixture, embodied energy
changes from 1.7 to 1.1 MBTU/yd3, a 34% reduction (Marceau, et al. 2010A). Fly ash or slag cement replacement
of portland cement can also significantly reduce embodied emissions. For instance, carbon dioxide emissions may
be reduced by 45% when slag is substituted for 50% of the portland cement in a 7,500-psi concrete mixture
(Marceau, et al. 2010A). Certain aesthetic (color) and early compressive strength restrictions apply when using
supplementary cementitious materials.
Reinforcing steel represents only about 1% of the weight in a unit of concrete, and over 90% of reinforcing steel is
recycled content (CRSI, n.d.). Therefore, sustainability experts have generally agreed that if the reinforcing steel
content is less than 1% by weight, the environmental impact is de minimis. However, the process for
manufacturing reinforcing bars from recycled steel uses significant energy and should be considered in the
concrete LCI/LCA if the reinforcing bar content is more than 1% of the weight of the concrete. The effects of other
metal in bridges such as fasteners and tendons should also be considered.
It is assumed that at a typical site and in a precast concrete plant, concrete production formwork is reused
multiple times through the repetitious nature of work, so its contribution to an LCI or LCA is negligible. Steel and
wood formwork is generally recycled at the end of its useful life.

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1.3.2.2.3 Emissions to Air/1.3.2.4 Interpretation and Conclusions

1.3.2.2.3 Emissions to Air

The greatest amount of particulate matter (dust) in the precast concrete manufacturing process comes from
cement manufacturing and aggregate production. The single largest contributor to particulate emissions in both
cement manufacturing and aggregate production is quarry operations, which include blasting, hauling, unloading,
and stockpiling (Marceau, et al., 2010B).
In cement manufacturing, quarry operations account for approximately 60% of total particulate emissions. In
aggregate production, quarry operations are responsible for approximately 90% of particulate emissions.
Approximately 30% of the particulate emissions associated with concrete production are from aggregate
production, and approximately 60% are embodied in the cement (Marceau, et al., 2010B). However, particulate
emissions from quarries are highly variable and sensitive to how dust is managed on haul roads and in other
quarry operations.
The amounts of CO2 and other combustion gases associated with concrete production are primarily a function of
the cement content (Marceau, et al., 2010A). CO2 emissions increase in approximately a one-to-one ratio with the
cement content of concrete. That is, for every additional pound of cement per cubic yard of concrete, CO2
emissions will increase by approximately 1 lb. Because of the CO2 emissions from calcination and from fuel
combustion in cement manufacturing, the cement content of the concrete accounts for about 90% of the CO2
emissions associated with concrete production. Thus, concrete LCI results are significantly influenced by the
cement content of the concrete and the basis of the CO2 data in the cement LCI (Marceau, et al., 2010A; Marceau,
et al., 2010B).
Cement kiln dust is a waste product of the cement manufacturing process that can be used to help maintain soil
fertility. An industry-weighted average of 94 lb of cement kiln dust is generated per ton of cement. Of this, about
75 lb are sent to landfills and about 19 lb are recycled in other operations (Marceau, et al., 2010B).

1.3.2.3 Life-Cycle Impact Assessment

During LCIA, the third step of the LCA, the LCI data (mass and energy flowing through the system boundary) are
assigned to environmental impact categories and the relative effect of the data within each impact category is
weighted. The LCIA process is divided into category definition, classification, and characterization. Category
definition consists of identifying which impact categories are relevant to the product being studied. Classification
consists of grouping related substances into environmental impact categories. For example, the gases CO2,
methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) are considered greenhouse gases; therefore, they can be grouped
together in an impact category called global warming potential (GWP). There are many environmental impact
categories to choose from. The categories chosen depend on the goal and scope of the LCA. According to ISO
21930, an LCA for construction products should include the following environmental impact categories (see also
ASHRAE [2020]):
• Acidification potential
• Eutrophication potential
• Global warming potential
• Ozone depletion potential
• Photochemical oxidant (smog) creation potential
According to ISO 14044, the only mandatory step in the LCIA phase is characterization. In characterization,
weighting factors are assigned according to a substance’s relative contribution to the impact category. In terms of
GWP, 1 lb of CH4 is 30 times more potent than 1 lb of CO2, and 1 lb of N2O is 298 times more potent than 1 lb of
CO2. Therefore, CO2 is assigned a weighting factor of 1, CH4 is assigned a factor of 30, and N2O is assigned a factor
of 298.

1.3.2.4 Interpretation and Conclusions

At the end of the LCA, the role of the practitioner is to present the results and interpret their meanings. The
practitioner also evaluates the quality of the LCA by considering sensitivity and checking consistency, as well as
identifying any significant issues from the LCI and LCIA phase. Most LCAs are also peer reviewed by a third party
(usually called a critical review).

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1.3.2.4 Interpretation and Conclusions/1.4.1 Product Category Rules

When interpreting results, it is important to consider that there is no scientific basis for comparing across
environmental impact categories. For example, GWP cannot be compared with potential ozone depletion. ISO
14044 states that weighting of impact categories “shall not be used in LCA studies intended to be used in
comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public.”

1.3.3 Embodied Carbon

Embodied carbon is calculated by first accounting for greenhouse gas emissions released during the following
life-cycle stages: raw material extraction, transportation, manufacturing, construction, maintenance, renovation,
and end of life for a product or system. The various greenhouse gas emissions are summed together based on
their relative GWP standardized to that of CO2. Embodied carbon is reported in units of kilograms of carbon
dioxide equivalent (CO2e).
A full LCA evaluates a full set of environmental impacts over the full life of a product or system. In a full LCA, the
total GWP of the system is the sum of the embodied carbon and the GWP attributed to the use-phase (operational)
energy use.
In an emerging trend, some parties are using embodied carbon as an indicator of a limited environmental impact
(GWP only) over a limited number of life-cycle stages. Various definitions of embodied carbon exist in the
marketplace, and some types of embodied carbon assessment are limited in the life-cycle stages considered. For
example, when only the greenhouse gas emissions due to the life-cycle stages of raw material extraction,
transportation, and manufacturing are considered, this calculation of embodied carbon is sometimes referred to
as “upfront carbon.” This focus on cradle-to-gate impacts is also partly due to uncertainties far into the future; it is
difficult to know what technologies may exist to maintain or dispose of a bridge that is designed for a 75-year,
100-year, or more service life.
Embodied carbon is not synonymous with embodied energy. Embodied energy accounts for all energy during the
full life cycle for a product or system, which includes energy from fossil fuel sources as well as from renewable
sources that do not generate greenhouse gas emissions. Embodied carbon accounts for all greenhouse gas
emissions, whether from energy sources or chemical reactions, such as calcination.
Making design decisions based on a single environmental attribute is not recommended because there is
significant potential for unintended consequences. When a design is exclusively optimized for the lowest
embodied carbon, it is possible that the design choices could have adverse environmental effects in other
respects, such as depletion of scarce resources—this phenomenon is known as burden shifting.

1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL LABELS

LCI and LCA are valid methods of assessing sustainability, but they are a complex accounting of the quantities and
effects of all materials, energy, emissions, and waste. Environmental labels, and specifically environmental
product declarations (EPDs), have gained popularity because they are easier to use than LCA reports to assess a
product’s environmental impacts; such labels are based on LCA.

1.4.1 Product Category Rules

Product category rules (PCRs) serve two main purposes. First, PCRs set how an LCA is performed to determine
the environmental impacts for a given product category (such as precast concrete). This ensures consistency in
procedures and interpretation of the commonly used LCA standards (ISO 14040 and ISO 14044). Second, a set of
PCRs establishes what types of environmental impacts and other types of information are reported in an EPD for
a given product category. This ensures consistency in reporting.
In November 2012, the Carbon Leadership Forum at the University of Washington released a U.S.-specific PCR for
concrete, which was revised in 2019 (NSF, 2019). In February 2013, the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development announced the development of a PCR for unreinforced concrete. These two PCRs were developed
through the same ISO 14025–based process. Also following ISO 14025 and ISO 21930, the North American
Precast Concrete Industry developed the first specific PCR for precast concrete in 2015, and the precast concrete
PCR was revised in 2021 (NSF, 2021).

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1.4.1 Product Category Rules/1.4.2 Environmental Product Declaration

PCRs are used to develop Type III environmental labels (EPDs) business-to-business (B-to-B) and business-to-
consumer (B-to-C) EPDs for building products and systems. PCRs provide a set of specific requirements for
developing EPDs, which include the guidelines and scope for performing LCI, LCA, and other related criteria. An
EPD uses full LCA results to report an environmental footprint of a product. The EPD must meet ISO standards
and specific PCRs when reporting results.
PCRs can be used by the industry as well as by individual product manufacturers. EPDs and PCRs developed by
nongovernmental organizations for some precast concrete constituents are available in Europe. Competing
industries in the United States are also developing their PCRs and EPDs.

1.4.2 Environmental Product Declaration

EPDs list a set of predetermined environmental impacts for a given unit (such as a cubic yard) of the product.
These labels list environmental impacts, but they do not evaluate whether a product has a better or worse value
that other similar products in any given impact category. The core PCR for creating EPDs for products used in
building and civil engineering works is provided in ISO 21930.
EPDs present environmental information in a standardized format for a given product category; in this way, they
are similar to nutrition labels for foods or material safety data sheets. Environmental information contained in an
EPD is either based on the results of an LCA or derived from data collected during an LCI. Environmental
information presented from the results of an LCA could include GWP, acidification potential, eutrophication
potential, or the like. Data collected during LCI and presented in an EPD include primary energy use and amounts
of waste produced.
Owners, design professionals, specifiers, and engineers request EPDs because these LCA-based labels are more
useful than single-attribute criterion (such as the percentage of recycled content, regional content, or bio-based
content) for assessing the sustainability of a product. It is important to realize, however, that EPDs can be
prepared with a limited life cycle that does not include all life-cycle modules.
There are two primary types of EPDs: B-to-B and B-to-C. A B-to-B EPD does not provide information related to
how the product will be used during the life cycle of a project. For example, one can create an EPD for a unit
volume of concrete that takes into account all the energy, materials, and emissions related to the manufacture of
the concrete. However, there are infinite possibilities for the use of that concrete once it leaves the plant gate. It
could be used as a sidewalk, in a wall, as a bridge component, in pavement, or many other applications. An EPD
for a product such as concrete or steel is typically in a B-to-B format. The EPD accounts for all the environmental
impacts “from the cradle to the gate,” but it does not include environmental impacts related to the use phase.
Thus, B-to-B EPDs should not be used for comparisons among products.
B-to-C EPDs account for all the environmental impacts for the full life cycle. These types of EPDs are typically
created for products that have a known use in a building context. Examples include EPDs for products such as
carpeting, windows, or doors. It is much easier to model the full LCA of these products because it is known how
these products will be used in the structure.
Some of the most important guidance in the ISO standards for EPDs relates to comparability of products and
EPDs. Namely, B-2-B EPDs should not be used to compare products, and B-2-C EPDs of two or more products are
only comparable if the following criteria are met:
• The LCAs used to create the EPDs are of a cradle-to-grave scope.
• All products have the same function.
• All products are quantified by the same functional unit.
• The same product category rules were used to create the EPDs.
• The EPDs comply with all the requirements in ISO 21930 Section 5.5.

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1.5 Sustainability Considerations/1.5.2 Resilience

1.5 SUSTAINABILITY CONSIDERATIONS

1.5.1 Durability
A key factor in reuse of components is the durability of the original structure. Precast concrete components
provide a long service life due to their durable and low-maintenance concrete surfaces. For example, routine
maintenance does not require painting of precast concrete, which can be costly and harmful to the environment
as well as dangerous for workers who are suspended at a height over busy highways and other types of crossings.
In some cases, precast concrete construction may provide the opportunity to disassemble the bridge should its
use or function change, and the components may be reused in a different location. These characteristics of precast
concrete make it sustainable in two ways: it avoids contributing solid waste to landfills and it reduces the
depletion of natural resources and production of air and water pollution caused by new construction.

1.5.1.1 Corrosion Resistance

The inherent alkalinity of concrete results in a system of concrete and reinforcing steel that does not corrode in
most environments, unless sufficient chloride contamination or concrete deterioration has occurred. A common
reason for spalling of concrete is corrosion of reinforcing steel due to inadequate concrete cover. Precast concrete
offers increased resistance to this type of spalling for two reasons. First, precast concrete is denser than site-cast
or cast-in-place concrete. Second, because the reinforcement and concrete are placed in a plant, quality control of
variations in concrete cover over reinforcing steel is improved, reducing the likelihood of inadequate cover.

1.5.1.2 Vermin and Insect Resistance

Vermin and insects cannot destroy concrete because it is inedible. Some softer construction materials are inedible
but still provide pathways for insects. Vermin and insects will not bore through concrete due to its hardness.

1.5.1.3 Ultraviolet Resistance

The UV range of solar radiation does not harm concrete. When nonfading colored pigments are added in concrete,
the concrete retains its color long after paints would have faded from sun exposure. Precast concrete is ideal for
pigment applications because the controlled production allows for replication of color in all components for a
project.

1.5.1.4 Radiation and Toxicity

Although concrete is resistant to most natural environments, it is sometimes exposed to substances that can cause
deterioration. The resistance of concrete to chlorides is good, and reducing the permeability of concrete can
increase the resistance even more. This is achieved by using a low water–cementitious materials ratio (around
0.40), adequate curing, and including supplementary cementitious materials such as slag cement or silica fume in
the concrete mixture. If sulfate attack is an issue, one can use cement specially formulated for sulfate
environments.

1.5.2 Resilience
Although the term “resilient” is defined in multiple ways, definitions tend to cover the same concepts. After
reviewing the definitions of resilience from several organizations, including the U.S. Department of Homeland
Security, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the Resilient Design Institute, and the U.S. Green
Building Council, VanGeem (2017) concluded that the following are collectively the characteristics of resilience:
• The ability to plan or prepare for a hazard or event by anticipating the risk, which can include
addressing risk and mitigating risk
• The ability to adapt to changing conditions
• The ability to withstand, absorb, or limit the impact of an event while preferably maintaining
functionality during the event
• The ability to recover (preferably rapidly) and regain functionality after the event
Concrete can be designed to resist tornadoes, hurricanes, wind, floods, earthquakes, and fire.

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1.5.2.1 Tornado, Hurricane, and Wind Resistance/1.5.4 Mitigating the Urban Heat Island Effect

1.5.2.1 Tornado, Hurricane, and Wind Resistance

Precast concrete can be economically designed to resist tornadoes, hurricanes, and wind. Hurricanes are
prevalent in coastal regions. Tornadoes are particularly prevalent in the path of hurricanes and in the Central
Plains of the United States.

1.5.2.2 Flood Resistance

In general, concrete is not damaged by water, including floodwater runoff; concrete continues to gain strength in
the presence of moisture. Concrete submerged in water absorbs very small amounts of water even over long
periods of time, and this water typically does not damage the concrete.

1.5.2.3 Earthquake Resistance

Precast concrete can be designed to be resistant to earthquakes. Appropriately designed precast concrete systems
have withstood major earthquakes in locations such as the U.S. Territory of Guam (Richter scale 8.1); Manila,
Philippines (Richter scale 7.2); and Kobe, Japan (Richter scale 6.9).

1.5.2.4 Fire Resistance

Precast concrete offers noncombustible construction. During wild fires, precast concrete bridges help provide
protection to human life and allow for the safe exit from dangerous areas. Depending on the location and intensity
of the fire, concrete that endures a fire can often be reused or remain in service.
The fire endurance of concrete can be determined based on its thickness and type of aggregate. Concrete element
fire endurance is generally controlled by heat transmission long before structural failure, whereas other
construction materials fail by heat transmission when collapse is imminent. A 2-hour fire endurance for a precast
concrete component will likely mean that it becomes hot (experiences an average temperature rise of 250 °F to
325 °F at any one point), whereas a 2-hour fire endurance of other materials may mean the structure is likely near
collapse (VanGeem, 2006).

1.5.3 Aesthetics
1.5.3.1 Section Shapes, Sizes, Color, and Texture
Precast concrete can be manufactured in a variety of shapes, sizes, colors, and textures to blend in with the
environment. Many different colors of precast concrete are possible with different combinations of cement,
pigments, and aggregate. Using formliners, sand blasting, acid etching, tooling, polishing, and embedment of clay
or stone products are just some of the ways to change the texture of precast concrete.
Nonfading color pigments are used to provide the decorative colors in precast concrete. They are insoluble and
generally nontoxic, although some may contain trace amounts of heavy metals. Many iron oxide pigments are
primarily the by-product of material recycling (manufactured by precipitating scrap steel). See Section 3.5.2 for
more information on surface treatments of precast concrete components, and Section 4.1 on geometric
possibilities.

1.5.3.2 Lighting
Light-colored precast concrete and other surfaces can reduce energy costs associated with outdoor lighting. The
more reflective surfaces will reduce the amount of fixtures and lighting required. Light-colored precast concrete
can reduce outdoor lighting requirements.

1.5.4 Mitigating the Urban Heat Island Effect

Cities and urban areas tend to be 1 °F to 7 °F warmer than surrounding areas (EPA, n.d.). This difference is
attributed to heat absorption of building materials and pavements that have taken the place of vegetation (the
urban heat island effect). Urban heat islands are primarily attributed to horizontal surfaces, such as roofs and
hardscape, which absorb solar radiation. In this context, hardscape includes roads, decks, and walkways.
Two methods of mitigating heat islands are providing shade and increasing albedo (see Section 1.5.4.2). Trees
provide shade that reduces temperatures at the surface. Trees and plants provide transpiration and evaporation
that cool the surfaces and air surrounding them. Shade can also be provided by geological features (hills,

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1.5.4 Mitigating the Urban Heat Island Effect/1.5.5.1 Protection of Waterways

mountains) or structures that shade themselves. Using materials with higher albedos (solar reflectance values)
such as precast concrete can reduce the heat island effect, save energy, and improve air quality (EPA, n.d.).

1.5.4.1 Smog
Smog levels have also been correlated to temperature rise. Smog and other forms of air pollution are the main
reasons that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) mandates clean fuels for vehicles and reduced
particulate emissions from industrial facilities such as cement and asphalt production plants. The EPA now
recognizes that air temperature is as much a contributor to smog as nitrogen oxide and volatile organic
compounds. The effort to reduce particulates in the industrial sector alone costs billions of dollars per year,
whereas reduction in smog may be directly related to the reflectance and colors of the infrastructure that
surround us. Installing high-albedo decks and pavements is a cost-effective way to reduce smog.

1.5.4.2 Albedo (Solar Reflectance)

Albedo is the ratio of the amount of solar radiation reflected from a material surface to the amount shining on the
surface. Solar radiation includes the UV, infrared, and visible spectra. Albedo is measured on a scale from not
reflective (0.0) to 100% reflective (1.0) (VanGeem, 2006). Generally, materials that appear to be light colored in
the visible spectrum have high albedo and those that appear dark colored have low albedo. However, because
reflectivity in the solar radiation spectrum determines albedo, color in the visible spectrum is not always a true
indicator of albedo.
Surfaces with lower albedos absorb more solar radiation. The ability to reflect infrared light is of great
importance because infrared light is most responsible for heating. The color, composition, and surface texture of
the materials greatly affect the surface temperature and the amount of absorbed solar radiation. The effect of
albedo and solar radiation on surface temperatures is referred to as the “sol-air temperature.”
Traditional portland cement concrete generally has an albedo or solar reflectance of approximately 0.4, although
values can vary; measured values are reported in the range of 0.4 to 0.5 (Marceau, 2007). The solar reflectance of
new concrete is greater when the surface reflectance of the sand and cementitious materials in the concrete are
greater. Surface finishing techniques also have an effect, with smoother surfaces generally having a higher albedo.
For concrete elements with white portland cement, values are reported in the range of 0.7 to 0.8 (Marceau, 2007).
Albedo is most commonly measured using a solar-spectrum reflectometer (ASTM C1549) or a pyranometer
(ASTM E1918).

1.5.4.3 Emittance
In addition to albedo, a material’s surface emittance affects surface temperature. Whereas albedo is a measure of
the solar radiation reflected away from the surface, surface emittance is the ability of the material to emit, or let
go of, heat (VanGeem, 2006). A white surface exposed to the sun is relatively cool because it has a high reflectivity
and a high emittance. A shiny metal surface is relatively warm because it has a low emittance, even though it has a
high albedo. Emittance is reported on a scale of 0 to 1.0. The emittance of most nonreflecting (nonmetal) surfaces
such as concrete is in the range of 0.85 to 0.95. The emittance of aluminum foil, aluminum sheet, and galvanized
steel, all dry and bright, are 0.05, 0.12, and 0.25, respectively.

1.5.4.4 Mitigation approaches

One method to reduce the urban heat island effect is to change the albedo of the urban area. This is accomplished
by replacing low albedo surfaces with materials of higher albedo. This change is most cost effective when done in
the initial design or during renovation or replacement due to other needs.

1.5.5 Environmental Protection

1.5.5.1 Protection of Waterways
Because precast concrete is manufactured off site in a controlled environment, there is less risk that formwork,
shoring, and construction-related debris will fall into waterways spanned by bridges.

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1.5.5.2 Reduced Site Disturbance/1.6 Sustainable Features of Precast Concrete

1.5.5.2 Reduced Site Disturbance

Compared with cast-in-place concrete, precast concrete projects tend to create less dust and waste at the
construction site because only needed precast concrete elements are delivered and there is no debris from
formwork and associated fasteners; in general, construction sites are cleaner and neater when precast concrete is
used. Furthermore, precast concrete construction requires fewer trucks and less time because concrete is made
off site; this is particularly beneficial in urban areas where minimal traffic disruption is critical. There is also less
noise at the construction site because concrete is made off site (PCI 2008).

1.5.6 User Considerations

1.5.6.1 Construction Delays
There are synergies between reducing environmental impacts and reducing construction-related user delays.
During initial construction, minimizing on-site construction lessens the amount of time that drivers are
inconvenienced by detours and other traffic interruptions. Likewise, by choosing a bridge with greater durability
and fewer maintenance requirements, delays during the service life of the bridge can also be reduced. This in turn
reduces energy consumption of user vehicles and the resultant emissions to air.

1.5.6.3 Resistance to Noise (Sound Barriers)

Precast concrete walls (sound barriers) provide a buffer between outdoor noise and the indoor environment. In
areas where land is becoming scarcer, buildings are being constructed closer together and near noise sources
such as highways, railways, and airports. Precast concrete panels provide effective sound barriers separating
buildings from highways or industrial areas from residential areas. The greater mass of concrete walls can reduce
sound penetrating through a wall. An 8-in.-thick flat wall panel (95 lb/ft2) has a sound transmission coefficient of
58 and outdoor-indoor transmission class of 50 (PCI, 2008).

1.5.6.4 Context-Sensitive Solutions

With the seemingly unlimited combinations of color and texture possible with precast concrete, bridges can easily
be designed to blend into their surroundings. They can also be designed to replicate indigenous or historical
colors or features.

1.6 SUSTAINABLE FEATURES OF PRECAST CONCRETE

The production of precast concrete has many environmental benefits, including:
• Less material is required than ready-mix concrete because precise mixture proportions and tighter
tolerances are achievable.
• Less concrete waste is created than ready-mix concrete because of tight control of quantities of
constituent materials.
• Excess concrete is often used for other uses such as plant improvement projects or is recycled at the
plant in the production process.
• Waste materials are more likely to be recycled because concrete production is in one location.
• Gray water is often recycled into future mixtures, or used for plant dust control.
• Hardened concrete is recycled (presently about 5% to 20% of aggregate in concrete can be recycled
concrete; in the future this could be higher.) (PCA, 2021).
• Steel forms and other materials are reused.
• Less dust and waste is created at the construction site than other construction methods because only
needed precast concrete elements are delivered and there is no debris from formwork and associated
fasteners—construction sites are cleaner and neater.
• Fewer trucks and less time are required for construction than other construction methods because
concrete is made off site; this is particularly beneficial in urban areas where minimal traffic disruption is
critical.
• Precast concrete units are normally large components, so greater portions of the bridge are completed
with each piece that is placed than other construction methods.
• Less noise at construction site than other construction methods because concrete is made off site.

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1.6 Sustainable Features of Precast Concrete/1.6.1.3 Fly Ash, Slag Cement, and Silica Fume

Less concrete is generally used in precast/prestressed concrete bridges than in other concrete bridges because of
the optimization of materials. A properly designed precast concrete system will result in smaller structural
members, longer spans, and less material used on site; this translates directly into economic savings, which can
also result in environmental savings. Using less material means using fewer natural resources and less
manufacturing and transportation energy—not to mention the avoided emissions from mining, processing, and
transporting raw and finished material.

1.6.1 Constituent Materials

1.6.1.1 Concrete
Concrete is basically a mixture of two components: aggregates and paste. The paste, comprised of portland
cement and water, binds the aggregates (usually sand and gravel or crushed stone) into a rocklike mass. The
paste hardens because of the chemical reaction of the cement and water. Supplementary cementitious materials
and chemical admixtures may also be included in the paste. At the time of mixing, the absolute volume of cement
is usually between 7% and 15% and the water between 14% and 21% (PCA, 2021).

1.6.1.2 Portland Cement

Portland cement (hereafter called cement) is made by heating common minerals, primarily crushed limestone,
clay, iron ore, and sand, to a white-hot mixture to form clinker. The limestone undergoes calcination during this
process. The clinker is ground, with a small amount of gypsum, to form a fine gray powder called cement. To
trigger the necessary chemical reactions in the kiln, these raw materials must reach about 2,700 °F—the
temperature of molten iron. Although the portland cement industry is energy intensive, the U.S. cement industry
has reduced energy usage per ton of cement by 35% since 1972 (Marceau, et al., 2010B).
Carbon dioxide emissions from a cement plant are divided into two source categories: combustion and
calcination. Combustion accounts for approximately 35% and calcination 65% of the total CO2 emissions from a
cement manufacturing facility (Marceau, et al., 2010A). The combustion-generated CO2 emissions are related to
fuel use. Calcination CO2 emissions are formed when the raw material is heated and CO2 is liberated from the
calcium carbonate. Calcination is a necessary key to cement production. Therefore, the focus of reductions in CO2
emissions during cement manufacturing historically has focused on reducing those emissions due to fuel and
energy use.
Although cement production increased 53% from 1990 to 2006, net CO2 emissions increased only 35%, proving a
decoupling of production and related emissions (Marceau, et al., 2010A).

1.6.1.2.1 White Cement

White portland cement is a true portland cement that differs from gray cement chiefly in color. The
manufacturing process is controlled so that the finished product will be white. White portland cement is made of
selected raw materials containing negligible amounts of iron and magnesium oxides—the substances that give
cement its gray color. White cement is used primarily for architectural purposes in precast concrete and glass-
fiber-reinforced concrete components. Using white cement with pigments provides more consistency in the final
color of the concrete. White portland cement should be specified as white portland cement meeting the
specifications of ASTM C150, Type I, II, III, or V.

1.6.1.3 Fly Ash, Slag Cement, and Silica Fume

Fly ash, slag cement, and silica fume are industrial by-products; therefore, their use as a replacement for portland
cement does not contribute to the energy and CO2 effects of cement in concrete, or has a minimal to negligible
contribution. If not used in concrete, these supplementary cementitious materials would use valuable landfill
space.
Fly ash is a by-product of the combustion of pulverized coal in electric power generating plants. Slag cement is
made from iron blast-furnace slag. Silica fume is a by-product from the electric arc furnace used in the production
of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy. These types of industrial by-products are considered postindustrial or
preconsumer recycled materials. Fly ash is commonly used at cement replacement levels up to 35%, slag cement
up to 70%, and silica fume up to 7%. When slag cement replaces 50% of the portland cement in a 7,500-psi

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1.6.1.3 Fly Ash, Slag Cement, and Silica Fume/1.6.1.4 Portland-Limestone Cement

concrete mixture, greenhouse gas emissions per cubic yard of concrete are reduced by 45% (Marceau, et al.
2010A).
Supplementary cementitious materials may slightly alter the color of hardened concrete. Color effects are related
to the color and amount of the material used in concrete. Many supplementary cementitious materials resemble
the color of portland cement and therefore have little effect on color of the hardened concrete. Some silica fumes
may give concrete a slightly bluish or dark-gray tint, and tan fly ash may impart a tan color to concrete when used
in large quantities. Slag cement and metakaolin (a clay supplementary cementitious material without recycled
content) can make concrete lighter in color. Slag cement can initially impart a bluish or greenish undertone that
disappears over time as concrete dries.
The optimum amounts of supplementary cementitious materials used with portland or blended cement are
determined by testing, the relative cost and availability of the materials, and the specified properties of the
concrete. When supplementary cementitious materials are used, the proportioned concrete mixture (using the
project materials) should be tested to demonstrate that it meets the required concrete properties for the project.
Some pozzolans increase curing times, which can be a concern on projects where construction schedules are tight.
The durability of products with recycled content materials should be carefully researched during the design
process to ensure comparable life-cycle performance. There may be a net negative impact if a product offering a
20% to 30% recycled content had only half the expected service life of a product with a lower or no recycled
content.

1.6.1.4 Portland-Limestone Cement

Given the known environmental impacts of portland cement clinker, the cement industry has researched products
in which portland cement is replaced with various percentages of ground limestone (PCA, 2019). It is estimated
that the reduction in CO2 emissions associated with portland cement manufacture is “roughly proportional to the
decrease in the amount of clinker in the blended cement” when substituting with limestone powder (Tennis, et al.,
2011). This means that a 10% replacement of portland cement with limestone powder reduces the CO2 emissions
associated with the binder by about 10%.
Considered a blended cement according to ASTM C595 or AASHTO M240, PLCs with 5% to 15% replacement of
portland cement with limestone powder are commonly used in the United States and Canada (Tennis, et al.,
2011). According to a March 2021 survey by the Portland Cement Association, 35 state departments of
transportation allow the use of PLC on their projects (PCA, 2021).
Performance of PLC has been shown to mimic that of Type I portland cement, although PLCs that offer moderate
heat of hydration or sulfate resistance are also available. Research has shown that PLC may affect fresh and
hardened concrete properties based on various factors (PCA, 2021). In general, the fineness of the limestone
powder may impact the workability, bleeding, setting time, or heat of hydration, which may be based on changes
in water demand. As a summary, the effects of PLC on fresh concrete properties are as follows (Tennis, et al.,
2011):
• Workability may increase or decrease depending on fineness of the limestone powder and water
demand of the concrete mixture.
• Bleeding may decrease because limestone is finer than portland cement.
• Setting time may decrease slightly with increasing limestone fineness.
• Heat of hydration may decrease slightly when limestone is used as a cement replacement.
In a literature review, Tennis, et al. (2011) evaluated the effects of PLC on several hardened concrete properties.
Their conclusions are summarized as follows, with more information available in the full report:
• Compressive strength—depending on the mixture proportions, the quality and quantity of
limestone, and the particle-size distribution of the mixture, concrete mixtures using PLC can
achieve compressive strength equivalent to the strength in mixtures using portland cement.
• Tensile strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity—depending on the mixture
proportions, the quality and quantity of limestone, and the particle-size distribution of the
mixture, concrete mixtures containing PLC can achieve strengths and a modulus of elasticity
equivalent to those of mixtures containing portland cement.

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1.6.1.4 Portland-Limestone Cement/1.6.1.6 Admixtures

• Volume stability—the effect of PLC on creep and shrinkage is inconclusive; more research is
needed.
• Permeability and chloride-resistance—resistance to moisture intrusion of concrete mixtures
with PLC is similar to that of concrete without PLC, and chloride resistance might be slightly less
with the use of PLC.
• Carbonation—for a given design compressive strength, PLC does not seem to affect carbonation
resistance or depth of carbonation.
• Resistance to freezing and thawing and deicer salt scaling—for air-entrained mixtures, there is
no significant difference in the resistance to freezing and thawing or salt-scaling resistance
between PLC concrete and ordinary portland cement concrete.
• Sulfate resistance—the effect of PLC on sulfate resistance is inconclusive; more research is
needed.
• Alkali-silica reactivity (ASR)—PLC seems to have no significant effect on ASR.
• Abrasion resistance—compared with portland cement concretes with the same design
compressive strength, concrete made with PLC has similar abrasion resistance.
Concrete mixtures containing PLCs have been successfully used in Canada for more than 10 years and in Europe
for decades. Because concrete manufacturers are capable of adjusting and proportioning mixtures to
accommodate any effects associated with PLCs, this type of cement can be incorporated into precast concrete
components in the controlled setting of a precast concrete manufacturing facility.

1.6.1.5 Recycled Aggregates

The environmental attributes of concrete can be improved by using aggregates derived from industrial waste or
using recycled concrete as aggregates. Blast furnace slag is a lightweight aggregate with a long history of use in
the concrete industry.
Recycled concrete can be used as aggregate in new concrete, particularly the coarse portion. When using the
recycled concrete as aggregate, the following should be taken into consideration:
• Recycled concrete as aggregate will typically have higher absorption and lower specific gravity than
natural aggregate and will produce concrete with slightly higher drying shrinkage and creep. These
differences become greater with increasing amounts of recycled fine aggregates.
• A large amount of recycled fine aggregate can also produce a harsh and unworkable mixture. Many
transportation departments have found that using 100% coarse recycled aggregate, but only about 10%
to 20% recycled fine aggregate, works well (PCA, 2021). Natural sand constitutes the remaining
percentage of fine aggregate.
• When crushing the concrete, it is difficult to control particle size distribution, meaning that the
“aggregate” may fail to meet grading requirements of ASTM C33 (PCA, 2021).
• The chloride content of recycled aggregates is of concern if the material will be used in reinforced
concrete. This is particularly an issue if the recycled concrete is from pavements in northern climates
where road salt is freely spread in the winter.
• The alkali content and type of recycled aggregate is often unknown; therefore, if recycled aggregate is
mixed with unsuitable materials, a risk of ASR is possible.
• There is no standard method for assessing the durability of recycled concrete aggregate in a similar way
to how natural aggregate is assessed.

1.6.1.6 Admixtures
The freshly mixed (plastic) and hardened properties of concrete may be changed by adding chemical admixtures
to the concrete, usually in liquid form, during batching. Chemical admixtures are commonly used to:
• adjust setting time or hardening,
• reduce water demand,
• increase workability,
• intentionally entrain air,
• inhibit corrosion, and
• adjust other fresh or hardened concrete properties.

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1.6.1.6 Admixtures/1.7.1 Greenroads

Admixtures provide enhancing qualities in concrete, but they are used in such small quantities that they do not
adversely affect the environment. Their dosages are usually in the range of 0.005% to 0.2% of the concrete mass.

1.6.2 Carbonation
Carbonation is a chemical reaction that occurs in hardened concrete as atmospheric CO2 reacts with calcium
hydroxide, which is a residual hydration product in hardened concrete. Through the years, the measurement of
the thickness of the carbonation layer has been used to determine, approximately, the age of concrete. Reaction
products include carboxylic acid, which works within the pore structures of concrete to lower the concrete pH
level. Lowering the pH of concrete causes mild concern in that a lower pH can disrupt the passive protection
against corrosion of the reinforcement.
As stated in Section 1.3.2.2.1, CO2 is released during calcination, but CO2 is absorbed during carbonation. This
phenomenon is now of interest for its potential to reabsorb or sequester CO2 from the atmosphere.
The question has become: How can concrete be manipulated to increase carbonation and absorb more CO2?
During the service life of concrete, conditions that allow the chemistry and mechanisms for carbonation are
limited, so only a small amount of CO2 can be absorbed into the surface of the concrete. However, at the end of life,
a significant portion of the CO2 emitted during calcination can be reabsorbed into the concrete if the concrete
surfaces exposed to enable carbonation are extensive—that is, if the concrete is crushed. This potential for
reuptake of the CO2 emissions has been quantified in a report titled CO2 Uptake in Cement-Containing Products
(Stripple, et al., 2018). Crushing concrete at the end of its service life to maximized CO2 absorption is generally
recommended.

1.6.3 Abundant Materials

Concrete is used in almost every country of the world as a basic building material. Aggregates, which comprise
about 85% (by weight) of concrete, are generally low-energy, local, naturally occurring sand and stone. Limestone
and clay, which are needed to manufacture cement, are prevalent in most countries. Concrete contributes to a
sustainable environment because it does not use scarce resources.

1.6.4 Local Materials

Using local materials reduces the transportation required to move heavy building materials to the construction
site, and the associated energy and emissions. Most construction sites are withing 200 miles of a precast concrete
plant. The cement, aggregates, and reinforcing steel used to make the concrete and the raw materials to
manufacture cement are usually obtained or extracted from sources within 200 miles of the precast concrete
plant.
Precast concrete elements are usually transported efficiently because of their large, often repetitive sizes and the
ability to plan transportation during the normal course of the project.

1.6.5 Factory Control

1.6.5.1 Reduced Waste, Site Disturbance
Precast concrete girders can be reused when bridges are expanded, and precast concrete can be recycled as road
base, fill, or aggregate in new concrete at the end of its useful life. Concrete pieces from demolished structures can
be reused to protect shorelines. Most concrete from demolition in urban areas is recycled and not placed in
landfills.

1.7 SIMPLIFIED TOOLS AND RATING SYSTEMS

1.7.1 Greenroads
Greenroads (www.greenroads.org) was originally developed as a performance metric by the University of
Washington and the engineering company CH2M HILL to quantify the sustainable attributes of a roadway project.
With the launch of version 2, the scope was expanded to measuring and certifying sustainability performance of
transportation infrastructure. Metrics are tracked in two separate best-practice categories: mandatory and

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1.7.1 Greenroads/1.7.3 CEEQUAL

voluntary. Minimum levels of sustainable activities are provided in the mandatory best-practice project
requirements. Optional attributes, which show how the project has moved toward a truly sustainable endeavor,
are included in the voluntary core and extra credits. For a given project, the Greenroads team verifies the
application and the point totals and assigns a level.
Version 2 of the Greenroads rating system includes
• 12 project requirements,
• 45 voluntary core credits, and
• 4 voluntary extra credits
These requirements and credits are grouped into the following seven categories that are reviewed and scored:
• Project requirements
• Environment and water
• Construction activities
• Materials and design
• Utilities and controls
• Access and livability
• Creativity and effort

1.7.2 GreenLITES
GreenLITES (https://www.dot.ny.gov/programs/greenlites?nd=nysdot) is a program developed by the New York
State Department of Transportation to evaluate the sustainability of project designs before the designs go to bid.
Project designs are evaluated based on environmental impact in five categories:
• Sustainable sites
• Water quality
• Materials and resources
• Energy and atmosphere
• Innovation/unlisted
There is a lack of quantification of improvement needed to receive points, and many of the credits do not have
clear submission requirements.

1.7.3 CEEQUAL
The Civil Engineering Environmental Quality Assessment and Awards Scheme (CEEQUAL; www.ceequal.com) was
developed by a team led by the U.K. Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) with financial support from U.K.
governmental agencies and from the ICE's Research & Development Enabling Fund in 2013. CEEQUAL also
received support and participation from U.K. professional and industry associations and civil engineering
consultants and contractors. CEEQUAL is managed by the BRE Group, which released two editions (U.K./Ireland
and international) of Version 6 of the CEEQUAL Technical Manual in 2019.
The objectives of CEEQUAL are
• to recognize good, very good, or excellent environmental and social practice in civil engineering and
public work projects,
• to promote improved sustainability performance in project specification, design, and construction, and
• to create a climate of environmental awareness and continuous improvement in the industry.
CEEQUAL is an environmental and sustainability rating system with the following categories that are reviewed
and scored:
• Management
• Resilience
• Communities and stakeholders
• Land use and ecology
• Landscape and historic environment
• Pollution
• Resources

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1.7.3 CEEQUAL/1.9 References

The categories require evidence to be collected by an assessor and reviewed by a verifier. Because of the lack of
specificity in many of the categories, the objectivity of the assessor and verifier play an important role in
collection of evidence for each category and scoring of the results.

1.7.4 Envision
Envision (sustainableinfrastructure.org/envision/overview-of-envision) is a sustainable infrastructure rating
system developed by the Institute for Sustainable Infrastructure (ISI), a non-profit collaboration of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, the American Council of Engineering Companies, and the American Public Works
Association. Through the use of Envision, ISI intends to encourage the use of more sustainable technologies and
methods, which will ultimately improve the performance of infrastructure. The rating system evaluates, grades,
and gives recognition to projects that
• conserve and regenerate resources,
• restore and maintain ecological systems,
• protect human health and the environment, and
• improve the quality of life for communities.
Envision can be applied to roads, bridges, pipelines, railways, airports, dams, levees, landfills, water treatment
systems, and other components of public infrastructure. Envision includes 60 credits in the following five
categories:
• Quality of life
• Leadership
• Resource allocation
• Natural world
• Climate and risk

1.8 NORTH AMERICAN PRECAST CONCRETE SUSTAINABLE PLANT PROGRAM

In recognition of the critical nature of sustainability in the built environment, PCI developed a Sustainable Plants
Program. The goal of the program is to give PCI-certified precast concrete plant operators the tools and resources
needed to measurably improve their environmental and economic performance. This benchmarking of
environmental data allows for the measurement of ongoing performance and allows PCI producer members to
better manage metrics implemented with the program.
As part of the Sustainable Plants Program, PCI producer members track data in categories of energy, waste,
recycling, transportation, and materials. Plants are encouraged to collect data and implement improvement
strategies. Data are tracked separately for architectural and structural precast concrete products.

1.9 REFERENCES
1. AASHTO. 2021. Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cement. AASHTO M 240M/M 240-21. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
2. ASHRAE. 2020. Standard for the Design of High-Performance Green Buildings Except Low-Rise Buildings
(ANSI/ASHRAE/ICC/USGBC/IES Standard 189.1-2020). ASHRAE, Peachtree Corners, GA.
https://ashrae.iwrapper.com/ASHRAE_PREVIEW_ONLY_STANDARDS/STD_189.1_2020.
3. ASTM International. 2018. Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates (ASTM C33/C33M-18). ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/C0033_C0033M-18.
4. ASTM International. 2021. Standard Specification for Portland Cement (ASTM C150/C150M-21). ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/C0150_C0150M-21.

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1.9 References

5. ASTM International. 2021. Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements. ASTM C595-21. ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/C0595_C0595M-21.
6. ASTM International. 2016. Standard Test Method for Determination of Solar Reflectance Near Ambient
Temperature Using a Portable Solar Reflectometer. ASTM C1549-16. ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/C1549-16.
7. ASTM International. 2021. Standard Test Method for Measuring Solar Reflectance of Horizontal and Low-Sloped
Surfaces in the Field. ASTM E1918-21. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/E1918-21.
8. BRE Group. 2019. CEEQUAL Assessment Manual for Projects, Version 6. BRE, London, UK.
https://bregroup.com/products/ceequal/the-ceequal-technical-manuals/ceequal-version-6.
9. Carbon Leadership Forum (CLF). 2019. Life Cycle Assessment of Buildings: A Practice Guide. Seattle, WA: CLF.
https://carbonleadershipforum.org/lca-practice-guide/
10. CRSI. n.d. “Recycled Materials.” Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Schaumburg, IL. Accessed April 27, 2022.
https://www.crsi.org/index.cfm/architecture/recycling.
11. EPA. n.d. “Heat Island Effect.” U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Accessed May 12, 2022.
https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/learn-about-heat-islands.
12. ISO. 2017. Sustainability in Buildings and Civil Engineering Works—Core Rules for Environmental Product
Declarations of Construction Products and Services (ISO 21930:2017). International Organization for
Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland.
https://www.iso.org/standard/61694.html.
13. ISO. 2006. Environmental Labels and Declarations—Type III Environmental Declarations—Principles and
Procedures (ISO 14025:2006). International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland.
https://www.iso.org/standard/38131.html.
14. ISO. 2006. Environmental Management—Life Cycle Assessment—Principles and Framework (ISO 14040:2006).
International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland.
https://www.iso.org/standard/37456.html.
15. ISO. 2006. Environmental Management—Life Cycle Assessment—Requirements and Guidelines (ISO
14044:2006). International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland.
https://www.iso.org/standard/38498.html.
16. Long, A. E. Sustainable Bridges through Innovative Advances. Presentation at the Joint ICE and TRF Fellows
Lecture, May 2, 2007.
http://www.transportresearchfoundation.co.uk/PDF/lectures/Adrian%20Long%20paper.pdf
17. Marceau, M. L., J. Gajda, and M. G. VanGeem. 2002. “Use of Fly Ash in Concrete: Normal and High Volume
Ranges” (PCA R&D Serial No. 2604). Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL.
http://www2.cement.org/pdf_files/sn2604.pdf.
18. Marceau, M. L., and M. G. VanGeem. 2007. “Solar Reflectance of Concretes for LEED Sustainable Site Credit:
Heat Island Effect” (PCA R&D Serial No. 2982). Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL.
19. Marceau, M. L., M. A. Nisbet, and M. G. VanGeem. 2010A.“Life Cycle Inventory of Portland Cement Concrete”
(PCA R&D Serial No. 3011). Portland Cement Association. http://www2.cement.org/pdf_files/sn3011.pdf.
20. Marceau, M. L., M.A. Nisbet, and M. G. VanGeem. 2010B. “Life Cycle Inventory of Portland Cement
Manufacture” (PCA R&D Serial No. 2095b). Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL.
http://www2.cement.org/pdf_files/sn2095b.pdf.
21. NSF International. 2019. PCR for Concrete, NSF International, Ann Arbor, MI.
22. NSF International. 2021. PCR for Precast Concrete, NSF International, Ann Arbor, MI.

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1.9 References

23. PCA. 2021. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, 17th Edition (PCA EB001). Portland Cement Association,
Skokie, IL.
24. PCA. 2019. “Portland-Limestone Cement and Sustainability.” Accessed April 28, 2022.
https://www.cement.org/sustainability/portland-limestone-cement.
25. PCI. 2008. Designer’s Notebooks: Acoustics (DN-18-08). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL,
https://doi.org/10.15554/DN-18-08.
26. SETAC. 1993. “Guidelines for Life-Cycle Assessment: A ‘Code of Practice.’” Society of Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry, Sesimbra, Portugal.
27. Stripple,_H., C. Ljungkrantz, T. Gustafsson, and R. Andersson. 2018. CO2 Uptake in Cement-Containing Products.
Cementa AB and IVL Research Foundation, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Stockholm,
Sweden.
https://www.ivl.se/download/18.34244ba71728fcb3f3f8f9/1622457897161/B2309.pdf.
28. Tennis, P. D., M. D. A. Thomas, and W. J. Weiss. 2011. State-of-the-Art Report on Use of Limestone in Cements at
Levels of Up to 15%. Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 78 pp.
29. VanGeem, M. G. 2006. “Achieving Sustainability with Precast Concrete.” PCI Journal, V. 51, N. 1, pp. 42–61.
30. VanGeem, M. G. 2018. “Defining Resilience.” Advances in Civil Engineering Materials, V. 7, N. 1, pp. 308–315.
https://doi.org/10.1520/ACEM20170136.
31. World Commission on Environment and Development. 1987. Report on Our Common Future. Oxford
University Press, New York, NY.
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf.

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Table of Contents

NOTATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-5

2.1 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-7
2.2 PLANT PRODUCTS ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.2.1 Advantages .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-7
2.3 CONCRETE MATERIALS ............................................................................................................................................................................ 2-7
2.3.1 Cement ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.3.1.1 AASHTO M85 ................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-7
2.3.1.2 AASHTO M240 .............................................................................................................................................................................. 2-8
2.3.1.3 ASTM C1157 .................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-8
2.3.1.4 Restrictions .................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.3.2 Aggregates ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.3.3 Chemical Admixtures ......................................................................................................................................................................... 2-9
2.3.3.1 Purpose ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 2-9
2.3.3.2 Calcium Chloride .......................................................................................................................................................................... 2-9
2.3.3.3 Corrosion Inhibitors ................................................................................................................................................................... 2-9
2.3.3.4 Air–Entraining Admixtures ..................................................................................................................................................... 2-9
2.3.3.5 Shrinkage-Reducing Admixtures .......................................................................................................................................... 2-9
2.3.3.6 Viscosity-Modifying Admixtures ....................................................................................................................................... 2-10
2.3.4 Supplementary Cementitious Materials ................................................................................................................................. 2-10
2.3.4.1 Fly Ash and Natural Pozzolans ........................................................................................................................................... 2-10
2.3.4.2 Silica Fume................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-10
2.3.4.3 Slag Cement ................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-10
2.3.5 Water ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-10
2.4 SELECTION OF CONCRETE MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS .......................................................................................................... 2-11
2.4.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-11
2.4.2 Concrete Strength at Transfer ..................................................................................................................................................... 2-11
2.4.3 Concrete Strength at Service Loads .......................................................................................................................................... 2-11
2.4.4 High-Performance Concrete ......................................................................................................................................................... 2-11
2.4.4.1 High-Strength Concrete (HSC) ............................................................................................................................................ 2-11
2.4.4.2 Low-Permeability Concrete ................................................................................................................................................. 2-12
2.4.4.3 Self-Consolidating Concrete................................................................................................................................................. 2-12
2.4.4.4 Ultra-High-Performance Concrete .................................................................................................................................... 2-12
2.4.5 Durability .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-12
2.4.5.1 Freezing-and-Thawing Damage ......................................................................................................................................... 2-13
2.4.6 Workability .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-13
2.4.7 Water−Cementitious Materials Ratio ....................................................................................................................................... 2-13
2.4.7.1 Based on Strength .................................................................................................................................................................... 2-14
2.4.7.2 Based on Durability ................................................................................................................................................................. 2-14
2.4.8 Unit Weight .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-14

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Table of Contents

2.4.8.1 Normal Weight Concrete....................................................................................................................................................... 2-14

2.4.8.2 Lightweight Concrete ............................................................................................................................................................. 2-14
2.4.8.3 Blended Aggregates ................................................................................................................................................................. 2-14
2.4.8.4 Unit Weight for Structural Design .................................................................................................................................... 2-14
2.4.9 Effect of Heat Curing ........................................................................................................................................................................ 2-15
2.4.10 Sample Mixture Proportions ..................................................................................................................................................... 2-15
2.5 CONCRETE PROPERTIES ....................................................................................................................................................................... 2-16
2.5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 2-16
2.5.2 Compressive Strength ..................................................................................................................................................................... 2-16
2.5.2.1 Variation with Time ................................................................................................................................................................ 2-17
2.5.2.2 Effect of Accelerated Curing ................................................................................................................................................ 2-17
2.5.3 Modulus of Elasticity ....................................................................................................................................................................... 2-17
2.5.3.1 Calculations ................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-17
2.5.3.2 Variations ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-18
2.5.4 Modulus of Rupture ......................................................................................................................................................................... 2-18
2.5.5 Splitting Tensile Strength .............................................................................................................................................................. 2-18
2.5.6 Heat of Hydration.............................................................................................................................................................................. 2-18
2.5.7 Durability .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-18
2.5.7.1 Test Methods .............................................................................................................................................................................. 2-19
2.5.7.2 Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity ................................................................................................................................................. 2-19
2.5.7.3 Delayed Ettringite Formation ............................................................................................................................................. 2-19
2.5.8 Shrinkage .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-19
2.5.8.1 Calculation of Shrinkage........................................................................................................................................................ 2-19
2.5.9 Creep ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-22
2.5.9.1 Calculation of Creep ................................................................................................................................................................ 2-22
2.5.10 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion ........................................................................................................................................... 2-22
2.6 GROUT MATERIALS .................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-23
2.6.1 Definitions and Applications ........................................................................................................................................................ 2-23
2.6.2 Types and Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................................. 2-23
2.6.2.1 Performance Requirements................................................................................................................................................. 2-23
2.6.2.2 Materials ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-23
2.6.3 ASTM Tests .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-24
2.6.4 Grout Bed Materials ......................................................................................................................................................................... 2-24
2.6.5 Epoxy Resins ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-24
2.6.6 Overlays................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-24
2.6.7 Post–Tensioned Members ............................................................................................................................................................. 2-24
2.7 PRESTRESSING STRAND ........................................................................................................................................................................ 2-24
2.7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 2-24
2.7.2 Strand Types ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-25

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Table of Contents

2.7.2.1 Steel Strand ................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-25

2.7.2.2 Epoxy-Coated Strand .............................................................................................................................................................. 2-25
2.7.2.2.1 Effect of Heat ...................................................................................................................................................................... 2-25
2.7.2.3 Stainless Steel Strand .............................................................................................................................................................. 2-25
2.7.2.4 Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Strand and Bars ................................................................................................. 2-26
2.7.2.5 Galvanized Strand .................................................................................................................................................................... 2-26
2.7.3 Material Properties of Steel Strands ......................................................................................................................................... 2-26
2.7.3.1 Relaxation .................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-26
2.7.3.1.1 Epoxy-Coated Strand ...................................................................................................................................................... 2-27
2.7.3.2 Fatigue Strength ........................................................................................................................................................................ 2-27
2.7.3.2.1 Stress Range ....................................................................................................................................................................... 2-27
2.7.3.3 Surface Condition ..................................................................................................................................................................... 2-27
2.7.3.4 Splicing .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-28
2.8 NONPRESTRESSED STEEL REINFORCEMENT ............................................................................................................................. 2-28
2.8.1 Deformed Bars .................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-28
2.8.1.1 Specifications.............................................................................................................................................................................. 2-28
2.8.1.2 Corrosion Protection............................................................................................................................................................... 2-29
2.8.2 Headed Bars......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-29
2.8.3 Mechanical Splices ............................................................................................................................................................................ 2-29
2.8.3.1 Types .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 2-29
2.8.4 Welded Wire Reinforcement........................................................................................................................................................ 2-30
2.8.5 Fatigue Strength of Nonprestressed Reinforcement ......................................................................................................... 2-30
2.9 POST–TENSIONING MATERIALS ........................................................................................................................................................ 2-30
2.9.1 Strand Systems ................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-30
2.9.2 Bar Systems ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-31
2.9.3 Splicing................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-31
2.9.4 Ducts ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-31
2.10 FIBER-REINFORCED POLYMER REINFORCEMENT ................................................................................................................ 2-31
2.10.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-31
2.10.2 Mechanical Properties.................................................................................................................................................................. 2-31
2.10.3 Prestressed Concrete Bridge Applications .......................................................................................................................... 2-31
2.10.4 Specifications ................................................................................................................................................................................... 2-32
2.11 REINFORCEMENT SIZES AND PROPERTIES .............................................................................................................................. 2-32
2.12 RELEVANT STANDARDS AND PUBLICATIONS ......................................................................................................................... 2-34
2.12.1 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials ............................................................................... 2-34
2.12.2 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Sampling and Testing ....................................................................................... 2-35
2.12.3 ACI Publications .............................................................................................................................................................................. 2-36
2.12.4 ASTM Standard Specifications .................................................................................................................................................. 2-37
2.12.5 ASTM Standard Test Methods, Practices, and Guides .................................................................................................... 2-38

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Table of Contents

2.12.6 Cross References ASTM-AASHTO ........................................................................................................................................... 2-40

2.12.7 Cited References ............................................................................................................................................................................. 2-40

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Notation

NOTATION
A = constant
A*s = nominal area of prestressing steel, in.2
B = constant
(Ec)t = modulus of elasticity of concrete at an age of t days, ksi
𝑓𝑐′ = specified concrete compressive strength, ksi
𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = concrete compressive strength at time of transfer, ksi
(𝑓𝑐′ )t = concrete compressive strength at an age of t days. ksi
(𝑓𝑐′ )28 = concrete compressive strength at an age of 28 days, ksi
fmin = minimum stress level in reinforcement, ksi
fps = stress in prestressing strand, ksi
fpt = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer, ksi
fpy = yield strength of prestressing steel, ksi
fr = modulus of rupture, ksi
𝑓𝑠′ = ultimate strength of prestressing steel, ksi
H = annual average ambient relative humidity, %
fy = Specified minimum yield strength, ksi
kf = factor for the effect of concrete strength
khc = humidity factor for creep
khs = humidity factor for shrinkage
ks = factor for the effect of volume-to-surface ratio
ktd = time development factor
K1 = constant
KL = constant
S = surface area of concrete exposed to drying, in,2
t = age of concrete from time of casting or age of concrete from end of curing to the
time being considered, days
ti = age of concrete at time of load application, days
V = volume of concrete, in.3
wc = unit weight of concrete, lb/ft3
wcm = ratio of water to cementitious materials by weight
ΔfpR1 = relaxation loss between time of transfer and deck placement, ksi
ΔfpR2 = relaxation loss between time of deck placement and final time, ksi
(ΔF)TH = constant amplitude fatigue threshold, ksi
ps = strain in prestressing strand
εsh = shrinkage strain at a concrete age of t days
λ = concrete density modification factor
ψ(t, t0) = creep coefficient at t days after loading

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2.1 Scope/2.3.1.1 AASHTO M85

Material Properties
2.1 SCOPE
This chapter describes the properties of all major materials currently available for precast, prestressed concrete
bridge structures. It discusses concrete constituent materials, mixture requirements, hardened concrete
properties, pretensioning and post-tensioning reinforcement, nonprestressed reinforcement, and grouts used
between precast concrete members and other components. Recent developments in high-performance concrete
(HPC) and nonmetallic reinforcement are also introduced. Discussion of the materials specifically used in
fabrication and construction is included in Chapter 3.

2.2 PLANT PRODUCTS

The production of precast concrete components in a plant environment offers several advantages compared with
on-site production. Many of these advantages occur because one company is responsible for quality control
throughout production. This results in closer monitoring of raw materials, steel placement, concrete production
and delivery, concrete curing, and product shipment. The overall effect is to produce a product with more
consistent material properties than can be achieved with site-cast concrete.

2.2.1 Advantages
In many ways, the material properties of precast concrete components are superior to those of cast-in-place
members. Precast concrete components are required to achieve a minimum concrete strength for prestress
transfer and removal from their precasting beds at an early age (12 to 18 hours). This often results in concrete
that has a 28- or 56-day compressive strength in excess of the specified strength. Consequently, the concrete has a
higher modulus of elasticity and less creep than would occur if the actual strength were equal to the specified
strength. The use of accelerated curing to achieve the transfer strength also results in less shrinkage and creep.
With respect to durability, precast concrete members generally have a lower permeability than cast-in-place
concrete and, therefore, are better suited for use in aggressive environments such as coastal areas and locations
where deicing salts are used (Sherman, et al., 1994).

2.3 CONCRETE MATERIALS

The five major component materials of concrete are cement, aggregates, chemical admixtures, supplementary
cementitious materials, and water.

2.3.1 Cement
Cement for use in bridge construction generally conforms to one of the following specifications:
AASHTO M85, Portland Cement
AASHTO M240, Blended Hydraulic Cement
ASTM C1157, Hydraulic Cement

2.3.1.1 AASHTO M85

The AASHTO Specification M85 lists the following 10 types of portland cement:
Type I—Normal
Type IA—Normal, air-entraining
Type II—Moderate sulfate resistance
Type IIA—Moderate sulfate resistance, air-entraining
Type II(MH)—Moderate heat of hydration, moderate sulfate resistance
Type II(MH)A—Moderate heat of hydration, moderate sulfate resistance, air-entraining
Type III—High early strength
Type IIIA—High early strength, air-entraining
Type IV—Low heat of hydration
Type V—High sulfate resistance

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2.3.1.1 AASHTO M85/2.3.2 Aggregates

Type I portland cement is a general-purpose cement suitable for all uses where the special properties of other
types of cement are not required. Type II portland cement is used where precaution against moderate sulfate
attack is important or to reduce the heat of hydration. Type III portland cement provides high strengths at an
early age and is particularly appropriate for obtaining high strengths for prestress transfer. Type IV portland
cement is used to reduce the heat of hydration and is particularly beneficial in mass concrete structures. Type V
portland cement is used in concrete exposed to severe sulfate attack. Types IA, IIA, II(MH)A, and IIIA, correspond
in composition to Types I, II. II(MH), and III, respectively, except that small quantities of air-entraining material
are included in the cement. Some cements are designated with a combined-type classification, such as Type I/II,
indicating that the cement meets the requirements of the indicated types.

2.3.1.2 AASHTO M240

The AASHTO Specification M240 lists the following four types of blended hydraulic cements for general concrete
construction:
Type IS(X)—Portland blast-furnace slag cement
Type IP(X)—Portland-pozzolan cement
Type IL(X)—Portland-limestone cement
Type IT(AX)(BY)—Ternary blended cement

The suffixes (X) and (Y) denote the targeted percentage of slag, pozzolan, or limestone expressed by mass of the
total blended product. The suffixes A and B are “S” for slag, “P” for pozzolan, or “L” for limestone. For example, a
ternary blended cement with 70% portland cement, 20% slag, and 10% pozzolan would be designated Type
IT(S20)(P10).
Special properties may be specified by adding the following suffixes:
(A) Air entraining
(MS) Moderate sulfate resistance
(MH) Moderate heat of hydration
(HS) High sulfate resistance
(LH) Low heat of hydration
Blended hydraulic cements are produced by intergrinding and/or blending various combinations of portland
cement, limestone, slag cement, fly ash, silica fume, and other pozzolans. These cements can be used to produce
different properties in the hardened concretes.

2.3.1.3 ASTM C1157

The ASTM Specification C1157 is a performance specification that lists physical test requirements, as opposed to
prescriptive restrictions on ingredients or cement chemistry. ASTM C1157 lists the following six types of cement:
Type GU—General use
Type HE—High early strength
Type MS—Moderate sulfate resistance
Type HS—High sulfate resistance
Type MH—Moderate heat of hydration
Type LH—Low heat of hydration

2.3.1.4 Restrictions
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials’ AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction
Specifications (AASHTO, 2017) generally restrict cement usage to portland cement Types I, II, or III; air-entrained
portland cement Types IA, IIA, or IIIA; or blended hydraulic cement Types IP or IS. For Type IP, the pozzolan
constituent shall not exceed 20% of the total mass. It should also be noted that not all types of cement are readily
available and that the use of some types is not permitted by some states.

2.3.2 Aggregates
Aggregates for concrete consist of fine and coarse materials. Fine aggregate for normal weight concrete should
conform to the requirements of AASHTO M6. Coarse aggregate for normalweight concrete should conform to the
requirements of AASHTO M80. Some states specify a combined grading for fine and coarse aggregates.
Lightweight aggregate should conform to the requirements of AASHTO M195.

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2.3.2 Aggregates/2.3.3.5 Shrinkage-Reducing Admixtures

The maximum size of aggregate should be selected based on mixture-requirements and the minimum clear
spacing between reinforcing steel, clear cover to reinforcing steel, and thickness of the member in accordance
with AASHTO specifications. If aggregates susceptible to alkali-aggregate reactivity are used in prestressed
concrete members, special precautions must be observed. These include the use of low-alkali cements, blended
cements, or pozzolans.

2.3.3 Chemical Admixtures

Chemical admixtures are used in precast, prestressed concrete to provide air entrainment, reduce water content,
improve workability, retard setting time, and accelerate strength development. Chemical admixtures, except air-
entraining admixtures, should conform to the requirements of AASHTO M194. This specification lists the
following types of admixtures:
Type A—Water-reducing
Type B—Retarding
Type C—Accelerating
Type D—Water-reducing and retarding
Type E—Water-reducing and accelerating
Type F—Water-reducing, high range
Type G—Water-reducing, high range and retarding
Type S—Specific performance admixture

2.3.3.1 Purpose
Water-reducing admixtures and high-range water-reducing admixtures are used to allow for a reduction in the
water−cementitious material ratio by weight (w/cm) while maintaining or improving workability. Accelerating
admixtures are used to decrease the setting time and increase the early strength development. They are
particularly beneficial in precast concrete construction to facilitate early form removal and transfer of
prestressing force. Since admixtures can produce different results with different cements, and at different
temperatures, selection of admixtures should be based on the plant materials and conditions that will be used in
production. Compatibility among admixtures is also important and should be specifically addressed when using
combinations of admixtures produced by different companies.

2.3.3.2 Calcium Chloride

Calcium chloride has been used in the past as an accelerator since it is very effective and economical. However,
the use of calcium chloride in concrete promotes corrosion of metals due to the presence of chloride ions.
Consequently, calcium chloride should not be permitted in prestressed concrete members. Accelerators without
chlorides may be used.

2.3.3.3 Corrosion Inhibitors

Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures are available for use in concrete to protect reinforcement from corrosion. These
admixtures block the passage of chloride ions to the steel reinforcement and, thereby, reduce or eliminate
corrosion of the reinforcement. Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures are more likely to be effective in cast-in-place
bridge components that are directly exposed to chloride ions than in precast concrete bridge members that
exhibit lower permeability.

2.3.3.4 Air–Entraining Admixtures

Air-entraining admixtures are used in concrete primarily to increase the resistance of the concrete to freezing-
and-thawing damage when exposed to water and deicing chemicals. They may also be used to increase
workability and facilitate handling and finishing. Air-entraining admixtures should conform to AASHTO M154.
The air content of fresh concrete is generally determined using the pressure method (AASHTO T152) or the
volumetric method (AASHTO T196). The pressure method should not be used with lightweight concrete.

2.3.3.5 Shrinkage-Reducing Admixtures

Shrinkage-reducing admixtures have the potential to reduce shrinkage by 25% to 50%. These admixtures have
negligible effect on slump and air content but can delay setting and early strength gain.

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2.3.3.6 Viscosity-Modifying Admistures/2.3.5 Water

2.3.3.6 Viscosity-Modifying Admixtures

Viscosity-modifying admixtures (VMAs) are used in self-consolidating concrete to reduce segregation, in
underwater concreting to improve cohesiveness, and as a pumping aid (Wilson and Tennis, 2021). VMAs fall into
the category of Type S admixtures in ASTM C494.

2.3.4 Supplementary Cementitious Materials

Supplementary cementitious materials, previously called mineral admixtures, consist of fly ash, slag cement, silica
fume, and natural pozzolans. They are added to concrete to improve or change properties of hardened hydraulic
cement concrete such as earlier strength development or less heat of hydration. They may also be used to
improve the resistance of concrete to reactive aggregates and to replace cement. They have also been used in
high-strength concrete to produce higher strengths at early or later ages. The use of supplementary cementitious
materials may affect the workability and finishing characteristics of fresh concrete.

2.3.4.1 Fly Ash and Natural Pozzolans

AASHTO M295 lists the following three classes of fly ash and natural pozzolans:
Class N raw or calcined natural pozzolans
Class F fly ash
Class C fly ash
High-reactive metakaolin (HRM) is a manufactured white powder that meets the requirements of a Class N
pozzolan. The particle size of HRM is significantly smaller than that of cement particles, but not as fine as silica
fume. Fly ash is a finely divided residue that results from the combustion of pulverized coal in power generation
plants. Class F fly ash has pozzolanic properties; Class C has some cementitious properties in addition to
pozzolanic properties. Some types of fly ash meet both Class F and Class C classifications. Selection of these
materials will depend on their local availability and their effect on concrete properties.

2.3.4.2 Silica Fume

Silica fume meeting the requirements of AASHTO M307 may also be used as a supplementary cementitious
material in concrete. Silica fume is a very fine pozzolanic material produced as a by-product in electric arc
furnaces used for the production of elemental silicon or ferro-silicon alloys. Silica fume is also known as
condensed silica fume and as microsilica. The use of silica fume can improve the early-age strength development
of concrete and is particularly beneficial in achieving high transfer strengths in high-strength concrete beams. The
use of silica fume in concrete generally results in concrete that has low permeability. The use of silica fume
increases the water demand in concrete more than other cementitious materials. Consequently, it is generally
used in combination with a water-reducing admixture or a high-range water-reducing admixture. These
admixtures facilitate dispersion of the cement particles and allow the silica fume particles to pack between the
cement particles. Concrete containing silica fume has significantly less bleeding and the potential for plastic
shrinkage is increased. Therefore, early moisture loss should be prevented under conditions that promote rapid
surface drying such as low humidity and high temperatures.

2.3.4.3 Slag Cement

Slag cement (previously known as ground granulated blast-furnace slag) meeting the requirements of AASHTO
M302 may be used in concrete to provide higher strengths and lower permeability, reduce heat of hydration, and
increase resistance to alkali-silica reaction and to sulfate attack. Slag cement is produced from molten slag that is
tapped from an iron blast furnace and then rapidly quenched with water in a granulator. The resulting glassy
granules are then dried and either ground to a fine powder to make slag cement or interground with portland
cement to produce a blended cement.

2.3.5 Water
Water used in mixing concrete must be clean and free of oil, salt, acid, alkali, sugar, vegetable, or other injurious
substances. Water known to be of potable quality may be used without testing. However, if there is doubt, water
should meet the requirements of ASTM C1602. Mixing water for concrete should not contain a chloride ion
concentration in excess of 1,000 ppm or sulfates as SO4 in excess of 1,300 ppm per the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Construction Specifications.

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2.4 Selection of Concrete Mixture Requirements/2.4.4.1 High-Strength Concrete (HSC)

2.4 SELECTION OF CONCRETE MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS

2.4.1 Introduction
This section discusses various aspects of concrete mixture requirements that the owner or the owner’s engineer
should consider. Selection of concrete ingredients and proportions to meet the minimum requirements stated in
the specifications and contract documents should be the responsibility of the precast concrete producer.
Wherever possible, the mixture requirements should be stated on the basis of the required performance and not
be overly restrictive for the producer. The producer should be allowed to show through trial batches or mixture
history that a proposed mixture design will meet or exceed the specified performance criteria. Consequently,
prescriptive requirements such as minimum cement content or minimum cementitious materials content should
be avoided.

2.4.2 Concrete Strength at Transfer

For prestressed concrete bridge beams, the engineer generally specifies minimum strengths at time of transfer of
the prestressing strand force and at 28 days, although ages other than 28 days may be used. The engineer may
also specify a minimum compressive strength at time of beam erection, or a minimum compressive strength at
time of post-tensioning if a combination of pretensioning and post-tensioning is used. For most prestressed
concrete bridge beams, the specified strength at time of transfer will control the concrete mixture proportions.
Based on the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO, 2020), the transfer strength is selected so that
the temporary concrete stresses in the beam before losses due to creep and shrinkage do not exceed 65% of the
concrete compressive strength at time of transfer in pretensioned members or at time of stressing of post-
tensioned members. In addition, the strength is selected so that, in tension areas with no bonded reinforcement,
the tensile stress will not exceed 0.2 ksi or 0.0948λ√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ksi where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ is the compressive strength of concrete at
time of transfer in ksi and λ is the concrete density modification factor. In areas with a specified amount of
bonded reinforcement, the maximum tensile stress cannot exceed 0.24 λ√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ksi.

2.4.3 Concrete Strength at Service Loads

The design of most precast, prestressed concrete members is generally based on a concrete compressive strength
at 28 days of 5.0 to 8.0 ksi. However, because the mixture proportions are generally dictated by transfer
strengths, concrete strengths at 28 days are frequently in excess of the specified 28-day value and actual
strengths of 10.0 ksi or more are often achieved. Consequently, mixture requirements are generally based on the
transfer strengths, and the precaster only has to ensure that the mixture will provide concrete with a compressive
strength in excess of that specified for 28 days.
The minimum compressive strength, in some cases, may be controlled by the need to meet a minimum
requirement for special exposure conditions as discussed in Section 2.4.6.2.

2.4.4 High-Performance Concrete

HPC is defined by the American Concrete Institute as concrete meeting special combinations of performance and
uniformity requirements that cannot always be achieved routinely using conventional constituents and normal
mixing, placing, and curing practices (Russell, 1999). For precast, prestressed concrete bridge beams, this usually
means higher concrete compressive strength, lower permeability, or easier placement. For some projects,
modulus of elasticity, creep, and shrinkage values may be specified.
The application of high-performance concrete usually requires the use of performance-based specifications.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Synthesis Report 441 documents the types of
specifications and practices used by state agencies to produce HPC (Russell, 2013).

2.4.4.1 High-Strength Concrete (HSC)

Concrete with specified strengths in excess of 8.0 ksi is being specified by states to achieve longer span lengths,
wider beam spacing, or the use of shallower sections. If the specified strength cannot be achieved at 28 days, the
concrete strength may be specified at 56 days because of the strength gain that is possible in higher-strength

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2.4.4.1 High-Strength Concrete (HSC)/2.4.5 Durability

concrete between 28 and 56 days. The higher strengths are generally achieved using increased cementitious
materials content, lower w/cm, and supplementary cementitious materials.

2.4.4.2 Low-Permeability Concrete

Low-permeability concrete is beneficial in reducing the rate of penetration of chlorides into the concrete. It is
frequently specified with reference to AASHTO T277, which is a rapid test to determine the penetration of
chloride ions into concrete. Alternatively, it may be specified using ponding procedures such as those described in
AASHTO T 259. Low-permeability concrete can be achieved using the same approaches to achieve HSC; higher
cementitious materials content, lower w/cm, and supplementary cementitious materials. Consequently, most
HSCs have a low permeability but not all low-permeability concretes have high strength.

2.4.4.3 Self-Consolidating Concrete

Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) is a highly flowable, nonsegregating concrete that can spread into place, fill the
formwork, and encapsulate the reinforcement without any mechanical consolidation (ACI 237R). The use of SCC
results in smooth concrete surfaces with fewer “bugholes,” requires less labor to place, and results in a quieter
work environment. SCC is generally more expensive than regular concrete and requires more stringent quality
control. The flowing characteristics of SCC are achieved by increasing the amount of fine material, using a high-
range water-reducing admixture, and, in some cases, including a VMA. Further information about the use of SCC in
precast, prestressed concrete is provided in PCI Guidelines for the Use of Self-Consolidating Concrete in
Precast/Prestressed Concrete (PCI Concrete Materials Technology Committee, 2015) and NCHRP Report 628
(Khayat and Mitchell, 2009).
The following test methods are available for use with SCC:
AASHTO T347, Test Method for Slump Flow of Self-Consolidating Concrete
AASHTO T345, Test Method for Passing Ability of Self-Consolidating Concrete by J-Ring
AASHTO T349, Filling Capacity of Self-Consolidating Concrete Using Caisson Test
AASHTO T351, Visual Stability Index (VSI) of Self-Consolidating Concrete (ASTM C1610, Test Method for
Static Segregation of Self-Consolidating Concrete Using Column Technique)
ASTM C1712, Test Method for Rapid Assessment of Static Segregation Resistance of Self-Consolidating
Concrete Using Penetration Test

2.4.4.4 Ultra-High-Performance Concrete

Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) is a cementitious composite material that contains cement, fine sand,
silica fume, ground quartz, superplasticizer, steel or plastic fibers, and water. Compared to conventional
concretes, hardened UHPC has exceptional durability, high compressive strength, usable tensile strength, and
long-term stability. In addition, fresh UHPC has the flowability characteristics of SCC (Graybeal, 2006A, 2006B).
UHPC has been used for the beams of several bridge structures in the United States and as a field-cast joint
material to create splice connections between deck components. (Graybeal and Lwin, 2010 and Steinberg, et al.,
2022). Further information about UHPC for precast concrete is provided in PCI Guidelines for the Use of Ultra-
High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) in Precast and Prestressed Concrete (PCI Concrete Materials Technology
Committee, 2022).

2.4.5 Durability
Durability is a concern when bridges are exposed to aggressive environments. This generally occurs where
deicing salts are used on highways during winter or in coastal regions where structures are exposed to salt from
seawater. The engineer must be concerned about the deleterious effects of freezing and thawing, chemical attack,
and corrosion of embedded or exposed metals. The ideal approach is to make the concrete as impermeable as
possible. In this respect, precast, prestressed concrete has inherent advantages over cast-in-place concrete since
precast, prestressed concrete is produced in a controlled environment that results in high-quality concrete. In
addition, the mixture proportions needed to achieve a relatively high-strength concrete tend to produce lower
permeability concretes. As a result, precast, prestressed concrete bridge beams have an excellent record of
performance in aggressive environments.

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.4.5.1 Freezing-and-Thawing Damage/2.4.7 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio

2.4.5.1 Freezing-and-Thawing Damage

Freezing-and-thawing damage generally manifests itself by scaling of the concrete surface. This occurs as a result
of temperature fluctuations that cause freezing and thawing when the concrete is saturated. Freezing-and-
thawing damage is magnified when deicing chemicals are present. To minimize freezing-and-thawing damage, a
minimum air content is generally specified. The presence of entrained air provides space for ice to expand
without developing high pressures that would otherwise damage the concrete. Table 2.4.5.1-1, based on ACI
211.1, provides the required air content for severe and moderate exposure conditions for various maximum
aggregate sizes. Severe exposure is defined as a climate where the concrete may be in almost continuous contact
with moisture prior to freezing, or where deicing salts come in contact with the concrete. This includes bridge
decks. Salt-laden air, as found in coastal areas, is also considered a severe exposure. A moderate exposure is one
where deicing salts are not used or where concrete will only occasionally be exposed to moisture prior to
freezing. This is generally the case for bridge beams. It should be noted that some state highway departments
specify air contents that are slightly different from those shown in Table 2.4.5.1-1. With higher compressive
strength concrete, lower air contents than those shown in Table 2.4.5.1-1 may provide adequate resistance to
freezing and thawing (ACI 363, 2010). In addition, many states do not require air entrainment in prestressed
concrete beams because beams are sheltered by the deck or other conditions exist such that air entrainment is
not required for good performance.
Table 2.4.5.1-1.
Total Air Content for Frost-Resistant Concrete
Nominal Minimum
Maximum Air Content,* %
Aggregate Severe Moderate
Size, in. Exposure Exposure
⅜ 7½ 6
½ 7 5½
¾ 6 5
1 6 4½
1½ 5½ 4½
*The usual tolerance on air content as delivered is
±1.5 %.

2.4.6 Workability
The ease of mixing, placing, consolidating, and finishing freshly mixed concrete is called workability. Concrete
should be workable but should not segregate or bleed excessively. Excessive bleeding increases the w/cm near
the top surface, and a weak top layer of concrete with poor durability may result. For prestressed concrete bridge
beams, particular attention should be paid to ensure that the concrete has adequate workability so that it will
consolidate around the prestressing strands, particularly at end regions of beams where a high percentage of
nonprestressed reinforcement is present. It is also important that concrete can be placed in the webs of beams
without segregation. Workability can be enhanced through the use of water-reducing admixtures, high-range
water-reducing admixtures, and air-entraining agents. No standard test exists for the measurement of
workability. The concrete slump test (AASHTO T119) is the most generally accepted method used to measure
consistency of concrete, but it should not be used as a means to control workability.

2.4.7 Water−Cementitious Materials Ratio

The w/cm is the ratio of the amount of water, exclusive of that absorbed by the aggregate, to the amount of
cementitious materials in a concrete or mortar mixture. As such, the amount of water includes that within the
admixtures and that in the aggregate in excess of the saturated surface-dry condition. The amount of cementitious
material includes cement and other cementitious materials, such as fly ash, silica fume, and slag cement. The total
cementitious materials content for compressive strengths from 4.0 to 10.0 ksi can vary from 600 to 1,000 lb/yd3
and will also vary on a regional basis.

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.4.7.1 Based on Strength/2.4.8.4 Unit Weight for Structural Design

2.4.7.1 Based on Strength

When strength, not durability, controls the mixture design, the w/cm and mixture proportions required to achieve
specified strength should be determined from field data or the results of trial batch strength tests. The trial
batches should be made from actual job materials. When no other data are available, Table 2.4.7.1-1, which is
based on ACI 211.1, may be used as a starting point for mixture design procedures for normal weight concrete.
Table 2.4.7.1-1
Approximate Ratios for Trial Batches
Water−Cementitious Materials Ratio
Compressive
by Weight
Strength at 28
Non-Air-Entrained Air-Entrained
Days, ksi
Concrete Concrete
6.0 0.41 —
5.0 0.48 0.40
4.0 0.57 0.48

2.4.7.2 Based on Durability

When durability is a major consideration in the concrete mixture design, the maximum w/cm should be limited.
For precast, prestressed concrete members exposed to deicing chemicals, salt, brackish water, seawater, or spray
from these sources, the maximum w/cm will generally be 0.40.

2.4.8 Unit Weight

2.4.8.1 Normal Weight Concrete
The unit weight of plain normal weight concrete is generally in the range of 0.135 to 0.150 kip/ft3, although unit
weights can be as high as 0.155 kip/ft3. The unit weight varies depending on the amount and unit weight of the
aggregate and the air, water, and cementitious materials contents. Table 2.4.8.1-1 provides plain concrete unit
weights from the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications Table 3.5.1-1.
Table 2.4.8.1-1
Plain Concrete Unit Weights
Unit Weight,
Concrete
kip/ft3
Lightweight 0.110 to 0.135
Normal Weight with 𝑓𝑐′ < 5.0 ksi 0.145
Normal Weight with 5.0 ksi ≤ 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 15.0 ksi 0.140 + 0.001 𝑓𝑐′

2.4.8.2 Lightweight Concrete

Lightweight concrete (also called specified density concrete) with suitable lightweight aggregates may be used in
precast, prestressed concrete bridge construction. Lightweight aggregate concretes generally have a unit weight
of 0.110 to 0.135 kip/ft3. When lightweight concrete is used in prestressed concrete members, special
consideration must be given to using mixture design procedures for lightweight concrete as given in ACI 211.2.

2.4.8.3 Blended Aggregates

Where suitable lightweight aggregates are available, a common practice is to blend lightweight with normal
weight aggregates to achieve a desired concrete density. This is done to control beam (or other product) weights
to satisfy shipping limitations, jobsite conditions such as crane size or reach limits, or plant or erection equipment
capacities.

2.4.8.4 Unit Weight for Structural Design

In the design of reinforced or prestressed concrete structures, the unit weight for design purposes is generally
taken as 0.005 kip/ft3 greater than the unit weight of plain concrete to account for the weight of typical

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.4.8.4 Unit Weight for Structural Design/2.4.10 Sample Mixture Proportions

reinforcement. However, for members with large quantities of prestressing strand or nonprestressed
reinforcement, a higher unit weight may be more appropriate.

2.4.9 Effect of Heat Curing

Because of the need for early strength gain, Type III cement is often used in precast concrete so that formwork
may be reused on a daily basis. This generally requires that the transfer strength be achieved no later than 18
hours after the concrete is placed and may be achieved at 12 hours or less. To accelerate the strength gain, it is
often necessary to raise the temperature of the concrete. In some situations, such as with HSC, the increase in
temperature can be provided by the internal heat of hydration. However, in most situations, it is necessary to use
an external source of heat, such as steam or radiant heat, to reach the necessary transfer strengths. The use of
external heat causes the concrete temperature to be higher at an earlier age than would be achieved from the
natural heat of hydration. A consequence of achieving high transfer strength is a reduction in the later age
strengths compared to strengths that would have been obtained if the concrete had not been heat cured. This is
illustrated in Figure 2.4.9-1. The effect of heat curing on the concrete compressive strength development must be
taken into account in the selection of mixture requirements and in the preparation of trial mixtures. The effect of
heat curing on delayed ettringite formation is discussed in Section 2.5.7.3.
Figure 2.4.9-1
Effect of Curing on Concrete Compressive Strength Gain

2.4.10 Sample Mixture Proportions

Sample concrete mixture proportions for seven different concrete compressive strengths are shown in Table
2.4.10-1. These are concrete mixtures from different precasting plants. It should not be assumed that these
mixture proportions will always produce the same concrete compressive strengths when used with different
materials.

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.4.10 Sample Mixture Proportions/2.5.2 Compressive Strength

Table 2.4.10-1
Sample Production Concrete Mixture Proportions
Mixture A B C D E F G
Specified Strength, ksi
Transfer 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 4.50 6.0 8.8
28 days 5.0 6.0 7.5 7.5 8.00 10.0 13.1
Quantities per yd3
Cement, lb 705 705 850 750 451 750 671
Fly Ash, lb 0 0 0 140 0 0 316
Silica Fume, lb 0 0 0 0 0 95 0
Slag, lb 0 0 0 0 301 0 0
Normal Weight Sand, lb 1,055 1,085 935 1,085 541 1,030 1,029
Lightweight Sand, lb 0 0 0 0 390 0 0
Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate, lb 1,790 1,920 1,770 1,980 605 1,870 1,918
Lightweight Coarse Aggregate, lb 0 0 0 0 696 0 0
Water, lb 270 285 300 230 255 230 247
Air Entrainment, fl. oz. 5 0 17 0 UNKN 3 0
Water-Reducer, fl. oz. 25 53 29 0 22 10 0
High-Range Water-Reducer, fl. oz. 125 0 145 160 56 85 200
Concrete Properties
Water−Cementitious Materials Ratio 0.38 0.40 0.36 0.26 0.34 0.31 0.25
Slump, in. 3½ 4¾ 4 6 UNKN 5 9
Unit Weight, kip/ft3 0.142 0.148 0.140 0.145 0.120 0.147 UNKN
5.5 to
Air Content, % 6.0 N/A 6.0 N/A 5.0 N/A
7.0
Transfer Strength, ksi (Actual) 3.8 4.4 5.3 6.7 4.7 9.1 8.8
28-day Strength, ksi (Actual) 5.7 6.4 8.0 9.4 8.1 10.5 13.9
56-day Strength, ksi (Actual) UNKN UNKN UNKN UNKN UNKN UNKN 15.2
Note: N/A = not applicable; UNKN = unknown.

2.5 CONCRETE PROPERTIES

2.5.1 Introduction
Concrete properties such as modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, shear strength, and bond strength are
frequently expressed in terms of the compressive strength. Generally, expressions for these quantities have been
empirically established based on data for concretes having compressive strengths up to 6.0 ksi. Through research,
these empirical relationships have been reevaluated for higher concrete compressive strengths, up to 15 ksi.
Unless indicated otherwise, the relationships in this section may be assumed to be applicable for concrete with
compressive strengths up to 15 ksi. Where alternative expressions are available for higher-strength concretes,
they are discussed in each section.

2.5.2 Compressive Strength

Compressive strength has generally been measured by testing 6 by 12-in. cylinders in accordance with standard
AASHTO or ASTM procedures. The use of 4 by 8-in. cylinders has increased in recent years. Some state highway
departments permit the use of either 6 by12-in. or 4 by 8-in. cylinders for quality control. For HSCs, the use of
smaller-size cylinders may be necessary because of limitations on testing machine capacities. For precast,
prestressed concrete members, it is particularly important that the concrete cylinders used to determine transfer
strengths be cured in an identical manner to the bridge members. In general, this is accomplished by curing the
concrete cylinders alongside the prestressed concrete member until transfer of the prestressing strands. A more
advanced technique of match curing (AASHTO R 72) is also available. In this procedure, the cylinders are enclosed
in a container in which the temperature is controlled to match the temperature of the concrete member. The test

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.2 Compressive Strength/2.5.3.1 Calculations

cylinders then undergo the same time-temperature history as the concrete member. This method generally uses 4
by 8-in. cylinders.

2.5.2.1 Variation with Time

The variation of concrete compressive strength with time may be approximated by the following general
calculation:
𝑡
(𝑓𝑐′ )𝑡 = (𝑓 ′ ) (Eq. 2.5.2.1-1)
𝐴 + 𝐵𝑡 𝑐 28
where
(𝑓𝑐′ )𝑡 = concrete compressive strength at an age of t days
(𝑓𝑐′ )28 = concrete compressive strength at an age of 28 days
A and B = constants
t = age of concrete, days
The constants A and B are functions of both the type of cementitious material used and the type of curing
employed. The use of normal weight or lightweight aggregate does not seem to affect these constants
significantly. Typical values recommended by ACI 209 are given in Table 2.5.2.1-1. The constants for current
practice shown in Table 2.5.2.1-1 are based on the sample mixtures shown in Table 2.4.10-1. These mixtures
have transfer strengths that vary from 63% to 87% of the 28-day strength.
Table 2.5.2.1-1
Values of Constants A and B
Source Curing Cement A B
ACI 209 Moist I 4.00 0.85
ACI 209 Moist III 2.30 0.92
ACI 209 Steam I 1.00 0.95
ACI 209 Steam III 0.70 0.98
Current Practice Heat III 0.28 0.99

2.5.2.2 Effect of Accelerated Curing

As shown in Figure 2.4.9-1, a concrete that is heat cured will have higher initial strengths but lower strengths at
later ages when compared with the same concrete that is moist cured. It should be emphasized that these are
general relationships and variations will occur for different concretes and curing procedures. When
supplementary cementitious materials that result in a slower strength gain are used, it may be appropriate to
determine the compressive strength at 56 days to take advantage of the later strength gain. Therefore, it is
important that the strength-gain relationship be established through trial mixtures or previous experience using
local producer data. This is particularly important for transfer strengths, which can occur as early as 12 hours. If
the relationship is unknown, the values listed in Table 2.5.2.1-1 for current practice will give an approximate
relationship.

2.5.3 Modulus of Elasticity

The modulus of elasticity, Ec, is the ratio of uniaxial normal stress to corresponding strain up to the proportional
limit for both tensile and compressive stresses. It is the material property that determines the amount of
deformation under load. It is used to calculate camber at transfer, elastic deflections caused by dead and live
loads, axial shortening and elongation, prestress losses, buckling, and relative distribution of applied forces in
composite and nonhomogeneous structural members. Modulus of elasticity is determined in accordance with
ASTM C469.

2.5.3.1 Calculations
For concrete compressive strengths less than 15.0 ksi, the following equation from the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications may be used to predict the modulus of elasticity:

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.3.1 Calculations/2.5.7 Durability

(𝐸𝑐 )𝑡 = 120,000𝐾1 (𝑤𝑐 )2.0 (𝑓𝑐′ )𝑡 0.33 [LRFD 5.4.2.4-1]

where
(𝐸𝑐 )𝑡 = modulus of elasticity of concrete at an age of t days, ksi
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate; to be taken as 1.0 unless determined by physical test
𝑤𝑐 = unit weight of concrete, kip/ft3
(𝑓𝑐′ )𝑡 = compressive strength of concrete at an age of t days, ksi

2.5.3.2 Variations
Deviations from predicted values are highly dependent on the properties and proportions of the coarse aggregate
used in the concrete. Consequently, where local producer data are available, they should be used in place of the
values determined from the LRFD equation. This is particularly important in computing the camber at transfer as
the modulus of elasticity equation has not been developed specifically for determination of the modulus of heat-
cured concrete at an early age.

2.5.4 Modulus of Rupture

The modulus of rupture is a measure of the flexural tensile strength of the concrete. It can be determined by
testing using the procedures of AASHTO T 97, but the modulus of rupture for structural design is generally
assumed to be a function of the concrete compressive strength. Article 5.4.2.6 in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications indicates that the modulus of rupture may be taken as 0.24λ√𝑓𝑐′ for lightweight concrete with
specified compressive strengths up to 10.0 ksi, and for normal weight concrete with specified compressive
strengths up to 15.0 ksi, where λ is the concrete density modification factor.

2.5.5 Splitting Tensile Strength

The splitting tensile strength test (AASHTO T198) provides an indirect measurement of the concrete tensile
strength. The test method consists of applying a diametral compressive force along the length of a cylindrical
concrete specimen such as molded cylinders and drilled cores. Splitting tensile strength is used in the calculation
of the concrete density modification factor for structural lightweight concrete members.

2.5.6 Heat of Hydration

Heat of hydration is the heat generated when cement and water react. The amount of heat generated is largely
dependent on the chemical composition of the cement, but an increase in cement content, fineness, or curing
temperature will also increase the heat of hydration. Heat of hydration is particularly important in heat-cured
concretes where the heat generated by the chemical reaction of the cement in conjunction with heat curing can be
used to accelerate the development of compressive strength. The heat of hydration can be measured using ASTM
C186. When prestressed concrete beams are heat cured, the heat generated by hydration cannot escape from the
surface of the member. Consequently, under this condition, the beams may be considered as mass concrete.
Procedures for determining the temperature rise in mass concrete are described in ACI 207.1. However, as an
approximate calculation, it can be assumed that a temperature rise of 10 to 15°F will occur for each 100 lb of
cement used in the concrete. More precise calculations can be made using the actual concrete mixture
proportions, specific heat of the concrete, and heat generated per unit mass of cement.
The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications limits the maximum concrete temperature during the curing
cycle to 160°F. For precast concrete members, PCI’s Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of
Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI Plant Certification Committee2021) recommends that the maximum
concrete temperature during curing be limited to 158°F for products exposed to damp or continuously wet
environmental conditions. An increase to 170°F is allowed if a concrete mixture that mitigates delayed ettringite
formation (DEF) is employed.(PCI,2021).

2.5.7 Durability
Durability refers to the ability of concrete to resist deterioration from the environment or service conditions in
which it is placed. Properly designed concrete should survive throughout its service life without significant
distress.

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.7.1 Test Methods/2.5.8.1 Calculation of Shrinkage

2.5.7.1 Test Methods

The following test procedures may be used to check the durability of concrete made with specific mixture
proportions:
Freeze-thaw resistance AASHTO T161
Abrasion resistance ASTM C418, C779, and C944
Chloride permeability AASHTO T277 and T259; ASTM C1543 and C1556
Alkali-aggregate reactivity ASTM C295, C441, C586, C1260, and C1567
Sulfate resistance ASTM C452 and C1012
Electrical Resistivity AASHTO T358; ASTM C1760 and C1876
It is not necessary to perform all the above tests to prove that a concrete will be durable. In general, a concrete
that has a low permeability will also have a high resistance to freezing-and-thawing cycles. It should also be noted
that a concrete that does not perform well in the above tests will not necessarily perform poorly in the field.
Concrete that performs well in the above tests will nearly always perform well in an actual structure. This is the
case for precast concrete members that are produced under controlled factory conditions.

2.5.7.2 Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity

Aggregates containing certain constituents can react with alkali hydroxides in cement and produce potentially
harmful expansion. The reactivity has two forms—alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction
(ACR). ASR is the more important concern because the presence of silica in aggregate is more common. Methods
for determining reactivity and dealing with ASR are reported by Thomas, et al. (2008) and Fornier, et al. (2010).

2.5.7.3 Delayed Ettringite Formation

Delayed ettringite formation is defined by ACI as a form of sulfate attack by which mature hardened concrete is
damaged by internal expansion during exposure to cyclic wetting and drying in service. The internal expansion is
caused by the late formation of ettringite. It is unlikely to occur unless the concrete has been exposed to
temperatures during curing greater than 160°F. The formation of DEF is also dependent on the chemistry of the
cementitious materials and is less likely to occur in concrete made with pozzolan or slag cement. The AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications limit the maximum concrete temperature during the curing of precast
concrete components to 160°F. The same limit should also be considered applicable to cast-in-place concrete. For
precast concrete members, PCI MNL 116 recommends that the maximum concrete temperature during curing be
limited to 158°F for products exposed to damp or continuously wet environmental conditions. An increase to
170°F is allowed if a concrete mixture that mitigates DEF is employed. (PCI Plant Certification Committee, 2021).

2.5.8 Shrinkage
Precast concrete members are subjected to air drying as soon as they are removed from the forms. During this
exposure to the atmosphere, the concrete slowly loses some of its original water, causing shrinkage to occur. The
amount and rate of shrinkage vary with the relative humidity, temperature, size of member, and amount of
nonprestressed reinforcement.

2.5.8.1 Calculation of Shrinkage

Procedures to predict the amount of shrinkage and creep have been published in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications. However, the commentary states that without specific physical tests or prior experience with the
materials, the use of empirical methods referenced in these specifications cannot be expected to yield results
within less than + 50 percent. For concretes with specified compressive strengths up to 15 ksi and devoid of
shrinkage-prone aggregates, shrinkage strain, εsh, may be taken as
εsh = ks khs kf ktd (0.48 × 10-3) [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]

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2.5.8.1 Calculation of Shrinkage

where
ks = factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the component. Table 2.5.8.1-1 shows values
for AASHTO beams and values for the beams in the design examples of Chapter 9.
khs = humidity factor for shrinkage from Table 2.5.8.1-2
kf = factor for the effect of concrete strength from Table 2.5.8.1-3
ktd = time-development factor from Table 2.5.8.1-4

Table 2.5.8.1-1
Factor ks for Volume-to-Surface Ratio for Selected Girder Shapes
Volume/Surface Volume/Surface
Beam Section ks Beam Section ks
in. in.
AASHTO Type I 3.05 1.05 DBT-53 3.51 1.00
AASHTO Type II 3.37 1.01 BIII-48 2.72 1.10
AASHTO Type III 4.06 1.00 TX_U54 3.19 1.04
AASHTO Type IV 4.74 1.00 NEXT-36D 5.14 1.00
AASHTO Type V 4.44 1.00 NEXT-36F 3.82 1.00
AASHTO Type VI 4.41 1.00 Modified FIB 4.02 1.00
AASHTO-PCI BT-54 3.01 1.06 WA WF 3.16 1.04
AASHTO-PCI BT-63 3.01 1.06
AASHTO-PCI BT-72 3.01 1.06

The values for factor ks are based on the following equation:

Shrinkage: ks = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) ≥ 1.0 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-2]
where
V = volume of concrete, in.3
S = surface area of concrete exposed to drying, in.2
The volume-to-surface area ratio for long members such as beams may be computed as the ratio of cross-
sectional area to section perimeter exposed to atmospheric drying. For poorly ventilated enclosed cells, only 50%
of the interior surface area should be used in calculating the volume-to-surface area ratio. For precast concrete
members with cast-in-place topping, the total precast concrete surface area should be used, ignoring the cast-in-
place concrete deck. For pretensioned I-beams, T-beams, and box beams, with an average thickness of 6 to 8 in.,
the value of ks may be taken as 1.00. Note that calculated values of V/S may vary slightly if fillets and chamfers are
included.

Table 2.5.8.1-2
Correction Factors khs and khc for
Relative Humidity
Average Ambient
Shrinkage Creep
Relative
Factor, khs Factor, khc
Humidity, H %
40 1.44 1.24
50 1.30 1.16
60 1.16 1.08
70 1.02 1.00
80 0.88 0.92
The values for factors khs and khc are based on the following equations:
Shrinkage: = 2.00 − 0.014𝐻 for 30 ≤ 𝐻 ≤ 81 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-2]
Creep: = 1.56 − 0.008𝐻 for 30 ≤ 𝐻 ≤ 100 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-3]
Where H is obtained from Figure 2.5.8.1-1

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2.5.8.1 Calculation of Shrinkage

Table 2.5.8.1-3
Factor kf for Concrete Strength
Concrete Strength Strength Factor,
𝑓𝑐𝑖′ , ksi kf
4 1.00
5 0.83
6 0.71
7 0.63
8 0.56
9 0.50
10 0.45

The values for kf are based on the following equation:

5
𝑘𝑓 = [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-4]
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′
where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = specified concrete strength at transfer, ksi
Table 2.5.8.1-4
Time-Development Factor, ktd
Specified Concrete Strength at
Time, Transfer, ksi
t, days
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
7 0.143 0.154 0.166 0.179 0.194
14 0.250 0.267 0.285 0.304 0.325
28 0.400 0.422 0.444 0.467 0.490
56 0.571 0.593 0.615 0.636 0.658
90 0.682 0.701 0.720 0.738 0.755
180 0.811 0.824 0.837 0.849 0.861
365 0.897 0.905 0.912 0.919 0.926
730 0.946 0.950 0.954 0.958 0.962
1000 0.960 0.963 0.966 0.969 0.972
5000 0.992 0.992 0.993 0.994 0.994
10,000 0.996 0.996 0.997 0.997 0.997
20,000 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997

The values for factor ktd are based on the following equation:
𝑡
𝑘𝑡𝑑 =
100 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-5]
12 ( ′ )+𝑡
𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 20
where t = age of concrete from the end of curing to the time being considered, days

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2.5.8.1 Calculation of Shrinkage/2.5.10 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Figure 2.5.8.1-1.
Average Annual Ambient Relative Humidity, H.

2.5.9 Creep
Prestressed concrete beams are subjected to the effects of creep as soon as the prestressing force is transferred to
the concrete in the plant. Creep of concrete results in time-dependent changes in camber and prestress forces.
The amount and rate of creep vary with the concrete age at loading, stress level, relative humidity, temperature,
size of member and amount of nonprestressed reinforcement. The following calculations are based on the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.

2.5.9.1 Calculation of Creep

Creep strains may be calculated by multiplying the elastic strains by a creep coefficient, ψ(t, ti).
Ψ(t, ti) = 1.9ks khc kf ktd ti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
where
t = time from age of loading to the time being considered, days

ti = age of concrete at time of load application, days

khc = humidity factor for creep from Table 2.5.8.1-2
The size factor, ks, may be taken from Table 2.5.8.1-1, and the time-development factor, ktd, from Table 2.5.8.1-4.

2.5.10 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete varies with the aggregate type as shown in Table 2.5.10-1,
which is based on Wilson and Tennis (2021). The range for normal weight concrete is generally 5 × 10-6 to 7 × 10-6
per °F when the concrete is made with siliceous aggregates and 3.5 × 10-6 to 5 × 10-6 per °F when made with
calcareous aggregates. The range for structural lightweight concrete is 3.6 × 10-6 to 6.0 ×10-6 per °F depending on

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2.5.10 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion/2.6.2.2 Materials

the type of aggregate and the amount of natural sand. For design, coefficients of 6 × 10-6 per °F for normal weight
concrete and 5 × 10-6 per °F for lightweight concrete are frequently used. If greater accuracy is needed, the
specific concrete should be tested. Because the coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is also about 6 × 10-6 per
°F, the thermal effects on precast, prestressed concrete members are evaluated by treating them as plain concrete
and using the coefficient of thermal expansion for concrete.
Table 2.5.10-1
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Concrete
Aggregate millionths/°F
Andesite 4.3
Basalt 4.3
Chert 6.0
Diabase 4.6
Dolomite 5.0
Granite 4.7
Limestone 4.3
Quartzite 5.2
Sandstone 5.3
Schist 4.4

2.6 GROUT MATERIALS

2.6.1 Definitions and Applications
When precast, prestressed concrete members are placed adjacent to each other, load transfer between adjacent
members is often achieved through a grouted keyway. The keyway may or may not extend for the full depth of the
member. The keyway is grouted with one of several different grouting materials, which are described in this
section. Keyways may also be grouted with UHPC as described in Section 2.4.3.4. In some bridges, no additional
deck work is performed after grouting. In other bridges, a composite concrete deck may be cast on the members
or the top surface of the members may be coated with a cementitious overlay or a waterproofing membrane
overlaid with an asphaltic wearing course.

2.6.2 Types and Characteristics

ASTM C1107 covers three consistencies of packaged dry hydraulic-cement grouts (nonshrink) intended for use
under applied load. These grouts are composed of hydraulic cement, fine aggregate, and other ingredients, and
they generally only require the addition of mixing water for use. Three consistencies of grout are classified as
follows:
Flowable—A flow of 125 to 145 mm when tested in accordance with ASTM C1437
Fluid—A time of efflux of 10 to 30 seconds when tested in accordance with ASTM C939
Plastic—A flow of 100 to 125 mm when tested in accordance with ASTM C1437

2.6.2.1 Performance Requirements

Performance requirements for compressive strengths and maximum and minimum expansion levels are given in
ASTM C1107. Although these grouts are termed nonshrink, the intent is to provide a final length that is not
shorter than the original length at placement. This is achieved through an expansion mechanism before any
shrinkage occurs.

2.6.2.2 Materials
Different cementitious materials may be used to produce grout. These include portland cement, portland-
limestone cement, shrinkage-compensating cement, expansive portland cement made with special additives,
epoxy-cement resins, and magnesium ammonium phosphate cement (Gulyas, et al., 1995).

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2.6.3 ASTM Tests/2.7.1 Introduction

2.6.3 ASTM Tests

C109 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or [50-mm] Cube
Specimens)
C138 Test Method for Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete
C157 Test Method for Length Change for Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Mortar and Concrete
C185 Test Method for Air Content of Hydraulic Cement Mortar
C827 Test Method for Change in Height at Early Ages of Cylindrical Specimens of Cementitious Mixtures
C939 Test Method for Flow of Grout for Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete (Flow Cone Method)
C1090 Test Method for Measuring Changes in Height of Cylindrical Specimens from Hydraulic-Cement
Grout
C1437 Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar

2.6.4 Grout Bed Materials

The same materials that are used for grouting keyways between precast concrete members may be used for grout
beds to support structural and nonstructural members. In some cases, the grout will be very stiff and is referred
to as dry pack. Dry pack will often have a very high compressive strength because of the low w/cm. It is often
compacted by hand tamping.

2.6.5 Epoxy Resins

Epoxy-resin grouts can be used between precast concrete members where increased bonding and tensile capacity
are required. When these are used, consideration should be given to the higher coefficient of thermal expansion
and the larger creep properties of epoxy grouts. Requirements for epoxy-resin based bonding systems are given
in AASHTO M235.

2.6.6 Overlays
When concrete overlays are placed on precast concrete members, a ¹∕₁₆- to ⅛-in.-thick layer of cementitious grout
is brushed onto the concrete surface a short distance ahead of the overlay concrete. The grout should not be
allowed to dry prior to the overlay placement. Otherwise, the dry grout may act as a poor surface for bonding. It is
particularly important that the concrete surface be clean and sound and that the grout be well brushed into the
concrete surface.

2.6.7 Post–Tensioned Members

Grouting of post-tensioned members is described in the Post-Tensioning Institute’s Post-Tensioning Manual (PTI,
2006). Requirements for grout and grouting procedures are given in Section 10 of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Construction Specifications, and the Post-Tensioning Institute publications M55.1, Specification for Grouting of PT
Structures (PTI, 2019a), and M50.3, (PTI, 2019b), Specification for Multistrand and Grouted Post-Tensioning.
Training and certification on implementing grouting specifications for post-tensioned structures is available from
the American Segmental Bridge Institute (www.asbi-assoc.org).

2.7 PRESTRESSING STRAND

2.7.1 Introduction
Although prestressed concrete may be produced with strands, wires, or bars, precast, prestressed concrete bridge
members are generally produced using seven-wire steel strand conforming to AASHTO M 203. Seven-wire strand
consists of a straight center wire that is wrapped by six wires in a helical pattern. Strand sizes range from ⅜ in. to
0.7 in. diameter, as shown in Table 2.11-1. The larger-size strands are used in prestressed concrete beams
because this results in fewer strands. The use of 0.6-in.-diameter strand is essential to take full advantage of HSC.
Strand with a diameter of 0.7 in. has been used on an experimental basis. Design specifications for use with 0.7-

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2.7.1 Introduction/2.7.2.3 Stainless Steel Strand

in.-diameter strands have been developed by Shahrooz, et al., (2022) and are being considered for adoption by
AASHTO.
The Buy America Act codified at 23 U.S.C. §313 and other FHWA regulations require almost all steel or iron
products used on federally assisted projects to be manufactured in the United States and with domestic materials.
This applies to steel strand, nonprestressed reinforcement, and embeds that are a part of the permanent
structure. Rarely is a wavier granted. For specific details, see Wyatt and Schenck (2020).

2.7.2 Strand Types

2.7.2.1 Steel Strand
Two types of steel strands are covered in AASHTO M203M: “low-relaxation” and “stress-relieved” (normal-
relaxation). However, the use of low-relaxation strand has progressively increased to a point that normal-
relaxation strand is seldom used.
Two grades of strand have generally been used in prestressed concrete construction. These are Grades 250 and
270, which have minimum ultimate tensile strengths of 250 and 270 ksi, respectively. In general, Grade 270 is
used in prestressed concrete bridge members as Grade 250 is no longer included in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications. Grade 300 strand, with a minimum ultimate tensile strength of 300 ksi, is also available and
is used by at least one state. In addition to smooth, uncoated strands, epoxy-coated strands are available.

2.7.2.2 Epoxy-Coated Strand

Epoxy-coated strand is seven-wire prestressing strand with an organic, fusion-bonded epoxy coating that can
vary in thickness from 15 to 45 mils. Two types of coatings are available. A smooth type has low-bond
characteristics and is intended for use in unbonded, post-tensioned systems, external post-tensioned systems,
and stay cables. An epoxy-coated strand with particles of grit embedded in the surface is used in bonded
pretensioned and post-tensioned systems.
In addition to the strand having an external coating, it can also be manufactured with the interstices between the
individual wires filled with epoxy. This prevents the entry of corrosive chemicals, either by capillary action, or
other hydrostatic forces. This type of strand should be specified when there is risk of contaminants or moisture
entering at the ends of tendons. Epoxy-coated strand should comply with ASTM A882. This specification requires
that all prestressing steel strand to be coated shall meet the requirements of AASHTO M203.

2.7.2.2.1 Effect of Heat

For pretensioned applications with epoxy-coated strands where accelerated curing techniques are employed, the
temperature of the concrete surrounding the strand at the time of prestress transfer should be limited to a
maximum of 150°F and the concrete temperature should be falling. The epoxy coating will not be damaged if this
temperature is not exceeded during the curing cycle. Concrete temperatures under sustained fire exposure
conditions will most likely be considerably higher than the epoxy can withstand. This could result in a complete
loss of bond between the strand and the concrete. Although bridge structures may not require a specific fire-
resistance rating, the likelihood of vehicle fires and subsequent effects of elevated temperatures should be
evaluated. More specific information on the use of epoxy-coated strand is given in the report by the PCI
Committee on Epoxy-Coated Strand (1993).

2.7.2.3 Stainless Steel Strand

High-strength stainless steel strand is a relatively new material in the construction industry and has been used in
prestressed concrete piles. Two sizes are described in ASTM A1114 as having nominal diameters of 0.520 and
0.620 in. Both sizes have a minimum tensile strength of 240 ksi based on the nominal diameter. The minimum
elongation under load is specified in ASTM A1114 as 1.4% with no well-defined yield plateau. This is less than the
3.5% minimum elongation specified in AASHTO M203 for steel strand. Consequently, stainless steel strands are
stressed to a lower fraction of the tensile strength compared with non–stainless steel strands (70% instead of
75%). Stainless steel strands have a lower modulus of elasticity than non–stainless steel strands, and therefore
result in a longer elongation during stressing. Design specifications for use with stainless steel strands are
presently under development in NCHRP Project 12-120.

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2.7.2.4 Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Strand and Bars/2.7.3.1 Relaxation

2.7.2.4 Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Strand and Bars

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) strand or bars may also be used to prestress concrete. CFRP strands
have tensile strengths similar to those of steel strands but have lower maximum elongation, linear stress-strain
relationship until fracture, and a lower modulus of elasticity. Material and structural design specifications for
prestressed concrete beams constructed of normal weight concrete and prestressed by CFRP prestressing
systems are provided in AASHTO’s Guide Specifications for the Design of Concrete Bridge Beams Prestressed with
Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CRFP) Systems (AASHTO, 2018).

2.7.2.5 Galvanized Strand

Seven-wire galvanized prestressing strand has essentially the same mechanical properties as its nongalvanized
equivalent, but the wires are coated with zinc before stranding, which makes the strand more resistant to
corrosion.

2.7.3 Material Properties of Steel Strands

Cross-sectional properties, design strengths, and idealized stress-strain curves of Grades 250 and 270 low-
relaxation seven-wire steel strands are given in Section 2.11. See also Chapter 8, Section 8.2.3.6.

2.7.3.1 Relaxation
Relaxation is the time-dependent reduction of stress in a prestressing tendon. When a strand is stressed and held
at a constant length, the stress in the strand decreases with time, as illustrated in Figure 2.7.3.1-1. Relaxation
losses increase with stress level and temperature. The relaxation losses of low-relaxation steel strand are
considerably less than the losses in normal-relaxation strand. Relaxation of a prestressing strand depends on the
stress level in the strand. However, because of other prestress losses, there is a continuous reduction of the strand
stress, which causes a reduction in relaxation. Therefore, several complex and empirical relationships have been
proposed for the determination of relaxation losses. Several of these methods are based on the loss that would
occur if the strand were under constant strain. This loss is then reduced by the effects of elastic shortening, creep,
and shrinkage. The most recent recommendation from the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications is as
follows:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑡
∆𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2c-1]
𝐾𝐿 𝑓𝑝𝑦
and
∆𝑓𝑝𝑅2 = ∆𝑓𝑝𝑅1 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3c-1]
where
∆𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = relaxation loss between time of transfer and deck placement, ksi
∆𝑓𝑝𝑅2 = relaxation loss between time of deck placement and final time, ksi
𝑓𝑝𝑡 = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer ≥ 0.55 fpy, ksi
𝐾𝐿 = 30 for low-relaxation strands
= 7 for other prestressing steel
fpy = yield strength of prestressing steel, ksi

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2.7.3.1 Relaxation/2.7.3.3 Surface Condition

Figure 2.7.3.1-1
Comparison of Relaxation Losses

2.7.3.1.1 Epoxy-Coated Strand

Tests of epoxy-coated, low-relaxation strands have shown the relaxation to be significantly higher than that of
uncoated strand. The use of relaxation losses equal to double the relaxation loss calculated for uncoated strand
has been recommended by manufacturers. Individual manufacturers of epoxy-coated strand should be consulted
for suitable relaxation loss values.

2.7.3.2 Fatigue Strength

If the precompression in a prestressed concrete member is sufficient to ensure an uncracked section at service
loads, the stress range in the strands is not likely to be high enough for fatigue of the strand to be a critical design
factor. Fatigue considerations have not been a major factor in the specification of prestressing strand for bridges
because bridge beams are designed to be uncracked. The actual and allowable fatigue life of prestressing strand
depends on the stress range and the minimum stress level. The stress range may be affected by the strand radius
of curvature, particularly in harped strand. The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications does not require
reinforcement to be checked for fatigue when the extreme fiber concrete tensile stress under Service III limit state
does not exceed the tensile stress limit.

2.7.3.2.1 Stress Range

The following design provisions for fatigue are provided in Article 5.5.3.3 of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications:
The stress range in prestressing tendons shall not exceed:
• 18.0 ksi for radii of curvature in excess of 30 ft
• 10.0 ksi for radii of curvature not exceeding 12 ft
A linear interpolation may be used for radii between 12 and 30 ft.

2.7.3.3 Surface Condition

In a pretensioned member, the prestressing force in a strand is transferred from the strand to the concrete by
bond. Strand surface condition has long been recognized as a primary factor affecting bonding of concrete to

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2.7.3.3 Surface Condition/2.8.1.1 Specifications

prestressing strand. An increase in the surface roughness, such as light surface rust, increases the bond between
the concrete and the strand and results in a shorter development length. However, researchers have found it
difficult to consistently quantify the effects of surface characteristics (Buckner 1994). This means that the
increase in bond strength can possibly provide an extra margin of safety, but the bond strength is not always
consistent and should not be counted on to provide a shorter development length unless tests are conducted with
specific strand.
The history of research on the bonding of prestressing strand to concrete is described by Osborn et al. (2021).
Early research and experience showed that strand bond quality varied significantly. Subsequent research
demonstrated that the strand bond quality can be assessed using ASTM A1081, Standard Test Method for
Evaluating Bond of Seven-Wire Steel Prestressing Strand. Minimum pullout values for use with ASTM A1081 have
been recommended by the PCI (PCI Strand Bond Task Group, 2020).

2.7.3.4 Splicing
Lengths of prestressing steel strand can be connected using specialized strand splicing connectors. Generally, this
is not necessary in precast, prestressed concrete bridges. In situations where splicing of strands is necessary,
consult the specific manufacturer’s literature for details. The use of splice chucks in plant production is described
in Chapter 3.

2.8 NONPRESTRESSED STEEL REINFORCEMENT

Nonprestressed steel reinforcement generally consists of deformed bars or welded wire reinforcement. Material
properties and sizes of nonprestressed steel reinforcement are given in Tables 2.11-2 and 2.11-3. For the Buy
America Act stipulations on steel products including steel fibers in UHPC, see Section 2.7.1.

2.8.1 Deformed Bars

Steel reinforcing bars should be deformed, except plain bars may be used for spirals or for dowels at expansion or
contraction joints. Reinforcing bars are generally specified to have yield strengths of 60.0 ksi (Grade 60). In some
situations, a yield strength of 75.0, 80.0, or 100.0 ksi (Grade 75, 80, or 100, respectively) may be specified,
although this would be unusual in bridges.

2.8.1.1 Specifications
Reinforcing bars should conform to one of the following specifications:
AASHTO M31 Specification for Deformed and Plain Carbon and Low-Alloy-Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
AASHTO M322 Specification for Rail-Steel and Axle-Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A615 Specification for Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A706 Specification for Low-Alloy Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A767 Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A775 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars
ASTM A955 Specification for Deformed and Plain Stainless Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A1035 Specification for Deformed and Plain, Low-carbon, Chromium, Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement

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2.8.1.1 Specifications/2.8.3.1 Types

The most widely used types and grades of bars conform to AASHTO M31 and ASTM A615 Grade 60 and include
bars with sizes from No. 3 through No. 11, No. 14, and No. 18. When welding is required or when more
bendability and controlled ductility are required, as in seismic-resistant design, low-alloy reinforcing bars
conforming to ASTM A706 should be used.
Deformed bars may be assembled into mats consisting of two layers of bars at right angles to each other with
welds at the intersections in accordance with AASHTO M54, Specification for Welded Deformed Steel Bar Mats for
Concrete Reinforcement.

2.8.1.2 Corrosion Protection

When coated reinforcing bars are required as a corrosion protection system, the bars may either be zinc coated
and conform to ASTM A767 or epoxy coated and conform to ASTM A775. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars are
generally used in bridge decks and substructures exposed to a saltwater environment. When epoxy-coated bars
are used in bridge decks, both top and bottom layers of bars should be epoxy coated (Treat and Dymond, 2019).

When uncoated, corrosion-resistant reinforcing bars are required, the bars may either be stainless steel and
conform to ASTM A955 or low-carbon steel and conform to ASTM A1035.

2.8.2 Headed Bars

The American Concrete Institute defines a headed bar as “a steel reinforcing bar that has steel head(s) on one or
both ends with the purpose of anchoring the bar in concrete.”(ACI CT-20) The benefits of headed reinforcement
include simplified bar placement by reducing congestion, easier concrete placement, and reduced detailing by
using a standard product. The head may be round, elliptical, or rectangular. It may be forged, machined from bar
stock, or cut from steel plate. Headed bars may be available in a variety of stainless steels or with epoxy or
galvanic coatings. Headed bars are addressed in ASTM A970. Three types of headed bars are shown in Figure
2.8.2-1.
Figure 2.8.2-1
Headed Bars

a) Integrally Hot Forged b) Internally Threaded c) Cold Swaged

Photos: Headed Reinforcement Corp. Dextra America BarSplice Products, Inc.

2.8.3 Mechanical Splices

The most common method for splicing reinforcing bars is the lap splice. However, when lap splices are
undesirable or impractical, mechanical or welded connections may be used. In general, a mechanical connection
should develop, in tension or compression, at least 125% of the specified yield strength of the bars being
connected. This is to ensure that yielding of the bars will occur before failure in the mechanical connection.

2.8.3.1 Types
Mechanical connections can be categorized as compression only, tension only and tension compression. In most
compression-only mechanical connections, the compressive stress is transferred by concentric bearing from one
bar to the other. The mechanical connection then serves to hold the bars in concentric contact. Various types of
mechanical connections that will handle both tension and compression forces are available. These connectors use
a variety of couplers that may be cold swaged, cold extruded, hot forged, grout filled, steel filled, or threaded.
Tension-only mechanical connections generally use a steel coupling sleeve with a wedge. This is only effective
when the reinforcing bar is pulled in tension. Most mechanical connection devices are proprietary, and further

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2.8.3.1 Types/2.9.1 Strand Systems

information is available from individual manufacturers. ACI 439.3R describes the physical features and
installation procedures for selected mechanical splices.

2.8.4 Welded Wire Reinforcement

Welded wire reinforcement (WWR) is a prefabricated reinforcement consisting of cold-drawn wires welded
together in square or rectangular grids. At intersections, the wires are connected using electric resistance welding
by a continuous automatic welder. Pressure and heat fuse the intersecting wires into a homogeneous section and
fix all wires in their proper positions. WWR may consist of plain wires, deformed wires, or a combination of both.
WWR can also be galvanized or epoxy coated. WWR conforms to one of the following standard specifications:
AASHTO M336 Specification for Steel Wire and Welded Wire, Plain and Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A884 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Reinforcement
ASTM A1064 Specification for Carbon Steel Wire and Welded Wire Reinforcement, Plain and Deformed for
Concrete
AASHTO M336 lists several grades of wire raging from Grade 65 to Grade 80. Wire sizes are specified by a letter,
W or D, followed by a number indicating the cross-sectional area of the wire in hundredths of a square inch. Plain
wire sizes use the letter W; deformed wire sizes use the letter D. Wire sizes from W2 to W45 and D2 to D45 may
be specified. Wire spacings generally vary from 2 to 12 in., and wire sizes and/or types can be mixed in the same
mat. The engineer should check on availability of styles before specifying wire sizes because all sizes may not be
locally available.

2.8.5 Fatigue Strength of Nonprestressed Reinforcement

The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications limits the allowable stress range caused by live load plus impact at
service load as follows:
22𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 for straight reinforcement and WWR without a cross [LRFD Eq. 5.5.3.2-1]
(∆𝐹) 𝑇𝐻 = 26 −
𝑓𝑦 weld in the high-stress region

(∆𝐹) 𝑇𝐻 = 18 − 0.36𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 for straight WWR reinforcement with a cross weld in the [LRFD Eq. 5.5.3.2-2]
high-stress region
where
(∆𝐹) 𝑇𝐻 = constant-amplitude fatigue threshold, ksi
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = minimum stress level, tensile stress is positive, compressive stress is negative, ksi
fy = specified minimum yield strength, ksi

2.9 POST–TENSIONING MATERIALS

Post-tensioning systems may be conveniently divided into three categories depending on whether the stressing
tendon consists of wires, strands, or bars. For bridge construction, wire systems are generally not used. Further
information on post-tensioning systems has been published by the Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI, 2006). For
details of proprietary systems, the manufacturers’ literature should be consulted.

2.9.1 Strand Systems

Strand systems use the same strand and strand types that are used for pretensioned concrete members. In post-
tensioning systems, the strands are generally combined to form a tendon and may consist of any quantity from a
single strand to 55 strands. Anchorages for strand systems use the wedge principle in which the individual
strands are anchored with wedges into a single tendon anchorage. In a post-tensioned multistrand system, all
strands in the same tendon are tensioned at the same time. Strand tendons may be tensioned in the plant, at the
construction site, or in the finished structure.

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2.9.2 Bar Systems/2.10.3 Prestressed Concrete Bridge Applications

2.9.2 Bar Systems

Bar systems generally use a single bar in a post-tensioning duct. The surface of the bar may be smooth with rolled
threads of the required length at both ends, or the thread deformation may be rolled-on over the entire length of
the bar during manufacturing. This permits the bar to be cut at any point and threaded fittings added. The bars
are anchored using a plate and threaded nut. Different types of anchorages are used at the tensioning and dead-
end anchorages. Bars for use in post-tensioning systems should conform to AASHTO M275. This specification
covers both plain and deformed bars.

2.9.3 Splicing
Various proprietary systems are available for splicing both strand and bar systems. Couplers are required to
develop at least 95% of the minimum specified ultimate strength of the tendon without exceeding the specified
anchorage set (wedge seating) amount (PTI, 2006).

2.9.4 Ducts
Ducts for post-tensioning systems may be either rigid or semi-rigid and may be made of ferrous metal,
polyethylene, or polypropylene. They may also be formed in the concrete with removable cores. The use of
polyethylene or polypropylene ducts is generally recommended for corrosive environments. Polyethylene ducts
should not be used on radii less than 30 ft because of the polyethylene’s lack of resistance to abrasion during
pulling and tensioning the tendons. The inside diameter of a ducts should be at least ¼ in. larger than the nominal
diameter of single bar or strand tendon. For multiple bar or strand tendons, the inside cross-sectional area of the
duct should be at least twice the net area of the prestressing steel. Where tendons are to be placed by the pull-
through method, the duct area should be at least 2.5 times the net area of the prestressing steel. The size of the
duct shall not exceed 0.54 times the least gross concrete thickness at the duct. Specific details about the
placement of duct are provided in Section 10 of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications.

2.10 FIBER-REINFORCED POLYMER REINFORCEMENT

2.10.1 Introduction
An emerging technology, with potential application in prestressed concrete, consists of prestressing bars and
tendons made from fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites. This class of material consists of a polymer
matrix such as polyester, vinylester, epoxy, or phenolic resin, which is reinforced with fibers such as aramid,
carbon, glass, or steel. These composites have tensile strengths similar to conventional strand and bar systems
and are particularly suitable for applications where weight, durability, corrosion resistance, and resistance to
electromagnetic currents are relevant. Details of FRP composites are given in ACI 440.

2.10.2 Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of FRP vary significantly from one product to another. Factors such as types and
volumes of fiber and resin play a major role in establishing the characteristics of the product. The mechanical
properties of all composites are affected by loading history, loading duration, temperature, and moisture. ACI
440.3R provides model test methods to evaluate the short-term and long-term mechanical properties, thermo-
mechanical properties, and durability of FRP bars and laminates. Material properties of FRPs are highly
directionally dependent. The properties usually quoted are those in the longitudinal direction of the
reinforcement (ACI 440). Specific properties of available products should always be obtained from the
manufacturer.

2.10.3 Prestressed Concrete Bridge Applications

According to ACI Committee 440 (ACI 440.4), three prestressed concrete bridges have been built in North
America using FRP tendons. Two bridges are located in Canada, and one in Southfield, Mich. In addition, four
demonstration projects with FRP pretensioned concrete piles have been conducted in the United States. Other
bridges using FRP tendons may exist.

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2.10.3 Prestressed Concrete Bridge Applications/2.11 Reinforcement Sizes and Properties

Because stress-strain relationships for FRP tendons are different than those for steel strand, design criteria have
been developed for use with aramid and carbon fiber tendons (ACI 440.4). Glass-fiber tendons were excluded
from these criteria because glass-fiber tendons exhibit poor resistance to creep under sustained loads and are
more susceptible to alkaline degradation. The design criteria take into account the linear stress-strain
relationship and the sudden rupture of FRP tendons.
The use of CFRP strand or bars for prestressing is discussed in Section 2.7.2.4.

2.10.4 Specifications
The following specifications may be used with FRP reinforcement:
ACI 440.5 Specification for Construction with Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Reinforcing Bars
ACI 440.6 Specification for Carbon and Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Bar Materials for Concrete Reinforcement.
Guide Specifications for the Design of Concrete Bridge Beams Prestressed with Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
(CFRP) Systems (AASHTO. 2018)

2.11 REINFORCEMENT SIZES AND PROPERTIES

Table 2.11-1
Properties and Design Strengths of Prestressing Steel
(a) Seven-Wire Low Relaxation based on AASHTO M203 Strand Grade 270 (𝒇′𝒔 = 270 ksi)
1/2
Nominal Diameter, in. 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 0.6 0.62 0.7
Special
Nominal Area, A*s, in.2 0.085 0.115 0.153 0.167 0.192 0.217 0.231 0.294
Nominal Weight, lb/ft 0.29 0.39 0.52 0.56 0.65 0.74 0.78 1.00
Minimum Tensile Strength, kip 23.0 31.0 41.3 45.0 51.7 58.6 62.4 79.4
Minimum Yield Strength, kip 20.7 27.9 37.2 40.5 46.5 52.7 56.1 71.5
0.70 fs’A*s, kip 16.1 21.7 28.9 31.6 36.3 41.0 43.66 55.6
0.75 fs’A*s, kip 17.2 23.3 31.0 33.8 38.9 44.0 46.78 59.5
0.80 fs’A*s, kip 18.4 24.8 33.0 36.1 41.4 46.9 49.90 63.5
(b) Seven-Wire Low Relaxation Strand based on AASHTO M203 Grade 250 (𝒇′𝒔 = 250 ksi)*
Nominal Diameter, in. 3/8 7/16 1/2 0.6
Nominal Area, A*s, in.2 0.080 0.108 0.144 0.216
Nominal Weight, lb/ft 0.27 0.37 0.49 0.74
Minimum Tensile Strength, kip 20.0 27.0 36.0 54.0
Minimum Yield Strength, kip 18.0 24.3 32.4 48.6
0.70 𝑓𝑠′ A*s, kip 14.0 18.9 25.2 37.8
0.75 𝑓𝑠′ A*s, kip 15.0 20.3 27.0 40.5
0.80 𝑓𝑠′ A*s, kip 16.0 21.6 28.8 43.2
*Although Grade 250 is no longer included in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, the table contains
information that may be needed for load rating or evaluating existing structures.
(c) Deformed Prestressing Bars based on AASHTO M275 Grade 150 (𝒇′𝒔 = 150 ksi)
Nominal Diameter, in. 5/8 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-3/8 1-3/4 2-1/2
Nominal Area, A*s, in.2 0.28 0.42 0.85 1.25 1.58 2.58 5.16
Nominal Weight, lb/ft 0.98 1.49 3.01 4.39 5.56 9.10 18.20
Minimum Tensile Strength, kip 42.0 6.30 127.5 187.5 237.0 387.0 774.0
Minimum Yield Strength, kip 33.6 50.4 102.0 150.0 189.6 309.6 619.2
0.70 𝑓𝑠′ A*s, kip 29.4 44.1 89.3 131.3 165.9 270.9 541.8
0.75 𝑓𝑠′ A*s, kip 31.5 47.3 95.6 140.6 177.8 290.3 580.5
0.80 𝑓𝑠′ A*s, kip 33.6 50.4 102.0 150.0 189.6 309.6 619.2
Note: A*s = nominal area of prestressing steel; 𝑓𝑠′ = ultimate strength of prestressing steel.

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2.11 Reinforcement Sizes and Properties

Figure 2.11-1
Idealized Stress-Strain Curve for Seven-Wire Low-Relaxation Prestressing Strand

Stress
fps, ksi

Strain εps

These curves can be approximated by the following equations:

250 ksi strand:
• For ε𝑝𝑠 ≤ 0.0076: 𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 28,800 ε𝑝𝑠 (ksi)
• For ε𝑝𝑠 > 0.0076: 𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 250 − 0.04/(ε𝑝𝑠 − 0.0064) (ksi)
270 ksi strand:
• For ε𝑝𝑠 ≤ 0.0085: 𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 28,800 ε𝑝𝑠 (ksi)
• For ε𝑝𝑠 > 0.0085: 𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 270 − 0.04/(ε𝑝𝑠 − 0.007) (ksi)

Table 2.11-2
Reinforcing Bar Sizes based on AASHTO M31
Bar Size Nominal Dimensions
Weight
Designation Diameter Area Perimeter
lb/ft
No. in. in.2 in.
3 0.376 0.375 0.11 1.178
4 0.668 0.500 0.20 1.571
5 1.043 0.625 0.31 1.963
6 1.052 0.750 0.44 2.356
7 2.044 0.875 0.60 2.749
8 2.670 1.000 0.79 3.142
9 3.400 1.128 1.00 3.544
10 4.303 1.270 1.27 3.990
11 5.313 1.410 1.56 4.430
14 7.650 1.693 2.25 5.320
18 13.600 2.257 4.00 7.090

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2.11 Reinforcement Sizes and Properties/2.12.1 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials

Table 2.11-3
Sizes of Wires used in Welded Wire Reinforcement based on AASHTO M336
Wire Size Nominal Nominal Area, in.2/ft of width
Number* Diameter Weight Center-to-Center Spacing, in.
Plain Deformed in. lb/ft 2 3 4 6 8 10 12
W45 D45 0.757 1.530 2.700 1.800 1.350 0.900 0.675 0.540 0.450
W31 D31 0.628 1.054 1.860 1.240 0.930 0.620 0.465 0.372 0.310
W30 D30 0.618 1.020 1.800 1.200 0.900 0.600 0.450 0.360 0.300
W28 D28 0.597 0.952 1.680 1.120 0.840 0.560 0.420 0.336 0.280
W26 D26 0.575 0.884 1.560 1.040 0.780 0.520 0.390 0.312 0.260
W24 D24 0.553 0. 816 1.440 0.960 0.720 0.480 0.360 0.288 0.240
W22 D22 0.529 0.748 1.320 0.880 0.660 0.440 0.330 0.264 0.220
W20 D20 0.505 0.680 1.200 0.800 0.600 0.400 0.300 0.240 0.200
W18 D18 0.479 0.612 1.080 0.720 0.540 0.360 0.270 0.216 0.180
W16 D16 0.451 0.544 0.960 0.640 0.480 0.320 0.240 0.192 0.160
W14 D14 0.422 0.476 0.840 0.560 0.420 0.280 0.210 0.168 0.140
W12 D12 0.391 0.408 0.720 0.480 0.360 0.240 0.180 0.144 0.120
W11 D11 0.374 0.374 0.660 0.440 0.330 0.220 0.165 0.132 0.110
W10 D10 0.357 0.340 0.600 0.400 0.300 0.200 0.150 0.120 0.100
D9 0.339 0.306 0.540 0.360 0.270 0.180 0.132 0.108 0.090
W8 D8 0.319 0.272 0.480 0.320 0.240 0.160 0.120 0.096 0.080
D7 0.299 0.238 0.420 0.280 0.210 0.140 0.105 0.084 0.070
W6 D6 0.276 0.204 0.360 0.240 0.180 0.120 0.090 0.072 0.060
W5.5 0.265 0.187 0.330 0.220 0.165 0.110 0.083 0.066 0.055
W5 D5 0.252 0.170 0.300 0.200 0.150 0.100 0.075 0.60 0.050
W4.5 0.23-9 0.153 0.270 0.180 0.135 0.090 0.068 0.054 0.045
W4 D4 0.226 0.136 0.240 0.160 0.120 0.080 0.060 0.048 0.040
W3.5 0.211 0.119 0.210 0.140 0.105 0.070 0.057 0.042 0.035
D3 0.195 0.102 0.180 0.120 0.090 0.060 0.045 0.036 0.030
W2.9 0.192 0.098 0.174 0.116 0.087 0.058 0.044 0.035 0.029
W2.5 0.178 0.085 0.150 0.100 0.075 0.050 0.038 0.030 0.025
W2 D2 0.159 0.068 0.120 0.080 0.060 0.040 0.030 0.024 0.020
*Other wire sizes may be available from local producers.

2.12 RELEVANT STANDARDS AND PUBLICATIONS

The following list of selected standards and manuals is provided for the convenience of the reader. Not all
documents listed in this section are referenced in the text of this chapter. The complete serial designation of each
document includes a year of adoption. However, since these documents are updated on a frequent basis, the year
has been omitted. The reader is referred to the respective organizations for the latest revisions and year of
adoption.

2.12.1 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials

M6 Fine Aggregate for Hydraulic Cement Concrete
M31 Deformed and Plain Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
M43 Sizes of Aggregate for Road and Bridge Construction
M54 Welded Deformed Steel Bar Mats for Concrete Reinforcement
M80 Coarse Aggregate for Hydraulic Cement Concrete
M85 Portland Cement

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2.12.1 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials/2.12.2 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Sampling and Testing

M144 Calcium Chloride

M154 Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete
M194 Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
M195 Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete
M203 Steel Strand, Low-Relaxation Uncoated Seven-Wire for Concrete Reinforcement
M204 Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete
M205 Molds for Forming Concrete Test Cylinders Vertically
M235 Epoxy Resin Adhesives
M240 Blended Hydraulic Cement
M275 Uncoated High Strength Steel Bars for Prestressing Concrete
M295 Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete
M302 Slag Cement for Use in Concrete and Mortars
M307 Silica Fume Used in Cementitious Mixtures
M321 High-Reactivity Pozzolans for Use in Hydraulic-Cement Concrete, Mortar, and Grout
M322 Rail-Steel and Axle-Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
M327 Processing Additions for Use in the Manufacture of Hydraulic Cements
M329 Stainless Clad Deformed and Plain Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
M336 Specification for Steel Wire and Welded Wire, Plain and Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement

2.12.2 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Sampling and Testing

R72 Practice for Match Curing of Concrete Test Specimens
T22 Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
T23 Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field
T24 Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete
T97 Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading)
T106 Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortar (Using 50-mm or 2-in. Cube Specimens)
T119 Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete
T121 Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete
T131 Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle
T137 Air Content of Hydraulic Cement Mortar
T152 Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method
T160 Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic Cement Mortar and Concrete
T161 Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing
T196 Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric Method
T198 Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
T259 Resistance of Concrete to Chloride Ion Penetration

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2.12.2 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Sampling and Testing/2.12.3 ACI Publications

T277 Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration

T303 Accelerated Detection of Potentially Deleterious Expansion of Mortar Bars Due to Alkali-Silica Reaction
T318 Water Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete Using Microwave Oven Drying
T325 Estimating the Strength of Concrete in Transportation Construction by Maturity Tests
T334 Estimating the Cracking Tendency of Concrete
T336 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Hydraulic Cement Concrete
T345 Passing Ability of Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC) by J-Ring
T347 Slump Flow of Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC)
T348 Air-Void Characteristics of Freshly Mixed Concrete by Buoyancy Change
T349 Filling Capacity of Self-Consolidating Concrete Using Caisson Test
T351 Visual Stability Index (VSI) of Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC)
T352 Determining Formwork Pressure of Fresh Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC) Using Pressure Transducers
T353 Particle Size Analysis of Hydraulic Cement and Related Materials by Light Scattering
T354 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Aggregate by Volumetric Immersion
T356 Determining Air Content of Hardened Portland Cement Concrete by High-Pressure Air Meter
T357 Predicting Chloride Penetration of Hydraulic Cement Concrete by the Rapid Migration Procedure
T358 Surface Resistivity Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration

2.12.3 ACI Publications

207.1 Guide to Mass Concrete
209R Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures
211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete
211.2 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Structural Lightweight Concrete
212.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
213R Guide for Structural Lightweight-Aggregate Concrete
221R Guide for Use of Normal Weight and Heavyweight Aggregates in Concrete
223 Guide for the Use of Shrinkage-Compensating Concrete
232.2R Use of Fly Ash in Concrete
233R Slag Cement in Concrete and Mortar
234R Guide for the Use of Silica Fume in Concrete
237R Self-Consolidating Concrete
308R Guide to Curing Concrete
315 Details and Detailing of Concrete Reinforcement
318 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary
343R Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures
345R Guide for Concrete Highway Bridge Deck Construction
363R Report on High-Strength Concrete

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2.12.3 ACI Publications/2.12.4 ASTM Standard Specifications

363.2 Guide to Quality Control and Assurance of High-Strength Concrete

423.3R Recommendations for Concrete Members Prestressed with Unbonded Tendons
439.3R Types of Mechanical Splices for Reinforcing Bars
440R Report on Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures
440.1R Guide for the Design and Construction of Structural Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars
440.3R Guide Test Methods for Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) for Reinforcing or Strengthening Concrete and
Masonry Structures
440.4R Prestressing Concrete Structures with FRP Tendons
440.5 Specification for Construction with Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Reinforcing Bars
440.6 Specification for Carbon and Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Bar Materials for Concrete Reinforcement
CT-20 ACI Concrete Terminology

2.12.4 ASTM Standard Specifications

A184 Specification for Welded Deformed Steel Bar Mats for Concrete Reinforcement
A416 Specification for Low-Relaxation Seven-Wire Steel Strand for Prestressed Concrete
A421 Specification for Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete
A615 Specification for Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A706 Specification for Deformed and Plain Low-Alloy Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A722 Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bars for Prestressed Concrete
A767 Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A775 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars
A882 Specification for Filled Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Steel Prestressing Strand
A884 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Reinforcement
A955 Specification for Deformed and Plain Stainless-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A970 Specification for Headed Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A996 Specification for Rail-Steel and Axle-Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A1022 Specification for Deformed and Plain Stainless Steel Wire and Welded Wire for Concrete Reinforcement
A1035 Specification for Deformed and Plain, Low-carbon, Chromium, Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A1064 Specification for Carbon Steel Wire and Welded Wire Reinforcement, Plain and Deformed, for Concrete
A1094 Specification for Continuous Hot-Dipped Galvanized Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A1114 Specification for Low-Relaxation, Seven-Wire, Grade 240 [1655], Stainless Steel Strand for Prestressed
Concrete
C33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates
C94 Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete
C150 Specification for Portland Cement
C260 Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete
C330 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete
C465 Specification for Processing Additions for Use in the Manufacture of Hydraulic Cements

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2.12.4 ASTM Standard Specifications/2.12.5 ASTM Standard Test Methods, Practices, and Guides

C470 Specification for Molds for Forming Concrete Test Cylinders Vertically
C494 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
C595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
C618 Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete
C845 Specification for Expansive Hydraulic Cement
C881 Specification for Epoxy-Resin-Base Bonding Systems for Concrete
C989 Specification for Slag Cement for Use in Concrete and Mortars
C1107 Specification for Package Dry, Hydraulic-Cement Grout (Nonshrink)
C1157 Performance Specification for Hydraulic Cement
C1240 Specification for Silica Fume Used in Cementitious Mixtures
C1582 Specification for Admixtures to Inhibit Chloride Induced Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete
C1602 Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete
C1697 Specification for Blended Supplementary Cementitious Materials
C1761 Specification for Lightweight Aggregate for Internal Curing of Concrete
C1797 Standard Specification for Ground Calcium Carbonate and Aggregate Mineral Fillers for use in Hydraulic
Cement Concrete
D98 Specification for Calcium Chloride
D448 Standard Classification for Sizes of Aggregate for Road and Bridge Construction
D3963 Specification for Fabrication and Jobsite Handling of Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars

2.12.5 ASTM Standard Test Methods, Practices, and Guides

A1081 Test Method for Evaluating Bond of Seven-Wire Steel Prestressing Strand
C31 Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field
C39 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
C42 Test Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete
C78 Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading)
C109 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or 50-mm Cube
Specimens)
C138 Test Method for Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete
C157 Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Mortar and Concrete
C173 Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric Method
C185 Test Method for Air Content of Hydraulic Cement Mortar
C191 Test Method for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle
C231 Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method
C295 Guide for Petrographic Examination of Aggregates for Concrete
C418 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete by Sandblasting
C441 Test Method for Effectiveness of Pozzolans or Ground Blast-Furnace Slag in Preventing Excessive
Expansion of Concrete Due to the Alkali-Silica Reaction
C452 Test Method for Potential Expansion of Portland-Cement Mortars Exposed to Sulfate

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2.12.5 ASTM Standard Test Methods, Practices, and Guides

C469 Test Method for Static Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete in Compression
C496 Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
C512 Test Method for Creep of Concrete in Compression
C586 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Carbonate Rocks as Concrete Aggregates (Rock-Cylinder
Method)
C597 Test Method for Pulse Velocity Through Concrete
C666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing
C779 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Horizontal Concrete Surfaces
C803 Test Method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete
C805 Test Method for Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete
C827 Test Method for Change in Height at Early Ages of Cylindrical Specimens of Cementitious Mixtures
C900 Test Method for Pullout Strength of Hardened Concrete
C939 Test Method for Flow of Grout for Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete (Flow Cone Method)
C944 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete or Mortar Surfaces by the Rotating-Cutter Method
C1012 Test Method for Length Change of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate Solution
C1090 Test Method for Measuring Changes in Height of Cylindrical Specimens of Hydraulic-Cement Grout
C1202 Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration
C1260 Test Method for Potential Alkali-Reactivity of Aggregates (Mortar-Bar Method)
C1293 Test Method for Determination of Length Change of Concrete Due to Alkali-Silica Reaction
C1437 Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar
C1556 Test Method for Determining the Apparent Chloride Diffusion Coefficient of Cementitious Mixtures by Bulk
Diffusion
C1567 Test Method for Determining the Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Combinations of Cementitious
Materials and Aggregates (Accelerated Mortar-Bar Method)
C1581 Test Method for Determining Age at Cracking and Induced Tensile Stress Characteristics of Mortar and
Concrete under Restrained Shrinkage
C1610 Test Method for Static Segregation of Self-Consolidating Concrete Using Column Technique
C1611 Test Method for Slump Flow of Self-Consolidating Concrete
C1621 Test Method for Passing Ability of Self-Consolidating Concrete by J-Ring
C1646 Practice for Making and Curing Test Specimens for Evaluating Resistance of Coarse Aggregate to Freezing
and Thawing in Air-Entrained Concrete
C1709 Guide for Evaluation of Alternative Supplementary Cementitious Materials (ASCM) for Use in Concrete
C1712 Test Method for Rapid Assessment of Static Segregation Resistance of Self-Consolidating Concrete Using
Penetration Test
C1741 Test Method for Bleed Stability of Cementitious Post-Tensioning Tendon Grout
C1758 Practice for Fabricating Test Specimens with Self-Consolidating Concrete
C1760 Test Method for Bulk Electrical Conductivity of Hardened Concrete
C1768 Practice for Accelerated Curing of Concrete Cylinders
C1876 Test Method for Bulk Electrical Resistivity or Bulk Conductivity of Concrete

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2.12.6 Cross References ASTM-AASHTO/2.12.7 Cited References

2.12.6 Cross References ASTM-AASHTO

This list of cross references is provided for ease of comparing two similar documents. In many cases, the two
documents are not identical and should not be interchanged without review of their contents.
ASTM AASHTO ASTM AASHTO ASTM AASHTO ASTM AASHTO
A184 M54 C31 T23 C191 T131 C989 M302
A416 M203 C39 T22 C231 T152 C1202 T277
A421 M204 C42 T24 C260 M154 C1240 M307
A615 M31 C78 T97 C330 M195 C1611 T347
A722 M275 C109 T106 C465 M327 C1621 T345
A996 M322 C138 T121 C470 M205 C1768 R72
A1064 M336 C150 M85 C494 M194 D98 M144
C157 T160 C496 T198 D448 M43
C173 T196M C618 M295
C185 T137 C666 T161

2.12.7 Cited References

The following cited references are in addition to any cited references included in the previous sections.
1. AASHTO. 2017. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 4th ed. with 2020 Interim Revisions.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC,
https://store.transportation.org/item/collectiondetail/151 (Fee)
2. AASHTO. 2020. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 9th ed. American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
https://store.transportation.org/item/collectiondetail/202 (Fee)
3. AASHTO. 2018. Guide Specifications for the Design of Concrete Bridge Beams Prestressed with Carbon
Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Systems, 1st Ed., American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
https://store.transportation.org/Item/PublicationDetail?ID=4144 (Fee)
4. Buckner, D. C. 1994. An Analysis of Transfer and Development Lengths for Pretensioned Concrete
Structures, Report No. FHWA-RD-94-049, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Washington, DC. 108 pp.
5. Fornier, B., M. A. Berube, K. Folliard, and M. Thomas. 2010. Report on the Diagnosis, Prognosis and
Mitigation of Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) in Transportation Structures, Report No. FHWA-HIF-09-004,
Federal Highway Administration, U. S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. 147 pp.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/concrete/pubs/hif09004/hif09004.pdf
6. Graybeal, B. A., 2006A. Material Property Characterization of Ultra-High Performance Concrete, Report No.
FHWA-HRT-06-103, Federal Highway Administration, U. S. Department of Transportation, McLean, VA.
186 pp.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/structures/06103/index.cfm
7. Graybeal, B. A., 2006B. Structural Behavior of Ultra-High Performance Concrete Prestressed I-Girders,
Report No. FHWA-HRT-06-115, Federal Highway Administration, U. S. Department of Transportation,
McLean, VA. 104 pp.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/structures/06115/index.cfm
8. Graybeal, B. A. and M. M. Lwin. 2010. "Deployment of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Technology."
ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Summer, pp 50-51.
http://aspirebridge.com/magazine/2010Summer/FHWA.pdf
9. Gulyas, R. J., G. J. Wirthlin, and J. T. Champa. 1995. “Evaluation of Keyway Grout Test Methods for Precast
Concrete Bridges,” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 40, No. 1 (January-
February), pp. 44-57.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01011995.44.57.

2 - 40 (2023)
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.12.7 Cited References

10. Khayat, K. H. and D. Mitchell. 2009. Self-Consolidating Concrete for Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge
Elements, NCHRP Report 628, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. 31 pp. + Appendices.
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_628.pdf
11. .Osborn, A., M. Lanier, and N. Hawkins. 2021. “Bond of Prestressing Strand to Concrete,” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 66, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 28-48.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij66.1-04.
12. PCI Committee on Epoxy-Coated Strand. 1993. “Guidelines for the Use of Epoxy-Coated Strand,” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 38, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 26-32.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij38.4-06
13. PCI Concrete Materials Technology Committee. 2015. Guidelines for the Use of Self-Consolidating Concrete
in Precast/Prestressed Concrete. 2nd Ed., Publication TR-6-15, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL.
https://www.pci.org/ItemDetail?iProductCode=EPUB-TR-6-15&Category=EPUB (Fee)PCI Concrete
14. PCI Concrete Materials Technology Committee. 2022. Guidelines for the Use of Ultra-High-Performance
Concrete (UHPC) in Precast and Prestressed Concrete Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/TR-9-22
15. PCI Plant Certification Committee. 2021. Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural
Precast Concrete Products, (MNL 117-21). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/MNL-117-13
16. PCI Strand Bond Task Group. 2020. “Recommended Practice to Assess and Control Strand/Concrete
Bonding Properties of ASTM A416 Prestressing Strand. PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 65, No. 6 (November-December), pp. 33-34.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij65.6-06
17. PTI. 2006. Post-Tensioning Manual, 6th ed. Post-Tensioning Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. 356 pp.
https://www.post-
tensioning.org/publications/store/productdetail.aspx?ItemID=TAB1&Language=English&Units=US_Unit
s (Fee)
18. PTI. 2019a. Specification for Grouting of PT Structures. Publication M55.1-19, Post-Tensioning Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI.
https://www.post-
tensioning.org/publications/store/productdetail.aspx?ItemID=M551&Language=English&Units=US_AND
_METRIC (Fee)
19. PTI. 2019b. Specification for Multistrand and Grouted Post-Tensioning. Publication M50.3-19, Post-
Tensioning Institute, Farmington Hills.
https://www.post-
tensioning.org/publications/store/productdetail.aspx?ItemID=M503&Language=English&Units=US_AND
_METRIC (Fee)
20. Russell, H. G. 1999. "ACI Defines High-Performance Concrete." Concrete International, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington, MI. V. 21, No. 2 (February), pp. 56-57.
https://www.concrete.org/publications/internationalconcreteabstractsportal.aspx?m=details&id=1661
5
21. Russell, H. G. 2013. High Performance Concrete Specifications and Practices for Bridges. NCHRP Synthesis
Report 441, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. 73 pp.
https://www.trb.org/Publications/Blurbs/168757.aspx
22. Shahrooz, B. M., R. A. Miller, K. A. Harris et al. 2022. Use of 0.7-in. Diameter Strand in Precast Prestressed
Concrete. NCHRP Report 994, National Academies, Washington, DC.
https://www.trb.org/Main/Blurbs/182723.aspx

2 - 41 (2023)
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.12.7 Cited References

23. Sherman, M. R., McDonald D. B., and Pfeifer, D. W. 1996. “Durability Aspects of Precast Prestressed
Concrete Part 1 : Historical Review. PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 41,
No. 4 (July-August), pp. 62-74. https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011996.62.74
24. Steinberg, E., K. Walsh, R. Miller, et al. 2022. Design and Construction of Deck Bulb Tee Girder Bridges with
UHPC Connections. NCHRP Report 999, National Academies, Washington, DC.
https://www.trb.org/Publications/Blurbs/182757.aspx
25. Thomas, M. D. A., B. Fornier, and K. J. Folliard. 2008. Report on Determining the Reactivity of Concrete
Aggregates and Selecting Appropriate Measures for Preventing Deleterious Expansion in New Concrete
Construction, Report No. FHWA-HIF-09-001, Federal Highway Administration, U. S. Department of
Transportation, Washington, DC. 20 pp.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/concrete/asr/hif09001/index.cfm
26. Treat, C. and B. Z. Dymond. 2019. Deterioration of Mixed Rebar and Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Bridge
Decks. Report No. MN/RC 2019-09. Minnesota Department of Transportation, Minneapolis, MN.
https://www.dot.state.mn.us/research/reports/2019/201909.pdf
27. Wilson, M. L, and P. D. Tennis. 2021. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. EB001. Portland Cement
Association, Skokie, IL 586 pp.
http://members.cement.org/EBiz55/ProductCatalog/Product.aspx?ID=2738
28. Wyatt T. R. and C. E. Schenck. 2020. Evolution of the Buy America Requirements for Highway Bridge
Projects. ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Fall. pp. 12-13.
http://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2020Fall/Perspective-EvolutionOfTheBuyAmerican.pdf

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NOTATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3-9

3.1 SCOPE .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3-11
3.2 PRODUCT COMPONENTS AND DETAILS ........................................................................................................................................ 3-11
3.2.1 Concrete ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3-11
3.2.1.1 Cement ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 3-12
3.2.1.2 Aggregates .................................................................................................................................................................................. 3-12
3.2.1.3 Admixtures ................................................................................................................................................................................. 3-12
3.2.1.3.1 Water-Reducing Admixtures ..................................................................................................................................... 3-12
3.2.1.3.2 Retarders and Accelerators ....................................................................................................................................... 3-13
3.2.1.3.3 Air-Entraining Admixtures ........................................................................................................................................ 3-13
3.2.1.3.4 Corrosion Inhibitors ...................................................................................................................................................... 3-13
3.2.1.3.5 Mineral Admixtures....................................................................................................................................................... 3-13
3.2.1.3.6 Viscosity-Modifying Admixtures ............................................................................................................................. 3-13
3.2.2 Prestressing Steel ............................................................................................................................................................................. 3-14
3.2.2.1 Pretensioning ............................................................................................................................................................................ 3-14
3.2.2.2 Post-Tensioning ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3-16
3.2.2.3 Strand Size and Spacing ........................................................................................................................................................ 3-16
3.2.2.4 Strand Anchors and Couplers for Pretensioning ....................................................................................................... 3-17
3.2.2.5 Strand Anchors and Couplers for Post-Tensioning .................................................................................................. 3-17
3.2.2.6 Epoxy-Coated Strand ............................................................................................................................................................. 3-18
3.2.2.6.1 Types of Epoxy Coating................................................................................................................................................ 3-19
3.2.2.6.2 Anchorage of Epoxy-Coated Strand ....................................................................................................................... 3-19
3.2.2.6.3 Protection of the Epoxy Coating .............................................................................................................................. 3-19
3.2.2.6.4 Epoxy Coating and Elevated Temperatures ....................................................................................................... 3-20
3.2.2.7 Indented Strand ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3-20
3.2.2.8 Prestressing Bars ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3-21
3.2.3 Nonprestressed Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................................. 3-23
3.2.3.1 Reinforcement Detailing ...................................................................................................................................................... 3-23
3.2.3.2 Developing Continuity........................................................................................................................................................... 3-24
3.2.3.2.1 Continuity with Post-Tensioning............................................................................................................................. 3-24
3.2.3.2.2 Continuity with Nonprestressed Reinforcement ............................................................................................. 3-25
3.2.3.2.3 Continuity in Full-Depth Members ......................................................................................................................... 3-26
3.2.3.3 Coated Nonprestressed Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................ 3-27
3.2.3.3.1 Epoxy-Coated Nonprestressed Reinforcement ................................................................................................. 3-28
3.2.3.3.2 Galvanized Nonprestressed Reinforcement ....................................................................................................... 3-28

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3.2.3.4 Welded Wire Reinforcement.............................................................................................................................................. 3-28

3.2.3.5 Suggested Reinforcement Details .................................................................................................................................... 3-29
3.2.4 Embedments and Blockouts ........................................................................................................................................................ 3-31
3.2.4.1 Embedments and Blockouts for Attachments ............................................................................................................ 3-31
3.2.4.2 Embedments and Blockouts for Diaphragms ............................................................................................................. 3-32
3.2.4.3 Embedments and Blockouts for Deck Construction ................................................................................................ 3-32
3.2.4.4 Lifting Devices .......................................................................................................................................................................... 3-34
3.2.4.4.1 Strand Lift Loops ............................................................................................................................................................ 3-35
3.2.4.4.1.1 Individual-Strand Lift Loops ............................................................................................................................ 3-35
3.2.4.4.1.2 Multiple-Strand Lifting Loops.......................................................................................................................... 3-37
3.2.4.4.2 Other Lifting Embedments ......................................................................................................................................... 3-38
3.2.4.5 Blockouts for Shipping .......................................................................................................................................................... 3-39
3.2.5 Surface Treatments ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3-39
3.2.5.1 Protecting Product Ends ...................................................................................................................................................... 3-39
3.2.5.1.1 Ends Cast into Concrete............................................................................................................................................... 3-39
3.2.5.1.2 Exposed Ends ................................................................................................................................................................... 3-39
3.2.5.1.3 Epoxy Mortar End Patches ......................................................................................................................................... 3-40
3.2.5.1.4 Portland Cement Mortar End Patches .................................................................................................................. 3-40
3.2.5.1.5 Patching Ends with Proprietary Products........................................................................................................... 3-40
3.2.5.2 Intentionally Roughened Surfaces ................................................................................................................................... 3-41
3.2.5.3 Cosmetic Surface Treatments ............................................................................................................................................ 3-41
3.2.5.4 Architectural Finishes ........................................................................................................................................................... 3-41
3.2.5.5 Durability-Related Treatments ......................................................................................................................................... 3-42
3.2.5.6 Protection of Exposed Steel ................................................................................................................................................ 3-42
3.3 FABRICATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 3-43
3.3.1 Forms and Headers.......................................................................................................................................................................... 3-43
3.3.1.1 Self-Stressing Forms .............................................................................................................................................................. 3-44
3.3.1.1.1 Applications of Self-Stressing Forms ..................................................................................................................... 3-44
3.3.1.2 Non-Self-Stressing Forms .................................................................................................................................................... 3-45
3.3.1.2.1 Design of Non-Self-Stressing Forms ...................................................................................................................... 3-45
3.3.1.3 Adjustable Forms .................................................................................................................................................................... 3-45
3.3.1.4 Advantages of Precast Concrete Formwork ................................................................................................................ 3-48
3.3.1.5 Other Form Considerations ................................................................................................................................................ 3-48
3.3.1.6 Headers ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 3-48
3.3.1.6.1 Header Configuration ................................................................................................................................................... 3-49

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3.3.1.7 Internal Void Forms ............................................................................................................................................................... 3-49

3.3.1.7.1 Mandrel Systems ............................................................................................................................................................ 3-49
3.3.1.7.2 Retractable Inner Forms ............................................................................................................................................. 3-50
3.3.1.7.3 Sacrificial Inner Forms ................................................................................................................................................. 3-51
3.3.2 Prestressing ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 3-51
3.3.2.1 Types of Pretensioning Beds .............................................................................................................................................. 3-51
3.3.2.1.1 Abutment Beds ................................................................................................................................................................ 3-51
3.3.2.1.2 Strutted Beds .................................................................................................................................................................... 3-52
3.3.2.2 Strand Profile ............................................................................................................................................................................ 3-53
3.3.2.2.1 Straight Strands ............................................................................................................................................................... 3-54
3.3.2.2.2 Harped Strands ................................................................................................................................................................ 3-55
3.3.2.2.3 Harping Devices .............................................................................................................................................................. 3-55
3.3.2.2.4 Anchorage of Harping Devices ................................................................................................................................. 3-56
3.3.2.3 Tensioning .................................................................................................................................................................................. 3-57
3.3.2.4 Pretensioning Configuration .............................................................................................................................................. 3-57
3.3.2.5 Tensioning Prestressing Steel ........................................................................................................................................... 3-57
3.3.2.5.1 Tensioning Individual Strands ................................................................................................................................. 3-58
3.3.2.5.2 Tensioning Strands as a Group ................................................................................................................................. 3-58
3.3.2.6 Prestressing Strand Elongation ........................................................................................................................................ 3-58
3.3.2.7 Variables Affecting Strand Elongation ........................................................................................................................... 3-58
3.3.2.7.1 Dead-End and Splice Chuck Seating ....................................................................................................................... 3-59
3.3.2.7.2 Elongation of Abutment Anchor Rods ................................................................................................................... 3-59
3.3.2.7.3 Prestressing Bed Deformations ............................................................................................................................... 3-59
3.3.2.7.4 Live-End Chuck Seating ............................................................................................................................................... 3-59
3.3.2.7.5 Temperature Corrections ........................................................................................................................................... 3-59
3.3.2.7.6 Friction ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3-60
3.3.2.8 Transfer ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 3-61
3.3.2.8.1 Hydraulic Transfer ......................................................................................................................................................... 3-61
3.3.2.8.2 Transfer by Flame Cutting .......................................................................................................................................... 3-61
3.3.2.8.3 Transfer at Bulkheads .................................................................................................................................................. 3-61
3.3.2.8.4 Harped Strand Considerations at Transfer ......................................................................................................... 3-62
3.3.2.9 Strand Debonding ................................................................................................................................................................... 3-62
3.3.3 Nonprestressed Reinforcement and Embedments ........................................................................................................... 3-62
3.3.3.1 Placement and Attachment ................................................................................................................................................. 3-62
3.3.3.2 Installation of Lifting Devices ............................................................................................................................................ 3-63

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3.3.3.3 Concrete Cover ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3-63

3.3.3.4 Steel Spacing Design .............................................................................................................................................................. 3-63
3.3.4 Concrete Batching, Mixing, Delivery, and Placement ....................................................................................................... 3-64
3.3.4.1 Delivery Systems ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3-64
3.3.4.2 Consolidation Techniques ................................................................................................................................................... 3-64
3.3.4.3 Normal Weight Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 3-64
3.3.4.4 Lightweight Concrete ............................................................................................................................................................ 3-65
3.3.4.5 High-Performance Concrete ............................................................................................................................................... 3-65
3.3.4.6 Self-Consolidating Concrete ............................................................................................................................................... 3-66
3.3.5 Concrete Curing................................................................................................................................................................................. 3-66
3.3.5.1 Benefits of Accelerated Curing .......................................................................................................................................... 3-66
3.3.5.2 Preventing Moisture Loss .................................................................................................................................................... 3-67
3.3.5.3 Methods of Accelerated Curing ......................................................................................................................................... 3-67
3.3.5.3.1 Accelerated Curing by Convection .......................................................................................................................... 3-68
3.3.5.3.2 Accelerated Curing with Radiant Heat.................................................................................................................. 3-68
3.3.5.3.3 Accelerated Curing with Steam ................................................................................................................................ 3-68
3.3.5.3.4 Accelerated Curing with Electric Heating Elements ....................................................................................... 3-69
3.3.5.4 Curing Following Stripping ................................................................................................................................................. 3-69
3.3.5.5 Optimizing Concrete Curing ............................................................................................................................................... 3-69
3.3.5.5.1 Determination of Preset Time .................................................................................................................................. 3-70
3.3.5.5.2 Rate of Heat Application ............................................................................................................................................. 3-70
3.3.6 Removing Products from Forms ................................................................................................................................................ 3-71
3.3.6.1 Form Suction ............................................................................................................................................................................. 3-72
3.3.7 In-Plant Handling ............................................................................................................................................................................. 3-72
3.3.7.1 Handling Equipment .............................................................................................................................................................. 3-73
3.3.7.2 Rigging ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 3-73
3.3.7.3 Handling Stresses .................................................................................................................................................................... 3-74
3.3.7.4 Lateral Stability during Handling ..................................................................................................................................... 3-74
3.3.8 In-Plant Storage................................................................................................................................................................................. 3-75
3.3.8.1 Storage of Eccentrically Prestressed Products .......................................................................................................... 3-75
3.3.8.2 Storage of Concentrically Prestressed or Conventionally Reinforced Products ......................................... 3-75
3.3.8.3 Stacking ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 3-76
3.3.8.4 Weathering................................................................................................................................................................................. 3-77
3.3.9 Roughened Surfaces ........................................................................................................................................................................ 3-77
3.3.9.1 Roughening Exposed Surfaces .......................................................................................................................................... 3-78

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3.3.9.2 Roughening Formed Surfaces ............................................................................................................................................ 3-78

3.3.10 Match-Cast Members .................................................................................................................................................................... 3-79
3.3.10.1 Match-Casting Techniques ............................................................................................................................................... 3-79
3.3.10.2 Joining Match-Cast Members with Epoxy .................................................................................................................. 3-80
3.4 PLANT QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE ........................................................................................................ 3-80
3.4.1 Plant and Inspection Agency Interaction ............................................................................................................................... 3-80
3.4.2 Product Evaluation and Repair .................................................................................................................................................. 3-81
3.4.2.1 Surface Voids ............................................................................................................................................................................. 3-81
3.4.2.2 Honeycomb and Spalls .......................................................................................................................................................... 3-82
3.4.2.3 Repairing Large Voids ........................................................................................................................................................... 3-82
3.4.2.4 Cracks ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 3-82
3.4.2.4.1 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks ............................................................................................................................................. 3-83
3.4.2.4.2 Cracks Due to Restraint of Volume Change ........................................................................................................ 3-83
3.4.2.4.3 Differential Curing Cracks .......................................................................................................................................... 3-83
3.4.2.4.4 Accidental Impact Cracks............................................................................................................................................ 3-84
3.4.2.4.5 End Cracking..................................................................................................................................................................... 3-84
3.4.2.5 Crack Repair .............................................................................................................................................................................. 3-84
3.4.2.5.1 Autogenous Healing ...................................................................................................................................................... 3-84
3.4.2.5.2 Crack Repair by Epoxy Injection.............................................................................................................................. 3-84
3.4.2.5.3 Crack Repair by Concrete Replacement ............................................................................................................... 3-85
3.4.2.6 Camber ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 3-85
3.4.2.6.1 Measuring Camber ......................................................................................................................................................... 3-86
3.4.2.6.2 Thermal Influences on Camber ................................................................................................................................ 3-86
3.4.2.6.3 Mitigation of Camber Growth ................................................................................................................................... 3-86
3.4.2.7 Sweep............................................................................................................................................................................................ 3-86
3.4.2.7.1 Mitigation of Sweep ....................................................................................................................................................... 3-86
3.4.2.7.2 Girders with Sweep ....................................................................................................................................................... 3-87
3.4.3 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio ....................................................................................................................................... 3-87
3.4.3.1 Mineral Admixtures and Workability ............................................................................................................................. 3-87
3.4.3.2 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio and Durability ............................................................................................... 3-87
3.4.3.3 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio without Water-Reducing Admixtures ................................................ 3-87
3.4.3.4 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio with Water-Reducing Admixtures ....................................................... 3-88
3.4.3.5 Controlling Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio ..................................................................................................... 3-88
3.4.3.6 Testing Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio ............................................................................................................. 3-88
3.4.4 Strand Condition ............................................................................................................................................................................... 3-88

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3.4.5 Concrete Strength Testing ............................................................................................................................................................ 3-89

3.4.5.1 Number of Cylinders .............................................................................................................................................................. 3-89
3.4.5.2 Test Cylinder Size .................................................................................................................................................................... 3-89
3.4.5.3 Alternate Cylinder Capping Methods ............................................................................................................................. 3-90
3.4.5.4 Cylinder Curing Systems and Procedures .................................................................................................................... 3-90
3.4.5.4.1 Cylinder Curing Cabinets ............................................................................................................................................ 3-90
3.4.5.4.2 Self-Insulated Cylinder Molds ................................................................................................................................... 3-91
3.4.5.4.3 Long-Term Cylinder Curing ....................................................................................................................................... 3-91
3.4.5.5 Concrete Cores ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3-91
3.4.5.6 Nondestructive Testing ........................................................................................................................................................ 3-92
3.4.6 Tolerances ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 3-92
3.5 TRANSPORTATION ................................................................................................................................................................................... 3-92
3.5.1 Weight Limitations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 3-92
3.5.2 Size Limitations ................................................................................................................................................................................. 3-93
3.5.3 Trucking................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3-93
3.5.3.1 Flatbed Trailers ........................................................................................................................................................................ 3-94
3.5.3.2 “Low-Boy” Trailers ................................................................................................................................................................. 3-94
3.5.3.3 “Pole” Trailers ........................................................................................................................................................................... 3-94
3.5.3.4 Steerable Trailers .................................................................................................................................................................... 3-95
3.5.3.5 Truck Loading Considerations .......................................................................................................................................... 3-95
3.5.4 Rail Transportation ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3-97
3.5.5 Barge Transportation ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3-97
3.5.6 Lateral Stability during Shipping ............................................................................................................................................... 3-98
3.6 INSTALLATION ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 3-99
3.6.1 Jobsite Handling ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3-99
3.6.1.1 Single-Crane Lifts .................................................................................................................................................................... 3-99
3.6.1.2 Dual-Crane Lifts .....................................................................................................................................................................3-100
3.6.1.3 Passing from Crane to Crane ............................................................................................................................................3-100
3.6.1.4 Launching Trusses ................................................................................................................................................................3-100
3.6.1.4.1 Launching Trusses for Single-Piece Construction .........................................................................................3-100
3.6.1.4.2 Launching Trusses for Segmental Construction .............................................................................................3-101
3.6.2 Support Surfaces .............................................................................................................................................................................3-102
3.6.2.1 Inspection of Support Surfaces .......................................................................................................................................3-102
3.6.2.2 Temporary Support Towers .............................................................................................................................................3-102
3.6.3 Abutted Members ...........................................................................................................................................................................3-103

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Table of Contents

3.6.3.1 Vertical Alignment ............................................................................................................................................................... 3-104

3.6.3.2 Shear Keys ............................................................................................................................................................................... 3-104
3.6.3.2.1 Shear Key Size and Position .................................................................................................................................... 3-105
3.6.3.2.2 Grout or Concrete in Shear Keys........................................................................................................................... 3-105
3.6.3.2.3 Grouting Procedures for Shear Keys................................................................................................................... 3-105
3.6.3.3 Welded Connectors ............................................................................................................................................................. 3-105
3.6.3.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning .................................................................................................................................................... 3-105
3.6.3.5 Skewed Bridges ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3-106
3.7 DIAPHRAGMS ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 3-106
3.7.1 Cast-in-Place Concrete Diaphragms ...................................................................................................................................... 3-106
3.7.2 Precast Concrete Diaphragms .................................................................................................................................................. 3-107
3.7.2.1 Individual Precast Concrete Diaphragms .................................................................................................................. 3-107
3.7.2.2 Secondary-Cast Precast Concrete Diaphragms ....................................................................................................... 3-107
3.7.3 Steel Diaphragms ........................................................................................................................................................................... 3-108
3.7.4 Temporary Diaphragms for Construction .......................................................................................................................... 3-109
3.7.5 Diaphragms in Skewed Bridges .............................................................................................................................................. 3-109
3.8 PRECAST CONCRETE DECK PANELS ............................................................................................................................................. 3-109
3.8.1 Deck Panel Systems ...................................................................................................................................................................... 3-109
3.8.2 Handling Deck Panels .................................................................................................................................................................. 3-110
3.8.3 Installation of Deck Panels ........................................................................................................................................................ 3-110
3.9 FULL-DEPTH, PRECAST CONCRETE BRIDGE DECK PANELS ............................................................................................. 3-111
3.9.1 System Description ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3-111
3.9.1.1 Panels with Post-Tensioning ........................................................................................................................................... 3-111
3.9.1.2 Panels without Post-Tensioning .................................................................................................................................... 3-111
3.9.2 Details and Considerations........................................................................................................................................................ 3-112
3.10 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 3-112

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Notation

NOTATION
AS = area of a prestressing strand, in.2
A*S = total prestressing steel area, in.2
D = prestressing steel elongation, in.
Es = modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel, ksi
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel, ksi
Fv = vertical force applied by harped strand, kips
L = total length of prestressing steel from anchorage to anchorage, in.; length of member, ft
PS = design jacking force, kips
θ, θ1, θ2 = angles of harped strands, degrees

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 3
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3.1 Scope/3.2.1 Concrete

Fabrication and Construction

3.1 SCOPE
This chapter describes materials and techniques used in the fabrication, handling, transportation, and erection of
precast, prestressed concrete bridge components. It also discusses how the components are integrated into the
completed structure. Familiarity with this chapter will enable bridge designers to take advantage of the flexibility
and economy of precast, prestressed concrete products. It will also help them avoid the pitfalls that can make
precast concrete systems less cost-effective. In addition to discussing fabrication, the chapter describes quality
control procedures that maximize product quality, making products cast in industry-certified plants a superior
solution.
Manufacturers certified by PCI accomplish quality control and improvement in accordance with the Manual for
Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021), which defines the
standards for structural bridge products. PCI standards for quality precast concrete production and erection are
difficult to achieve. Once attained and practiced consistently, these standards contribute to improved and
continued customer satisfaction—not only by ensuring that the manufacturing and installation processes are high
quality, but also by making the construction process faster and smoother for all parties involved.
The standards ensure that plants maintain high-quality operations and output through daily internal-control
processes and inspections of operations, materials, equipment, products, and processes. This is a dynamic
improvement process that is constantly being revised to meet the ever-changing challenges of this industry.

3.2 PRODUCT COMPONENTS AND DETAILS

Precast, prestressed concrete bridge products generally consist of concrete, reinforcement, and various
embedments used for temporary or structural connections. This chapter summarizes variations in these
components that affect cost and constructability. These descriptions are not intended to be all-inclusive, and the
reader is directed to the references for more information.

3.2.1 Concrete
Plant-cast concrete bridge products are structurally efficient sections that are relatively thin and congested with
reinforcement and embedments. It is therefore imperative that fresh concrete (portland cement, fine aggregate,
coarse aggregate, water, and admixtures) have sufficient workability to fill all spaces without voids,
honeycombing, or segregation. The following sections describe variations in individual concrete constituents that
can be beneficial or detrimental to concrete placement, consolidation, and finishing, but these descriptions do not
account for the influence of other components in the mix. In reality, the behavior of fresh concrete will depend on
the interaction of all constituents. Both fresh and hardened concrete properties vary widely depending on the
availability and nature of local materials. PCI-certified plants have standard in-house mix designs with proven
histories of placeability, strength, and durability. Bridge designers should consult their local producers for
information on their experience with local materials and types of concrete, including:
• High-performance concrete (HPC)
• Flowing concrete mixes
• Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC)
• Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) mixes

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3.2.1.1 Cement/3.2.1.3.1 Water-Reducing Admixtures

3.2.1.1 Cement
The quantity and fineness of cement play important roles in the behavior of fresh concrete, as described in ACI
PRC-225 (ACI . Lean mixes (those using less cement) with coarsely ground cement are generally harsh and
difficult to consolidate and finish. As the quantity or fineness of the cement increases, the mix becomes more
cohesive. Very rich mixes with finely ground cement can be overly cohesive or sticky. AASHTO M85 Type III
cement, which is normally used in precast products because of its high-early-strength characteristics, is the finest
grind of portland cement available. As the fineness of the cement increases, the cement content that produces
optimum workability with minimum water is reduced.

3.2.1.2 Aggregates
The behavior of fresh concrete can be significantly affected by the physical properties of the aggregates, as
described in ACI PRC-221. The maximum size and gradation of the fine aggregate, as well as the shape and texture
of both the fine and coarse aggregates, affect the water content required to produce workable concrete. Rough,
angular aggregates require more cement and water for workability than smooth, rounded aggregates. Too many
flat or elongated pieces of coarse aggregate can result in a harsh mix. Porous aggregates will affect the water
demand if they are not sufficiently saturated at the time of batching.
The maximum coarse aggregate size should be smaller than the tightest space the concrete is expected to fill. ACI
318 limits the maximum coarse aggregate size to one-fifth the narrowest dimension between form sides, one-
third the depth of slabs, or three-quarters the minimum clear dimension between reinforcement. The smallest
practical maximum coarse aggregate size is ⅜ in.; however, this should not be interpreted as permitting a ½-in.
minimum clear dimension between reinforcement. Other restrictions apply. See Section 3.3.3.4 for discussion of
steel spacing.

3.2.1.3 Admixtures
In precast concrete plants, fresh concrete mixes are augmented with one or more admixtures. The purpose of an
admixture is to produce a desired property of concrete, either in its fresh or hardened form. ACI PRC-212.3
provides a detailed description of commonly available chemical admixtures.
All admixtures in a given concrete mix must be compatible with each other as well as with the cement.
Combinations of admixtures can exacerbate or mitigate placement and finishing problems. The admixture
manufacturer should be consulted before combinations are used.

3.2.1.3.1 Water-Reducing Admixtures

Strength and durability considerations of hardened concrete for bridge applications normally dictate concrete
mixes with low water-cementitious materials ratios. Without chemical admixtures, these mixes can exhibit poor
workability. Normal water-reducing admixtures decrease water demand from 5% to 12% for the same
workability, or increase workability for the same water content. High-range water-reducing (HRWR) admixtures
decrease water demand from 12% to more than 30%. Under most conditions, water reducers are used for both
purposes: to reduce water demand and to provide optimum workability. The ability to produce workable
concrete while maintaining low water-cementitious materials ratios aids in the early strength gain necessary for a
daily production cycle. Concretes using water-reducing admixtures are also less likely to segregate during
placement.
Water-reducing admixtures normally do not increase the working life of fresh concrete, and frequently decrease
it. This is particularly true with high-range water-reducers. Rapid loss of workability can often be controlled by
adding additional dosages of the admixture. Consult with the manufacturer for information on whether the
mixes can receive additional doses of water reducing admixtures and the proper amounts if a decrease in

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3.2.1.3.1 Water-Reducing Admixtures/3.2.1.3.6 Viscosity-Modifying Admixtures

workability occurs. In some cases, high-range water-reducers make finishing more difficult because of the lower
water content and the resulting lack of bleed water, which normally rises to the surface.
Some water-reducing admixtures have also been known to retard the set of concrete. This can be controlled by
the introduction of a non-chloride accelerating admixture. Again, the manufacturer of the admixtures should be
consulted to determine proper dosage and compatibility of the admixtures.

3.2.1.3.2 Retarders and Accelerators

Set-retarding admixtures and/or HRWR may be used to delay the concrete set in outdoor plants during hot
weather. Accelerating admixtures are normally not needed as most precast concrete plants use some form of
heat- or steam-curing during cold weather.

3.2.1.3.3 Air-Entraining Admixtures

. When cement contents are low or moderate, air-entraining admixtures add to the paste volume, making fresh
concrete more workable and cohesive, reducing segregation and bleed water. However, when cement contents
are high, the mix can become overly cohesive or sticky. In some cases, air entraining admixtures make finishing
more difficult because of the lower water content and the resulting lack of bleed water, which normally rises to
the surface. Air-entrainment also reduces concrete strength in approximate proportion to the amount entrained,
unless the mix proportions are readjusted. Excessive air content can affect both early- and long-term concrete
strengths and should be avoided.

3.2.1.3.4 Corrosion Inhibitors

Corrosion inhibitors are occasionally specified for the protection of embedded steel, and they have various effects
on the behavior of fresh concrete. Calcium nitrite, for example, accelerates the set of the concrete, reduces the
amount of entrained air, and increases the likelihood of plastic and drying shrinkage cracking. When these
chemical admixtures are used, proper mix adjustments and curing techniques should be specified in accordance
with the manufacturer’s recommendations.

3.2.1.3.5 Mineral Admixtures

Mineral admixtures are sometimes used to improve economy, strength, or durability. Fly ash can be an
economical alternative to replace cement and will usually increase the workability of concrete. However, its
properties include retarding initial set, so it needs to be used cautiously in a daily production cycle. ACI PRC 232.2
provides guidance on the use of fly ash.
Fresh concrete with slag cement or silica fume up to 5% by weight of cement will normally behave much like
conventional concrete. However, higher dosages can result in overly cohesive mixes, difficult finishing due to lack
of bleed water, longer setting times, and increased shrinkage. As with all concrete constituents, this detrimental
behavior can be controlled with good mix design, batching, placing, and curing practices. The “Guide to Using
Silica Fume in Precast/Prestressed Concrete Products” (PCI, 1994) provides helpful information on the use of
silica fume.

3.2.1.3.6 Viscosity-Modifying Admixtures

High-slump or high-flow concrete such as SCC may experience segregation of the coarse aggregate. Viscosity
modifying admixtures (VMAs) modify the rheology of the concrete (that is, the resistance to flow under stress) to
maintain a consistent mix that will not segregate. VMAs are classified as Type S admixtures under ASTM C494.
Since the chemistry and properties of this admixture may vary between manufacturers, the manufacturer should
be contacted for advice on dosage and compatibility with other admixtures, such as air entraining admixtures or
high-range-water-reducers.

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3.2.2 Prestressing Steel/3.2.2.1 Pretensioning

3.2.2 Prestressing Steel

Most precast concrete bridge components are prestressed for added strength and serviceability. Prestressing is
achieved by one of two methods: pretensioning or post-tensioning. The primary difference between the two
methods is the point in production at which the prestressing tendons are tensioned.
Pretensioning is most economical for plant-cast products because much of the necessary material used in post-
tensioning, such as ducts and anchoring devices, is eliminated. Post-tensioning may be required in the plant if
pretensioning equipment or facilities are inadequate or not suited for the project. Bridge designers should consult
their local producers for information on plant capabilities.
Combinations of pretensioning and post-tensioning within the same member have proven to be cost-effective. For
example, combinations of pre- and post-tensioning may reduce the concrete strength required at transfer of
prestress. In other cases, pretensioned strands have been designed to carry a predetermined percentage of the
dead load in a simple span (e.g., its own weight plus that of the cast-in-place deck without shoring). Then, post-
tensioned tendons continuous over several spans are added for strength for subsequent dead and live loads.
Figure 3.2.2-1 shows several types and sizes of prestressing tendons (0.7-in.-diameter strand is also available
but is not shown). For pretensioning, the common tendon material is a seven-wire strand, whereas in post-
tensioning, single- or multi-strand tendons or high-strength bars are commonly used.
Figure 3.2.2-1
Prestressing Steel

a) Post-tensioning Bars b) Seven-Wire Prestressing Strands

From the left: ⅜ in.; ⅜ in. surface indented; ½ in.; 9/16 in.; 0.6 in.; 0.6 in. epoxy-
coated with embedded surface grit.

3.2.2.1 Pretensioning
In pretensioning, strands are first jacked to a specified force in a predetermined profile. Concrete is placed in
direct contact with the tensioned strands and then cured. When the concrete achieves the specified transfer
strength, forms are stripped and the strands are released so the tension in the strands is transferred to the
concrete. For some products, tension in the strands is first released, and then the product is removed from fixed
forms. See Section 3.3.6 for more information on removing forms from products and products from their forms.
The force in the strands is transferred to the product through a complex process described by Gerwick (1993).
For simplicity, it is usually assumed the force is transferred by the bond that develops between the concrete and
surface of the strands. The strength of the bond between the concrete and the steel can vary. It is dependent on
both the surface condition of the strand and the characteristics of the concrete. ASTM A1081 is used to determine
the bonding characteristic of the strand only. In this test, an untensioned strand is cast into a standard mortar

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3.2.2.1 Pretensioning

cylinder and pulled out. PCI (2020) has approved the “Recommended Practice to Assess and Control
Strand/Concrete Bonding Properties of ASTM A416 Prestressing Strand.” This establishes ASTM A1081 minimum
average pullout values of 14,000 lb (62,000 N) for all 0.5-in.-diameter (13-mm-diameter) strand and 18,000 lb
(80,000 N) for high-bond-strength 0.5-in.-diameter strand. For sizes other than 0.5 in. or strand with strengths
other than 270 ksi, an equivalent value of pull-out strength is given by 2dbfpu/270 where db is the nominal strand
diameter and fpu is the ultimate strength of the strand. The recommended practice also provides recommended
development length and transfer length equations (in psi units):
3800 7100
ℓ𝑑 = ( + ) 𝑑𝑏 ≥ 100𝑑𝑏 (Eq. 3.2.2.1-1)
√𝑓′𝑐𝑖 √𝑓′𝑐
3800𝑑𝑏
ℓ𝑡𝑟 = 𝐾 ≥ 40𝑑𝑏 (Eq. 3.2.2.1-2)
√𝑓′𝑐𝑖

where
ld = development length, in.
ltr = transfer length, in.
𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = strength of concrete at transfer of prestressing force, psi
𝑓𝑐′ = design strength of concrete, psi
db = nominal strand diameter, in.
K = 1.6 for strand with minimum bond strength
= 1.0 for strand with high bond strength
As of the time of publication, Eq. (3.2.2.1-1 and 2) for transfer and development length have not been accepted
into the LRFD Specifications. Thus, the engineer should consider both the equations currently in the LRFD
Specifications and the recommended equations and apply appropriate engineering judgment. The equations
being considered for the LRFD Specifications are (in ksi units):
120 225
ℓ𝑑 = (𝜅 + ) 𝑑𝑏 ≥ 100𝑑𝑏 (Eq. 3.2.2.1-3)
√𝑓′𝑐𝑖 √𝑓′𝑐
120𝑑𝑏
ℓ𝑡𝑟 = 𝜅 ≥ 40𝑑𝑏 (Eq. 3.2.2.1-4)
√𝑓′𝑐𝑖
here κ = K from Eq. 3.2.2.1-2).
For most bridge applications, strand with minimum bond strength should be sufficient, but high-bond-strength
strand may be required for shallow sections such as slabs and planks that use a single row of strand. The engineer
should consider other cases where high-bond-strength strand may be required, especially in cases where high
stresses develop near the end of a member within the development length or transfer length.
More information on the standard practice and comparison to the development length and transfer length
equations in the current LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2020B) and the ACI Code (ACI318, 2019) are found in
Brewe (2020).

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3.2.2.2 Post-Tensioning/3.2.2.3 Strand Size and Spacing

3.2.2.2 Post-Tensioning
Post-tensioning is a method where the prestressing force is introduced into the concrete after it has been cast and
cured. The tendons are then jacked between anchorages embedded in the concrete. Post-tensioning tendons may
be internal or external to the concrete cross section.
For internal tendons, ducts or sleeves are provided in the concrete into which the prestressing tendons are
inserted. Internal tendons may remain unbonded after stressing, or they may be bonded by pressure grouting the
ducts. Another type of internal tendon is a single strand that received a factory application of grease and is then
inserted into a plastic, hose-like sheath or sleeve. Internal tendons of this type remain unbonded, and the sheath
or sleeve and grease protect against corrosion.
External tendons, although outside of the concrete cross section, are normally contained within the structure. For
example, tendons within the voids of box beams are considered external. External tendons are normally draped
between anchorage points to achieve the desired profile. By definition, external tendons are unbonded, even
though they may be encased in metal or plastic ducts and pressure grouted.
Article 5.4.5 of the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2020B) states that all tendons, anchorages, end fittings, and
couplers, whether internal or external, must be permanently protected against corrosion.

3.2.2.3 Strand Size and Spacing

Seven-wire prestressing strand meets the requirements of AASHTO M203 and is used for both pretensioned and
post-tensioned applications. It is available in the sizes and grades shown in Chapter 2, Table 2.11-1. The
predominant size and grade used for pretensioning is ½ in. diameter, uncoated, 270 ksi, although 0.6 in. diameter
is becoming the preferred size for bridge beams and certain other products. Most proprietary post-tensioning
systems accommodate either ½-in.- or 0.6-in.-diameter, 270 ksi strands. Two- and three-wire strands are also
available, but their use, along with the use of other sizes and grades of seven-wire strand, is much less common
for bridge applications. The predominant strand used for new construction in the United States is low-relaxation,
Grade 270. Grade 250 strand and stress-relieved strand were used previously but have been largely phased out.
A new Grade 300 (300 ksi) strand can be used for prestressed concrete (Carroll, et al., 2017), but it is not
generally available in the United States at this time.
The minimum clear distance between pretensioned strands, as required by LRFD Article 5.10.3.3.1 is 1.33 times
the maximum aggregate size with center-to-center distance not less than those shown in LRFD Table 5.10.3.3.1-1.
This spacing is:
• 1.5 in. for ⅜-in.-diameter strand
• 1.75 in. for 7/16-, ½-, and ½-in.-special-diameter strand
• 2.0 in. for 9/16-, 9/16-special-, and 0.6-in.-diameter strand
Post-tensioned tendons, which are mechanically anchored and do not rely on bond to the concrete at transfer, are
exempt from these requirements.
Shahrooz, et al. (2022) NCHRP study 12-109 investigated the use of 0.7-in.-diameter strand for use in prestressed
concrete bridge girders. The study concluded (see NCHRP report 994) that 0.7-in.-diameter strands at 2-in.
spacing could be used in prestressed concrete bridge girders, and that the current provisions of the LRFD
Specifications (AASHTO, 2020B) were generally adequate for designing girders using the larger strands. The one
exception is that report recommended increased confinement for debonded strands of all sizes, including 0.7 in.
diameter. The report notes that using 0.7-in.-diameter strands can provide for longer spans for some cross
sections, but other cross sections do not benefit from the use of 0.7-in.-diameter strands because concrete stress
limits are violated before enough 0.7-in.-diameter strands can be used to extend the span. In such cases, the more
beneficial use of 0.7-in.-diameter strand is to use fewer strands. This reduces congestion and provides for wider
spacing between strands, which reduces the likelihood of cracking at release of prestressing force. It is also noted

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3.2.2.3 Strand Size and Spacing/3.2.2.5 Strand Anchors and Couplers for Post-Tensioning

that due to the stiffness of the 0.7-in.-diameter strand and the very high force in these strands during girder
fabrication, harping 0.7-in.-diameter strand is not practical using current technology.

3.2.2.4 Strand Anchors and Couplers for Pretensioning

A typical anchor for pretensioned strand is shown in Fig. 3.2.2.4-1. Normally referred to as a “strand chuck,” the
device consists of a hardened steel barrel with a machined conical core. This barrel receives the jaw or wedge
assembly. Wedges are used in sets of two or three pieces. They are held in alignment by a rubber “O ring” and are
tapered to match the conical shape of the barrel. The wedges have machined serrations, or “teeth,” that bite into
and grip the strand, distributing the radial load to the barrel. The cap is spring loaded to keep the wedges in place
during jacking or tensioning.
Figure 3.2.2.4-1 Figure 3.2.2.4-2
Strand Chuck Showing Internal Components Strand Splice Chuck Showing Internal Components

A coupler, or “splice chuck,” is used, as the name suggests, to splice two lengths of strand together (Fig. 3.2.2.4-2).
Splice chucks are essentially the same as strand chucks, with the exception that in place of the spring-loaded head,
they are furnished with male and female threads, enabling them to screw onto each other back to back. Couplers
are not used within precast concrete members; instead, they are used to connect strand between members or
strand passing through the member with “bridle” strand. See Sections 3.2.2.6.2 and 3.3.2.4 for discussion of
“bridle” strand and its use.

3.2.2.5 Strand Anchors and Couplers for Post-Tensioning

Most anchors for post-tensioned strand are proprietary, but they generally use wedges similar to pretensioning
anchors. These anchorages are embedded in the concrete before stressing, and the concrete is reinforced to resist
the bursting stresses associated with high localized concentrated loads. In many cases, the wedges are
hydraulically pressed into conical holes in the anchor head to reduce seating losses after jacking. Post-tensioning
tendons vary from single strand tendons to multiple strand tendons that occupy the same duct and anchorage
device. Figure 3.2.2.5-1 shows typical post-tensioning anchorages.

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3.2.2.5 Strand Anchors and Couplers for Post-Tensioning/3.2.2.6 Epoxy-Coated Strand

Figure 3.2.2.5-1
Types of Post-Tensioning Anchorages

Proprietary post-tensioning couplers are also available to join a new tendon to one that has already been placed
and stressed. One such coupler is shown in Fig. 3.2.2.5-2. These are not generally permitted for use in the United
States. Further information can be obtained from suppliers of post-tensioning devices.
Figure 3.2.2.5-2
Post-Tensioning Coupler

3.2.2.6 Epoxy-Coated Strand

Seven-wire prestressing strand with an organic coating meeting the requirements of ASTM A882 is available for
conditions that require a higher degree of corrosion protection. In pretensioned and bonded post-tensioned
applications, this normally applies to exposure conditions that are particularly harsh, such as direct exposure to
seawater. For unbonded post-tensioned applications, unless an alternate system of corrosion protection is
employed, the epoxy coating and concrete cover provide the only barrier between the uncoated strand and the
environment. The following sections present information and procedures for the use of epoxy-coated strand that
are different from, or in addition to, those for uncoated strand. These sections are not intended to be all inclusive.

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3.2.2.6 Epoxy-Coated Strand/3.2.2.6.3 Protection of the Epoxy Coating

A report by the PCI Ad Hoc Committee on Epoxy-Coated Strand (PCI, 1993) provides excellent guidance on the
use of epoxy-coated strand.
It should be emphasized that the use of epoxy-coated strand has significant cost implications. The cost of coated
strand can be three times the cost of uncoated strand, and the setup labor costs can increase by as much as 30%.
For most bridge applications where the prestressing tendons are bonded, the plant-cast quality of the concrete,
the concrete cover, and the limits on tensile stresses under service loads, which prevents or limits cracking,
provide excellent corrosion protection without coated strand.

3.2.2.6.1 Types of Epoxy Coating

Epoxy coated prestressing strand is manufactured to meet ASTM A882. . The thickness of the coating for strand
meeting ASTM A882 may vary from 25 to 45 mils. Strand with less-variable coating thickness is also available and
may be necessary for compatibility with stressing hardware. Manufacturers of epoxy-coated strand should be
consulted.
Two types of epoxy coatings are available. For pretensioned or bonded post-tensioned applications, the epoxy
surface is embedded with aluminum oxide grit to aid in the bond of the concrete to the surface. Coating without
the grit is smooth and will not bond effectively to the concrete. It is intended for unbonded post-tensioned,
external post-tensioned, or cable-stay applications.
Coatings with grit are extremely abrasive, and appropriate precautions must be taken during handling. All
workers should wear heavy protective gloves when handling the strand. Dragging the strand over steel form
soffits or through holes in stressing abutments can abrade forms and elongate holes. This can result in out-of-
tolerance strand positioning. Holes should be checked periodically. Dragging the strand over inappropriate
surfaces or through unchamfered holes can cause damage to the coating or erosion of the grit. Any coating
damage should be repaired in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Loss of the grit will reduce
effectiveness of the concrete bond. For pretensioned applications, holes in the stressing abutments will usually
need to be enlarged to accommodate the additional coating and grit thickness.

3.2.2.6.2 Anchorage of Epoxy-Coated Strand

Special anchors with “bite-through” wedges designed specifically for epoxy-coated strand must be used for
tensioning and seating. Once seated, wedges should not be allowed to unseat during tensioning because the
serrations can become filled with epoxy coating. Therefore, final tensioning of epoxy-coated strand should be
accomplished with a single stroke of the jack. Anchorage seating losses are typically higher for epoxy-coated
strand than for uncoated strand (see Sections 3.3.2.7.1 and 3.3.2.7.4). This fact should be considered in the
tensioning and elongation calculations. Wedge assemblies must be thoroughly inspected and cleaned before
reuse. Epoxy-coated strand should not be gripped by the wedges in locations where it was damaged, heated, or
previously gripped.
When the length of the concrete member is substantially shorter than the length of the stressing bed between
abutments, an uncoated “bridle” strand is sometimes used to save material costs. This uncoated “bridle” strand is
coupled to the epoxy-coated strand to make up for the stressing bed length outside the member. See Section
3.3.2.4 for more discussion on “bridle” strand. This coupling can be done by one of two methods. The epoxy
coating can be stripped from the end of the strand using a device specifically designed for this purpose. The
strands can then be joined using a standard splice chuck. Alternatively, a special splice chuck can be
manufactured to grip epoxy-coated strand on one side, and uncoated strand on the other.

3.2.2.6.3 Protection of the Epoxy Coating

Sharp deflection of the strand profile, such as harping in pretensioned or external post-tensioned applications,
should be minimized. Friction at the deflection point during tensioning can cause damage to the coating.
Tensioning the strands in a straight profile, then pulling or pushing them into the deflected position, minimizes

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FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
3.2.2.6.3 Protection of the Epoxy Coating/3.2.2.7 Indented Strand

damage. Cushioning materials can also help alleviate such damage. In internal post-tensioned applications,
galvanized, spiral-wound metal duct is not recommended because damage to the coating can result from abrasion
at the duct seams. Smooth polyethylene duct will minimize damage.

3.2.2.6.4 Epoxy Coating and Elevated Temperatures

At elevated temperatures such as those sometimes used during accelerated curing of the concrete, the stability of
the coating may be reduced, which can lead to a partial or total loss of prestress at transfer. ASTM A882 requires
the epoxy coating to be capable of withstanding temperatures up to 150 °F without reduction of bond.
Accordingly, the temperature of the concrete surrounding the strand must be below 150 °F and falling before
prestress is transferred. The potential of exposure of the members to fire, and the possible loss of prestress,
should be evaluated when specifying epoxy-coated strands.

3.2.2.7 Indented Strand

Seven-wire prestressing strand with small indentations in the outer wires conforming to ASTM A886 is available
in the sizes and grades shown in Table 3.2.2.7-1. With the exception of the indentations, this material is identical
to normal prestressing strand meeting the requirements of AASHTO M203. The purpose of the indentations is to
increase bond between concrete and strand and decrease the transfer and development length of pretensioned
strand.
Indented strand is only used in short members where a short transfer length for the prestress force is critical. One
common application is in precast, prestressed concrete railroad ties. Nearly all bridge products are of sufficient
length to accommodate the transfer and development length provided by normal strand. However, some short-
span prestressed bridge members (e.g., stay-in-place deck forms) may benefit from the use of indented strand.
Due to the decreased transfer length of indented strand, splitting and bursting forces at the ends of pretensioned
members will be greater than splitting and bursting forces in members using normal strand.
Table 3.2.2.7-1
Properties of Indented Strand
Nominal Tensile Normal Nominal
Diameter Strength Area Weight
in. in. lb in.2 lb/1,000ft
Grade 250
¼ 0.250 9,000 0.036 122
5/16 0.313 14,500 0.058 197
⅜ 0.375 20,000 0.080 272
7/16 0.438 27,000 0.108 367
½ 0.500 36,000 0.144 490
-- 0.600 54,000 0.216 737
Grade 270
5/16 0.313 16,500 0.061 210
⅜ 0.375 23,000 0.085 290
7/16 0.438 31,000 0.115 390
½ 0.500 41,300 0.153 520
-- 0.600 58,600 0.217 740

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FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
3.2.2.8 Prestressing Bars

3.2.2.8 Prestressing Bars

Prestressing bars conforming to AASHTO M275 are fabricated from high-strength steel with a minimum ultimate
tensile strength of 150 ksi. The bars are either plain or deformed. Available sizes of deformed prestressing bars
are shown in Chapter 2, Table 2.11-1. Plain bars are not commonly used in prestressing.
Deformed bars are generally used for post-tensioned applications where the tendon profile is straight and
relatively short. In this application, the deformations are not specifically intended to provide bond with the
concrete, as with mild reinforcement, but rather to allow the bars to be anchored or coupled with screw-on
devices specifically designed for this purpose. Anchorage devices are normally of the plate variety, and they are
installed prior to casting the concrete to distribute the post-tensioning force during tensioning. Figure 3.2.2.8-1
shows a typical anchorage device and coupler. Prestressing bars are normally not used in pretensioned
applications.
Figure 3.2.2.8-1
Prestressing Bar Anchor and Coupler

Due to the relatively short lengths and large bar areas, the tensioning operation is characterized by short
elongations, which at times are difficult to measure and compare with theoretical values. Accurate ram
calibrations are important for proper stress application. Prestressing bars are normally bonded by grouting, or
they may be left unbonded with appropriate corrosion protection measures.
The uses of prestressing bars include transverse post-tensioning of bridge decks, diaphragms, and precast
concrete multi-beam decks (flat slabs, slab beams, box beams, etc.), as well as the connection of precast concrete
members to other precast concrete members or to cast-in-place construction. Figures 3.2.2.8-2, 3.2.2.8-3, and
3.2.2.8-4 illustrate some of these applications.
Note that the detail shown in Figure 3.2.2.8-2 is often used for skewed bridges with skew angle greater than 20
degrees. For bridges with zero skew angle or skew angle less than 20 degrees, lateral post-tensioning extends
from edge-to-edge of bridge (see Sections 3.6.3.4 and 3.6.3.5).

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 3
FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
3.2.2.8 Prestressing Bars

Figure 3.2.2.8-2
Voided Slab Beams Connected through Diaphragms with Threaded Post-Tensioning Bars

Figure 3.2.2.8-3
Box Beams Connected through Diaphragms with Threaded Post-Tensioning Bars

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 3
FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
3.2.2.8 Prestressing Bars/3.2.3.1 Reinforcement Detailing

Figure 3.2.2.8-4
Deck Bulb-Tees Connected through Diaphragms with Threaded Post-Tensioning Bars

3.2.3 Nonprestressed Reinforcement

Precast, prestressed concrete bridge products are nearly always supplemented with nonprestressed
reinforcement, generally referred to as “mild steel,” “mild reinforcement,” or “conventional reinforcement.” This
material conforms to AASHTO M336, AASHTO M225, AASHTO M31, or ASTM A706. AASHTO M32 and AASHTO
M225 address cold-worked steel wires that are smooth and deformed, respectively, and used primarily as spiral
reinforcement for piles and columns. These types of wires are also used in the fabrication of welded wire
reinforcement (WWR). AASHTO M31 is the most common type of deformed reinforcing bar (although this
specification also includes plain bars, they are rarely used as concrete reinforcement). ASTM A706 applies to low-
alloy steel deformed bars, which are intended for circumstances where embrittlement, sometimes associated with
AASHTO M31 bars, must be avoided. This embrittlement can occur in field bent bars, or to bars that are welded.
However, in some parts of the United States, the availability of ASTM A706 bars is limited, particularly in small
quantities. Procedures for field bending of AASHTO M31 bars, as well as proper preheating to permit welding are
widely used. Consideration should be given to availability when specifying ASTM A706 reinforcement.
Prestressing steel is usually provided for all positive moments in flexural members, but it may be supplemented
with nonprestressed reinforcement. In many cases, negative moments at the supports of continuous spans are
resisted entirely by mild steel, either in the cast-in-place deck, or in connections between precast concrete
members. Axial loads can be resisted entirely by prestressing steel, nonprestressed reinforcement, or a
combination of both. Shear and torsion effects generally require the use of nonprestressed reinforcement.
Flexural stresses transverse to the prestressing steel, bursting forces due to development of the prestressing
forces, tensile stresses in the top flange of eccentrically prestressed members during handling, and confinement of
the core of concrete piles and columns are all resisted by mild reinforcement. The following sections suggest
configurations of nonprestressed reinforcement that are compatible with prestressed concrete members and are
considered standards in the industry.

3.2.3.1 Reinforcement Detailing

In pretensioned applications, prestressing strand must be pulled from reels through one stressing abutment, over
the casting bed, and into the opposite stressing abutment (or coupled into “bridle” strand already anchored to the
opposite abutment). This is done either by hand, or using a winch system that can pull several strands at a time. In
either case, threading the strand through closed mild steel configurations, such as those shown in Fig. 3.2.3.1-1a,
becomes labor intensive, particularly when the reinforcement cannot be bundled into compact groups and spread
out after tensioning (such as with heavy spiral reinforcement or some WWR cages). Whenever possible, mild
reinforcement should be detailed for placement after the prestressing strand has been strung in the bed and
tensioned. If this is not feasible, the bars should be open at the top to allow the strands to be pulled over them.
The bars may be capped after tensioning if necessary. Only where mild reinforcement is required for torsion or
confinement should closed bars or spirals be considered.
Care must also be taken when specifying single bar ties with bends at both ends, such as those used in
compression members (Fig. 3.2.3.1-1b) and in the anchorage zones of prestressed concrete flexural members.

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FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
3.2.3.1 Reinforcement Detailing/3.2.3.2.1 Continuity with Post-Tensioning

These bars should be detailed with the assumption that they are the last ones placed in the assembly, and that the
prestressing strands cannot move to accommodate them. Bars with 90-degree bends at one end and 135-degree
bends at the other, with the 90-degree bends alternating from side to side of the member, are generally
satisfactory for placing after tensioning. Section 3.2.3.5 offers suggestions for nonprestressed reinforcement for
common prestressed concrete bridge products. Note that 135-degree hooks are required in the LRFD
Specifications (AASHTO, 2020B) in regions requiring seismic resistance or for members resisting torsion.
When detailing bars that enclose prestressing strands, proper consideration should be given to the bend radius.
The dimension from the edge of the member to the strand must be sufficient to allow for both the bend radius and
the required concrete cover.
Figure 3.2.3.1-1
Reinforcement Details Showing Pretensioned Beam and Column Fabrication Considerations

Minimum Dimension = Concrete Cover + Stirrup Bar Diameter + Stirrup Bend Radius
*See text regarding 135-degree hooks

3.2.3.2 Developing Continuity

Several methods are available for developing continuity in adjacent spans with precast concrete bridge members.
These are discussed in Sections 3.2.3.2.1, 3.2.3.2.2, and 3.2.3.2.3 and specifically address development of negative
moments over interior piers. Often, positive moments must also be considered over the piers. The most
economical means of developing positive moments over the piers is by extending the necessary number of
strands from the bottom flange of the precast concrete member, and anchoring them into the pier by bending
them up to provide sufficient development length. These strands may also be anchored by mechanical means, but
this option is more expensive.

3.2.3.2.1 Continuity with Post-Tensioning

Continuity of precast, prestressed concrete spans can be achieved in several ways. The solution shown in Fig.
3.2.3.2.1-1 could be considered the most structurally efficient. The precast concrete members are pretensioned

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3.2.3.2.1 Continuity with Post-Tensioning/3.2.3.2.2 Continuity with Nonprestressed Reinforcement

for the portion of the dead load imposed prior to developing continuity, and post-tensioning is added for all
subsequent loads, with the tendon profile following the continuous span moment envelope. However, considering
that only a limited number of standard section depths are readily available, that site conditions usually limit the
range of span lengths, and that post-tensioning carries a higher cost than pretensioning, this may not be the most
cost-effective alternative.

Figure 3.2.3.2.1-1
Continuity Developed with Post-Tensioning

a) Bridge Elevation Showing Tendon Profiles

b) Duct Spliced over Pier

3.2.3.2.2 Continuity with Nonprestressed Reinforcement

A simple solution for bridges with cast-in-place decks is to proportion the longitudinal nonprestressed
reinforcement in the deck over the piers to resist the negative moments. This is a very common and cost-effective
method of developing continuity because it involves only straight reinforcing bars that are easily placed and
spliced. A typical detail used in Washington state is shown in Fig. 3.2.3.2.2-1. The detail is not typical for most
agencies in the method used to transfer end reactions.

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FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
3.2.3.2.2 Continuity with Nonprestressed Reinforcement/3.2.3.2.3 Continuity in Full-Depth Members

Figure 3.2.3.2.2-1
Example of Continuity Developed with Conventional Deck Reinforcement*

*Typical Washington state detail, see text

3.2.3.2.3 Continuity in Full-Depth Members

Precast concrete members that are full depth or are topped only with a nonstructural wearing surface must be
post-tensioned over the piers, as described earlier, or they must have projecting reinforcement spliced in some
manner to provide negative moment capacity. Several methods have been successfully employed in splicing the
projecting reinforcement, some of which are illustrated in Fig. 3.2.3.2.3-1.
If the pier is of sufficient width, the simplest and least-expensive method is to provide a noncontact lap splice of
mild reinforcement extending from the top of the precast concrete members (Fig. 3.2.3.2.3-1a). These bars may
also be hooked to aid with development (Fig. 3.2.3.2.3-1b). In this case, the bars should be allowed to be field
bent since the form normally extends past the end of the member and may interfere with the placement of
prebent bars. In both cases, the bars should be staggered horizontally to avoid interference with bars from the
facing member or with reinforcement projecting from the pier.
When the pier does not provide sufficient width for lapped or hooked bars, several solutions are available. One
solution is that the nonprestressed reinforcement projecting from the top of the precast concrete members may
be spliced mechanically by welding, with grouted splice sleeves, or with mechanical splices. Some of the more
common splice details are shown in Fig. 3.2.3.2.3-1c, 3.2.3.2.3-1d, and 3.2.3.2.3-1e. A wide variety of generic
and proprietary splicing details are available. Each detail has advantages and disadvantages with respect to
material cost, labor cost, tolerances for fabrication and erection, and the degree of quality control required to
properly execute the splice. Bridge designers should consult local producers for information about the splice
details favored by builders in the local area.
Another solution is to use UHPC. The development lengths of non-prestressed reinforcing steel are much smaller
in UHPC than in conventional concrete. For example, a test of a negative moment connection used No. 6 bars with
a 6 in. embedment in UHPC and developed the full yield strength of the bars (Steinberg, et al., 2022). This same
test showed that the entire diaphragm does not need to be made of UHPC, which lowers the material costs. The
bottom of the diaphragm can be conventional concrete, and only the slab joint needs to be UHPC.

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3.2.3.2.3 Continuity in Full-Depth Members/3.2.3.3 Coated Nonprestressed Reinforcement

Yet another solution involves coupling prestressing strands that extend from the top of the precast concrete
members (Fig. 3.2.3.2.3-1f). After coupling the strands, the members are jacked apart at the pier to induce
required tensile forces in the coupled strands (Tadros, et al., 1993; Ficenec, et al., 1993). With the members held
apart, the cast-in-place closure is made. Once the closure concrete attains design strength, the jack is released to
apply compression across the joint. The resulting continuous spans behave much the same as with the post-
tensioned solution, without the expense of the post-tensioning hardware.
Figure 3.2.3.2.3-1
Methods to Establish Continuity

3.2.3.3 Coated Nonprestressed Reinforcement

Using reinforcing bars coated for corrosion protection is more expensive than using uncoated bars, both in
material and labor costs. Epoxy coating conforms to ASTM A775 or ASTM A934 and galvanizing conforms to
ASTM A767. Special epoxy coatings, such as those designed for the protection of steel pipe, increase material costs
when specified for use on reinforcing bars beyond the cost of using standard epoxy coatings. The larger the
development lengths of epoxy-coated bars will slightly increase the amount of material required.

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3.2.3.3 Coated Nonprestressed Reinforcement/3.2.3.4 Welded Wire Reinforcement

Given the quality of plant-cast concrete, the control of concrete cover, and the limits on tensile stresses for
prestressed concrete members under service loads, precast concrete provides excellent corrosion protection for
uncoated reinforcement under normal exposure conditions. Coated reinforcement is typically more cost effective
for severe exposure conditions, such as exposure to seawater or areas where large amounts of chloride deicers
are used.

3.2.3.3.1 Epoxy-Coated Nonprestressed Reinforcement

The effectiveness of epoxy coatings in preventing corrosion is only as good as the integrity of the coating (D’Arcy,
et al., 1996). Consequently, specifications for the bars for shipping, handling, placing, and protection during
concrete placement are necessarily restrictive. Labor costs are increased for these types of bars because special
handling is required to prevent damage to the coating, and to repair areas damaged by cutting, bending, or
handling, all as required by ASTM 775 App. X1 or ASTM A934 App. X2.
There are two applicable specifications, ASTM A775 and A934. Bars coated according to ASTM A775 can be bent
in the field while bars coated according to ASTM A934 cannot be field bent. When specifying that bars be cut and
bent before coating, consideration should be given to constructability. For example, hooked bars projecting from
the ends of precast concrete members may interfere with the formwork at the member ends. In many cases, field
bending of bars is the best option for constructability.

3.2.3.3.2 Galvanized Nonprestressed Reinforcement

When specifying reinforcement to be bent prior to hot-dip galvanizing, the specifications should direct the
fabricator to ASTM A767, which dictates larger finished bend diameters for No. 7 bars and larger than is standard
for uncoated bars. This is important in preventing embrittlement of the steel during the hot galvanizing process.

3.2.3.4 Welded Wire Reinforcement

WWR has long been the standard for reinforcing floor slabs, wall panels, and other flat‐cast products. The
material has gained popularity as an alternate for nonprestressed reinforcing bars in precast concrete bridge
products. WWR configurations for typical bulb tees are shown in Fig. 3.2.3.4-1. Note that the web reinforcement
shown in Fig. 3.2.3.4-1b is developed by a pair of welded cross wires in the bottom flange and a hook at the top
(the top cross wire is used to maintain the stirrup spacing). It is important to keep cross wires out of the mid‐
height portion of the web where high shear stresses generally develop, as the cross wires can produce stress
concentrations in the reinforcement in areas of cracking. Single sheets of similar welded wire web reinforcement
are commonly used in each web of stemmed members.
Depending on the configuration of the WWR sheets, the cost of this material can be from 50% to 100% higher
than mild reinforcing bars. However, savings in labor and inspection costs, as well as use of the increased strength
of the material as permitted by the LRFD Specifications, can more than offset the increased material cost. The price
and availability of WWR suitable for precast concrete bridge products varies in different geographical regions.
Local producers should be consulted for information about the cost-effectiveness of WWR in their area. Alternate
details for WWR and bars will allow the precaster to proceed with production if supply of either material is
limited or interrupted.

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3.2.3.4 Welded Wire Reinforcement/3.2.3.5 Suggested Reinforcement Details

Figure 3.2.3.4-1
Welded Wire Reinforcement (WWR) in a Bulb Tee

a) Top Flange b) Web c) Bottom Flange d) WWR in Bulb-Tee

Sheets of WWR can be made in virtually any configuration up to approximately 14.5 ft wide, with smooth or
deformed wires (AASHTO M336) up to ⅝ in. diameter (designated as W31 for smooth or D31 for deformed and
are the equivalent of a No. 5 reinforcing bar). The sheets are normally shipped flat and bent at the precast plant,
as shipping prebent sheets can result in a large amount of “ghost” freight. The sheet lengths are limited by the
length of available benders, which is currently a maximum of about 30 ft.
Figure 3.2.3.4-1 shows the end reinforcement of a typical prestressed concrete bridge beam using WWR. The
labor savings results from eliminating the need to tie individual bars into the required configuration.
Improvement in quality can also be expected because the bar spacing of WWR is much more precise than can be
expected from bending and tying individual bars.
The key to efficient use of WWR is standardization. Purchasing is most economical when WWR is ordered in
truckload quantities. Therefore, unless the project is large, the precast producer must be reasonably assured that
any WWR that ends up in inventory will be usable on future projects. WWR configurations should also be detailed
to allow installation after the prestressing strands have been placed and tensioned. Much of the savings attributed
to the use of WWR will be lost if the strands must be pulled through long runs of enclosed reinforcement.

3.2.3.5 Suggested Reinforcement Details

Figure 3.2.3.5-1 shows suggested nonprestressed reinforcement configurations for various types of standard
precast concrete bridge products. WWR cages can be patterned after these configurations.

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3.2.3.5 Suggested Reinforcement Details

Figure 3.2.3.5-1a-1g
Recommended Reinforcement Configurations for Standard Products

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3.2.4 Embedments and Blockouts/3.2.4.1 Embedments and Blockouts for Attachments

3.2.4 Embedments and Blockouts

Embedments and blockouts in precast concrete bridge products are used typically for the following:
• Hanging utilities
• Connecting the members to other members of the structural system
• Attaching cast-in-place concrete formwork
• Handling and shipping the members
The following sections describe common embedments and blockouts used for these purposes. A wide range of
details are used throughout the United States. Bridge designers should consult with local producers regarding
preferred details.

3.2.4.1 Embedments and Blockouts for Attachments

Numerous types of embedments are available for connecting miscellaneous items such as utilities and guardrails
to precast concrete members. These embedments range from simple threaded inserts to complex welded
assemblies. Depending on the anticipated exposure, the embedments can consist of uncoated steel, coated steel,
stainless steel, plastics, or any other material that is both suitable for the intended purpose and compatible with
both the concrete and reinforcing steel. Use of incompatible or low durability materials may shorten the service
life of the structure. Examples of common connections are shown in Fig. 3.2.4.1-1.
The combined tolerances for all parts of the system should be considered when detailing attachments to inserts
that are embedded in precast concrete members. Slotted or oversized holes are highly recommended wherever
possible. Section 3.4.6 provides information about industry standard tolerances. A simple and durable solution is
a hole cast through the member that will allow bolting with standard galvanized fasteners.

Figure 3.2.4.1-1
Common Attachments

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3.2.4.1 Embedments and Blockouts for Attachments/3.2.4.3 Embedments and Blockouts for Deck Construction

Figure 3.2.4.1-1 (cont.)

Common Attachments

Thru Bolt Barrier to Deck Connection

b) Alternate Guardrail/Barrier Connections

3.2.4.2 Embedments and Blockouts for Diaphragms

Embedments for diaphragms depend on the type of diaphragm used, ranging from threaded inserts and through
holes for reinforcement for cast-in-place concrete and attachment of temporary diaphragms to welded assemblies
for precast concrete and steel diaphragms. A detailed discussion and examples of typical diaphragms are included
in Section 3.7.

3.2.4.3 Embedments and Blockouts for Deck Construction

Deck construction usually falls into one of three methods:
• Cast-in-place concrete over bulb tees or I-beams
• Cast-in-place concrete over composite, stay-in-place deck panel forms
• Precast concrete members connected together without the use of cast-in-place concrete. (normally
referred to as “adjacent precast concrete multi-beam decks”)
Embedments and blockouts required for decks vary for each type of construction.
Placing cast-in-place concrete over bulb tees or I-beams requires supplementary formwork, which is normally
hung from the beams. This can be done economically with a series of holes and bolts, through either the beam
flange or web (Fig. 3.2.4.3-1). Form attachment can also be accomplished with proprietary systems, such as that
shown in Fig. 3.2.4.3-2. Other methods can also be employed to attach the formwork.

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3.2.4.3 Embedments and Blockouts for Deck Construction

Figure 3.2.4.3-1
Typical Cast-In-Place Deck Forming Methods

Figure 3.2.4.3-2
Proprietary Cast-In-Place Deck Forming Method

Composite, concrete stay-in-place deck forms fall into two general categories (Fig. 3.2.4.3-3). The first is thin,
prestressed concrete deck panels designed to span between spread box beams or the flanges of bulb tees, I-
beams, or steel beams. The second is thin, wide flanges cast integrally with bulb tees in the plant. The bulb tees
(or similar wide-flanged products) are abutted in the field. Neither system requires embedments or blockouts in
the beams, except for forming the edge overhang slab in deck panel systems. Typical embedments in deck panels
are discussed in Section 3.8. Thin-flange deck bulb tees require no embedments or blockouts for deck
construction, except perhaps inserts for attachment of the formwork at the edge of the cast-in-place deck.

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FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
3.2.4.3 Embedments and Blockouts for Deck Construction/3.2.4.4.Lifting Devices

Figure 3.2.4.3-3
Composite Bridge Deck Systems

Methods to connect multi-beam decks vary depending on the type of members being joined. Connections are
normally welded or post-tensioned. Section 3.6.3 discusses typical details and considerations.

3.2.4.4 Lifting Devices

Lifting devices embedded in precast concrete bridge members normally consist of strand lift loops, bolts, or
proprietary metal inserts. For very heavy lifts, prestressing bars have also been used. The type of lifting device
employed depends on the following considerations:

• Configuration of the member

• Load on each device
• Angle of the lifting line
• Distance between the embedment and the edge of the concrete
• Preference of the precast plant

The strength of the embedded lifting device is governed by the weakest link in its load path. This can be the
strength of the device itself, the bond between the device and the concrete, or for shallow embedments, the
strength of the shear cone that can be pulled from the concrete. Most precast plants and vendors of proprietary
lifting devices have extensive experience in the design and use of lifting devices.
Bent reinforcing bars should not be used as lifting devices. Bending a bar decreases the ductility of the material in
the region of the bend. Highly concentrated loads from a shackle or crane hook have been known to fracture bent
bars in a brittle manner. In addition, bent reinforcing bars do not have the flexibility of strand lift loops. When
picking with angled cables, which is very common in both plant handling and field erection, flexibility is critical in
distributing the load uniformly to all strands and both legs of the loop.

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3.2.4.4.1 Strand Lift Loops/3.2.4.4.1.1 Individual Strand Lift Loops

3.2.4.4.1 Strand Lift Loops

Prestressing strand lift loops are widely used due to their high strength and flexibility. Loops can be bent into
multiple configurations suited to the intended application. They are also economical because, in many cases, they
are made from what would otherwise be “waste” strand such as the tail end of a strand pack or tails cut from a
production run. Strand that has been damaged by gripping jaws or pitted with rust should not be used for lift
loops.

3.2.4.4.1.1 Individual-Strand Lift Loops

The capacity of individual-strand lift loops is governed by the following:
• Size and grade of the strand
• Configuration of the loop
• Length of embedment into the concrete
• Extension of the loop above the surface of the member
• Edge, side, or end distance
• Diameter of the pin used through the loops during lifting
Typical lift loop configurations are shown in Fig. 3.2.4.4.1.1-1. Loops with straight legs may be used if there is
sufficient embedment (Fig. 3.2.4.4.1.1-1a). If there is insufficient length for embedment, hooked or broomed legs
(where the individual wires are unwrapped) may be used (Fig. 3.2.4.4.1.1-1a). The surrounding concrete should
be adequately consolidated and reinforced to prevent splitting of the concrete and associated loss of bond.
Some typical lift loop details are shown in Fig. 3.2.4.4.1.1-1b, 3.2.4.4.1.1-1c, and 3.2.4.4.1.1-1d. The capacity of
lift loops embedded with angled legs (Fig. 3.2.4.4.1.1-1d) is reduced due to the increased resultant force in each
leg. The capacity of loops lifted with angled cables is similarly reduced, particularly when their projection from
the concrete is insufficient to allow the loops to flex to the same angle as the cable (Fig. 3.2.4.4.1.1-1e). When a
hook is used through a strand lift loop, the capacity of the loop can significantly decrease if the diameter of the
steel lifting device engaging the loop is small. This is also true of shackles when the diameter of either the bent
portion or the pin is small (Cross, et al., 2023).

This space intentionally left blank

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3.2.4.4.1.1 Individual Strand Lift Loops

Figure 3.2.4.4.1.1-1
Typical Lift Loop Configurations

The PCI Design Handbook (PCI, 2017) provides limited guidance on the safe working load of lift loops using 0.5-
in.-diameter strand. Cross and Chhetri (2020); Chhetri, et al. (2021); Cross and Chhetri (2023); and Chhetri
(2023) extended this work to 0.6-in.-diameter strand. Based on the guidance previously given in the PCI Design
Handbook (PCI, 2017) and the additional works cited, the following recommendations are made for lift loops
made of prestressing strand with an ultimate strength of 270 ksi:
a. The factor of safety is taken as 4 for lifting loops made of conventional strand.
b. The concrete strength must be a minimum of 3,000 psi at the time of handling.
c. Each leg of the lift loop should be embedded a minimum of 24 in. If there is insufficient embedment, the
ends of the loops must be hooked at a 90-degree angle or “broomed” legs (individual wires unwrapped and
splayed) can be used (Fig. 3.2.4.4.1.1-1a). Even if there is sufficient embedment, using hooked legs is good
practice unless congestion in the area prevents it.
d. When lifting, a shackle pin, bent portion of the shackle, or hook with a diameter of at least 4 times the
strand diameter must be used.

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3.2.4.4.1.1 Individual Strand Lift Loops/3.2.4.4.1.2 Multiple-Stand Lifting Loops

e. The diameter of the pin used to bend the strands should be at least 4 times the strand diameter but not less
than 2 in.
f. For flanged members, lift loops should be anchored into the bottom flange.
g. Testing on lift loops made of individual 0.5- or 0.6-in.-diameter strand was generally conducted for vertical
loads. Inclined loading will affect the capacity, but little data is available (Kuchma and Hart, 2009; Moustafa,
1974).
h. If no other information is available, a vertical lift loop safe working load for loops embedded at least 24 in.
can be determined by assuming a bond stress of 100 psi. This safe working load provides a factor of safety
of 4 relative to the average test result; no test result demonstrated a factor of safety less than 3 with respect
to bond failure (Cross and Chhetri, 2023). The surface area of strand is calculated as follows:
4
𝐴 = 𝜋𝐿𝑑 (Eq. 3.2.4.4.1-2)
3
where
A = surface area
L = embedment length (includes the inclined or vertical leg and the hooked leg)
d = nominal strand diameter
Care is advised when using this equation for embedment lengths greater than 42 in. because no tests
were performed beyond that embedment length.
i. For 0.5-in.-diameter strand embedded at least 24 in. the safe working load of a single loop is 10 kips.
j. For 0.6-in.-diameter strand embedded at least 24 in. the safe working load of a single loop is 12 kips.
k. Data from research suggests that strand embedded in normal weight or lightweight concrete made with
softer aggregates may have a lower pull-out strength (Chhetri, et al., 2021). Testing on lift loops was
conducted on concrete with an aggregate having a Mohs hardness equal to or greater than 3.8. If the Mohs
hardness of the aggregate is less than 3.8, these capacities may be reduced but there is insufficient data to
provide a reduction factor. Producers using aggregates with a Mohs hardness of less than 3.8 should verify
the pull-out strength of the strand/concrete combination.
l. Stainless steel strand should not be used for lift loops because it is less ductile. If conventional strand
cannot be used due to corrosion concerns, it is recommended that the factor of safety of stainless steel lift
loops be increased from 4 to 6.
m. No data on testing lift loops made of composite strand or epoxy-coated strand are available.

3.2.4.4.1.2 Multiple-Strand Lifting Loops

For multiple-strand lift loops, the recommendations for individual-strand loops apply along with additional
considerations. The primary additional requirement is that each individual loop in a multiple-strand set must
project as equally as possible from the concrete. Also, a straight pin must be used through multiple loops so that
each individual loop carries its share of the load. A hook or bent portion of a shackle should not be used through
multiple-strand loops. Legs of individual loops should be splayed (Fig. 3.2.4.4.1.1-1a) to promote bond with the
concrete. Unless test data is available, the following multipliers are recommended for multiple-strand loops: 1.7
for double-strand loops and 2.2 for triple-strand loops (PCI, 2017). There is insufficient data to make a
recommendation for strand loops with more than 3 strands. (Cross and Chhetri, 2023).
The following two methods of holding the individual strands of multiple-strand loops at reasonably equal
projections have been successfully used:

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3.2.4.4.1.2 Multiple-Stand Lifting Loops/3.2.4.4.2 Other Lifting Embedments

• Placing the strands in a conduit or pipe, then crushing the conduit or pipe as flat as practical in a plane
perpendicular to the radius of the loop bend. The crushed conduit or pipe is then bent into the desired
shape of the loop. The crushing of the conduit or pipe helps to ensure that the individual strands remain
aligned and share load equally, when compared to strands inserted into a conduit or pipe and bent
without crushing (Fig. 3.2.4.4.1.1-2). Since the strands are held level by the crushed pipe, the loops need
only project a distance sufficient to comfortably accommodate the straight pin used for lifting. There is no
known testing of such loops with angled straps, so all lifts should be vertical. Testing has only been
performed for the use of 4 strands or fewer in such loops.

• When individual loops are projected without the restraint of a crushed conduit or pipe, they should be
fabricated as identically as possible and projected equally a minimum of 18 in. from the top surface. The
extended projection provides an ability for the individual loops to “stretch” and equalize the loads to each
loop. When configured with the proper projection and angle limitation as shown in Fig. 3.2.4.4.1.1-1e,
angled straps may be used for lifting. Moustafa (1974) provides test data for 0.5-in.-diameter strand
loops loaded at an angle, and for the consistent fabrication and installation of such loops. Up to five 0.5-
in.-diameter strands have been successfully used in such multiple-strand loops For additional guidance
on multiple-strand lifting loops of this type, see the Washington State Department of Transportation
(WSDOT) Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction (WSDOT, 2023) Section 6-
02.3(25)L1.
Fig. 3.2.4.4.1.1-2 – Correct and Incorrect Methods of Crushing Conduit for Multiple Strand Lifting Loops

3.2.4.4.2 Other Lifting Embedments

Bolts used for lifting perform much the same as headed studs. Embedment must be sufficient to prevent concrete
shear cone failure, and edge distance must be considered when it encroaches on the shear cone.
A wide range of common proprietary lifting devices also are available. For bridge applications, these are normally
limited to precast concrete products that are relatively thin and light such as precast concrete wing walls,
barriers, and soundwalls. When the lifting device is in an exposed place in the structure, it is common to cover the
device with a patch for durability reasons. The ability to provide a patch with sufficient durability for the
demands of bridge applications can influence the selection of the lifting device.

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3.2.4.5 Blockouts for Shipping/3.2.5.1.2 Exposed Ends

3.2.4.5 Blockouts for Shipping

Precast concrete members are normally secured to the truck, railcar, or barge with chains or straps (tie-downs),
which are draped over the top of the member and tightened. Wide, thin top flanges can sustain damage if the
tension in the chain or strap is applied to the tip of the flange. Some producers provide blockouts in the flange
adjacent to a web through which tie-downs can pass. Section 3.5.3.5 discusses these blockouts in further detail.

3.2.5 Surface Treatments

Because most bridge products are cast in precision-made steel forms, it makes sense to design and fabricate the
form so that the precast concrete member requires minimum additional surface treatment. In most cases, this
finishing needs to be performed by hand, so minimizing the surface treatment results in both time and economic
savings. Finishing operations such as removing lips or fins at form joints, patching voids due to paste bleed at
form joints, and sacking bugholes add time to the production cycle and increase the production cost of the
product. Leaving small air holes untreated has become common practice for piling and elements where surface
finish does not detract from the product quality.
When using rigid steel forms and compaction of the concrete by vibration, it is theoretically possible to produce
members that are uniform in appearance and with a “glass-like” form finish. This finish will not only be
aesthetically pleasing but will also produce a surface with optimum durability. A densely compacted cement-paste
surface finish produced against steel forms results in a surface with minimum porosity and permeability and
maximum long-term durability. Any additional surface treatments or patching are unlikely to improve, or even
match, the durability of densely compacted concrete. In reality, however, some areas on pretensioned products
will require surface treatment in spite of the best possible form design.
This section does not cover patching of major “honeycomb” areas or large voids. It also does not cover the repair
of structural cracks or large spalls caused by form removal. These subjects are discussed in Section 3.4.2.

3.2.5.1 Protecting Product Ends

The parts of a prestressed product that typically require surface treatment are the ends where the prestressing
strands exit and have been trimmed off after transfer. Usually for production expediency, and because of the
physical constraints of the bulkheads, the projecting strands are initially cut off during stripping about 6 in. from
the concrete surface. During the finishing stage, depending on the exposure of the product ends in the finished
structure, the strand ends are treated in one of two ways as described in Sections 3.2.5.1.1 and 3.2.5.1.2.

3.2.5.1.1 Ends Cast into Concrete

If the ends of the member are incorporated into the pier or abutment with cast-in-place concrete, the treatment of
the strand ends is not critical. The producer only needs to protect them from corrosion during storage. In this
case, after the strands are cut off flush, it is satisfactory to simply paint them with a two-component epoxy. A thin
coat, approximately ⅛ in. thick, and only in a 2 in. square area over each strand, will suffice. When the epoxy is
applied, it is important that the strand and surrounding concrete be relatively clean. Often, if the strands are
burned off with a poorly adjusted oxy-acetylene torch, the surrounding area is blackened with acetylene soot and
melted slag, which should be removed before the epoxy application. It is for this reason that many producers
prefer to grind off the projecting strand with a handheld high-speed disc grinder. This method leaves a clean area
for the epoxy coating.

3.2.5.1.2 Exposed Ends

Strand ends that are to be exposed for the service life of the structure are normally recessed and patched. Various
methods are used. A common procedure is to provide a recess with a proprietary, expanded-foam cube placed
around each strand, directly against the inside of the bulkhead. This recess-forming device, sometimes called a
“doughnut,” is approximately 1½ in. square and ¾ in. thick, with a hole through the center to accommodate the

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3.2.5.1.2 Exposed Ends/3.2.5.1.5 Patching Ends with Proprietary Products

strand. The doughnut is split on one edge and can be placed over the strand at any location before or after
tensioning. During the finishing process, the expanded foam and projecting strand are burned out using an oxy-
acetylene torch. The recess is first cleaned out to remove any remains of the expanded foam and strand slag, then
patched flush with the concrete surface.
For maximum durability, the material used to patch the recess should be appropriate. A poorly selected material
applied in the recess will soon shrink, deteriorate, or even fall out, leaving the strands exposed to the
environment. This exposure promotes corrosion by the capillary action of liquid through the interstices of the
seven-wire strand.

3.2.5.1.3 Epoxy Mortar End Patches

Epoxy mortar is often used to patch strand recesses because it is widely assumed to be less permeable and more
durable than portland cement mortar. This assumption is generally true, as long as the epoxy has been
appropriately selected and mixed and the correct epoxy binder–to–sand ratio has been used. However, field
experience has shown that the use of incorrect procedures to prepare epoxy mortars—particularly in selection of
the sand type, gradation, and mixing procedures—can result in a porous patch that provides inadequate
protection of the strand end.
Epoxy mortar sands should be angular in shape, as sands with rounded particles tend to roll under the trowel,
making placement difficult. The sand should also be dry. Two good sand gradations are blends by volume of two
parts 12 mesh to one part 80 mesh, or three parts 16 mesh to one part 90 mesh. When graded sands are not
available, 30-mesh silica sand works reasonably well. Most epoxy resin suppliers can furnish these sands.
Another disadvantage of epoxy mortar patches is that pure epoxies generally have a higher coefficient of thermal
expansion than concrete. Larger patches, particularly those using pure epoxy, can fail as a result of differential
expansion and contraction of the patch and the parent concrete. More than cost reduction, this risk of failure is
the primary reason that a silica sand “extender” is used in epoxy mortar. The incorporation of sand reduces the
coefficient of thermal expansion of the epoxy mortar mixture.

3.2.5.1.4 Portland Cement Mortar End Patches

Considering the high demand for quality control and the cost of epoxy mortars, some producers patch the strand
recesses with portland cement mortar. This mortar is considerably less expensive than epoxy mortar and also has
a coefficient of thermal expansion similar to that of the parent concrete. Furthermore, portland cement mortar is
easier to work with than epoxy mortar, and it can be matched to the member finish. A patch made with gray
portland cement and sand will generally be darker than the surrounding concrete. This outcome can be mitigated
by using 25% to 40% white portland cement in the patch mix. The usual cement-to-sand ratio is 1:2, and an epoxy
bonding compound is applied to the recess before the mortar is troweled in. The “dry-pack” method of placement
is also common. Properly executed, these portland cement patches perform as well or better than epoxy mortar
patches and are more economical.

3.2.5.1.5 Patching Ends with Proprietary Products

Proprietary patching compounds can also be used to fill recesses. In general, these are about the same cost as
epoxy mortar. Most of these materials are portland cement based and contain combinations of accelerators,
bonding agents, fillers, and workability, curing, and shrinkage-compensating aids. The performance of such
material should be carefully evaluated by the producer. In some cases, long-term durability could be sacrificed in
favor of ease of initial application.
Other proprietary patching compounds are available that are not portland cement based. Examples are polyester
resin–based materials, high alumina cement–based material, and magnesium phosphate cement–based materials.
These materials are often promoted as providing a solution to patching in temperatures below 40 °F, where
portland cement and epoxy-based mortars are not recommended. However, in practice, this “solution” is rarely

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3.2.5.1.5 Patching Ends with Proprietary Products/3.2.5.4 Architectural Finishes

necessary because in cold-weather climates, precast concrete members are usually cured with heat. With careful
timing, the producer can take advantage of the elevated temperature of the member immediately after stripping
to perform the patch and cure the patching material. Use of these proprietary non-portland-cement–based
patching materials should be carefully evaluated on a case-by-case basis by an accredited concrete laboratory.

3.2.5.2 Intentionally Roughened Surfaces

Another bridge product surface that often requires noncosmetic treatment is one which is intentionally
roughened to promote mechanical bond of cast-in-place concrete or cementitious grout to the member. This is
usually specified when the member is to be made composite with cast-in-place concrete or on the sides of
adjacent members like box girders or deck bulb tees. Most I-beams and bulb tees are designed to act compositely
with a cast-in-place concrete deck. Section 3.3.9 covers the preparation of these surfaces in detail. Sides of
adjacent girders can be roughened either by sandblasting or using an exposed aggregate finish. Although these
finishes are usually used for architectural reasons (Section 3.2.5.4), they provide a sufficient roughness to
promote bond between the girder and joint materials.

3.2.5.3 Cosmetic Surface Treatments

Surface finishes resulting from good daily production practices will not be entirely “glass like.” The following are
among the most common imperfections:
• Small surface “bugholes” formed by entrapped water and air bubbles at the form surface, particularly on
vertical surfaces
• Dark lines and areas denoting high cement paste concentrations
• “Pour lines” due to the overlapping of individual concrete placements
• Granular surface areas where the paste has bled out of form joints
• Imperfections and offsets at form joints
There are as many theories about the cause of these aesthetic surface blemishes as there are suggested methods
to avoid them. However, the best methods of placement and compaction do not consistently eliminate their
occurrence. For this reason, many producers “rub” or “sack” the surface of the member immediately after it is
stripped. This involves wetting the member with water, hand-applying a one-to-one ratio of fine sand and
portland cement mortar to the surface using a sponge-faced trowel to fill any bugholes, and then curing the
application. Often, this surface is then rubbed with a burlap sack and cement powder. This procedure, which is
more art than science, benefits greatly from the care, knowledge, and diligence of an experienced concrete
finisher. In general, unless the bridge is in a high visibility zone, this additional finishing needs to be done only on
the exterior surface of the fascia beams. For high-visibility zones where a uniform appearance is required,
pigmented sealers can be applied.

3.2.5.4 Architectural Finishes

A wide variety of architectural concrete finishes, normally used for building cladding applications, could be used
in the production of precast concrete bridge members. Finishing techniques include the use of colored concrete
using integral dyes; the use of white cement, exposed aggregate finishes, ribs, or other textured surfaces; and the
application of stains. Practically, however, except for the application of stains, these treatments are rarely
employed for large structural members, such as I-beams or bulb tees. The need to optimize the concrete’s early
strength gain normally precludes the use of white cement, which is usually ground to AASHTO M85 Type I
specifications. The other processes may also prove difficult to control under large-scale production runs typical of
large bridge members. The same is not true of other types of bridge products where architectural treatments are
standard practice, such as median barriers or soundwalls. Figures 3.2.5.4-1 and 3.2.5.4-2 show examples of
typical architectural finishes. Local producers should be consulted for economically available architectural
treatments.

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3.2.5.4 Architectural Finishes/3.2.5.6 Protection of Exposed Steel

Figure 3.2.5.4-1
Architectural Finishes with Exposed Aggregate

b) Top: Surface Retarded and Exposed

a) Top: Surface Retarded and Exposed
Bottom Left: Deep Sandblast
Bottom: Medium Sandblast
Bottom Right: Light Sandblast

Figure 3.2.5.4-2
Architectural Finishes Made with Formliners

a) Left: Striated b) Left: Cedar Stake

Right: Hammered Rib Right: Ashlar Stone

3.2.5.5 Durability-Related Treatments

Some specifications require a final surface treatment be applied to precast concrete bridge members as added
assurance of long-term durability. The most common treatment employed is the application of a penetrating
sealer, such as a silane or siloxane coating. Various studies conclude that, assuming the material is properly
selected and applied, these materials enhance the long-term durability of concrete (D’Arcy, et al., 1996). From a
producer’s perspective, one of the difficulties associated with the application of silanes is that the members must
be kept dry for a minimum period before application. In rainy climates, this requires the members to be stored
and the work performed under cover. Considering the size and number of the products involved, most precast
plants do not have facilities appropriate for this operation. The most economical application of these sealers is
usually accomplished in the field, as delivery schedules are no longer an issue, and the application can wait for
good weather, or can be done under the cover of the completed bridge deck. Epoxy coatings have also been
specified to provide surface protection, long-term durability, and wear resistance. Most surface treatments have
limited life and need periodic renewal to achieve continued protection.

3.2.5.6 Protection of Exposed Steel

Another issue that should not be overlooked is protection of projecting reinforcing bars, strand, and metal
hardware embedded in the member. If the products are expected to be stored for a significant length of time,
projecting reinforcing bars and strand are normally coated with zinc-rich paint for protection against corrosion
prior to incorporation into the structure. If this is not done, the projecting steel quickly develops a surface coating

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3.2.5.6 Protection of Exposed Steel/3.3.1 Forms and Headers

of rust. Although this rust is usually not detrimental over short storage periods and can be cleaned off
immediately before delivery, wet weather will cause rust to run down the faces of the member, creating unsightly
stains that are difficult to remove and may become a future inspection concern.
The most common protection for metal embedments is hot-dip galvanizing before they are cast into the concrete
(AASHTO M111). This results in the optimum long-term protection of the embedments. When welding galvanized
embedments, it is important to first remove the zinc coating from the area of the weld. Toxic fumes are produced
from welding on galvanizing, and the zinc may contaminate the weld metal, which can result in a structurally
deficient weld. After the welding has been performed, the damaged coating should be restored, either by
“soldering” over the area with zinc rod, or by painting the area with a zinc-rich paint.
For this reason, zinc-rich paints are sometimes specified in lieu of galvanizing. The embedments are given an
initial coat of paint before being cast into the concrete and are given subsequent coats after the welding has been
completed. Epoxy-based and other volatile solvent zinc-rich paints were once popular for this application.
However, with increasing hazardous waste disposal regulations, the recent tendency has been toward water-
based zinc-rich paints.

3.3 FABRICATION
Precast, prestressed concrete bridge products are fabricated under strictly controlled plant manufacturing
conditions to ensure the highest level of quality possible in concrete construction. Industry standards demand
uniform quality of finished products nationwide. This section will discuss standard methods of concrete forming,
batching, placing and curing, as well as tensioning of the prestressing steel and placement of nonprestressed
reinforcement. Fabrication methods and production capabilities differ from plant to plant, with varying
consequences for the design of precast concrete bridge members. Bridge designers should consult with local
producers for specific information on plant capabilities.

3.3.1 Forms and Headers

The forms used in the precast, prestressed concrete industry are unique to the standard product they are
intended to produce, though most forms have three common characteristics. First, forms are fabricated with a
constant cross section. Second, they are long and slender, with overall lengths ranging from 20 ft to more than
600 ft. Finally, they must be capable of producing the same concrete shape repeatedly to very accurate
dimensional tolerances. For example, the Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural
Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021) allows a casting tolerance for the width of an I-beam web of only +⅜ in.,
−¼ in. Therefore, most bridge product forms use steel construction. Figure 3.3.1-1 shows typical forms used in
the industry.
Figure 3.3.1-1
Common Precasting Forms

a) AASHTO I-Beam b) Stemmed Channel Section

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3.3.1 Forms and Headers/3.3.1.1.1 Applications of Self-Stressing Forms

Figure 3.3.1-1 (cont.)

Common Precasting Forms

c) AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee d) Beam/Pile

3.3.1.1 Self-Stressing Forms

A self-stressing form is used not only to produce the concrete product but also to resist the initial prestressing
force. The form’s longitudinal stiffeners and skin are used as the compression member against which the
prestressing strands are jacked. This method is often cost effective because it eliminates the need for a traditional
prestressing bed (see Section 3.3.2.1). Figure 3.3.1.1-1 shows a typical self-stressing form and its associated
stressing hardware.
Figure 3.3.1.1-1
Self-Stressing Form for a Stemmed Section

Members of different cross sections can be cast in the same self-stressing form, as long as the form is designed for
the largest and most highly pretensioned section. For example, it is quite common to cast 24-in.-deep stemmed
members in a 36-in.-deep self-stressing form by using 12-in.-tall “false bottoms” in the stems. Likewise, 8-ft-wide
stemmed members can be cast in a 10-ft-wide self-stressing form by using “false sides.” The prestressing force is
still distributed over the original form configuration. This can also be done with other member types.

3.3.1.1.1 Applications of Self-Stressing Forms

Self-stressing forms have become a popular solution for precast concrete members where the location of the
prestressing force is not excessively high or eccentric. For bridges, they are used for stemmed members, prismatic
or trapezoidal beams, box beams, and voided-slab beams. There are two basic considerations that limit the use of
self-stressing forms. First, the eccentricity of the prestressing force must be small enough to allow the load to be
distributed to the form in a reasonably uniform manner. Second, this type of form requires the strands to be
jacked against the entire cross section of the form, including the sides, which must be in place during stressing.
Setup crews must be able to assemble the reinforcement cage and install embedments from the top only. If the
form is deeper than the length of a worker’s arm, it is difficult for that worker to place material in the bottom of
the form.

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Self-stressing forms can also be designed to accommodate harped or draped strands. The vertical reaction from
deflected strands can be transferred through the form into the foundation. For this reason, among others, it is
usually necessary to mount the form on a reinforced concrete slab. These slabs run full length and are slightly
wider than the form. The self-stressing form is attached to this slab to maintain alignment, to provide
intermediate bracing for the compressive force, and to provide anchorage to prevent the form from being lifted
off the ground during stripping.
If a product cast in a self-stressing form is to be heat cured, it is essential to recognize that the form will expand as
the concrete temperature is elevated. For a 600-ft-long form, it is not uncommon for the form to expand up to 6 in.
during the curing cycle. Also, the form will shorten due to the prestressing force imparted during jacking. For
these reasons, the form attachment to the slab must not restrain the form in the longitudinal direction. The usual
approach is to weld or bolt a 20 to 40 ft section of the form to the slab, either at one end or in the center, and
design all the other connections to allow longitudinal movement.

3.3.1.2 Non-Self-Stressing Forms

Tall, slender bridge members such as I-beams, bulb tees, deck bulb tees, and large stemmed members are usually
cast in forms that are not self-stressing. The primary reason for this is that the prestressing strands,
nonprestressed reinforcement, and embedments are, by necessity due to accessibility, placed in the form with the
sides removed. Also, these types of members usually have a relatively high location (eccentricity) of prestress.
Because the bulk of the prestressing force would need to be distributed to in-place form sides, self-stressing
forms are not appropriate for these applications.
However, with the use of only straight strands and control of concrete stresses through strand debonding, a few
self-stressing forms have been used. This technique requires relatively large reaction beams along the edges of
the form.
Usually, the prestressing force and deflected strand vertical reactions are resisted by an independent prestressing
bed. These beds are discussed in detail in Section 3.3.2.1.

3.3.1.2.1 Design of Non-Self-Stressing Forms

The design and fabrication of side forms for casting prestressed concrete bridge members are not governed solely
by the equivalent fluid pressures induced during concrete placement but also by the need to minimize temporary
and permanent deformations, and to account for the effects of external form vibration, repeated heating-and-
cooling cycles, and repeated use.
In practice, meeting the performance requirements and dimensional tolerances listed above requires the forms to
be fabricated from steel. When using ¼-in.-thick form skins, continuous vertical and horizontal stiffeners are
usually required at no more than 2 ft 6 in. on center in each direction. Some manufacturers fabricate forms with
3/16-in.-thick steel skin and the same stiffener spacing. During repeated use, this steel tends to “oil can” between

bulkheads or suffer premature damage due to fatigue induced by external form vibration. Vertical stiffeners are
usually fabricated from ¼-in.-thick plate with folded flanges. Horizontal stiffeners can be standard steel shapes, or
they can be fabricated by the form manufacturer. Each form supplier has a preference and usually provides the
form design to accommodate the specified casting procedure.

3.3.1.3 Adjustable Forms

Innovative form design not only facilitates rapid daily assembly and disassembly but also extends the service life
of the form. Most producers purchase forms that are easily modified to accommodate various member sizes with
similar cross sections. For example, I-beam and bulb-tee forms are commonly designed with a standard shape for
top and bottom flanges, and a variable web height. This type of design allows the same flange forms to be used for
shallow and deep members with varying span lengths. The forms are split horizontally, usually near midheight,
and bolt-in “fillers” are used to vary the beam depth. Figure 3.3.1.3-1 illustrates a typical adjustable form. Beam

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3.3.1.3 Adjustable Forms

flange and web widths can also vary by adjusting the width between form sides. However, because the shape of
the form sides is normally fixed, other horizontal beam dimensions are affected incrementally. Some
manufacturers have forms that can accommodate wider top flanges. Producers should be consulted for
dimensions of forms that vary from the local standard.
I-beam and bulb-tee bottom flanges are formed in two ways. Some producers use flat steel pallets, with the sides
and top of the bottom flange form being part of the side form. This arrangement allows for easy adjustment of
width. Other producers use “pans” that form the bottom and sides of the bottom flange. The top of the bottom
flange form is part of the side form. In this case, varying beam widths require different pan widths. Minor
variations to the form shape should be acceptable to the specifier to maximize competition.
Figure 3.3.1.3-1
Bulb-Tee Form Used to Fabricate a Florida Department of Transportation Section, with a Horizontal Joint
where the Form Can Be Separated for Installation of Fillers to Increase the Depth of the Section

Voided slab beams and box beams are normally cast on horizontal steel pallets with removable side forms. Pallets
are usually sized to accommodate the widest member normally specified. Narrower members can be cast with
relative ease. Concrete slabs can be used in lieu of steel pallets; however, the uniformity of heat for curing the
bottom flange of the member becomes less reliable, and some state specifications preclude the use of casting in a
concrete form. Figure 3.3.1.3-2 illustrates typical prismatic form configurations. The depth is not as easily varied
because most producers do not have a variety of side forms on hand. Bridge designers should consult with local
producers for available form depths. Small increases in depth using standard side forms are accommodated by
“adding” to the side form, most commonly with steel angles. Decreases in depth can be achieved by manually
screeding the concrete down below the top of the form. Special “drop” screeds are used for this purpose. Members
with mild reinforcement projecting from the top complicate the use of drop screeds.

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3.3.1.3 Adjustable Forms

Figure 3.3.1.3-2
Various Form Configurations

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3.3.1.4 Advantages of Precast Concrete Formwork/3.3.1.6 Headers

3.3.1.4 Advantages of Precast Concrete Formwork

A unique and attractive feature of plant-cast bridge members, in contrast to typical jobsite construction, is the
elimination of “through-bolts,” “she-bolts,” or “snap-ties.” Such devices are laborious to place, inhibit placement of
reinforcement and embedments, and require patching of the resulting recesses. Most forms used in the precast
concrete industry are held together only at the top and bottom, which improves the efficiency of production and
results in patch-free vertical surfaces. Also, precast concrete formwork joints are designed to minimize paste
bleed during concrete placement.

3.3.1.5 Other Form Considerations

Side forms for deep, thin bridge members tend to be heavy and usually require stripping by crane or some other
mechanical device. Because side forms are relatively slender, cranes usually cannot remove them in one piece for
the full length of a long member. Side forms are normally bolted together in 20- or 40-ft sections. To reduce the
equipment and labor required to strip the forms, some producers install “rollaway” form sides. This system uses
side forms mounted on trolleys and transverse rails that allow them to be rolled away laterally from the member
during stripping. Long-side forms can then stay in one piece for subsequent production. A disadvantage of this
system is that the sides need to be retracted far enough to allow the work crews access for production. Many
plants do not have sufficient space for this system, particularly if the plant has parallel prestressing beds. Some
plants are equipped with rolling trollies to facilitate both form roll back and longitudinal movement to the next
form when the casting beds are oriented end to end.
Side forms that are mounted vertically, or that form shear keys in the sides of members, must be removed daily to
strip the product. This increases both labor costs and wear and tear on the forms. Where possible, the sides of
products should have a minimum draft of ⅛ in./ft so that the side forms may stay in place during stripping (a
draft of ¼ in./ft is preferable). Concrete members formed in rigid, single-piece forms always require adequate
draft on surfaces that could otherwise meet at right angles.

3.3.1.6 Headers
The terms “header,” “endplate,” “bucket,” and “bulkhead” are used interchangeably in the precast concrete
industry to describe devices used to form the ends of precast concrete members. In this manual, the word
“endplate” is used to describe either a device that forms the end of a single member or the last member in a series
of members cast end-to-end in a prestressing bed. The word “bulkhead” is used to describe a device that forms
the adjacent ends of two members cast in series. “Header” can refer to either an endplate or bulkhead. Figure
3.3.1.6-1 illustrates typical endplates and bulkheads. Examples can also be seen in Fig. 3.3.1-1c.
Figure 3.3.1.6-1
Forms for Ends of Sections

a) I-Beam Endplate b) Stem Bulkheads or Buckets for a Triple-Stemmed Section

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3.3.1.6.1 Header Configuration/3.3.1.7.1 Mandrel Systems

3.3.1.6.1 Header Configuration

A requirement common to both endplates and bulkheads is the penetration by the prestressing strands. The hole
that each individual strand passes through not only controls the strand location but also may be subject to forces
from intentional or unintentional deflection of the strand. Some headers are designed with slots at edges to
accommodate placement after some or all of the strands have been tensioned. Holes should be oversized a
minimum of 1/16 in., and the edges should be rounded. Sharp edges can damage a strand during tensioning, with
potentially catastrophic results. Both endplates and bulkheads must be restrained longitudinally to resist
movement during concrete placement, as well as being dragged by elongation of the strands during tensioning.
Most producers are reluctant to drill side forms for attaching endplates because the penetrations can damage the
forms. Various alternate methods are used to secure the endplates, such as cable clamps to fix the bulkheads on
the strands already tensioned.
The use of forms designed to cast several members in series can be problematic when strands or reinforcing bars
have extended projections. Header configurations that can present problems are normally limited to shallow
members such as stemmed members or slab beams. These standard bulkheads are just wide enough to allow
cutting of the strands between members, and they cannot accommodate longer projections. Extended projections
can also create problems during stripping of the members. In some cases, it is more economical to use threaded
reinforcing bar couplers to provide extended projections.

3.3.1.7 Internal Void Forms

Members such as voided slab beams, hollow box beams, and hollow piling require internal voids. Forming can be
achieved in one of three ways:
• A retractable “mandrel” system
• A collapsible form, which is retracted after the concrete has hardened
• Casting around sacrificial forming material
All internal forms must be accurately located and held in place during concrete placement. In monolithic pours,
the inner forms will have a tendency to float. The force required to hold the inner form in place can be calculated
by assuming the concrete to be completely liquefied. Hold-down systems usually consist of vertical compression
struts that react against crossbeams that span the top of the form. These vertical struts are normally tapered,
coated with a debonding agent, and withdrawn after the concrete has hardened. In designing such systems, the
inner form must be analyzed to determine the spacing of the restraining struts, both for the span of the form
material between struts, and for the local stresses imposed by the struts. When expanded polystyrene blocks are
used, appropriately sized pads are placed on top of the block under each strut to prevent localized compression
failure of the block.
Flotation forces during concrete placement can be controlled to some extent by casting procedures and timing. If
the concrete initially placed directly under the void form is allowed to approach initial set before further concrete
is placed around the vertical form sides, the flotation forces are substantially reduced. In the fabrication of box
beams, some producers place the bottom slab as a first stage. After the concrete hardens―normally, the next
day―the void form is placed, an epoxy bond coat is applied to the cold joint, and the webs and top flange are
placed. For void forms with vertical sides, this results in very little uplift.

3.3.1.7.1 Mandrel Systems

A system of forming internal voids employs a vibrating steel slip form, normally referred to as a mandrel, which is
pulled through the concrete during placement. The concrete used with this technique must be designed with a
low slump so that it does not collapse after the mandrel passes. Mandrels must have a constant cross section
throughout their length, and they are not easily modified to produce shapes with varying dimensions. Together
with the necessary winches and tooling required for their operation, mandrels represent a significant investment

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3.3.1.7.1 Mandrel Systems/3.3.1.7.2 Retractable Inner Forms

for the precast producer. Consequently, their use is normally limited to standard cross sections. Figure 3.3.1.7.1-
1 shows a typical mandrel used for casting hollow, prestressed concrete piles. The design of endplates and
bulkheads is complicated by the need for the mandrel to pass. Solid sections or diaphragms within a precast
concrete member, if required, are usually added later with a secondary cast.
Figure 3.3.1.7.1-1
Cylindrical Slip Form for “Mandrel” Hollow Piling

3.3.1.7.2 Retractable Inner Forms

Retractable inner void forms are stationary, and the concrete is cast around them to create the void. These forms
must be designed to collapse for removal after the concrete has hardened. Articulating forms of this nature, as
well as their retraction tooling, are expensive, and such forms are normally reserved for standard shapes with
large voids (such as box beams) or for large projects that can tolerate high initial tooling costs. Figure 3.3.1.7.2-1
illustrates a typical retractable form.
Figure 3.3.1.7.2-1
Removable Void Form

a) Void Form Expanded for Casting b) Void Form Retracted for Removal

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3.3.1.7.3 Sacrificial Inner Forms/3.3.2.1.1 Abutment Beds

3.3.1.7.3 Sacrificial Inner Forms

Sacrificial inner forms can be made from wax-coated cardboard tubes or boxes, prefabricated plywood boxes, or
blocks of expanded polystyrene. The choice of material depends on the size and shape of the voids. For example,
voids in a typical 4-ft-wide by 2-ft-deep slab beam are usually formed with cardboard tubes plugged with
plywood endplates. However, to create the inner void of a large box beam, the choice may be between (a) blocks
of expanded polystyrene cut to size with hot wires or (b) boxes constructed from plywood. Expanded polystyrene
is the most common choice because it is relatively inexpensive and eliminates the risk of collapse that can occur
with hollow-void forms. All internal void forms need to be vented to the surface to avoid entrapped gas and
moisture that could expand and damage the fresh concrete. The voids must also be restrained from moving as
bottom flange and web concrete is placed. Figure 3.3.1.7.3-1 illustrates typical applications of sacrificial inner
forms
Figure 3.3.1.7.3-1
Stay-in-Place Inner Forms

a) Waxed Cardboard Tube b) Polystyrene Foam Billet

3.3.2 Prestressing
Careful control of the prestressing operation is critical to the quality of prestressed concrete products. The
following sections describe common types of beds used for pretensioning, typical procedures, and controls
employed to ensure that the proper level of prestress is delivered to the concrete. Pretensioning procedures apply
only to strand, as prestressing bars are not used in pretensioned applications. Preston (1990) describes the
manufacture of strand and its corrosion characteristics; precautions during use and for handling; and special
considerations during concrete curing and transfer of prestress.

3.3.2.1 Types of Pretensioning Beds

In addition to the self-stressing forms described in Section 3.3.1.1, two basic types of prestressing beds are
commonly used in precast plants. These are generally referred to as “abutment-type” beds, and “strutted” beds. In
contrast to self-stressing forms, both types of pretensioning beds are independent of the formwork used to cast
the member.

3.3.2.1.1 Abutment Beds

A bed employing abutments normally consists of a full length concrete slab, which is substantially thickened at
each end to provide foundations for the support of vertical steel or concrete “uprights” (abutments). A typical
profile is shown in Fig. 3.3.2.1.1-1. The center portion of the slab is designed to carry the highest design axial
force from the prestressing operation, as well as vertical forces created by deflected strands. The thickened ends
are designed to transfer concentrated loads from the abutments into the body of the slab, and to resist
overturning moments from the eccentricity of the prestress force. Global overturning is usually countered by the

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3.3.2.1.1 Abutment Beds/3.3.2.1.2 Strutted Beads

inertial resistance of the concrete foundation’s mass. Although abutment beds have the highest capacity among
available types, all pretensioning beds are limited in the number of strands that can be accommodated, due to
either the total prestressing force or the strand eccentricity from the bed’s center of resistance. Bridge designers
should check with local producers for pretensioning capabilities.
Figure 3.3.2.1.1-1
Permanent Prestressing Bed with Fixed Abutments

Steel abutments are usually inserted into “slots” or “trenches” cast into the foundation. Although slots limit the
transverse adjustment capability of the abutments, they are more economically incorporated into the foundation
design. Trenches provide a large degree of flexibility, but they are more expensive to accommodate. The type
chosen depends on the anticipated use of the facility. When necessary, strands are distributed transversely by
“cross heads” spanning horizontally between uprights. “Distributions,” or templates, which are independent of the
stressing hardware, are also employed to deflect strands vertically or horizontally from the configuration of the
holes in the standard stressing hardware to the configuration required for the precast concrete member.

3.3.2.1.2 Strutted Beds

Strutted beds employ independent compression struts running from end to end. Figure 3.3.2.1.2-1 schematically
shows a strutted bed. The strands are stressed between cross heads, which span from strut to strut. These setups
are normally reserved for strand patterns in a few horizontal planes, such as with prestressed slab beams or wall
panels.

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3.3.2.1.2 Strutted Beads/3.3.2.2. Strand Profile

Figure 3.3.2.1.2-1
“Strutted” Prestressing Bed

3.3.2.2 Strand Profile

Pretensioning strands can project straight through the length of a member or be deflected in straight segments to
a desired profile, or a combination of both straight and deflected strands can be used. Straight strands are the
simplest to install and tension, whereas deflected strands, normally referred to as “harped” or “draped” strands,
more closely follow the moment envelope of flexural members. Figure 3.3.2.2-1 illustrates how varying strand
profiles correlate with typical moment envelopes. Post-tensioned strands can be straight, or they can be draped in
a curved profile to best fit the moment envelope. Post-tensioned bars are normally used for straight profiles only.

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3.3.2.2 Strand Profile/3.3.2.2.1 Straight Strands

Figure 3.3.2.2-1
Bottom Fiber Stresses for Three Strand Profiles

Note: These graphs represent simple-span I-beams

with a 6-ft spacing designed for zero tension.

3.3.2.2.1 Straight Strands

Historically, pretensioned members containing straight strands only, were normally wide and relatively shallow,
such as voided-slab beams and some box beams. In recent years, advancements in design, testing, and codification
have fostered the use of straight strands in deep bridge beams such as I-beams and bulb tees. In shallow
members, the strands are distributed horizontally across the width of the member as uniformly and
symmetrically as possible, although the strands can be offset to some degree to avoid openings or other
obstructions. By necessity, the eccentricity of the prestressing force would be relatively small. Otherwise,
excessive tensile and compressive stresses can develop at the ends of the member, where these stresses are not
offset by the member dead load moment. Straight strands in the top of the member can compensate for such
excessive stresses to some degree, but the use of straight, top strands often results in design inefficiencies as the
presence top strands will decrease the precompression stress at the bottom of the member. The most common
approach to control end stresses is to debond some of the strands at the member ends. Harping strands that are
distributed across a wide, shallow member is very difficult and should be avoided. In deep sections, large
eccentricities are needed and the resulting concrete stresses at the ends are controlled through debonding.
Debonding is an effective tool, and the method is discussed in Section 3.3.2.9.

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3.3.2.2.2 Harped Strands/3.3.2.2.3 Harping Devices

3.3.2.2.2 Harped Strands

Harped strands are most commonly used in the webs of relatively deep members, such as I-beams, bulb tees,
stemmed sections, and deep box beams. The resulting reduction of the eccentricity of the prestressing force at the
member ends lessens or eliminates the need for debonding. Harped strands can be deflected in one or more
locations along the length of the member. As Fig. 3.3.2.2-1 shows, a single midspan harp provides better
correlation to the moment envelope than straight strands, but the correlation is not as good as that for multiple
harp locations in a concrete member. For negative moments created by cantilevers, the strands can be lifted at the
location of the support and held at the top of the member for the length of the cantilever. For safety reasons, the
slope of deflected strands should not exceed about 9 degrees. At present, only strands with a diameter 0.6 in or
less can be harped; 0.7-in.-diameter strands are too stiff and have too much force to allow harping with current
technology.

3.3.2.2.3 Harping Devices

Devices used to deflect pretensioned strands at the point of the harp vary from plant to plant. Figure 3.3.2.2.3-1
illustrates common device types. Some devices maintain the same strand spacing throughout the length of the
member, others bundle the strands into one or more vertical rows, and still others bundle the strands at one or
more discrete locations. Maintaining constant strand spacing throughout the member is normally not necessary
unless the member is unusually short. In fact, constant spacing limits the maximum strand eccentricity that could
otherwise be achieved. Bundling strands at discrete locations provides optimum eccentricity, although the
strands must be splayed between the harp point and the member ends to ensure bond development of each
individual strand. Different harping devices are used with different products and with different harping methods.
Figure 3.3.2.2.3-1
Harping Devices

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3.3.2.2.4 Anchorage of Harping Devices

3.3.2.2.4 Anchorage of Harping Devices

Some forms are designed to accommodate deflected strands and therefore provide for the attachment of harping
devices to the form. “One-piece” forms without removable sides, such as those used to cast stemmed members,
commonly have this feature. With this form type, the endplates and bulkheads are designed to hold the strands in
position at the ends of products (Fig. 3.3.2.2.3-1b). The strands are first stressed straight and then are
subsequently pushed down from the top of the form at midspan with “fork-type” harping devices and secured by
greased, tapered steel pins. The harping hardware can normally be anchored anywhere along the length of the
form. After the concrete has cured, the tapered pins are pulled from the top of the members, and the holes are
filled with approved durable material. Strands can also be pulled down and anchored from beneath some forms.
For other types of bridge members such as I-beams, bulb tees, and box beams, most plants anchor harping devices
to the concrete floor of the prestressing bed with embedments provided at a constant spacing. Normally, the
member design is not especially sensitive to the harp location, and generous tolerances on the longitudinal
location of the harp point (on the order of 18 to 20 in.) should be specified to allow the use of established anchor
locations. At the ends of the member, the harped strands are usually held in position not by the endplates, but
rather by steel “horses” and blocks that are placed beyond the endplates of the form. When the harped strands are
held at a location away from the endplate, it is difficult to maintain small tolerances on their vertical positions at
the points where they enter the member. Therefore, if the member design is not sensitive to vertical location of
the harped strands at the member ends, generous tolerances (on the order of ±1 in.) should be specified.
Figure 3.3.2.2.4-1 shows the vertical and horizontal forces developed by the harping operation. Both types of
force must be considered when selecting the type and number of harping devices. Local producers should be
consulted about the harping capabilities on specific products. Vertical harp forces that exceed the capacity of the
harping devices can usually be split into two or more locations that straddle the intended location. Horizontal
forces occur when the angle of the harped strands differs on each side of the harping device and can be a problem
for the “push-down” harping method described previously. The tapered pins used in this procedure are relatively
long and slender, and they are normally not designed for combined flexure and axial loads. For this reason, unless
the tapered pins are designed for combined flexure and axial loads, stemmed members manufactured with this
method should be designed either with straight strands or with a single harp at midspan only. Devices holding
harped strands from beneath the form are generally not subject to this limitation.
Figure 3.3.2.2.4-1
Calculating Harping Forces

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3.3.2.3 Tensioning/3.3.2.5 Tensioning Prestressing Steel

3.3.2.3 Tensioning
Procedures used to tension prestressing steel vary widely, but all share the results of imparting the intended
amount of precompression to the concrete at a given location. The following sections describe the procedures and
controls used in the tensioning operation, as well as corrections for the influence of external variables. Precast
plants compensate for the effects of external influences in each casting line and should be consulted for specific
information. Although the following discussion chiefly addresses pretensioning with strand, many aspects are
also applicable to post-tensioning with strand or bars.

3.3.2.4 Pretensioning Configuration

Figure 3.3.2.4-1 shows a typical pretensioning setup. The end of the bed from which the strands are tensioned or
jacked is referred to as the “live” end, and the opposite end is called the “dead” end. In most cases, the precast
concrete member is shorter than the prestressing bed. To reduce the amount of strand that is cut off and wasted
daily, the member is positioned in the line as close as possible to the dead end. This positioning also reduces the
amount of stressed “free” strand that must be dealt with during transfer (as discussed in Section 3.3.2.8). This
minimum dimension is normally dictated by the need to deflect the strands from standard holes in the abutments
into the endplate at the end of the precast concrete member while maintaining a shallow slope on the strands (see
Section 3.3.2.2.2). Positioning the member in this manner normally leaves free strand at the live end. To reduce
strand waste, most producers use “lead” or “bridle” strands at the live end, which are spliced onto the production
strands and then reused each day of casting.

Figure 3.3.2.4-1
Typical Pretensioning Bed Profile Showing Strand Tensioning and Deviation Devices

3.3.2.5 Tensioning Prestressing Steel

Prestressing steel is tensioned to the intended force with hydraulic pumps and rams. The tensioning system is
calibrated to correlate the force delivered to the prestressing steel with a gage pressure read by the operator. The
single most important control over this operation is a check of the calculated value of strand elongation compared
with the actual elongation measured during the tensioning process. These values must agree (within 5% for
pretensioning according to the Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete
Products [PCI, 2021], and 7% according to the AASHTO LRFD Construction Specifications (AASHTO, 2020A) for
post-tensioning) to validate the procedure. This correlation provides assurances that equipment malfunction
would be detected if it were to occur during tensioning operations. In addition, many variables enter into
elongation calculations, all of which must be considered to properly compare the results. PCI-certified plant
processes capture this fundamental quality control information. Strands may be tensioned individually, or as a
group. In pretensioning, procedures differ for these two methods. A plant’s quality system manual will address its
specific method for tensioning.

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3.3.2.5.1 Tensioning Individual Strands/3.3.2.7 Variables Affecting Strand Elongation

3.3.2.5.1 Tensioning Individual Strands

A strand tensioned individually is first jacked to an initial force, or “index” load, somewhere between 5% and 25%
of its final tensioning force to take up any slack in the system, which can hamper the reliability of elongation
measurements. An initial measurement of the ram extension is taken, and the strand is then tensioned to 100% of
its design force. The ram extension is again measured, and the difference between the measured extensions
should reasonably match the calculated incremental elongation. This same procedure is also used for post-
tensioning single strands or bars. Post-tensioned bars are normally tensioned individually. In this case, the
concrete element is elastically shortening as the load is applied.

3.3.2.5.2 Tensioning Strands as a Group

For strands tensioned as a group (this is sometimes called “gang tensioning” or “multiple-strand tensioning”), the
pretensioning procedure is slightly different than that for strands tensioned individually. Before the strands are
jacked to their initial load, each individual strand is “preloaded” to an initial force smaller than the index load
(usually about 2,000 lb). This is done to ensure that all strands begin the tensioning process with the same
amount of force. The tensioning then proceeds in the same manner as for individual strands. Preloading is
normally not required in stressing multiple-strand post-tensioning systems since the strands are confined within
a duct and have about the same amount of slack.

3.3.2.6 Prestressing Strand Elongation

The basic equation for the elongation of prestressing steel is:
𝑃𝑠 𝐿
𝐷= (Eq. 3.3.2.6-1)
𝐴𝑠 𝐸
Variations in the steel area and modulus of elasticity are common, though usually quite small. The areas of
prestressing strands shown in Table 2.11-1 are reliable average values, as are the areas for prestressing bars
listed in the same table. The average value for the modulus of elasticity is 28,600 ksi for prestressing strand and
29,000 ksi for prestressing bars. The use of average values for area and modulus of elasticity are normally
satisfactory for elongation calculations. If a higher-than-normal degree of precision is necessary, mill certificates
available from the steel manufacturers provide the actual area and modulus of elasticity for each heat of steel.
Equation 3.3.2.6-1 is based on several idealized assumptions. Namely, the prestressing steel
• has a uniform modulus of elasticity and cross section of constant area,
• is held by infinitely stiff supports at each end, and
• is maintained at a constant temperature.
In reality, strand often has factory splices within its length; prestressing bed components deform to varying
degrees under compressive load; and some movement or “seating” occurs at the anchorage devices. Steel
temperatures are rarely constant, particularly when the temperature of the fresh concrete differs substantially
from the ambient temperature. Consequently, the basic equation must be modified to account for these
unavoidable factors.

3.3.2.7 Variables Affecting Strand Elongation

External variables fall into two categories: those requiring adjustments to the jacking force, and those that merely
result in additional elongation. Since the operator is jacking to a predetermined gage pressure, irrespective of the
ram extension, the definitive point in time separating the two categories is when the jacks reach 100% of their
intended load, just before the live end chucks are seated. For multiple-strand jacking, all external influences
occurring before live end seating show up as additional elongation. Live end seating and the effects of any
subsequent external influences are corrected by adjustments to the jacking force, subject to the limitations on the
maximum stress in the strand given in LRFD Table 5.9.3-1. PCI’s Quality Control Technician/Inspector Level I & II

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3.3.2.7 Variables Affecting Strand Elongation/3.3.2.7.5 Temperature Corrections

Training Manual (2016A) and Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete
Products (PCI, 2021) further discuss influences external to the prestressing process and provide examples of
elongation calculations.

3.3.2.7.1 Dead-End and Splice Chuck Seating

As the strands are tensioned, they move through the chucks as the wedges seat into the chuck barrels. The
additional elongation from this source is the incremental movement that occurs between the index load and final
load. This is normally small (on the order of ⅛ in. per chuck) since most of the movement occurs while jacking to
the index load. Dead-end and splice chuck seating are independent of whether the strands are jacked individually
or as a group. However, where bridles are used with multiple-strand tensioning, the same number of splice
chucks should be used on each strand in the system to ensure uniform elongation values.

3.3.2.7.2 Elongation of Abutment Anchor Rods

Some multiple-strand tensioning systems employ steel blocks and anchor rods for jacking purposes. Figure
3.3.2.4-1 illustrates this system. The stretching of these rods may add to the elongation of the system and the
apparent elongation of the strands, depending on where the measurements are taken.

3.3.2.7.3 Prestressing Bed Deformations

Prestressing beds are heavily loaded and will shorten axially during jacking. For abutment-type beds, this
shortening is usually minimal. For strutted beds and self-stressing forms, the relatively small area of the
compression members can result in significant shortening. Uprights and cross-heads will also deflect under load.
For multiple-strand tensioning, these deformations are of no consequence, other than to add elongation to the
system. However, prestressing bed deformations will influence the final load on strands stressed individually.
Theoretically, the bed shortens incrementally as each strand is jacked. Strands tensioned early in the sequence
will lose force as subsequent strands are tensioned. This is normally corrected by over-tensioning strands jacked
early in the sequence. Depending on the number of strands, one or more groups can be over-tensioned to average
values. If the earliest strands cannot be jacked high enough to compensate for the total bed shortening (due to
specification limits), then retensioning is required. Post-tensioning is comparable to pretensioning with self-
stressing forms, with the obvious difference being that the “form” is the concrete member itself, which undergoes
elastic shortening as the load from the strand jacking is applied.

3.3.2.7.4 Live-End Chuck Seating

When strand is pretensioned individually, it is normally pulled through the live-end chuck by a center-hole ram
that bears directly on the chuck. The direction of the pull is opposite that which seats the wedges. Therefore,
when the force in the strand is released, the strand will move through the chuck significantly more than dead-end
or splice chucks (on the order of ⅜ in.). This is corrected by increasing the jacking load to compensate for the
expected seating value.
Multiple-strand pretensioning systems normally are locked off with abutment anchor rods, as described in
Section 3.3.2.7.2. Therefore, the live-end chucks seat much the same as dead-end or splice chucks, with the result
being a small net gain in elongation. With most systems, seating of abutment anchor rods is relatively small
(about ⅛ in.). Some multiple-strand post-tensioning rams have secondary pistons that seat the live-end wedges
before releasing the load, thereby reducing the amount of seating loss at the live end.

3.3.2.7.5 Temperature Corrections

Strands that are tensioned at cold temperatures and then exposed to relatively warm concrete (or grout for post-
tensioning) will undergo thermal expansion and lose some of the force applied during jacking. When the strand is
warmer than the concrete, the strands will undergo thermal contraction, increasing the prestressing force. Table
3.3.2.7.5-1 shows the percentage of prestress change as a function of the temperature differential and the
percentage of the bed used.

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Table 3.3.2.7.5-1
Percentage of Strand Stress Change due to Temperature
Differentials
Temperature Variation (Degrees Fahrenheit)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
5 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
10 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5
15 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7
20 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
25 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
30 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5
35 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7
% of Bed in Use

40 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
45 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2
50 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.5
55 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.7
60 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0
65 0.3 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2
70 0.3 0.7 1.0 1.4 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.8 3.1 3.4
75 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.3 3.7
80 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.9
85 0.4 0.8 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.2
90 0.4 0.9 1.3 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.1 3.5 4.0 4.4
95 0.5 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.7 4.2 4.7
100 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

Again, corrections for anticipated temperature differentials can be made by adjusting the jacking force. This
correction is not applicable to self-stressing forms because the form changes length with temperature change,
countering changes in strand force.

3.3.2.7.6 Friction
Friction is another external variable that must be addressed in the prestressing operation. In pretensioning,
friction is normally not a issue with straight strands, but it can significantly reduce the force in the strands at the
dead end if the strands are deflected at several points along the bed. If this is a problem with a particular bed
setup, it will be indicated by a reduction in the measured elongations.
Rather than compensating for friction in the jacking load or elongation calculations, most plants have developed
tensioning or harping procedures that diminish the effects of friction. For example, some proprietary harping
devices feature rollers to decrease friction losses when the strands are tensioned in the harped position (Fig.
3.3.2.2.3-1a). These devices are usually expensive and limit the eccentricity that can otherwise be achieved with
harped strands. Some plants tension the strands in a straight, or partially deflected profile, then complete harping
after the strands are tensioned. The resulting change in geometry will increase the force in the strand. With
multiple-strand pretensioning systems, the strands can either be undertensioned to compensate for the expected
increase in force, or the rams can be relaxed concurrent with the harping operation to maintain the same force
level in the strands. Strands that are jacked individually can be tensioned to lower forces to compensate for the
added force due to the change in geometry.
Friction during post-tensioning is unavoidable, and it is therefore inherent in elongation calculations. In curved
tendons, the strands are in contact with the duct for most of their length, and consequently develop a significant
amount of friction. The PTI Post-Tensioning Manual and LRFD Specifications provide guidance and example
calculations for the amount of friction that can be expected when post-tensioning tendons.

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3.3.2.8 Transfer/3.3.2.8.3 Transfer at Bulkheads

3.3.2.8 Transfer
Once the concrete has achieved its specified compressive strength for transfer (as determined by cylinder tests or
other nondestructive testing methods), the force (tension) in the strands is transferred from the prestressing bed
into the product. This is often referred to as detensioning or releasing the strands. If the concrete cure has been
accelerated by heat, the product should still be near its maximum temperature at the time of transfer. Otherwise,
the unstressed concrete will cool and contract, sometimes resulting in vertical, transverse cracks along the length
of the member.
Force in the strands can be released hydraulically or by flame cutting, or with a combination of both methods.
Hydraulic transfer is normally used with multiple-strand tensioning systems, whereas heat from a cutting torch is
used with both multiple- and single-strand systems. The sequence of transfer is very important for safety reasons,
as well as to avoid damage to the product. Strands should always be transferred symmetrically.
It has been shown that abrupt, single-strand transfer resulting from rapid cutting with oxy-acetylene torches, can
result in small spiderweb-like cracking from bursting or splitting stressing at or near the beam end. Gang transfer
results in a more gradual release of force with often less end cracking.

3.3.2.8.1 Hydraulic Transfer

With hydraulic transfer of force, the strands are usually relaxed (jacked down) from the live end with the same
tensioning system used to jack them. Because the strand is bonded with the concrete, the free strand at the dead
end will tend to pull the product toward the dead end as the live-end force is released. The lesser the amount of
free strand is, the less the tendency to slide will be. If the member slides, it can bind in the form. Items projecting
through the formwork, such as harping device hold-downs, can damage both the product and the formwork.
Sliding can be prevented in two ways:
• Let the live end down in increments, while heat cutting the appropriate number of strands at the dead end.
For example, in a line with eight strands, the live-end force can be released in 25% increments, with two
strands being cut at the dead end after each increment.
• Use short stroke “let-down” rams at the dead end. These rams are released proportionally to the live-end
rams, allowing the force in the strands to remain the same at both ends of the member.

3.3.2.8.2 Transfer by Flame Cutting

When flame cutting is used without hydraulic transfer, individual strands must be cut simultaneously at both
ends of the member. When strands are cut at one end only, the force in each remaining strand will increase,
possibly to the breaking point. The prestressing forces must be kept as equal as possible at each end throughout
the entire procedure. Strands must be cut in a pattern where a strand on one side of the member is cut and then
the mirror image strand must be cut. If the strands are cut beginning from one edge and cut in one direction
toward the other edge, an unequal prestressing force will occur, which will cause a sideways deflection called
“sweep.” Often, strands will be cut in a pattern set by the plant engineer to avoid or minimize cracking in the
member during release.
For safety reasons, flame cutting should only be applied to relatively short lengths of tensioned free strand, and
then only after applying initial detempering heat to allow the strands to yield and relax before they are cut. This
process not only results in improved safety but also reduces the abrupt shock to the precast concrete member.

3.3.2.8.3 Transfer at Bulkheads

When several members are cast end to end in a line, it may be necessary to cut the strands between members
simultaneously with the ends, depending on the type of bulkheads used. Bulkheads can be designed to resist the
compressive forces developed between members as the ends of the line are transferred. In this case, the strands
between members can be cut after the line has been transferred. However, “soft” bulkheads, such as those made

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from wood, will crush and allow the precast concrete members to slide if the strands between members are not
cut simultaneously with the ends.

3.3.2.8.4 Harped Strand Considerations at Transfer

The vertical forces developed by harped strands can cause cracking in the tops of members if the harp hold-
downs are released before transfer. These forces can sometimes exceed the weight of the member and cause the
member to lift from the bed. In these cases, enough prestress must be transferred before the hold-down devices
are released to reduce the uplift. This partial transfer must be done symmetrically at both ends of the bed to
prevent overstressing the remaining strands.

3.3.2.9 Strand Debonding

In pretensioned members, strands can be debonded for all or part of the member length for three reasons:
• To reduce excessive concrete stresses at the member ends
• To allow the casting of members having different numbers of strand in the same bed
• To prevent concrete bond to strands used for temporary handling and shipping purposes
Various methods are used for debonding, including encapsulating the strand in sheaths (also referred to as
“blanketing” or “sleeving”) or applying a bond breaker to the surface of the strand. The effectiveness of these
methods varies.
The bond of concrete to tensioned strand develops from several mechanisms as described by Gerwick (1993).
These include the following:
• Chemical adhesion
• Shrinkage of the concrete surrounding the strand
• Mechanical interlock on the deformations between the intertwined wires
• Swelling of the strand after transfer due to Poisson’s ratio, commonly referred to as the “Hoyer” effect
Bond breakers on strand generally serve to reduce only the chemical adhesion and, therefore, are not as effective
as strand encapsulation.
Debonded strands can be encapsulated with different materials, some more effective than others. The key
properties of encapsulating materials are watertightness, strength, and durability to withstand concrete
placement, and nonreactivity with concrete or steel. The material must provide enough space between the
concrete and strand to mitigate the effects of concrete shrinkage and strand swelling. The sheaths must be
properly sealed to avoid intrusion of cement paste during concrete placement and consolidation.

3.3.3 Nonprestressed Reinforcement and Embedments

In precast concrete fabrication, the placement of mild reinforcement and embedments is generally simpler than in
cast-in-place construction, which further improves the quality of plant-cast products. This section describes
methods used by precast concrete manufacturers to secure embedments and provides detailing hints that take
full advantage of plant-cast products.

3.3.3.1 Placement and Attachment

Precast concrete products are normally cast in an orientation providing the easiest access for placement of
embedded items. Although most methods of securing embedments do not differ between precast concrete and
cast-in-place construction, the ease of access is critical to the quality of the finished product. For example, vertical
members such as piles, piers, and abutment walls are cast and shipped horizontally by precast plants, and they
are only tipped to vertical for erection purposes. In members that are not pretensioned, mild steel reinforcement
cages are typically set into forms, rather than the forms being placed around them, facilitating the inspection of

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concrete cover and embedment locations. Placing, tying, and inspecting mild reinforcing bars are much more
efficient when the member is cast horizontally at ground level, rather than high in the air or below grade.
Tensioned prestressing strands provide an excellent platform for supporting mild reinforcement. Whenever
possible, mild reinforcement transverse to the member should be detailed to be tied directly to the strands. This
provides excellent control of the bar location and minimizes the need for “chairs” or “bolsters.” Chairs can be used
to support the strands if they sag under the weight of the bars. Whenever possible, mild steel reinforcement
should be detailed for installation after strands are tensioned. Sections 3.2.3.1 and 3.2.3.4 provide suggestions for
efficient reinforcement configurations.

3.3.3.2 Installation of Lifting Devices

The installation of lifting devices is critical to the safe handling of precast concrete products. Improperly designed
or installed devices could fail, with potentially catastrophic consequences. Section 3.2.4.4 describes common
configurations. Proprietary devices should be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Generic devices must be properly designed and installed. For any type of lifting device, a very important
consideration is proper consolidation of concrete around the device and its anchorage.
The most common type of generic lifting device for large bridge products is prestressing strand lift loops. In many
cases, multiple loops are required at each location. When using multiple loops, each must be held at the same
height above the concrete surface, and each must be engaged by the straight pin of a shackle. It is very important
that each strand in the group carry its proportionate share of the load. Also, inserting multiple strands into metal
pipes or conduits, then bending both the pipe and the strand to the desired loop shape, does not ensure that each
strand will carry its proportionate share of the load. Curved engagement surfaces, such as a hook or the curved
end of a shackle, will load the loops unevenly, potentially creating a progressive failure of individual loops. The
legs of each loop should be splayed to allow concrete to envelop them individually. Bundled loop legs can exhibit
significantly reduced capacity.

3.3.3.3 Concrete Cover

The amount of concrete cover surrounding reinforcement is important for providing protection of the steel from
corrosion. Cover must be sufficient to allow the largest aggregate particles to pass between the reinforcement and
the form. Because of superior control of form dimensions, reinforcement placement, concrete quality, curing, and
inspection procedures, ACI 318 allows the concrete cover requirements for precast concrete products to be less
than those required for cast-in-place construction. Concrete cover in precast concrete fabrication is normally
ensured by the use of “chairs” or “bolsters,” by the rigidity of pretensioned strands, or by a combination of both.

3.3.3.4 Steel Spacing Design

The spacing of prestressing steel and mild reinforcement must be sufficient to allow the largest aggregate
particles to pass freely between strands or bars. Section 3.2.2.3 discusses the minimum spacing of prestressing
strand. For precast concrete, the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2020B) requires the minimum clear distance
between parallel mild steel reinforcing bars in a layer to be not less than 1 bar diameter, 1.33 times the maximum
aggregate size, or 1 in. These restrictions are intended to allow concrete to fully envelop the reinforcement. At
closer spacings, the reinforcement can act much like a sieve, segregating the larger coarse aggregate particles
from the cement paste and smaller aggregate.
Most precast plants use coarse aggregate gradations with a maximum particle size of ¾ in. For members with
reinforcing bar sizes of No. 8 or less, this means a minimum clear distance between bars of 1 in. At this spacing, it
is not practical to effectively use even the smallest of internal vibrators (normally called “stingers,” the smallest of
which are 1 in. in diameter) to consolidate the concrete, making external vibration the only reliable method
available for consolidation. Limiting possible consolidation methods can increase production costs, particularly if
the standard side forms are not stiff enough to withstand external vibration or have not been previously equipped

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3.3.3.4 Steel Spacing Design/3.3.4.3 Normal Weight Concrete

with external vibrator tracks. When possible, reinforcement spacing should be maximized to allow concrete to be
consolidated with either internal or external vibration, to reduce cost and improve the quality of the finished
product.
Other embedments can also create congestion. Post-tensioning ducts in thin beam webs can obstruct a substantial
percentage of the web, making internal vibration of the concrete below the level of the duct very difficult. The
LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2020B) limit the maximum duct size to 54% of the web width (LRFD Article
5.4.6.2), but some states have used ratios as high as 55%. Forcing internal stingers past ducts can dent and
possibly puncture the ducts, creating blockages that are difficult to clear. In this case, the webs should be detailed
to be thick enough for easy passage of the stinger, or external vibration should be used to consolidate the concrete
below the level of the ducts. Bridge designers should consult local producers for advice on embedment
configurations and clearances.

3.3.4 Concrete Batching, Mixing, Delivery, and Placement

Procedures used to batch and mix concrete for precast concrete bridge products do not differ substantially from
those used in cast-in-place concrete construction. Concrete is normally batched and mixed in a central stationary
mixer, although shrink mixing (partial central and partial truck mixing) can also be used. However, in plants that
mix their own concrete, the proximity of the mixer and final destination allows a wider range of delivery and
placement options.
The general requirements for equipment and procedures used for batching, mixing, delivering, and placing
concrete are covered in detail in Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast
Concrete Products (PCI, 2021). The required result of all processes, from mixer to final placement, is to provide
concrete of a uniform, consolidated consistency without segregation of aggregates and paste.

3.3.4.1 Delivery Systems

A wide range of methods are used by precast plants to deliver concrete from the mixer to the forms, including
pumps, conveyors, “sidewinders,” truck mixers, and short-haul buggies carrying buckets or hoppers. Typically,
delivery systems are designed to ensure a continuous supply of freshly mixed concrete for the duration of the
placement. By necessity, precast concrete products are limited in weight and do not require placement of large
volumes of concrete. Concrete can be batched, mixed, delivered, and placed by the plant in relatively small
quantities, resulting in excellent control of the concrete consistency.

3.3.4.2 Consolidation Techniques

As discussed in Section 3.3.1.2.1, forms for standard precast concrete bridge products are normally of steel
construction, and they are usually much stiffer than the typical forms used in cast-in-place construction. Part of
the reason for this is to allow the use of external form vibration. Areas of the cross section that are difficult to
reach with internal vibrators, such as the bottom flange of deep I-beams, are easily consolidated with external
vibration. Concrete consolidated with properly executed external vibration is extremely dense and durable. In
many cases, combinations of internal and external vibration are used to further enhance consolidation.

3.3.4.3 Normal Weight Concrete

The term “normal weight concrete” is conventionally used to describe mixes containing naturally occurring
igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic mineral aggregates. Such aggregates are predominantly siliceous or
calcareous in composition, with a specific gravity between 2.25 and 2.65. The resulting concrete unit weights are
normally between 145 and 160 pcf, with 28-day compressive strengths ranging from 5.0 ksi to in excess of 10.0
ksi in some parts of the United States.
The use of normal weight concrete is predominant in the production of precast concrete bridge products. For
most types of bridge members, normal weight concrete provides the best performance for the lowest cost.

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3.3.4.3 Normal Weight Concrete/3.3.4.5 High-Performance Concrete

Efficient, state-of-the-art precast concrete bridge products generally require relatively high concrete strengths in
slender sections that are congested with reinforcement. The resulting need for low water-cementitious materials
ratios and high workability has led to the widespread use of water-reducing admixtures. As discussed in Section
3.2.1.3.1, water-reducing admixtures can also reduce the working life of concrete. However, since the interval
between mixing and placing is short when precast plants mix and deliver their own concrete, optimum
workability is usually maintained throughout the duration of the placement.

3.3.4.4 Lightweight Concrete

Lightweight and semi-lightweight concretes can be produced with unit weights ranging from approximately 100
pcf up to the unit weight of normal weight concrete. This is done by replacing varying quantities of normal weight
aggregate with lightweight aggregate. For example, replacement of normal weight coarse aggregates with all
expanded shale, clay, and slate (ESCS) lightweight coarse aggregates can result in structural concretes with unit
weights as low as 110 pcf. Further reduction of the concrete unit weight is achieved by also replacing the normal
weight sand with lightweight sand. Additional information about structural lightweight concrete is found in ACI
PCR-213. (Also, see Sections 2.4.7.2 and 2.4.7.3.)
Members made with lightweight concrete are easier to handle and ship, and reduce the superstructure weight,
with resulting economies in substructure and seismic design. However, depending on the type of aggregate,
lightweight concrete can exhibit lower compressive strength and always has a lower modulus of elasticity than
comparable normal weight concrete. Therefore, deformations (camber, deflections, and elastic shortening) are
increased with lightweight concrete compared with normal weight concrete. Creep deformation is independent of
modulus of elasticity and, with some lightweight aggregates, it can be less than creep deformation in comparable
normal weight concrete. The ultimate shrinkage of lightweight concrete is also generally higher than that of
normal weight concrete. Values for creep, shrinkage, and splitting tensile strength (which affects shear strength)
should be provided by the aggregate supplier.
Editions of the LRFD Specifications published since 2011 contain provisions that address the growing use of
lightweight aggregate concrete. Additional information on the use of lightweight concrete in prestressed concrete
applications can be found in Russell (2007) and Cousins (2013). Procedures for batching, mixing, transporting,
and placing lightweight concrete are essentially the same as for normal weight concrete, although special
handling of the lightweight aggregate concrete must be considered. The aggregates must be saturated surface dry
prior to batching. Lightweight aggregate suppliers should be consulted for recommendations. For the “softer”
lightweight aggregates, overmixing should be avoided to prevent grinding of the aggregate. When using a
lightweight mix for the first time, sample batches should be used to verify that standard handling and placing
techniques will result in concrete of uniform consistency.

3.3.4.5 High-Performance Concrete

HPC is a mix exhibiting one or more specific properties in its hardened form, such as high strength, low
permeability, low shrinkage, or abrasion resistance. In some cases, change made to achieve a certain property
will result in improvement of other properties. For example, the density needed for concrete to exhibit low
permeability normally also results in high strength. There are those who believe that to achieve HPC, mineral
admixtures must be added to conventional, normal weight concrete. This is not necessarily the case. As reported
by Pfeifer, et al. (1996), the low water-cementitious materials ratio and accelerated curing required to achieve
overnight transfer strength result in concrete of comparable durability to moist-cured concrete with silica fume.
In some parts of the United States, materials and fabrication procedures are of such high quality that precast
plants routinely produce HPC with standard normal weight mixes.
Batching and mixing procedures for HPCs containing chemical or mineral admixtures are essentially the same as
the procedures for standard concretes, with the exception of the addition of the admixture. Admixtures should be
charged into the mixer in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Water-reducing admixtures

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usually provide better performance if they are added after the cement and water have initially reacted. Depending
on the type of HPC, some delivery systems are better than others. For example, concretes with relatively high
dosages of silica fume are overly cohesive and difficult to pump. Section 3.2.1.3 discusses the effects that different
types of admixtures have on concrete placement and consolidation. Sophisticated techniques, such as external
form vibration, are generally required to successfully place HPC in typical precast concrete bridge members.

3.3.4.6 Self-Consolidating Concrete

SCC is a high-flow concrete capable of filling forms with little or no vibration. This saves labor and often results in
a smooth, high-quality finish. SCC is too fluid to use a conventional slump test, so ASTM C1611, the slump flow
test, is used to evaluate SCC. In this test, an upside-down slump cone is filled with concrete and lifted. The
diameter or “spread” of the resulting pool of concrete is measured and recorded in place of slump. SCC typically
uses high-range water reducers to provide flow and may use viscosity-modifying admixtures to avoid segregation.
Vibration of SCC can lead to segregation, so SCC should be vibrated only when necessary and then for as little time
as possible.
Information on specifying, making and pouring SCC can be found in the PCI Guidelines for the Use of Self-
Consolidating Concrete In Precast/Prestressed Concrete (2015).

3.3.5 Concrete Curing

The economic viability of precast concrete depends on the ability of the plant to fabricate precast concrete
products on a daily basis. In special circumstances, forms can be used—“turned over”—twice each day. For some
precast concrete products, the required concrete strength at stripping may be low enough to allow normal curing
practices for the relatively short duration between casting and stripping. However, most pretensioned products
require relatively high concrete strengths at the transfer of prestress, which cannot be achieved without
accelerating the strength gain of the concrete. This section describes methods used by precast plants to accelerate
concrete curing, and the beneficial effects these techniques have on the properties of the concrete. Section 3.3.5.5
addresses both the quality control aspects and optimization of accelerated curing.
Apart from the use of Type III cement and accelerating admixtures, the primary method of accelerating the
strength gain of concrete is with the application of heat. This process, along with prevention of moisture loss
from, or introduction of moisture to, the hardening concrete, is called accelerated curing.

3.3.5.1 Benefits of Accelerated Curing

In a typical precast plant, stripping of the prior day’s casting and setup of a new member are normally scheduled
to be accomplished in a standard 8-hour shift. Assuming concrete placement occurs during the subsequent 4
hours, which leaves 12 to 16 hours to cure the concrete and achieve the required stripping or transfer strength
before the start of the next cycle. For most bridge products, accelerated curing is the only way to achieve these
strengths in the available curing period. Optimum application of modern cements, admixtures, and accelerated
curing systems can result in concrete strengths at transfer of prestress of 6.5 ksi and higher, facilitating a wide
variety of sophisticated, long-span products. The ability to achieve high overnight strength is not uniform
throughout the United States, nor is it consistent from plant to plant. Bridge designers should consult with local
producers. For economy, the specified transfer and stripping strengths should always be the minimum required
by design, subject to the LRFD Specifications minimum values of 4.0 ksi for pretensioned members (except piles),
or 3.5 ksi for post-tensioned members and pretensioned piles.
Accelerated curing is also beneficial to concrete durability. Studies by Klieger (1960) and Pfeifer, et al. (1982,
1987; 1996) have shown that accelerating the early strength development of concrete by heat curing improves
resistance to freezing and thawing, reduces chloride permeability, and decreases absorption and the volume of
permeable voids within the concrete. These benefits are particularly important in areas where deicing chemicals
are common, and in coastal areas.

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3.3.5.2 Preventing Moisture Loss/3.3.5.3 Methods of Accelerated Curing

3.3.5.2 Preventing Moisture Loss

Moisture loss from exposed surfaces must be prevented during the entire curing cycle. The following methods are
used to achieve this:
• Covering the exposed surface with wet burlap
• Covering the exposed surface with a polyethylene sheet vapor barrier
• Covering the exposed surface with impermeable curing blankets
• Applying a curing compound
Moisture loss varies depending on the geographic location of the plant, the ambient conditions, and whether the
bed is inside or outdoors. In cool climates with relatively high humidity, covering the product with an impervious
sheet during the curing cycle is generally all that is necessary. In hot climates with low humidity, additional means
of moisture retention, such as wet burlap or other absorbent material, may be necessary. Failure to take
precautions can allow rapid evaporation of mix water from the concrete, resulting in plastic shrinkage cracking
and, in severe cases, a loss of strength development in the affected area. Bridge designers should consult with
local manufacturers regarding applicable moisture-loss-prevention techniques.

3.3.5.3 Methods of Accelerated Curing

Accelerated curing is addressed in Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast
Concrete Products (PCI, 2021). Accelerated curing begins only after the concrete achieves its initial set, which is
generally 3 to 5 hours after batching. Once heat is applied, the temperature of the concrete is permitted to
increase at a rate of up to 36 °F per hour to a maximum concrete temperature of 158 °F, where it is held for the
remainder of the curing period. The maximum temperature may be exceeded in some circumstances by 5 °F for
up to 2 hours. When the concrete is appropriately modified with fly ash, ground-granulated blast-furnace slag, or
metakaolin, the curing temperature may be increased to 170 °F. If the precast concrete members are installed in a
location that is dry or subject to infrequent wetting in service, they may be cured at temperatures up to 180 °F.
There are additional provisions that apply to temperature, and the Manual for Quality Control for Plants and
Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021) should be consulted for details. Section 3.3.5.5
further discusses optimizing the accelerated curing cycle.
When heating the air surrounding the forms, uniform concrete curing temperatures are sometimes difficult to
control in members of variable or complex shape. Differential expansion between portions of a member with
varying volume-to-surface ratios can create thermal stresses at the interface, possibly causing cracks.
Thermostatic control is also difficult in some cases, as many heaters are not adjustable (they are either on or off),
and the temperature of the air in the enclosure will not be the same as the temperature of the concrete. For these
reasons, it is important to monitor the internal temperature of the concrete and not the temperature of the
enclosure.
All accelerated curing methods perform substantially better when used with metal forms as compared with
wooden forms. Wooden forms have inherent insulating properties that restrict heat from reaching the concrete.
Steel forms and concrete have similar thermal expansion properties, but the coefficient of thermal expansion for
wood is only about half of that for concrete, resulting in increased wear on wooden forms during repeated heating
cycles. Care must be taken when placing heaters around wooden forms, which have been known to catch fire
during the curing process.
With accelerated curing, the heat of hydration of the cementitious materials in the concrete must be considered
when determining the amount of heat to apply to the member. Massive members with large volume-to-surface
ratios generate large amounts of heat during hydration. High-performance concrete mixes combining portland
cement with mineral admixtures may exhibit increased heat of hydration. Internal concrete temperatures of the
first members cast under these circumstances should be closely monitored to ensure they remain below the
maximum allowable temperature and allowable rate of temperature rise.

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3.3.5.3.1 Accelerated Curing by Convection/3.3.5.3.3 Accelerated Curing with Steam

3.3.5.3.1 Accelerated Curing by Convection

The most common method of increasing the temperature of the concrete to accelerate curing is by elevating the
temperature of the air surrounding the form. A typical convection process involves “tenting” the form with a
frame and a polyethylene sheet or insulated tarp, and placing gas-fired forced air heaters under the tent. Figure
3.3.5.3.1-1 shows an insulated tarpaulin on a track-mounted reel. Depending on the member size, heaters from
50,000 to 500,000 Btu/hr are common. A rule of thumb is that 1 cubic yard of concrete will require about
2,000,000 to 4,000,000 Btu-hr to raise the concrete temperature approximately 100 °F in a 12-hour curing period.
To most accurately determine the concrete strength, producers use “match curing” cylinder devices to prepare
samples for compressive strength testing. In match curing, the internal temperature of the concrete product is
monitored and that information is used to adjust the curing temperature of test cylinders so that the cylinders
cure at the same temperature as the concrete product.
Figure 3.3.5.3.1-1
Track-Mounted Insulated Tarpaulin Reel

3.3.5.3.2 Accelerated Curing with Radiant Heat

Heat can also be provided by electric or gas radiant heaters. Producers have successfully cured small products by
using common hardware-store-variety heaters under the enclosure. If gas heaters are used the exhaust should be
vented away from the concrete product to avoid premature carbonation of the concrete surface from exposure to
carbon dioxide gas while still young. For larger products, such as stemmed members or box beams, finned tubes
installed under the form can be used to circulate hot water or hot oil from either a localized or central boiler. In
the case of hot water, a typical 2-in.-diameter finned tube operating at 200 °F will produce about 1,200 Btu/ft/hr.
Elaborate piping schemes are employed in an attempt to maintain uniform heat throughout the concrete cross
section. Antifreeze is added to the water to prevent the line from freezing when the system is inactive.

3.3.5.3.3 Accelerated Curing with Steam

Another method used to provide heat for accelerated curing is steam. Steam may be provided in a closed
circulating system or as “live” steam that is allowed to enter the enclosure, or a combination of both. Live steam
exhibits the same thermal characteristics as convection or radiant heat, with the added benefit of providing a
moisture-saturated environment. This moisture-saturated environment largely eliminates the potential for
moisture loss from exposed concrete surfaces. The ability to pipe the steam to the most advantageous locations,
and to control the boiler temperature and flow, allows good uniformity during curing. Advancements in today’s
steam generators have proven to be effective and efficient.
Two significant disadvantages of live steam curing are the high cost of energy required to generate the steam, and
the deleterious effect steam and condensed hot water have on the plant, tooling, and forms. Even the best curing
covers and energy-efficient boilers result in relatively high curing costs. In addition, collection of the condensate
runoff is costly and messy, and steam causes metal tooling and forms to corrode at an accelerated rate. This can
be particularly detrimental to strand anchorage devices and harping hardware.

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3.3.5.3.4 Accelerated Curing with Electric Heating Elements/3.3.5.5. Optimizing Concrete Curing

3.3.5.3.4 Accelerated Curing with Electric Heating Elements

The heat for accelerated curing can also be provided by electrical heating elements attached to the skin of metal
forms. These elements are firmly secured to the form skin, which is then covered with 2 to 3 in. of sprayed-on
foam insulation. The heat is provided by conduction through the metal form to the concrete.
Several advantages exist with this technology. First, the time-temperature curve can be programmed precisely to
deliver the optimum curing cycle. This can also be done with other curing systems, but with less direct control of
the concrete temperature. Further discussion of the optimum curing cycle can be found in Section 3.3.5.5.
The second advantage is that electric curing is energy efficient. The forms are heated directly, rather than energy
being wasted by heating the surrounding environment. Exposed areas of concrete are covered with impervious
curing blankets that are relatively light and easily removed. Typical installations consume significantly less
energy than other systems. Although there are initial costs associated with the elements, power distribution, and
computer controls, the long-term energy savings and superior curing control can provide a rapid payback when
compared with other systems.
A third advantage of electric curing is that by planning the spacing and control of the electric heating elements,
different parts of a member can be cured with varying energy outputs. Thin flanges can be treated differently than
bulky webs, resulting in a more uniform cure of the entire cross section, with less potential for cracking due to
thermal stresses. This degree of control is not available with any other curing system. Besides the relatively high
initial cost, one disadvantage of electric curing is that it can only be used with metal forms.

3.3.5.4 Curing Following Stripping

Specifications sometimes require an additional period of moist curing following the accelerated curing cycle.
Studies by Klieger (1960) have shown that this additional moist curing period is not necessary, and it may in fact
be detrimental to the freeze-thaw durability of the concrete. Accelerated curing by the application of heat is
equivalent or superior to the moist cure period specified for cast-in-place concrete. Further hydration of the
cement under moist conditions is not necessary after the accelerated cycle.
The Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021) limits
the cooling rate for heat-cured members to 50 °F per hour. In general, many decades of industry experience with
accelerated curing have not revealed any distress due to thermal shock. Additional discussions of extended moist
curing and stripping to storage in cold temperatures can be found in Energy-Efficient Accelerated Curing of
Concrete (PCI, 1981).

3.3.5.5 Optimizing Concrete Curing

The methods used to accelerate the early strength gain of concrete in precast bridge members, as well as the
benefits of accelerated curing, are discussed in Section 3.3.5. Section 3.3.5.3 introduces the concept of an optimum
curing cycle, which is made up of three critical stages:
• Stage 1—Preset or initial set period
• Stage 2—Rapid strength gain, during which the temperature gain of the concrete is accelerated
• Stage 3—Moderate strength gain, during which the maximum curing temperature is maintained
Regardless of curing method, plants monitor concrete temperature with thermocouples embedded in the product.
Because of heat gain from hydration of the cementitious materials, it is important that the temperature of the
concrete, not the air under the enclosure, be monitored during this process. This is discussed in Section 3.3.5.3. In
more sophisticated systems, a computer monitors the thermocouples and automatically adjusts the heat applied
to the product by activating switches or valves. Some plants use nighttime personnel to control the heat
application. In either case, the goal is to add heat energy to augment the heat of hydration and achieve a
temperature that follows a predetermined optimum cycle.

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3.3.5.5. Optimizing Concrete Curing/3.3.5.5.2 Rate of Heat Application

The following sections describe the quality control aspects of this process.

3.3.5.5.1 Determination of Preset Time

As introduced in Section 3.3.5.3, application of heat should begin only after the concrete has taken its initial set.
Temperatures as low as 125 °F have been shown by Hanson (1963) to significantly decrease the 28-day strength
of the concrete when heat is applied with an insufficient preset period. Concrete placed in warm or cold
temperatures should be maintained at the placement temperature until the preset period is complete. This preset
period is currently established by AASHTO T197 (ASTM C403) for each mix design in use. Unfortunately, this test
procedure is difficult and time consuming to perform in the plant.
There is an alternate test method which is easier to perform. In lieu of initial set, it is now recognized that the
optimum time to start the application of heat may correspond more closely to the initial development of the
cement’s heat of hydration. This point can be determined by a hydration chamber, which is an enclosure in which
freshly mixed concrete is placed and maintained in nearly adiabatic conditions. Using commercially available
chambers, it is possible to determine the onset of hydration, and hence determine the optimum preset period.
Electric curing equipment suppliers offer curing systems in which the computer controller, with the aid of a
hydration chamber, automatically determines the optimum preset time and programs the curing cycle.
Thermocouples in the precast concrete members drive heated cylinder molds that provide test cylinders with an
identical time-temperature history as the members in the forms (match curing).
If too much time elapses before heat is introduced, the effectiveness of accelerated curing is reduced.

3.3.5.5.2 Rate of Heat Application

Once heat is applied, the rate of heat gain must be controlled to prevent damage to the concrete. The LRFD Bridge
Construction Specifications (Article 8.11.3.5, AASHTO, 2020A) and Manual for Quality Control for Plants and
Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021) limit the temperature rise to a maximum of 40 °F
and 36 °F per hour, respectively.
The optimum rate of heat application can be determined by balancing the concepts of concrete “maturity,” the
thermodynamic law of heat exchange, and the power requirements of the curing system. Maturity is defined as
the area under the time-temperature curve. A typical time-temperature curve is illustrated in Fig. 3.3.5.5.2-1. For
a given concrete mix, equal maturities theoretically result in equal concrete strengths and can be obtained with
different rates of heat application by varying the length of time the heat is applied. The desirability of long preset
periods, combined with the need for a minimum level of maturity to achieve the required concrete transfer
strength, can lead to the conclusion that the concrete temperature should be raised rapidly. However, the law of
heat exchange requires a larger amount of heat energy for rapid increases in temperature than for more gradual
increases.

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3.3.5.5.2 Rate of Heat Application/3.3.6 Removing Products from Forms

Figure 3.3.5.5.2-1
Typical Time-Temperature Curing Cycle Graph

Concrete placement complete

Preset period
Increase heat @20 °F–36 °F per hr.

Cure @ constant temperature

until release

These considerations have implications for both the initial and operating cost of the curing system. For example,
with an electric curing system, the watt density of the heating elements on the form would need to be high,
resulting in a close spacing of the elements. The system would also require greater peak power capacity. The high
initial cost of the elements, as well as a larger power supply, is usually not justified when the peak power demand
will be required for less than 25% of the curing cycle. Economic analysis of the installation and operating costs
show that the optimum solution is to install a system that under 100% power raises the concrete temperature at
a slower rate, usually between 15 °F to 20 °F per hour. Curing system equipment suppliers can assist with this
determination.

3.3.6 Removing Products from Forms

Regardless of whether a product is cured normally or with accelerated methods, common procedures and
precautions must be followed to safely remove the member from the form without damage. This procedure is
referred to as “stripping” the products or, sometimes, “stripping the beds.” The sequence of tasks is generally
performed in the following order:
1. Verify that the strength of the concrete in the product is at or above the specified stripping or transfer
strength. (Concrete strength testing is discussed in Section3.4.5.)
2. For accelerated curing systems, cease heating. In some of the more sophisticated systems, the heat can be
stopped before Step 1 based on the “maturity” calculated from the time-temperature curve. (See Section
3.3.5.5.2.)
3. Remove curing blankets, tarpaulins, and, where necessary, side forms. For pretensioned products that
have been heat cured, the members must still be warm and moist at the time of transfer. If not, the
unstressed concrete, still restrained by the tensioned strands, will cool and contract, possibly resulting in
transverse cracking through the member. (See Section 3.3.1.5 for a discussion on the removal of side
forms.)
4. Remove all remaining ties, inserts, and other devices that will prevent lifting the product free of the form,
with the exception of the strand hold-down devices. Strand hold-downs are to be released at the
appropriate time in the transfer sequence. (Section 3.3.2.8.4 discusses releasing strand hold-downs.)
5. For pretensioned products, transfer the prestressing force as outlined in Section 3.3.2.8. Cut all strands at
both ends of a member if the force is transferred hydraulically.

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3.3.6 Removing Products from Forms/3.3.7 In-Plant Handling

6. Connect proper rigging to the lifting devices embedded in the member, and install lateral stability
hardware, if required. (See Sections 3.2.4.4 and 3.3.3.2 for information on lifting devices. Section 3.3.7.4
discusses lateral stability issues for long slender members.)

3.3.6.1 Form Suction

After the steps listed in the previous section are performed, the member is ready to be stripped from the form and
transported to the yard for storage. When the product is lifted from the form, it is important that the cranes,
rigging, and lifting devices are appropriately sized, with consideration of factors such as the amount of suction
expected from the specific form. Concrete stresses should also be determined by considering such effects. Suction
on pretensioned members whose side forms have been removed is normally minimal, as elastic shortening and
camber that result at the transfer of prestress will usually break the bond between the concrete and the
remaining forms. Pretensioned members should not have transverse monolithic ribs or diaphragms unless
provisions are made in the formwork to prevent the member from locking itself into the form as it undergoes
shrinkage and elastic shortening. Conventionally reinforced members removed from fixed forms with numerous
drafted vertical surfaces can experience significant suction. For purposes of analysis, increasing the member dead
load by 50% is normally sufficient to account for form suction.

3.3.7 In-Plant Handling

Precast plants are normally designed in “linear” fashion to facilitate the most efficient movement of products from
the casting bed to yard storage. Figure 3.3.7-1 shows the linear pattern of a typical precast plant. Usually,
products that were just stripped are first moved from the casting bed to a designated finishing area. The finish
area is set up to provide ready access to all portions of the member that need post-stripping finish work. For deep
members, this area may include scaffolding or platforms with railings that meet the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration’s fall protection standards. Many of the finishing tasks described in Section 3.2.5 are
performed in this area. Once the member is moved into storage, access is normally limited due to stacking and the
presence of adjacent stored members.
Figure 3.3.7-1
Aerial View of Typical Precast Plant Showing “Linear” Layout

Precast concrete products should be handled only with properly designed and installed lifting devices. The lifting
devices used in the plant may or may not be the same as those used for erection in the field, as the product
orientation in the completed structure may not be the same as that in which it is cast, stored, and shipped.
Erection considerations are sometimes significantly different than handling and storage considerations in the
plant.

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3.3.7.1 Handling Equipment/3.3.7.2 Rigging

3.3.7.1 Handling Equipment

Precast concrete products are moved around the yard by a variety of equipment, ranging from large forklifts to
large gantry cranes on tracks. Rubber-tired gantry cranes, normally referred to as travel lifts or straddle-carriers,
are probably the most common choice of precast concrete producers. This type of equipment (Fig. 3.3.7.1-1) is
designed to lift and transport heavy loads without the need for shuttle trucks or other equipment, and it is not
confined to movement on tracks. Travel lifts can use relatively narrow aisles to pass between stored products,
allowing the producer to maximize yard storage. Travel lifts are widely available in capacities that accommodate
the heaviest practical precast concrete members. Maximum piece weights can be limited by lifting equipment
available in the plant, or by the maximum weight that can be shipped by truck. Bridge designers should consult
local producers for plant handling capability.
Figure 3.3.7.1-1
Straddle Carrier

3.3.7.2 Rigging
When multiple lifting points are used, techniques for equalizing the load on each lifting device are necessary to
ensure that the rigging is statically determinate. Equalization of the load is usually done with rolling blocks,
spreader beams, or lifting trusses. Figure 3.3.7.2-1 shows typical rigging arrangements for multiple point lifts.

Figure 3.3.7.2-1
Rigging for Multiple Point Lifting

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3.3.7.2 Rigging/3.3.7.4 Lateral Stability during Handling

Figure 3.3.2.2-1 (cont.)

Bottom Fiber Stresses for Three Strand Profiles

3.3.7.3 Handling Stresses

The most critical time in handling a precast concrete member in the plant is when it is initially lifted from the
form. The concrete strength is lower—and, in pretensioned members, the prestressing force is higher—than at
any other time in the life of the member. To minimize concrete stresses due to the eccentricity of prestress,
pretensioned flexural members are handled with lifting devices as close as practical to the location where the
member will be supported in the structure. With the exception of members with pretensioned cantilevers, lifting
devices are located near the ends.
Concentrically pretensioned or conventionally reinforced members are handled at two or more points to restrict
the concrete tensile stresses below the cracking limit. Normally, a capacity-to-load ratio of 1.5 is applied to the
concrete modulus of rupture (see Section 2.5.4), resulting in an allowable tensile stress of 5√𝑓𝑐′ for normal weight
concrete. In addition, an impact factor is applied to the dead weight of the member if form suction is expected to
be significant, as discussed in Section 3.3.6.1. Optimum lifting locations equalize positive and negative moments in
members of constant cross section where the section modulus is the same at the top and bottom. For example,
members lifted at two points will have equal positive and negative moments if the lifting points are located 0.207
times the member length from the ends. The use of optimum lifting locations is not always necessary, as long as
the concrete stresses are within allowable limits. In many cases, available plant equipment determines the lifting
locations. Phillips and Sheppard (1989) and the PCI Design Handbook provide useful information on handling
precast concrete products.

3.3.7.4 Lateral Stability during Handling

Long, slender sections can become unstable when handled with lifting devices located near the ends. Studies by
Mast (1989; 1993) concluded that the most important parameter for lateral stability during handling is the lateral
bending stiffness of the member. The simplest method to improve lateral stiffness is to move the lifting devices in
from the ends. However, doing so normally increases the concrete stresses at the lifting points, and sometimes

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increases the required concrete transfer strength. Other methods of improving lateral stiffness are available
(Laszlo and Imper, 1987), but they add to the cost of the product.
PCI’s Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (2016B) discusses
lateral stability of girders during handling and provides information on how to improve lateral stability during
this phase. A companion spreadsheet available from PCI can help the engineer assess lateral stability during
handling.

3.3.8 In-Plant Storage

Precast concrete products must be stored so they do not touch the ground and in a manner that minimizes the
potential for damage. Storage foundations should be of sufficient size and strength to resist crushing or excessive
settlement. Properly designed storage is normally governed by consideration of the control of permanent
concrete deformations rather than control of concrete stresses. Improper storage can lead to cracking, spalling, or
other damage; furthermore, supports that cause no apparent initial damage can result in undesirable permanent
deformations caused by creep of the concrete. Appropriate storage techniques depend on the product type, and
whether the members are eccentrically prestressed, concentrically prestressed, or conventionally reinforced.

3.3.8.1 Storage of Eccentrically Prestressed Products

Eccentrically prestressed flexural members (without pretensioned cantilevers) should be supported as close to
their ends as possible. Storing members on supports a significant distance from the ends may result in
undesirable camber growth. Deep members, such as I-beams or bulb-tees, should always be stored plumb. The
dead load of an out-of-plumb member induces moments about its weak axis, which can lead to a permanent
horizontal sweep. Long, slender members may require temporary bracing for stability during long-term storage.

3.3.8.2 Storage of Concentrically Prestressed or Conventionally Reinforced Products

Concentrically prestressed piles are supported in storage at relatively short intervals along their length
(approximately 20 ft). Piles are normally long and slender, with a relatively high level of prestress. Although they
can be handled and shipped with relatively large spaces between supports, storing them in this manner for more
than a few days can result in permanent deformations. Conventionally reinforced beams and columns are
normally stored with supports under the lifting locations. Wall panels, which are usually cast flat, can be stored in
this orientation for a short period, but they generally are turned on edge for long-term storage to prevent
permanent bowing or warping.

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3.3.8.2 Storage of Concentrically Prestressed or Conventionally Reinforced Products/3.3.8.3 Stacking

Figure 3.3.8.2-1
Product Storage Points

Multiple supports must be set and maintained at the proper elevation to provide uniform support to the member.
Maintaining the supports at uniform elevation is not as critical for two-point supports, because differential
settlement between supports has no detrimental effect on concrete stresses. However, misplaced or differential
settlement of multiple supports can have a substantial effect on both concrete stresses and permanent
deformations. Figure 3.3.8.2-1 illustrates this condition.

3.3.8.3 Stacking
In most precast plants, yard storage is limited. Deep flexural members, such as I-beams or some box beams, are
generally placed close to one another to conserve space. Shallow members, such as deck panels, stemmed
members, or piles, are normally stacked. When stacking products, foundations and supports between levels, must
be of sufficient size and strength to support the increased weight. Foundations and intermediate supports must

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3.3.8.3 Stacking/3.3.9 Roughened Surfaces

align vertically, providing a direct load path to the foundation. Short members should not be stacked on longer
members, unless the supports can be aligned vertically, or unless analysis shows that the lower members will not
be damaged or otherwise compromised. Figure 3.3.8.3-1 illustrates some “dos and don’ts” for stacking. Steel
components, such as stirrups or lifting devices, projecting from the tops of members can hamper stacking.
Supports between levels must be of sufficient height to prevent damage to the projecting steel, or marring of the
upper-level concrete soffits.
Figure 3.3.8.3-1
Some “Dos” and “Do Nots” When Stacking Precast Concrete Products

3.3.8.4 Weathering
For long-term storage, consideration should be given to the effects of weathering. It is not practical to expect that
precast concrete products will be stored indoors or effectively protected from the environment. Section 3.2.5.6
discusses measures that may be taken to prevent corrosion of exposed steel, and the resulting unsightly staining
of the concrete surface. When a “like new” appearance is desired in the finished structure, the most cost-effective
choice is to clean the concrete surfaces at completion of construction.

3.3.9 Roughened Surfaces

Many precast concrete bridge products are designed to behave compositely with cast-in-place concrete. That is,
the two separate concrete placements are intended to act as a unit when resisting externally applied loads. For
this to occur, shear must be transferred across the interface between the two concrete layers. Typical designs use
the “shear-friction” concept at the interface. Design advantages are realized when the surface of the precast
concrete member that will interface with cast-in-place concrete is intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of
approximately ¼ in., although the shear-friction concept does not require roughening. See LRFD Article 5.7.4.3.
Roughening of surfaces is very common in the precast concrete industry. Methods used depend on whether the
surface to be roughened is exposed or formed.
A requirement common to both exposed and formed roughened surfaces is that they must be clean and free of
laitance before the cast-in-place concrete is placed. It is also generally desirable to moisten the precast concrete
surface before the second placement.

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3.3.9.1 Roughened Exposed Surfaces/3.3.9.2 Roughening Formed Surfaces

3.3.9.1 Roughening Exposed Surfaces

The standard method of roughening exposed surfaces is to “rake” or “broom” the concrete while it is still in its
plastic state. After the concrete has been struck level, a worker rakes the surface with a tool that creates grooves
at a specified spacing and depth. These grooves normally run transverse to the direction of the anticipated shear
force, and they must be deep enough to produce the desired roughness but not so deep so as to dislodge
individual aggregate particles near the surface. Figure 3.3.9.1-1 shows a typical raked surface. This type of
surface is common on the tops of I-beams, bulb tees, and box beams that are subsequently made composite with a
cast-in-place concrete bridge deck.

Figure 3.3.9.1-1
Roughened Composite Surface

3.3.9.2 Roughening Formed Surfaces

Obviously, formed surfaces cannot be roughened in the same manner as exposed surfaces. The following methods
are used to roughen formed surfaces:
• Chemical surface set retarders • Bush hammering • Castellations
• Deep sandblasting • Shear keys • Multiple sawings of parallel
• Textured formliner grooves

An exposed aggregate, roughened surface under formwork can be created using surface set retarders which
locally retard the setting of cement. Surface set retarders, which locally retard the setting of cement, are painted
onto the form in the desired location before the concrete is cast. After form removal, the retarder is pressure
washed from the concrete surface, resulting in a roughened, exposed-aggregate finish. Set retarders are
formulated with different strengths to result in varying depths of retardation. Normally, the strongest formulation
is required to achieve the roughness desired for composite action. Both sandblasting and bush hammering are
done manually after the product is stripped. They are labor-intensive tasks. Shear keys and castellations are
formed into the concrete surface. Figure 3.3.9.2-1 shows typical shear key and castellation configurations.
Roughened formed surfaces are normally used at the interface with cast-in-place concrete diaphragms, or at beam
ends that frame into cast-in-place piers.

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3.3.9.2 Roughening Formed Surfaces/3.3.10.1 Match-Casting Techniques

Figure 3.3.9.2-1
Typical Castellations and Shear Keys in Formed Surfaces

3.3.10 Match-Cast Members

Match-cast precast concrete products are typically used in segmental construction to ensure the proper fit-up of
mating surfaces between precast concrete segments while providing for the profile grade and horizontal
alignment required by design. Segment sizes are most often determined by available handling and shipping
equipment capacities, but they may also be dictated by the amount of form the manufacturer has on hand.
Although practically any type of precast concrete product can be match cast, this construction method applies
primarily to long-span construction using flanged box beam or deep I-beam segments. There are many
exceptions. A major truss bridge was redecked using full-depth, match-cast slabs that were prestressed both
longitudinally and transversely.

3.3.10.1 Match-Casting Techniques

Two basic techniques are used to match cast precast concrete bridge segments, one employing a stationary form,
the other involving a form that is moved for every casting. With the stationary form, the first segment is cast with
endplates at both ends of the form. After this segment has been cured to a concrete strength adequate for
stripping, it is lifted out of the form and positioned adjacent to the form so that one of its ends serves as the
endplate for the match-cast end of the second segment. The other end of the second segment is formed with one
of the original endplates.
The positioning of the first segment relative to the form is critical because it dictates the precise alignment of the
two segments in the completed structure. Sophisticated surveying techniques, together with adjustable screw
jacks and stops, are normally used to accurately position the segment. Prior to casting, the match-cast end of this
segment is coated with a debonding agent to allow separation of the segments after casting.

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3.3.10.1 Match-Casting Techniques/3.4.1 Plant and Inspection Agency Interaction

After the second segment achieves stripping strength, both segments can be stripped from the form. The first
segment is moved to storage, while the conventionally formed end of second segment assumes the role of the
endplate for the third segment to be cast. This process continues until all segments are cast.
The “moving form” technique begins in a similar manner; however, after the first segment is cast and cured, it is
left stationary on the form pallet. The form is stripped, moved longitudinally, and positioned at the end of the first
segment. The second segment is then match cast against the first in the same manner as described previously.
This approach has the advantage of decreasing segment handling, but it requires multiple form pallets and
significantly more space.

3.3.10.2 Joining Match-Cast Members with Epoxy

A common method of joining match-cast segments is by “cementing” them together with a thin (approximately
0.02- to 0.04-in.-thick) layer of epoxy bonder. Because the epoxy coat is thin, it is essential that the member ends
be properly mated. The normal construction sequence begins with the application of a slow-setting epoxy to the
mating ends. The epoxy should be applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. The ends are
then assembled, and an initial post-tensioning force is applied across the interface. Gerwick (1993) notes that the
best results are obtained when the epoxy cures under a stress of about 40 psi. This process is done progressively
for each pair of match-cast segments. Once a predetermined number of segments have been joined, and the epoxy
in all joints has cured, a final post-tensioning force is applied to the superstructure (or portion of the
superstructure). In segmental I-beam bridges, final post-tensioning is usually done after the cast-in-place deck
has been placed.

3.4 PLANT QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE

Plant-cast concrete bridge products benefit substantially from the controlled conditions under which they are
fabricated. Section 3.3 offers many examples of fabrication procedures that are easier to control and inspect than
is the case with field construction. PCI-Certified plants are required to maintain rigorous quality control programs
that satisfy the requirements of the project specifications or Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production
of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021), whichever are more stringent. At least twice each year,
certified plants receive unannounced audits for compliance with these requirements by an independent
engineering firm that is employed and accredited by PCI. The following section discusses plant quality control
procedures, and the resulting benefits to the purchaser.
In 2009, the AASHTO Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures, during their general business meeting, passed a
resolution officially recognizing “national industry certification programs for personnel, production, and quality
control related to prefabricated structural bridge components and processes” (AASHTO, 2009; Nickas and Frank,
2009). The committee cited a number of reasons that technical institutes are the best source to ensure that
standards and certification procedures fully engage current research results and state-of-the-art techniques.
Following this meeting, a number of activities took place to further emphasize the value that continuous quality
feedback has on the overall relevance of industry-accredited plant quality. Without a direct chain of custody to
the body of knowledge related to the industry in question, parties who are not members of the industry but who
oversee plant audits may or may not have a full understanding of documents and standards related to the process.
PCI joined with the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) to publish the “AISC/PCI White Paper on
Quality Systems in the Construction Industry” (2009).

3.4.1 Plant and Inspection Agency Interaction

The production process for precast, prestressed concrete differs substantially from common field construction.
Consequently, it is important that quality control personnel be qualified to inspect all phases of fabrication. PCI
currently offers three levels of training and certification for quality control personnel, with a fourth for

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3.4.1 Plant and Inspection Agency Interaction/3.4.2.1 Surface Voids

accreditation of the auditors themselves. Because the evaluation criteria for plant certification includes personnel
qualifications, PCI-Certified plants must employ in-house quality control personnel who have been suitably
trained in the inspection of precast, prestressed concrete products. Other outside inspection or quality control
agencies may not require the same level of training for their personnel as PCI-Certified plants. However, some
agencies have taken advantage of PCI training seminars and require that their agency personnel are appropriately
certified. For additional information on PCI certification and training in quality control, contact the PCI director of
certification programs.
Notably, the production process for precast, prestressed concrete frequently begins before sunrise with the
testing of transfer strength cylinders and ends after sunset with the covering of the product for accelerated
curing. Given this time span, it is difficult for an individual inspector to inspect all phases. Precast plants must
therefore efficiently schedule their team of in-house inspectors to cover all phases of production.
To make the best use of available personnel, several agencies have developed quality control/quality assurance
programs that shift the accountability and responsibility for product quality to the manufacturer. Under these
programs, the manufacturer is responsible for performing day-to-day quality control functions, whereas the
agency assumes the role of review and acceptance. PCI plant certification provides the basis for these programs,
which are then expanded to cover any specific needs of the agency. These industry/agency partnerships are part
of the National Quality Initiative (NQI), which has been endorsed by the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), American Road and
Transportation Builders Association (ARTBA), American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC), Associated
General Contractors of America (AGCA), American Public Works Association (APWA), and representatives of the
concrete and asphalt industries.

3.4.2 Product Evaluation and Repair

As with any manufacturing process, nonconformances can occur in precast concrete bridge products. Examples
may include voids or cracks in the concrete, missing or improperly located inserts or holes, and incorrect
projection of reinforcement. Nonconformances fall into one of three categories:
• Those that can be accepted in spite of the nonconformance
• Those that can be repaired satisfactorily
• Those that require rejection of the member
The following topics are covered in greater detail in PCI Manual 137, Manual for the Evaluation and Repair of
Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Products (2006). This manual was developed by a group representing owner
agencies, designers, and industry for the purpose of promoting a greater degree of uniformity with respect to the
evaluation and repair procedures for precast, prestressed concrete bridge beams, deck panels, and similar precast
concrete products.

3.4.2.1 Surface Voids

In spite of the finest placing and consolidation techniques, surface voids or “bugholes” resulting from water and
air bubbles trapped against the side forms should be anticipated in hardened concrete surfaces. These minor
imperfections are usually not structurally detrimental. Additional finishing requirements should be based on the
end use of the product and should be established in the contract documents. It is generally not practical to specify
an acceptable level of imperfections, such as an allowable percentage of void area within a given square foot of
concrete surface, as these judgments are highly subjective. Maximum acceptable void sizes (diameter and depth)
can be specified, although the evaluation of these criteria is tedious. The most cost-effective choice is to accept the
surface “as-is.” Beyond this, it is questionable whether it is more economical to identify and patch individual voids
larger than specified or to simply finish the entire surface as described in Section 3.2.5.3. Manual for Quality
Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021) also provides a description of
various grades of surface finishes.

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3.4.2.2 Honeycomb and Spalls/3.4.2.4 Cracks

3.4.2.2 Honeycomb and Spalls

Larger imperfections such as honeycombed surfaces or spalls require mortar patching. This type of repair, while
being relatively simple to execute, is difficult to control from the perspective of long-term durability. The
relatively shallow nature of the patch creates differential shrinkage between the patching and parent materials,
potentially resulting in cracking or failure of the patch. The following techniques are recommended and will
mitigate problems with durability:
• Proper preparation of the void
• Application of a bonding agent ( Note: Some prepackaged mortars do not need additional bonding
agents.)
• Patching mortar that exhibits low shrinkage properties
• Careful curing of the patch
Most producers have proven patching materials and established procedures with proven performance histories.
For honeycombed areas, it is important to remove all loose material to expose sound concrete before applying the
patch. See Section 3.2.5 for further information on patching materials and procedures.
As with conventional structural concrete, it is important that patches for precast concrete be properly cured after
application, because their durability depends on the ultimate strength of the material and control of shrinkage.
Application of a nonweathering, nonstaining curing compound to a patch surface is recommended.

3.4.2.3 Repairing Large Voids

Very large voids, including those in pretensioned bridge products, can often be repaired by the concrete
replacement method. By necessity, this repair procedure is performed before the prestressing force is transferred
to the member. First, the defective concrete is carefully chipped out to expose sound concrete. Care must be taken
to avoid damaging reinforcing bars or strands. An epoxy-bond coat is then applied to all surfaces, and new
concrete is consolidated into the void using internal vibration. This new concrete is specified to be the same as or
better than the concrete used in the original placement. The cure of the patch is carefully controlled and
accelerated until it reaches the strength required for transfer of the prestressing force.
The key to the quality of concrete replacement is the ability to fully consolidate the new concrete into all portions
of the void. From this perspective, the orientation of the void is important. For example, replacement of concrete
in the top of an I-beam bottom flange is relatively easy to achieve. Concrete replacement is more difficult on
vertical surfaces, such as I-beam webs.

3.4.2.4 Cracks
Cracks develop in conventionally reinforced precast concrete members when the tensile stresses exceed the
tensile strength of the concrete. In prestressed members, cracks occur when the tensile stresses exceed the tensile
strength of the concrete combined with the internal stresses imparted by the prestressing. Tensile stresses
develop in several ways:
• Restraint of volume changes
• Internal forces from prestressing
• Externally applied loads
Precast concrete bridge products are designed to be furnished crack-free. However, cracks should not be
considered a reason for rejection unless the product is structurally or aesthetically impaired beyond repair. The
following sections discuss cracks related to fabrication, common fabrication procedures used to minimize such
cracking, and methods of repairing cracks that occur. Section 3.3.7.3 discusses control of cracks during plant
handling. Gerwick (1993) provides a comprehensive discussion of cracking. See also the article “Fabrication and
Shipment Cracks in Precast or Prestressed Beams and Columns” (PCI, 1985).

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3.4.2.4.1 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks/3.4.2.4.3 Differential Curing Cracks

3.4.2.4.1 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

A common cause of cracking is shrinkage of the cement paste while the concrete is in its plastic state. During this
period, the concrete has developed little or no tensile strength. Excessive evaporation of moisture from the
surface will cause the paste to shrink, resulting in cracks that are jagged, discontinuous, and multidirectional in
appearance, not unlike a crack pattern observed in a dried mud puddle. The shallow nature of these cracks
(usually less than ½ in. deep) means they normally are not of structural concern and can easily be repaired by
rubbing them full with mortar. However, they are unsightly and often lead to questions about the acceptability of
the product. The best solution is to prevent these cracks from occurring altogether by providing a saturated
atmosphere over all exposed surfaces during the curing process.

3.4.2.4.2 Cracks Due to Restraint of Volume Change

Volume changes are most pronounced along the longitudinal axis of a member and can result from several
sources, including the following:
• Temperature changes
• Drying shrinkage
• Elastic shortening upon transfer of prestress
• Creep of the concrete
If these movements occur before the member is stripped, certain forms or attachments may restrain the change in
volume, possibly resulting in tensile stresses and cracking. Cracks of this nature are normally continuous, narrow,
and relatively straight. To mitigate this potential for cracking, forms should be of a constant cross section, with no
appreciable offset at joints, and attachments restraining the longitudinal movement of the member should be
removed as soon as possible after accelerated curing is discontinued. Attachments transverse to the longitudinal
axis of the member, such as monolithically cast diaphragms, should not be used unless provisions are made in the
formwork to accommodate the anticipated volume changes.
Prestressing strands can also restrain longitudinal volume changes. It is not uncommon for an I-beam to develop
vertical cracks at intervals along its length when it is allowed to cool with the strands still tensioned. One way to
prevent this is to keep the member warm until transfer, although this is not always practical for beams that
remain in forms over a weekend. Zia and Caner (1993) found this potential for cracking to diminish with
increased length of free strand in the casting bed.

3.4.2.4.3 Differential Curing Cracks

Differential curing can also contribute to volume change cracking. Some products, such as stemmed members,
have cross-sectional regions with varying volume-to-surface ratios. Depending on the type of accelerated curing
used, some regions can be warmer than others, causing a thermal differential that can result in cracking. This
phenomenon contributes to a relatively common crack at the interface between the web and flange of stemmed
members. One advantage of electric curing is that by varying the spacing and control of the heating elements for
areas of different volume-to-surface ratios, relative heat gain can be better balanced. Figure 3.4.2.4.3-1 shows a
common electric curing configuration for stemmed members. The elements are more closely spaced in the flange
than in the web, since the large open top results in significant heat loss from the flange with less heat of hydration.
The flange and web elements are controlled separately by flange and web thermocouples to provide uniform heat
gain in the different segments.

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3.4.2.4.3 Differential Curing Cracks/3.4.2.5.2 Crack Repair by Epoxy Injection

Figure 3.4.2.4.3-1
Form Cross Section Showing Electric Heat Element Layout and Insulation

3.4.2.4.4 Accidental Impact Cracks

Another source of cracks during fabrication is from accidental impact. This type of cracking comes in all shapes
and forms, and such cracks must be evaluated on an individual basis. A common example is cracking of the top
flange of I-beams or bulb tees during form removal. These cracks are not considered structurally significant
unless they show signs that the reinforcement crossing the crack has yielded, such as large crack widths or
displacement of the adjacent surfaces.

3.4.2.4.5 End Cracking

Cracks can occur at the ends of a prestressed member when the prestressing force is applied. There are
commonly three types of cracks: inclined cracks in the web, horizontal cracks in the web or flange and “Y” or “T”
shaped cracks at the web/flange intersection (Tadros, et al. 2010 and Okumus and Oliva, 2013). Okumus and
Oliva suggest that end cracking can be controlled by using a proper detensioning sequence, properly placing the
lifting devices, increasing the web reinforcement and using debonding rather than draping/harping, however the
paper acknowledges that reducing or eliminating draped/harped strands may not be practical. NCHRP Report
654 (Tadros et al. 2010) concludes that end cracks less than 0.012inches do not need repair. Repair methods for
wider cracks are detailed in NCHRP Report 654.

3.4.2.5 Crack Repair

3.4.2.5.1 Autogenous Healing

Under certain conditions, cracks in precast concrete members can repair themselves by autogenous healing. This
process can be best described as unhydrated portland cement crystals growing together across the crack in the
presence of moisture and under a clamping force. Zia and Caner (1993) recommend the region of the crack be
kept moist for a minimum of 7 days. While this may restore the durability of the concrete surface in the region of
the crack, the strength of the ‘healed’ crack will be limited.

3.4.2.5.2 Crack Repair by Epoxy Injection

The most common method of repairing relatively narrow structural cracks is by epoxy injection. Modern epoxy
injection methods using equipment that automatically meters, mixes, and injects the two-component epoxy are
convenient and give excellent results. Follow manufacturer recommendations to seal cracks and install epoxy
injection ports. Cracks as small as 0.002 in. have been successfully injected in the field with full penetration.
Cracks, however, should be evaluated with regard to location and effect on serviceability. Small cracks in
compression zones in service and not exposed to severe environments may be best left alone. The ACI Committee
224 report Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures states that tolerable crack widths are 0.006 in. for concrete
exposed to seawater and seawater spray, wetting, and drying; 0.007 in. for concrete exposed to deicing

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3.4.2.5.2 Crack Repair by Epoxy Injection/3.4.2.6 Camber

chemicals; and 0.012 in. for concrete exposed to humidity, moist air, or soil. It is recommended that agencies and
precast concrete producers establish limits for acceptable crack widths as well as repair procedures for those
cracks that are determined to need repair. This type of repair is not always aesthetically acceptable, but most
producers have developed cosmetic procedures to improve the appearance of the repair.

3.4.2.5.3 Crack Repair by Concrete Replacement

Large cracks that suggest yielding of the reinforcement generally are not repaired by epoxy injection. If the
damage is localized, an appropriate repair procedure is to remove the damaged concrete and replace it in the
manner described in Section 3.4.2.3. In cases where this repair is not applicable, judgment must be exercised as to
the structural severity of the crack.

3.4.2.6 Camber
Camber is defined as the net upward deflection of an eccentrically prestressed member due to the combined
member dead load moment and eccentricity of the prestress force. Camber can increase or decrease with time,
depending on the level of prestress and sustained loads. Figure 3.4.2.6-1 shows a typical camber versus time
graph. Camber can be predicted with relative accuracy at the time of initial prestress, but the prediction of long-
term camber should be considered an approximation.
Measuring and recording actual initial camber, and comparing the results to the theoretically computed value, are
valuable in quantifying the consistency of production, assumed material properties as compared with actual
properties, and quality control. Small variations in initial camber indicate good consistency in tensioning and
concreting procedures, whereas large camber variations may represent poor consistency. Camber that is
significantly lower than expected can indicate inadequate tensioning, improper quantity or placement of strands,
or loss of bond between concrete and strand (excessive strand slip). Low camber can also result from concrete
transfer strength that is higher than anticipated, such as in members that remain in the form over a weekend
before initial prestress. Camber that is significantly higher than expected can result from low concrete strength,
excessive force in the strands, or improper quantity or placement of strands.
The prediction of camber variability should be a mean (average) value, preferably with an indication of the range
of variability. The predicted value of camber can vary from measured values as the predicted value is highly
influenced by the modulus of elasticity, creep and shrinkage, all of which can have a large variation. Concrete
beams made of HSC, beams with longer spans, and more heavily prestressed concrete beams tend to exhibit
greater variation in camber. The variability of measured value from the calculated value can be assumed to be
±50%. See Tadros, et al. (2011).
Figure 3.4.2.6-1
Typical Time-Camber Graph (for a Deck Bulb Tee)

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3.4.2.6.1 Measuring Camber/3.4.2.7.1 Mitigating of Sweep

3.4.2.6.1 Measuring Camber

The Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021)
requires measurement of camber to be taken on all members produced from the first cast on a new or unusual
bed layout, and on no less than 25% of all other members produced each day. This measurement is to be taken as
soon as possible after initial prestress and must be taken within 72 hours after transfer of the prestressing force.
The elapsed time to measurement of camber after transfer should remain consistent for a plant.
Several methods are used to measure initial camber. The simplest is to measure the upward deflection at midspan
immediately after transfer, but before the member is lifted from the form, using the form soffit as the point of
reference. Some products, such as stemmed members, are not easily accessible for this measurement. Once a
product is stripped and moved to the yard, camber can be measured with a stringline, laser level, or a surveying
level and rod. Camber measurements should be taken to a well defined point on the member, such as the top
corner of a bottom flange, and not to an inconsistent surface, such as an intentionally roughened top flange.

3.4.2.6.2 Thermal Influences on Camber

Camber measurements should not be taken when the member is influenced by temporary differences in surface
temperature. On a sunny day, the top of the top flange can be significantly warmer than the rest of the member,
leading to a temporary increase in camber. Camber readings under these conditions will be misleading.

3.4.2.6.3 Mitigation of Camber Growth

Practical methods for mitigating camber growth are limited. As discussed in Section 3.3.8.1, eccentrically
pretensioned flexural members should be stored on dunnage located as close to the ends as possible (or final
support locations for members with cantilevers). Moving the dunnage away from the ends toward midspan
reduces the dead load deflection and can lead to increased permanent upward deflection. Adding a load to a
member in storage to reduce long-term creep and camber is generally not feasible. Control is best accomplished
by scheduling production closer to erection or, if that is not possible, by allowing for increased camber in the
design and detailing of the structure. In an unusual situation where camber is not adequate, it can be increased by
moving the dunnage in from the ends during storage.

3.4.2.7 Sweep
Sweep is defined as horizontal bowing of a member, and can result from one of the following:
• Misaligned forms
• Lateral offset of the pretensioning strands
• Improper tensioning
• Thermal effects (sun on one surface)
• Improper storage
• Improper detensioning

3.4.2.7.1 Mitigation of Sweep

Sweep is usually measured with a string line after the first day of production in a new form setup. Once the initial
casting is found to be acceptable, it is generally satisfactory to estimate the straightness of subsequent members
and take measurements only when the eye indicates a potential problem. As with camber, sweep should not be
measured when the member is influenced by temporary differences in surface temperature from face to face.
The most obvious methods to control straightness are to ensure that the forms are installed straight and true and
that the prestressing strands are properly located. Also, as discussed in Section 3.3.8.1, precast concrete members
that are within tolerance for sweep must be stored plumb. Excessive sweep can sometimes be corrected by
leaning the member in the direction opposite the sweep during storage. In this case, the effects of creep will work

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to straighten the member. In other cases, long, slender members can be pulled laterally into alignment before
their final attachment in the structure.

3.4.2.7.2 Girders with Sweep

The presence of sweep in a girder without other quality issues should not be a reason for rejection of the girder
unless it is shown that the sweep will affect the handling, transportation, erection, or performance of the girder.
Girders with sweep within the tolerance specified by the Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of
Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021) can generally be used without any difficulty or effect on long
term performance. Girders having sweep that exceeds the specified tolerance may still provide satisfactory long-
term performance. Additional calculations may be necessary to ensure that these girders can be transported and
erected without difficulty. For a complete discussion of how to assess the effect of sweep in bridge girders, see the
three-part article series by Russell (2019A; 2019B; 2020).

3.4.3 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio

The definition of water-cementitious materials ratio and its relationship to mix design is discussed in Chapter 2
Section 2.4.6. In addition to portland cement, certain mineral admixtures are cementitious or pozzolanic and
contribute to the strength of concrete. These are discussed in Section 2.3.4. Additional information may be found
in Quality Control Personnel Certification Level III Training Manual (PCI, 1996).

3.4.3.1 Mineral Admixtures and Workability

The high water demand of mineral admixtures has a significant impact on concrete workability. The influence of
water-cementitious materials ratio on workability depends on the proportions of the different cementitious
materials. For example, if a mix uses 225 pcy of water, 500 pcy of AASHTO M85 Type III cement, and 50 pcy of
silica fume, its water-cementitious materials ratio is 0.41 [225/(500+50)]. Assume this mix has a slump of 4 in.
with a certain dosage of a water-reducing admixture. If the silica fume content is increased to 100 lb, and the
cement content is reduced to 450 lb, the water-cementitious materials ratio is still 0.41, but the concrete will have
a slump less than 4 in. if the same dosage of admixture is used. Trial mixes that investigate the relationship
between mix constituents, plastic concrete properties, and hardened properties are essential in effective use of
these admixtures and various mix designs. A discussion on calculating the relative equivalency of cementitious
materials in mix designs is given in ACI PCR-211.1.

3.4.3.2 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio and Durability

It has been well documented that the primary variable affecting concrete durability is the water-cementitious
materials ratio. Studies by Pfeifer, et al. (1987; 1996) have shown that lowering the water-cementitious materials
ratio of a given mix reduces the chloride permeability of the concrete. Neville (2011) provides extensive
discussion of the benefits of low water-cementitious materials ratios in improving concrete’s resistance to
abrasion, freeze-thaw deterioration, chemical attack, and deterioration in seawater.
A basic tenet is that the strength of concrete, be it compressive, tensile, or flexural, is inversely proportional to the
water-cementitious materials ratio. Furthermore, the values of modulus of elasticity, shrinkage, creep, and
permeability also have inverse relationships to the water-cementitious materials ratio. Hence, in producing high-
quality concrete, the goal is to keep the water-cementitious materials ratio to a minimum and to maintain a mix
with consistant properties throughout the concrete placement.

3.4.3.3 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio without Water-Reducing Admixtures

Before the advent of water-reducing admixtures, the only means of obtaining a low water-cementitious materials
ratio was to use minimal water in the mix. To achieve the strength necessary to make precast concrete bridge
products feasible, concrete mixes were designed to have high cement contents, very low slumps, and water-

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3.4.3.3 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio without Water Reducing Admixtures/3.4.4 Strand Condition

cementitious materials ratios in the range of 0.45 to 0.50. Good placement and consolidation were difficult to
achieve with the relatively unsophisticated equipment available at the time.

3.4.3.4 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio with Water-Reducing Admixtures

Water-reducing admixtures have made it possible to produce workable concrete while simultaneously decreasing
the water content. The effects of water-reducing admixtures on the workability of concrete are discussed in
Section 3.2.1.3.1. Normal water-reducing admixtures can generally produce workable concrete with water-
cementitious ratios as low as 0.40. High-range water-reducing admixtures can further reduce the ratio to about
0.30 or slightly lower. Water-cementitious materials ratios at this low level can be handled in precast plants
because of the short duration between mixing and placing, as well as the use of sophisticated consolidation
techniques. Cast-in-place concrete construction usually requires the use of higher water-cementitious materials
ratios.
Water-reducing admixtures can also be viewed as “cement-reducers.” Because the strength of concrete increases
as the water-cementitious materials ratio decreases, the cement content can be reduced while maintaining
concrete strength in many cases.

3.4.3.5 Controlling Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio

The Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021)
requires water to be added to the mixer within a tolerance of ±1.5% or 1 gallon, whichever is greater, from that
which is specified in the mix design. This quantity of water includes free moisture in the aggregates, as discussed
in Section 2.4.6. Most plants use some form of moisture meter that allows for continuous adjustment of water
based on the free moisture contained in the aggregates. Batching scales are accurately calibrated to ensure that
materials delivered to the mixer are within the specified tolerances.

3.4.3.6 Testing Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio

Concrete slump measured in accordance with AASHTO T119 provides a good measure of batching consistency for
all types of concrete. For concretes without water-reducing admixtures, slump measurements can also provide an
indication of water-cementitious materials ratios. However, this is generally not true of concretes with water-
reducing admixtures. Concretes with very low water-cementitious materials ratios can exhibit high slumps when
dosed with high-range water-reducers, yet they are superior for use with precast concrete products. As discussed
in Section 3.2.1.3, concrete with water-reducing admixtures is less likely to segregate during placement than
conventional concrete. Consequently, slump is not an appropriate indicator of water-cementitious materials ratio,
and hence long-term performance, in mixes using water-reducing admixtures. The actual water-cementitious
materials ratio of water-reduced concrete is best determined by calculation using the recorded quantity of each
constituent added to the mixer plus the free moisture in the aggregates.

3.4.4 Strand Condition

Prestressing strand must be protected from corrosion prior to use. Most strand suppliers provide protective
wrappings for this purpose. Once this wrapping is removed, the strand pack still must be protected from extended
exposure to the elements. The high tensile strength of strand makes it more susceptible to corrosion than lower-
strength steels. Storage under cover is preferred as a means of minimizing corrosion, but it is not always practical.
Strand in which corrosion has pitted the surface should not be used. However, the presence of light rust on strand
is not detrimental to bond, and, in fact, light rust can increase bond. If no pitting has developed on the strand
surface, then there has been no loss of effective strand area. The rule of thumb is that if rust can be removed with
a pencil eraser, and the strand shows no pits, then the rust level is not detrimental and the strand is acceptable for
use. Sason (1992) provides suggestions and photographs to assist in strand surface evaluation.

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3.4.4 Strand Condition/3.4.5.2 Test Cylinder Size

Special care must be used to prevent contamination of strand from form-release agents, mud, grease, and other
contaminants. Form-release agents should be applied to the form before the strands in the bed are strung. After
stringing and tensioning, the strand should be inspected for contamination and cleaned with an effective solvent if
necessary before concrete placement.
Packing bands on strand packs should not be cut with a torch flame as doing so may damage the strand. In
addition, welding in the vicinity of strands must be strictly prohibited.

3.4.5 Concrete Strength Testing

There are generally three intervals when it is important to evaluate the compressive strength of the concrete in a
prestressed bridge member:
• At the time of transfer of the prestressing force
• At the time of transportation and erection
• At 28 days
If the member is shipped and erected more than 28 days after casting, strength tests are normally not required for
shipping. Cylinder ages other than 28 days may be specified for members that will receive loads at ages
appreciably different from 28 days. Also, recent designs using higher-strength concrete mixes have specified
strength testing at 56 days. By far, the most common method of evaluating concrete compressive strength is to
make and test cylinders of the production concrete. This testing is done in accordance with the relevant
specifications. The Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products
(PCI, 2021) provides guidelines used by the industry for concrete strength testing. It includes further discussion
on the compressive strength of concrete.
Molds used for forming concrete test cylinders must meet the requirements of AASHTO M205, which describes
both reusable and single-use molds. In general, reusable molds are used in precast plant production. When very
high–strength concretes are being produced, it may be necessary to use very rigid molds, such as reusable steel
molds, to ensure that dimensional tolerances of the test cylinders are maintained. Otherwise, precision grinding
of the ends or casting end caps may be necessary. See Section 3.4.5.3.

3.4.5.1 Number of Cylinders

The Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021)
requires the strength at any given age to be determined by the average of at least two cylinder tests, with the
exception of the transfer strength or predictive strengths less than 28 days, which can be determined by one
cylinder test. Many specifications for bridge products require an average of two cylinder tests each time the
concrete strength is to be determined, and still others require three cylinder tests for any age. Testing two
cylinders at three separate ages requires a minimum of six cylinders for each product or each production line of
products cast in a continuous pour. From a producer’s perspective, there is a certain level of risk in casting only
the minimum number of test specimens. If the first cylinder broken falls below the specified transfer strength, too
few specimens remain for the required testing. Many plants cast extra cylinders to account for this possibility.
When sophisticated curing systems are used, the concrete maturity can give a good indication of when the first
cylinder should be tested, as discussed in Section 3.3.5.5.2. When the number of cylinders made is not adequate,
alternate methods of determining the concrete compressive strength are necessary, as discussed in Sections
3.4.5.5 and 3.4.5.6.

3.4.5.2 Test Cylinder Size

Test cylinders made in a plant are cast in accordance with AASHTO T23 and the Manual for Quality Control for
Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021). Both of these publications allow the use
of 6 × 12 in. and 4 × 8 in. cylinders. Because of the high strength of concrete commonly associated with precast

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3.4.5.2 Test Cylinder Size/3.4.5.4.1 Cylinder Curing Cabinets

concrete bridge products, the smaller cylinders are more compatible with the limitations of more common and
less costly testing machines.
Studies by Neville (1966) indicate that 4 × 8 in. test cylinders can result in a slightly higher compressive strength
than 6 × 12 in. cylinders. This becomes more pronounced with increasing concrete strength. Accordingly, the
Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021) requires
that side-by-side 4 × 8 in. and 6 × 12 in. samples be made and tested to develop a correlation between the two
sizes. Table 3.4.5.2-1 shows a sample correlation of concrete strength for the two cylinder sizes.

Table 3.4.5.2-1
Sample Correlation of Cylinder
Compressive Strengths for 4 × 8 in.
versus 6 × 12 in. Cylinders
Concrete Strength Range 𝑓𝑐′ (4 × 8 in. )
(ksi) 𝑓𝑐′ (6 × 12 in. )
2.0-3.0 1.00
3.5-5.5 1.05
5.5-7.5 1.07
7.5-11.0 1.12

3.4.5.3 Alternate Cylinder Capping Methods

The ends of cast cylinders or drilled cores are usually not plane, flat, and at right angles to the side of the cylinder.
The Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021)
requires cylinders to be capped unless their ends are cast or ground to within 0.002 in. of a plane surface.
The capping material used historically has been a fast-setting sulfur compound applied in accordance with ASTM
C617. This method generates toxic sulfur fumes and involves the hazard of handling very hot molten sulfur.
Though this method served the industry well for many years, it is now used much less often. In 1985, AASHTO
adopted a method of compression strength testing (AASHTO T22 Annex) using neoprene pads and steel retainer
caps. This reusable capping system reduces the cost of sample preparation because neoprene pads are less
expensive than sulfur capping compound and the labor required to prepare a cylinder for testing is reduced. This
capping system also produces more consistent test results and diminishes the effect of the human element in the
capping operation. The average compressive strengths obtained are equivalent to, or slightly higher than,
cylinders capped with molten sulfur.

3.4.5.4 Cylinder Curing Systems and Procedures

The strength of concrete test cylinders made to evaluate the strength of the concrete in a precast concrete bridge
member is only meaningful if the cylinders and the member have been cured under similar time-temperature
conditions. The common practice of placing cylinder molds on top, alongside, or under product forms may not
produce representative test specimens. Cylinders cured in this manner generally do not gain strength as rapidly
as the product, and sometimes the reverse can be true. This method is unreliable and can provide misleading
results.

3.4.5.4.1 Cylinder Curing Cabinets

Cylinder curing cabinets are essentially insulated enclosures into which standard cylinder molds are placed.
There are two basic types of cabinets: a wet system where water is used as the heat transfer medium, and a dry
system where air in the cabinet is the heat transfer medium. Both systems usually incorporate an electric heating
system with a thermostat that senses the product temperature and in turn controls the heating system to closely
approximate the product temperature.

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3.4.5.4.1 Cylinder Curing Cabinets/3.4.5.5 Concrete Cores

The water-filled cabinet provides more uniform heat to the test specimen and is easier to control. The test
specimen temperature will slightly lag behind that of the product during the warm-up period, as the water must
be heated before the heat can reach the cylinder mold. Temperatures of cylinders in water-filled cabinets will not
follow the member if the product temperature begins to fall significantly. The insulated cabinet is incapable of
dissipating the heat energy unless the cabinet is opened to the surrounding air.
The dry cabinet consumes less energy than the wet cabinet and is easier to maintain. However, it is susceptible to
creating slightly variable temperatures in the cylinders, as temperature is difficult to control with precision. The
dry cabinet is easier to cool. Neither cabinet is readily portable, and therefore they must be set up permanently in
one location. Using either cabinet is a better solution than placing test specimens with the product.

3.4.5.4.2 Self-Insulated Cylinder Molds

This state-of-the-art method of curing concrete test specimens uses metal molds that are self-insulated and have a
built-in heater and temperature sensor that work in conjunction with a solid-state temperature controller. A
thermocouple located to sense the internal temperature of the precast concrete member being cured is plugged
into the controller, along with the thermocouple from the cylinder mold. The controller continuously compares
the temperature of the member with the temperature of the test specimen and toggles the test mold heater on or
off depending on whether the temperature of the test specimen is above or below the product temperature. This
system is capable of maintaining the temperature of the test specimen within 5 °F of the product temperature,
regardless of whether the temperature of the product is rising or falling.

3.4.5.4.3 Long-Term Cylinder Curing

Typically, all cylinders are initially cured under conditions similar to those of the product. After the transfer
cylinders are tested and the member is stripped, the later-age cylinders are removed from their molds and placed
in moist storage at 73.4 °F (±3 °F) in accordance with AASHTO T23.
Some specifications require that the cylinders be stored with the product. Most precast concrete bridge members
have much larger volume-to-surface ratios than the cylinders have. Consequently, storage under the same
conditions would cause the cylinders to both dry and cool much faster than the product they are intended to
represent. Experience has shown that cylinders stored in this manner, particularly during the cold winter months,
suffer reduced strength development and do not accurately represent the strength of the product. They should
never be used for acceptance testing of the concrete mix or ultimate strength of the concrete in the product.

3.4.5.5 Concrete Cores

As mentioned in Section 3.4.5.1, when the number of cast cylinders is inadequate, an alternate means of
determining concrete strength is necessary. One of the most common procedures involves drilling and testing
cores from the precast concrete member in accordance with AASHTO T24. Cores are usually removed from a
“neutral” location in the product, such as near the neutral axis of a flexural member, and must also be from a
location that avoids reinforcement and other embedments. These cores are not evaluated by the same criteria as
cast cylinders, as the aggregates are cut at the sides and cannot be compared with a molded specimen. In addition,
the coring process introduces damage that reduces strength. ACI 318 states that concrete in an area represented
by core tests shall be considered structurally adequate if the average strength of three cores is equal to at least
85% of 𝑓𝑐′ and if no single core strength is less than 75% of 𝑓𝑐′ . Campbell and Tobin (1967) provide further
information on core strengths.
The size and shape of the core must also be considered when evaluating its strength, as described by Neville
(1966). All holes resulting from cores must be filled with a low-shrinkage concrete having a compressive strength
at least equal to that of the precast concrete member.

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3.4.5.6 Nondestructive Testing/3.5.1 Weight Limitations

3.4.5.6 Nondestructive Testing

Several alternate procedures can be used to test the concrete strength of products without destroying the product
or the area tested. The Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products
(PCI, 2021) lists the methods currently available. These procedures are normally employed for comparative or
qualitative purposes and are not intended to replace cylinder testing. Nondestructive test methods are acceptable
provided the following conditions are met:
• A correlation curve is established for each combination of concrete mix design, curing procedure, and age
of test
• A minimum of 30 tests is used for each correlation curve
• Test results fall within the 95% confidence limits of the correlation curve
• Correlation curves are established for each test instrument, even of the same type
If properly correlated with cylinder tests, nondestructive tests may be used to evaluate the transfer strength of
products as long as the number of available cylinders is insufficient. Rebound hammer testing is commonly used
to determine concrete strength at all ages for dry-cast products such as hollow-core slabs.

3.4.6 Tolerances
Good design and detailing practices for precast concrete components and connections always consider allowable
tolerances for fabrication, erection, and interfacing field construction. The Manual for Quality Control for Plants
and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products (PCI, 2021) lists industry standard tolerances for typical
precast concrete bridge members. Details allowing generous tolerances usually result in economies during
construction, whereas extremely stringent tolerances can be very expensive and, in some cases, may not be
achievable. Designers should consult local producers when considering tolerances that are tighter than the
industry standards.

3.5 TRANSPORTATION
One of the most important aspects of precast concrete component design is the ability to move the member from
the precast plant to the jobsite. Three modes of transportation are used in the industry: truck, rail, and barge. The
following sections describe issues involved in selecting a mode of transportation. The availability of
transportation modes, and limitations on member weights and sizes, vary widely depending on the geographical
location of the plant and jobsite. Bridge designers should consult with local producers regarding transportation
considerations in their area.

3.5.1 Weight Limitations

The maximum shipping weight of a precast concrete member depends on the mode of transportation and
geographical proximity of the plant and jobsite. For shipping by truck, restrictions vary from 50 to 220 kips,
depending on state regulations and available equipment. Unique haul rigs that can extend their axles to expand
their footprint in width to occupy more than one travel lane are available (Fig. 3.5.1-1). The largest have a
capacity of 340 kips. Normally, the maximum weight is determined by the number and minimum spacing of axles
that distribute the load to the roadway surface. The minimum spacing requirement is more difficult to achieve
with short, heavy members than with long, heavy members. Single-axle loads of 12 to 16 kips generally do not
require “overload” permits, as long as the axle spacing exceeds the specified minimum spacing. Special permits
may allow an increase in load per axle, but they may require the use of escorts, additional investment in
engineering evaluation, or an indirect routing of the load. Maximum axle loads permitted vary from state to state.
Some states further limit axle loads after a period of freezing temperatures. Other jurisdictions may allow higher
tire pressures when the ground is frozen.

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3.5.1 Weight Limitations/3.5.3 Trucking

Figure 3.5.1-1
Hauling Rig with Axles that Extend Laterally to Spread Load over Multiple Lanes

Standard railcars can usually accommodate larger loads than a standard truck. Railcars range in capacity from
approximately 120 to 200 kips. However, unless the rail system runs directly from the precast plant to the jobsite,
members must be trucked for at least some portion of the route and the weight of the member may be restricted
by the trucking limitations. Double handling increases transportation costs.
The same trucking weight limitations can apply to barge transportation. However, for marine construction
accessible by barge, the weight is only limited by the rated capacity of the loading equipment or barge. Very large
precast concrete floating pontoons for bridges (in excess of 5,500 tons) have been successfully delivered by barge.

3.5.2 Size Limitations

The ability to ship a precast concrete member can be limited by the member’s overall dimensions. Dimensional
restrictions depend on state regulations, equipment limitations, and physical constraints along the route to the
jobsite. Physical constraints include height and width clearances and required turning radii. Alternate routes can
often be selected to alleviate these constraints.
For trucking with an “over-dimension” permit, state regulations generally restrict the height of a loaded member
to 14 ft above the roadway surface. Without a permit, the height may be restricted to 12 ft. Widths are restricted
to 12 to 16 ft with permits and 8 to 10 ft without permits. Most states do not restrict the length of a load, although
many require permits for loads over a specified length. Permitted loads may or may not require escort vehicles.
Maximum lengths are normally dictated by the smallest turning radius en route.
Delivery by rail can involve significantly more restrictive size limitations. Clearances limited by tunnels and other
obstructions are often very restrictive. Long precast concrete members, which may span several railcars, require
at least one end support to articulate to accommodate the turning radius of each car. This can further exacerbate
clearances at the midpoint of the member. Dimensional limitations for rail delivery are highly route dependent
and must be closely coordinated with the railroad.
Product dimensions are usually not limited by barge delivery. In most cases, if a product can be made and handled
in the plant, it can be shipped by barge. As with weight restrictions, this point usually applies only in situations
where both the precast plant and the jobsite are accessible by barge.

3.5.3 Trucking
The most common mode of transporting precast concrete products is by truck, as most precast plants do not have
easy access to rail spurs or waterways. Trucking is accommodated with four basic configurations of trailers:
• Standard flatbed trailers
• “Low-boy” trailers
• “Pole” trailers
• Steerable trailers

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3.5.3 Trucking/3.5.3.3 “Pole” Trailers

Each truck configuration is pulled by a standard tractor, with the differences provided by the trailer arrangement.
The following sections describe in general terms the characteristics of the various trailers. As trailer dimensions
and hauling capacities vary throughout the United States, the dimensions and capacities given in the following
sections should be considered approximate.

3.5.3.1 Flatbed Trailers

Relatively small precast concrete products are shipped on standard flatbed trailers, as shown in Fig. 3.5.3.1-1.
The trailers are 8 ft wide and 40 to 53 ft long, with the top of the bed approximately 4.5 ft above the roadway
surface. The beds are typically supported on dual axles at the back of the trailer and on dual axles at the rear of
the tractor―a total of four axles. For loads without special permits, hauling capacity is limited to approximately 50
to 60 kips. This type of trailer is normally used to transport short-span flexural members, such as stemmed
members or voided slab beams, and other miscellaneous bridge products, such as substructure components or
stay-in-place deck panels.
Figure 3.5.3.1-1 Figure 3.5.3.2-1
Typical Flatbed Trailer “Low-Boy” Trailer

3.5.3.2 “Low-Boy” Trailers

“Low-boy” trailers are used when height restrictions become a problem for flatbed trailers. Approximately 35 ft of
the center section of the trailer is lowered to reduce the top of the bed to within 2 ft of the roadway surface. These
trailers are used to haul tall loads, such as wall panels shipped on edge, or large segments (Fig. 3.5.3.2-1).
Because “low-boy “ trailers are usually supported by four axles, their overall dimensions and hauling capacity are
similar to those of standard flatbed trailers.

3.5.3.3 “Pole” Trailers

“Pole” trailers are configurations where the front and rear axle sets (or “jeeps”) are connected with a telescoping
pole (Fig. 3.5.3.3-1). Therefore, the distance between the front and rear axles is adjustable. Typical “pole” trailers
can extend to approximately 60 ft between supports, and they are used to carry precast concrete members that
are too long to be handled with standard flatbed trailers. Their hauling capacity depends on the number and
spacing of axles, as discussed in Section 3.5.1.

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3.5.3.3 “Pole” Trailers 3.5.3.5 Truck Loading Considerations

Figure 3.5.3.3-1 Figure 3.5.3.4-1

Typical “Pole” Trailer with Additional Steerable Trailer
Pole Extending beyond Rear Axle Sets

3.5.3.4 Steerable Trailers

The trailing end of a very long precast concrete member is usually supported by a detached steerable trailer.
Members as long as 223 ft have been delivered with this equipment. There are two basic types of steerable
trailers. One type is outfitted with a cab and steering wheel (Fig. 3.5.3.4-1). The steerable trailer is secured to the
member, which in turn is secured to the tractor or front jeep. During delivery, the steerable trailer is operated by
a driver, who, in conjunction with the tractor driver, maneuvers the member to the jobsite.
Another type of steerable trailer is remotely steered by the tractor driver. The driver’s controls activate hydraulic
cylinders that offset the rear dollies. This trailer is efficient and highly maneuverable. Examples are shown in Fig.
3.5.3.4-2 and 3.5.1-1.
Figure 3.5.3.4-2
Remotely Steered Trailer

3.5.3.5 Truck Loading Considerations

Precast concrete products should be loaded on trucks with supports located as close as possible to the lifting
devices. Previous codes stated concrete stresses should be checked considering impact loads during
transportation (generally, an addition or reduction of 20% of the member weight is adequate for calculation of

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3.5.3.5 Truck Loading Considerations

impact loads during truck delivery). LRFD Article 5.12.3.2.1 and Commentary C5.12.3.2.1 place the responsibility
on the contractor to provide adequate devices and methods for safe hauling of precast products. In addition, the
contractor is responsible for storage, loading, handling, erection, and temporary bracing of precast concrete
elements.
LRFD Article 5.5.4.3 requires the design engineer to investigate buckling and stability of precast members during
handling, transportation, and erection and LRFD Article C5.12.3.2.1 notes that preservice conditions can govern
the design and should be considered. Safe handling of long slender precast products necessitates coordination
between the designer, fabricator, hauler, and erector early in the design process.
For members with multiple lift points, “rocker” assemblies are used to equalize the load at each support location
(Fig. 3.5.3.5-1).
Figure 3.5.3.5-1
Rocker Support Assembly on “Pole” Trailer

Chains, wire rope, or nylon straps are used to secure the load to the trailer or jeep. As mentioned in Section
3.2.4.5, some producers provide blockouts in the top flange to prevent damage from the chains, as shown in Fig.
3.5.3.4-1. When “pole” or steerable trailers are used, the front and rear supports are generally designed to swivel
to allow for the relative rotation between the front and rear jeeps during turns. Chains must be secured to the top
of the swivel assembly to allow the jeep to turn relative to the member (Fig. 3.5.3.5-2).

Figure 3.5.3.5-2
Swivel Support on Jeep

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3.5.4 Rail Transportation/3.5.5 Barge Transportation

3.5.4 Rail Transportation

Economically, rail transportation is usually only viable for transporting precast concrete members over relatively
long distances, or for projects on railroad rights-of-way. Rail cars are constrained to travel on tracks, which
normally necessitates moving the member from storage to the rail siding by truck or travel crane. Also, railcars
endure considerably more impact than trucks, and they require substantially more longitudinal and transverse
lashing and restraint (Fig. 3.5.4-1). As mentioned in Section 3.5.2, long precast concrete members must straddle
several cars and require swivel supports to accommodate relative rotation, much like “pole” or steerable truck
trailers. A railcar swivel support is shown in (Fig. 3.5.4-2). Compared to trucks, railcars are more difficult to
obtain and schedule on a consistent and reliable basis.
Figure 3.5.4-1 Figure 3.5.4-2
Railcar Lashing Example Railcar Swivel Support

3.5.5 Barge Transportation

Where available, barge transportation is the most economical mode of transportation for precast concrete
products. In local areas, barging is generally limited to marine construction, as shown in Fig. 3.5.5-1. However,
barges are also used to transport precast concrete products over very long distances for land-based projects, with
either truck or rail being used from the dock to the jobsite. The large hauling capacity and dimensional flexibility
of barge transportation make it the most attractive and, in some cases, the only feasible mode of transportation.
Figure 3.5.5-1
Barge Loaded with Piles

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3.5.5 Barge Transportation/3.5.6 Lateral Stability during Shipping

Figure 3.5.5-2
Barge Loaded with Beams

The large hauling capacity of a barge with respect to its deck area usually requires the members to be stacked on
the deck. In this case, the stacking considerations discussed in Section 3.3.8.3 must be observed. The wood
dunnage between the stack and the deck generally must align with the internal barge bulkheads. To conserve
deck space, wide-flanged members can be nested (Fig. 3.5.5-2). The members are blocked and lashed together
and secured to the deck as a unit. This process improves the stability of each individual member during the
journey.
For open ocean tows, a significant amount of lashing is required to secure the load. In many cases, vertical
uprights, or “stanchions,” are used to prevent the load from shifting. Under storm conditions, impact can be
significant, sometimes as high as 100%, and members must be supported with this in mind.

3.5.6 Lateral Stability during Shipping

Long, slender members can become unstable when supported near the ends, as discussed in Section 3.3.7.4.
Studies by Mast (1993) conclude that, unlike handling, the most important parameter for lateral stability during
shipping is the roll stiffness of the trailer or jeep. Methods used for improving the lateral stiffness of long, slender
members for handling do nothing to improve the roll stiffness of the support during transportation (Laszlo and
Imper, 1987). Most producers have extensive experience with shipping long members, and they should be
consulted on maximum practical shipping lengths. If producers lack sufficient experience to provide guidance, the
roll stiffness of transportation vehicles should be evaluated according to the method proposed by Mast (1993),
particularly when roadway superelevations and cross slopes will be encountered on the delivery route. In some
areas, sophisticated, heavy hauling equipment with self-leveling trailers that pivot on rocker supports controlled
hydraulically is available. Some types of vehicles have axles that extend laterally for better stability against
overturning on cross slopes. This capability also is used to distribute loads on bridges over a larger area.
PCI’s Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (2016B) has a
section devoted to stability of girders during transport. It provides information on how to assess stability during
transport and how to improve lateral stability. A companion spreadsheet can be used to assist the engineer in
evaluating the stability of girders during transport.

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3.6 Installation/3.6.1.1 Single-Crane Lifts

3.6 INSTALLATION
When a bridge member arrives at the jobsite, it must be erected into position for final integration into the
structure. The following sections describe the methods used to install typical precast concrete bridge
components, and the materials and procedures used in the integration process.

3.6.1 Jobsite Handling

A variety of methods are employed to erect precast concrete bridge members, ranging from single mobile cranes
to sophisticated launching trusses. The selection of an appropriate method depends primarily on member weights
and lengths, available crane capacities, and access conditions at the site. Erection costs are strongly influenced by
the number of cranes required, the crane capacity, and the desired speed of erection. Additional information can
be found in the “Erectors’ Manual: Standards and Guidelines for the Erection of Precast Concrete Products” (PCI,
1999).
Another important consideration is the girder’s lateral stability while it is being lifted and after it is set but before
it is braced, either permanently or temporarily. In addition to the usual concerns about stability, wind on the
jobsite can contribute to making an otherwise stable girder unstable. PCI’s Recommended Practice for Lateral
Stability of Precast Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (2016B) has a section devoted to stability of girders during
erection. It provides information on how to assess stability during erection, how to improve stability during
erection, and how to adequately brace the girders until the deck is cast. A companion spreadsheet can be used to
assist the engineer in evaluating the stability of girders during erection.

3.6.1.1 Single-Crane Lifts

The preferred method of erecting long beams is with a single crane located at either bridge beam support or
somewhere between supports. Single cranes located at a support are generally limited to short spans of 60 ft or
less. I-beams as long as 120 ft have been erected with a single crane placed at midspan. That erection method
requires open access for both the crane and the delivery vehicle near midspan to reduce the reach the crane must
make to lift the beam. Figure 3.6.1.1-1 shows a single-crane lift.Single-crane lifts require a sufficient length of
boom to keep the cables at a specified minimum angle from horizontal, generally 60 degrees or more. Spreader
bars or struts can also be used to maintain this minimum angle.
Figure 3.6.1.1-1 Figure 3.6.1.2-1
Single-Crane Lift Dual-Crane Lift

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3.6.1.2 Dual-Crane Lifts/3.6.1.4.1 Launching Trusses for Single-Piece Construction

3.6.1.2 Dual-Crane Lifts

Erection using two cranes is usually faster than with one crane, but it is also more expensive. The dual-crane
method requires close coordination between cranes and is normally used when long beams can be delivered
along the bridge span. Each crane is positioned near the supports and together they swing the beams from the
delivery vehicle directly to their final position. Figure 3.6.1.2-1 shows a dual-crane lift. Dual-crane lifts do not
require the very long boom lengths of single-crane lifts. Therefore, dual-crane lifts can be used in situations where
headroom is limited, such as erection under a bridge overpass or near or under power transmission lines.

3.6.1.3 Passing from Crane to Crane

Passing beams from crane to crane is normally required when erecting long beams over waterways and railways,
where neither the cranes nor the delivery vehicles have access between supports. Using this process, a crane is
placed at each of the near and far supports. A truck with steerable trailer backs the beam to the near crane, which
lifts the end of the beam from the steerable trailer. As the tractor supporting the other end of the beam backs up,
the near crane moves the beam end as far out into the span as allowed by its lifting capacity. The far crane is then
hooked onto a separate lifting device at the end out into the span and, provided it has the capacity, picks up the
load until the near crane can be released. If neither crane has sufficient load capacity at the transfer point, a
triangular load transfer plate is used to spread the load between cranes until the beam is close enough to be
carried by the far crane alone. The far crane and tractor continue to move the beam out into the span until the
near crane can lift the end of the beam off the tractor. Erection then proceeds in the same manner as for dual-
crane lifts.
For longer spans where two cranes cannot reach each other and use the load triangle, a launching beam can be
used. Crane 1 picks up one end of the beam sets the beam on a temporary launching beam. The truck backs up
while beam travels across launching beam, crane 2 picks beam and sets with crane 1.

3.6.1.4 Launching Trusses

Launching trusses are used when the methods described in Sections 3.6.1.1 through 3.6.1.3 are not ecologically or
practically feasible. Launching trusses are generally needed with long spans in the range of 135 to 200 ft.
Launching trusses eliminate the need for cranes, delivery vehicles, or temporary support towers to be placed near
midspan, and they can be used for both single-piece or segmental construction. Launching trusses are usually
shipped in pieces and assembled at the jobsite. Methods of installing the trusses vary depending on the type of
construction. A unique truss was deployed in an environmentally sensitive area where it minimized the
associated construction impacts by using overhead pile driving and bridge beam launching techniques (Homsi, et
al., 2010).

3.6.1.4.1 Launching Trusses for Single-Piece Construction

The use of launching trusses for single-piece construction is usually reserved for long, single-span crossings
where access is possible only at the ends. In this scenario, a crane is positioned at both the near and far
abutments, and the truss is assembled on a runway behind the near abutment. Given the relatively light weight
and strength of the truss, the locations where it may be picked are flexible, and the crane at the near abutment is
able to “pass” the truss to the crane at the far end. Figure 3.6.1.4.1-1 shows a launching truss in position.
The long, precast concrete beams are shipped from the plant either as single pieces or in segments that are
assembled into full-length beams in a staging area at the jobsite. A truck with steerable trailer backs the beam to
the near crane, which lifts the end of the beam from the steerable trailer, and places it on a trolley on top of the
truss. The tractor then backs the beam across the span until the crane at the far end can reach the end on the
trolley. The crane at the near end picks the beam from the tractor, and both cranes swing the beam to its final
position.

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3.6.1.4.1 Launching Trusses for Single-Piece Construction/3.6.1.4.2 Launching Trusses for Segmental Construction

Figure 3.6.1.4.1-1
Setting a Precast Concrete Beam with a Launching Truss

Figure 3.6.1.4.2-1
Assembling Precast Concrete Segments with a Launching Truss

3.6.1.4.2 Launching Trusses for Segmental Construction

Launching trusses for segmental construction are very sophisticated equipment, and they are generally reserved
for large, multi-span, segmental box beam construction. These trusses are designed to launch themselves from

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3.6.1.4.2 Launching Trusses for Segmental Construction/3.6.2.2 Temporary Support Towers

pier to pier, and to lift and hold large box sections in place until the segment is post-tensioned to the structure.
Figure 3.6.1.4.2-1 shows a launching truss used for segmental construction.

3.6.2 Support Surfaces

The construction of supports for precast concrete flexural members is important to provide uniform bearing for
the generally high, concentrated forces at the beam ends. Elastomeric bearing pads are used predominantly as
beam supports. Therefore, the as-cast condition of both the support surface and the beam soffit is critical in
providing good bearing. Many designers specify a rectangular grout pad, approximately 1.5 in. thick, to be
accurately placed on the pier or abutment as a second-stage placement (Fig. 3.6.2-1). Support surfaces may be
level or sloped to match the roadway profile. When level support surfaces are used with sloped beams, a beveled
recess in the beam soffit is used to ensure proper slope. For members with two or more support stems, the
relative elevation of the multiple support surfaces is critical to prevent warping of the section.
Figure 3.6.2-1
Elastomeric Pad and Grout Pedestal Bearing Detail

3.6.2.1 Inspection of Support Surfaces

Before erection equipment is mobilized, the support surfaces should be checked for horizontal and vertical
control, as well as flatness and level or slope. This evaluation can be done with standard surveying equipment and
a carpenter’s level. Flatness is normally limited to 1/16 in. tolerance, and it is checked by passing a straightedge
over the surface. Any “dishing” of the surface can be detected by light under the straightedge. The same type of
check is performed on the beam soffit or bearing recess. Support surfaces and beam soffits that are out of
tolerance are normally corrected by grinding.

3.6.2.2 Temporary Support Towers

When precast concrete beams are too long or too heavy to be shipped as a single piece, they can be cast in
segments, erected on temporary support towers, and spliced together in their final position. Support towers
usually extend the full width of the bridge to accommodate continuous erection and splicing operations. A solid
foundation, usually a compacted crushed gravel base, must be provided for the towers because very little
settlement can be tolerated between the time the splice is completed and the post-tensioning is applied across the

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3.6.2.2 Temporary Support Towers/3.6.3 Abutted Members

joint. Two or more timber mats, placed in perpendicular directions, support the towers and distribute the loads to
the base.
The towers themselves are typically heavy-duty aluminum scaffold frames, cross braced for lateral stability and to
reduce the unsupported length of the posts. Figure 3.6.2.2-1 shows a typical temporary support tower. The top
of each post of the frame is fitted with a screw jack, which supports a continuous steel beam across the full width
of the bridge. A series of headframes, or interconnected steel beam platforms, are supported on the continuous
steel beams and support the beam segments at the splice. Normally, provisions are made for hydraulic jacks to be
placed under the beams for final adjustments before the splice is completed. PCI’s report State-of-the-Art of
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Spliced-Girder Bridges (1992) provides further information on the use of temporary
support towers. See also Chapter 11.

Figure 3.6.2.2-1
Temporary Support Tower

3.6.3 Abutted Members

Precast concrete members are abutted by placing them side by side on the supports and connecting them
together so that loads on the bridge deck are shared by adjacent members. The LRFD Specifications refers to
abutted deck members as precast concrete multi-beam decks. Members that are commonly abutted include solid
and voided slab beams, deck bulb tees, stemmed members, and box beams. Connection details include welding,
bolting, grouted shear keys, cast-in-place overlays, and transverse post-tensioning. The following sections
describe materials and procedures used to connect abutted members. Previous practices have been revisited,
focusing on extending service life beyond 50 years. The LRFD Specifications seeks to extend service life beyond 75
years. Current FHWA initiatives place emphasis on accelerated bridge construction methods using prefabricated
bridge elements and systems. Accelerated bridge construction requires greater attention and focus to be placed
upon connections and construction details. To further the technology, FHWA published Connection Details for
Prefabricated Bridge Elements and Systems (Culmo, 2009). Hanna, et al. (2011) have proposed two non-post-
tensioned connection solutions.
Box beams have been used extensively for rapid construction. Russell (2009) and the PCI State of the Practice on
Precast, Prestressed Adjacent Box Beam Bridges (2011B) offer current concepts for this product application.

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3.6.3.1 Vertical Alignment/3.6.3.2 Shear Keys

3.6.3.1 Vertical Alignment

The allowable differential camber between abutted deck members is usually limited to ½ in. This is an important
consideration as there is often no concrete overlay to compensate for the vertical offset at the joints. However, the
stiffer nature of abutted deck members leads to less total camber, and consequently less differential camber, than
members that receive a cast-in-place deck. Small amounts of offset between abutted deck members are normally
mitigated by feathering grout across the shear key joint. Larger offsets can be minimized by shimming the beam
ends to split the offset difference between the ends and midspan, or by leveling the members at midspan with a
jack/lever arrangement before the connection is made between members. Caution must be exercised when
leveling thin-flanged abutted members because weld plates can spall out of the thin flange under the loads
imposed by the leveling. Connections should be detailed to accommodate the allowable differential camber (Fig.
3.6.3.1-1).
Figure 3.6.3.1-1
Welded Flange Connection Showing Condition with Differential Camber

3.6.3.2 Shear Keys

Load sharing between abutted members is normally achieved through shear keys (Fig. 3.6.3.2-1), which are filled
with grout or concrete. The clamping force required to confine the joint is typically provided by lateral ties
consisting of welded connections or transverse post-tensioning. The shear key configuration and joint width vary
depending on the type of member and joint filler to be used. Most producers have preferred configurations of
shear keys for each standard product; Stanton and Mattock (1986) provide recommendations for the design and
configuration of shear keys. Abutted members that subsequently receive a composite cast-in-place overlay may
not require shear keys or lateral ties.
Figure 3.6.3.2-1
Typical Shear Key Connection

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3.6.3.2.Shear Key Size and Position/3.6.3.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning

3.6.3.2.1 Shear Key Size and Position

Shear keys are often placed near the top of the girders. These keys sometimes crack and leak, leading to
deterioration of the girder. Research shows that temperature movements are the most probable cause of this
cracking (Russell, 2009). This is because the temperature gradient is very large over the top 4 in. of girders.
Moving the shear keys down in the cross section (if possible) and using a larger shear key (to increase bond area)
can help to mitigate cracking.

3.6.3.2.2 Grout or Concrete in Shear Keys

The choice of grout or concrete to fill shear keys depends primarily on the minimum width of the joint. Concrete
can only be used with joint widths approximately 2 in. or greater for two reasons: the joint must accommodate a
pencil vibrator (1 in. diameter) for consolidation of the concrete, and the aggregate must be sized to be one-fifth
the minimum joint dimension. Narrower joints are filled with a flowable grout composed primarily of portland
cement and fine aggregate, as described in Section 2.6. Both grout and concrete joint fillers must be nonshrink
types. The bond between the grout and the girder is very important, so using a grout with a high bond strength
will help prevent cracking of the shear keys. Recently, UHPC has been used in shear keys due to its superior
strength and bond (Steinberg, et al., 2022).

3.6.3.2.3 Grouting Procedures for Shear Keys

The surfaces of the girder in the shear key area should be roughened to promote bond. This can be done by either
using an exposed aggregate surface or a heavily sandblasted or shot-blasted surface (see Section 3.3.9). Thirty
minutes before the shear keys are grouted, the joint surfaces must be wetted to achieve a saturated, surface-dry
condition. The temperature of both the air and concrete should be a minimum of 40 °F. A volume of grout
adequate to fill one or more joints is mixed and placed, preferably with a rolling trough that directs the grout into
the joint. The grout is sometimes placed over the joint on the deck and scraped into the joint with a squeegee, but
this method tends to stain the deck surface. Consolidation of the grout is accomplished by rodding. The quality
control of this operation is important to ensure the soundness and durability of the joint. One important aspect is
the flowability of the grout. Most manufacturers have a recommended water content for producing a flowable
grout, but the definition of flowability is not necessarily the same for all manufacturers. If a grout does not flow
well, contractors tend to increase the water content. This will reduce the grout strength. It is important to ensure
the grout will flow properly with the correct water content.

3.6.3.3 Welded Connectors

Welded connectors generally consist of plates or angles embedded in the sides of the top flange and anchored to
the concrete with welded reinforcing bars, studs, or deformed bar anchors. In some plants, connectors consist of
full-flange-width reinforcing bars welded to plates on both edges of the flange. These connectors are recessed
from the top surface of abutted deck members to provide the required cover from the roadway surface (Fig.
3.6.3.1-1). This recess is sized to ensure adequate access for field welding the connecting plate. Stanton and
Mattock (1986) recommend the maximum spacing of welded connectors be the width of the top flange, or 5 ft,
whichever is less. Welded connections are most commonly used with deck bulb tees and stemmed members.

3.6.3.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning

Lateral post-tensioning, located at or above the section’s mid-depth, is most often used as the lateral tie system
for voided slab beams and box beams, although it can also be used in the flange or concrete diaphragms of
stemmed members. Typically, the longitudinal spacing corresponds with diaphragm locations, at the ends and at
approximately 40-ft centers. Prestressing bars are most commonly used, although strand systems can also be
used. Lateral post-tensioning requires no field welding, and the prestressing steel is fully protected in the
completed structure.

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3.6.3.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning/3.7.1 Cast-in-Place Concrete Diaphragms

One application of lateral post-tensioning for slab beams is shown in Fig. 3.6.3.4-1. Staggered prestressing bars
are placed in ducts normal to the longitudinal axis of the slabs, tying them together two at a time. The bars are
placed as erection proceeds, and they are stressed using a torque wrench or jack. Enlarged pockets are provided
in the shear keys to provide clearance from the bar end to the adjacent slab. This procedure minimizes increase in
the bridge width caused by dimensional creep, as well as problems due to misaligned ducts when post-tensioning
the full deck width.
Figure 3.6.3.4-1
Lateral Post-Tensioning Connection of Skewed Voided Slab Beams

3.6.3.5 Skewed Bridges

Welded and post-tensioned connections for members abutted on skewed bridges can either follow the skew or be
normal to the longitudinal axis of the member. Connections that follow the skew are normally limited to skews of
20 degrees or less. For skewed, post-tensioned connections, a wedge-shaped pocket is required in the shear key
to ensure uniform bearing of the prestressing force on the concrete surface (Fig. 3.6.3.4-1).
Systems using nonmetallic, prestressed carbon-fiber-composite cables were investigated and constructed in
Michigan (Grace, et al., 2011).

3.7 DIAPHRAGMS
Diaphragms are “stiffeners” that are normal to the longitudinal axis of the bridge and connect precast concrete
flexural members to one another. They are generally specified at the bridge ends and, in most regions of the
United States, at a maximum of 40-ft intervals along the length of the bridge. Rabbat, et al. (1982) concluded that
end diaphragms ensure uniform reactions at the span ends and provide a smoother ride over the support. In
other locations, however, studies by Lin and VanHorn (1969), McCarthy, et al. (1979), Sengupta and Breen (1973),
Sithichaikasem and Gamble (1972), and Wong and Gamble (1973) concluded that intermediate diaphragms are
not necessary for load distribution and, are in fact, in most cases, detrimental. The studies cited above were
performed on bridges with cast-in-place decks, and their conclusions may not be applicable to fully decked,
abutted members. Intermediate diaphragms may also be added above traffic lanes to provide additional strength
in the event of impact from over-height vehicles.

3.7.1 Cast-in-Place Concrete Diaphragms

The most common type of diaphragm is cast in place (Fig. 3.7.1-1). Interior beams are fabricated with holes
through the web to allow the top and bottom diaphragm reinforcement to pass through. Exterior beams have
threaded inserts embedded in the interior face to accommodate threaded reinforcing steel, bolts or other types of
anchors. In lieu of threaded inserts, some exterior beams are cast with holes through the web and a recessed
pocket in the exterior face. Threaded reinforcement is passed through the hole, and secured with a hand-

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tightened nut and washer. After the diaphragm concrete has gained some strength, the nut is tightened firmly, and
the recess is coated with epoxy and patched with grout. Fully decked, abutted members such as deck bulb tees are
provided with “casting slots,” or holes, in the deck to facilitate concrete placement.
Figure 3.7.1-1
Cast-in-Place Concrete Diaphragm Details

3.7.2 Precast Concrete Diaphragms

3.7.2.1 Individual Precast Concrete Diaphragms
Diaphragms can be fabricated as separate precast concrete pieces and shipped in pieces to the jobsite for
installation into the structure. Figure 3.7.2.1-1 shows a precast concrete diaphragm detail. These diaphragms
must be cast to the shape of the webs and flanges of adjacent beams, and they are sensitive to fabrication and
erection tolerances. Connections to adjacent beams are usually made by welding. This method can be tedious
during erection. In some cases, tie rods through sleeves in the diaphragms have also been used. The geometry of
the structure generally determines the feasibility of precast concrete diaphragms. Among the available diaphragm
types, they are the most difficult to properly execute.

Figure 3.7.2.1-1
Individual, Separate, Precast Concrete Diaphragms

3.7.2.2 Secondary-Cast Precast Concrete Diaphragms

Another option for providing precast concrete diaphragms is to cast the diaphragm directly onto the individual
beams in the precaster’s yard (Fig. 3.7.2.2-1). The diaphragm reinforcement and connections to the beams are

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3.7.2.2 Secondary-Cast Precast Concrete Diaphragms/3.7.3 Steel Diaphragms

similar to cast-in-place diaphragms. The joint occurs at midpoint between beams, and the connection between
diaphragms is usually accomplished by welding or mechanical splicing of exposed reinforcement. The most
important aspect of this type of diaphragm is alignment in the field. Proper execution sometimes requires match
casting of the diaphragms in the precaster’s yard.
Figure 3.7.2.2-1
Secondary-Cast, Precast Concrete Diaphragms

3.7.3 Steel Diaphragms

Steel braces have proven to be an efficient and cost-effective means of providing diaphragms, particularly in
remote locations where cast-in-place concrete is not readily available. Figures 3.7.3-1 and 3.7.3-2 show two
types of steel diaphragms used in the industry. The first is normally referred to as a “K” brace. This configuration
is not as stiff as most other types of diaphragms and, consequently is used at shorter intervals of approximately
25 ft maximum. The second type, which is often called a “delta” brace, has been successfully used at 40-ft
intervals. Both types are normally hot-dip galvanized and connected to the beams by welding. The precautions
discussed in Section 3.2.5.6 should be observed when welding galvanized steel. The “K” brace has also been
detailed with bolted connections. Given the cumulative fabrication and erection tolerances, predrilled bolt holes
are difficult to line up, so the holes in one of the connecting elements are normally field drilled.

Figure 3.7.3-1
Steel “K” Brace Diaphragms

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3.7.3 Steel Diaphragms/3.8.1 Deck Panel Systems

Figure 3.7.3-2
Steel “Delta” Brace Diaphragms

3.7.4 Temporary Diaphragms for Construction

After the beams have been erected but before they are permanently connected into the structure, they can be
subjected to forces of nature that could cause them to topple off the supports. Forces include wind, earthquake, or
thermally induced sweep. Temporary braces consisting of steel or timber are used to stabilize the beams. Braces
are removed after the final connections are made.

3.7.5 Diaphragms in Skewed Bridges

Diaphragms in skewed bridges can either follow the skew angle or frame normal to the longitudinal axis of the
beams. In general, diaphragms perpendicular to the beams are easier to detail and execute, particularly with
precast concrete or steel diaphragms. Bridge designers should consult with local manufacturers for the most cost-
effective means of providing diaphragms on skewed bridges.

3.8 PRECAST CONCRETE DECK PANELS

Precast, prestressed concrete composite bridge deck panels, combined with a cast-in-place overlay, provide an
efficient and cost-effective method of constructing bridge decks. The following sections describe key facets of the
fabrication and installation of these panels. This subject is extensively covered in the PCI Bridge Producers
Committee’s “Recommended Practice for Precast Prestressed Concrete Composite Bridge Deck Panels” (1988).

3.8.1 Deck Panel Systems

Precast concrete composite bridge deck panels are 3- to 4-in.-thick concrete slabs that span between the top
flanges of concrete or steel beams. These panels provide a working platform for deck reinforcement placement
and a stay-in-place form for the cast-in-place concrete overlay. Figure 3.8.1-1 shows panels in place. The panels
are fabricated using the materials and procedures discussed in Sections 3.2 and 3.3. Prestressing strands in the
panels are oriented perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beams and provide all of the positive
reinforcement required for the span of the deck between beams. The panels become composite with the cast-in-
place overlay to resist superimposed dead and live loads. The interface shear connection is typically achieved only
by roughening the top surface of the precast concrete slabs. Projecting mild reinforcement across the interface is
not normally required (see LRFD Article 9.7.4.3.2).
Both proprietary and generic panel systems are available to the construction industry. Proprietary systems
employ patented methods of erection, temporary support, adjustments, and forming of the gap between the

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3.8.1 Deck Panel Systems/3.8.3 Installation of Deck Panels

bottom of the panel and the top of the beam. Generic systems use conventional methods to achieve the same
results.
Figure 3.8.1-1
Installation of Precast Concrete Deck Panels

3.8.2 Handling Deck Panels

Precast concrete composite bridge deck panels can be handled with the conventional techniques described in
Section 3.3.7 or with proprietary lifting equipment. Proprietary lifting equipment is normally designed to lift the
panels along the edge, eliminating the need for embedded lifting devices. This equipment is also designed for
quick release to speed erection of the panels.

3.8.3 Installation of Deck Panels

After the panels are erected, they must be temporarily supported until placement of the cast-in-place overlay,
which also provides concrete under the panel for support. Most systems incorporate a minimum of four screw-
jack embedments near the panel corners. These embedments are provided for two purposes. The first is to frame
a gap between the bottom of the panel and the top of the beam flange large enough to allow grout or concrete to
fully fill the gap, providing uniform bearing for the panel. The minimum gap is nominally 1 in. for grout and 1½ in.
for concrete. The screw jacks also allow the panel elevations to be adjusted for the desired profile grade, drainage
slope, or superelevation, while correcting for beam camber and dead load deflections, maintaining a relatively
constant overall deck thickness. Figure 3.8.3-1 shows a typical detail at the top of the beam. Some proprietary
systems offer cast-in baffles to retain grout or concrete in the gap.

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3.8.3 Installation of Deck Panels/3.9.1.2 Panels without Post-Tensioning

Figure 3.8.3-1
Stay-in-Place Composite Deck Panels Bearing Detail (Proprietary System)

3.9 FULL-DEPTH, PRECAST CONCRETE BRIDGE DECK PANELS

Full-depth, precast concrete bridge deck panels provide another method to reduce construction time and lessen
the impact of construction project on the traveling public. This innovative, practical, and economic solution is a
viable alternative to cast-in-place concrete bridge decks. The precast concrete panels are characterized by
consistent, high quality materials and fabrication. The system is especially cost effective on projects that involve
lengthy bridges with a large number of required panels. The capability to rapidly place these panels and reopen
the bridge to traffic makes this a creative design alternative.

3.9.1 System Description

A full-depth precast concrete deck consists of a series of precast concrete panels cast to full depth in thickness. To
be viable, the panels must meet and enhance the structural design and geometric requirements for a project. The
panels connect to the beams with a grouted detail that connects anchors from the beam to the precast concrete
panel so that the structure acts compositely. Panels are often as wide as the bridge, up to handling and shipping
limitations of about 40 ft. They are pretensioned in this direction. For wider bridges, two panels may be joined
end to end to create a longitudinal joint in the deck. Panels are about 10 ft long in the direction of travel.

3.9.1.1 Panels with Post-Tensioning

One method of construction is to post-tension numerous panels together longitudinally (in the direction of travel)
to achieve load transfer between panels. Post-tensioning ducts cast into the panels are spliced at transverse joints
and the joints are filled with HSC or grout. Because the panels are prestressed in both directions, long-term
performance is expected to be superior. Panels in service for 30 years have demonstrated such performance.

3.9.1.2 Panels without Post-Tensioning

Full-depth deck panels may also be connected at transverse joints without post-tensioning. Reinforcement
projecting from both adjacent faces are spliced together with UHPC fill in the joint. This system has undergone
research at the FHWA Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center (Graybeal, 2010) and has been demonstrated in
several projects by the New York State and the Iowa Departments of Transportation as well as several projects in
Canada. The research has shown that No. 5 epoxy-coated bars can be developed when lapped inside a 6-in.-wide
joint.

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3.9.2 Details and Considerations/3.10 References

3.9.2 Details and Considerations

The proper design and specifications for these systems enhance constructability and successful installation.
Attention must be given to the joints between adjacent panels and the connections between the deck and
supporting systems, along with post-tensioning methods, if used.
PCI, with the sponsorship of the FHWA, has published a State-of-the-Art Report on Full-Depth Precast Concrete
Bridge Deck Panels (2011A). The report can assist owner agencies, designers, precasters, and contractors with
design methodology, connection details, fabrication suggestions, and construction guidelines.
Russell (2012) is a reference for owners and engineers considering waterproofing membranes and overlays.

3.10 REFERENCES
1. AASHTO. M31 Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement (AASHTO M 31). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, DC.
2. AASHTO. M85. Standard Specification for Portland Cement (AASHTO M 85). American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
3. AASHTO. M111. Standard Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel Products
(AASHTO M 111M/M 111). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, DC.
4. AASHTO. M203. Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven-Wire Stress-Relieved for
Prestressed Concrete (AASHTO M 203M/M 203). American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
5. AASHTO. M205. Standard Specification for Molds for Forming Concrete Test Cylinders Vertically (AASHTO
M 205M/M 205). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
6. AASHTO. M275. Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete
(AASHTO M 275M/M 275). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, DC.
7. AASHTO. M336. Standard Specification for Steel Wire and Welded Wire, Plain and Deformed, for Concrete
Reinforcement (AASHTO M 336). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, DC.
8. AASHTO. R100. Standard Method of Test for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field
(AASHTO R100). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
9. AASHTO. T22. Standard Method of Test for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
(AASHTO T 22). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
10. AASHTO. T24. Standard Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete
(AASHTO T 24M/T 24). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington,
DC.
11. AASHTO. T119. Standard Method of Test for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete (AASHTO T 119).
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
12. AASHTO. T197. Standard Method of Test for Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Resistance
(AASHTO T 197M/T 197). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, DC.
13. AASHTO. 2009. A Resolution of the AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
https://www.pci.org/PCI_Docs/Certification/AASHTO_Resolution_-_Materials_subcommittee.pdf.

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3.10 References

14. AASHTO. 2020A. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 4th Edition. American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
15. AASHTO. 2020B. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 9th Edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
16. ACI Committee 211. Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass
Concrete. (ACI PRC-211.1), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
17. ACI Committee 212. Chemical Admixtures for Concrete (ACI PRC-212.3). American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI.
18. ACI Committee 213. Guide for Structural Lightweight Aggregate Concrete (ACI PCR-213). American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
19. ACI Committee 221. Guide to Use of Normal Weight Aggregates in Concrete (ACI PRC-221), American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI; Reapproved 2001.
20. ACI Committee 224. Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures (ACI PRC-224). American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI; Reapproved 2008.
21. ACI Committee 225. Guide to the Selection and Use of Hydraulic Cements (ACI PRC-225). American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
22. ACI Committee 232. Use of Fly Ash in Concrete (ACI PRC-232.2). American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, MI.
23. ACI Committee 318. 2019. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary (ACI 318-
19). American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
24. AISC and PCI. 2009. AISC/PCI White Paper on Quality Systems in the Construction Industry. American
Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL, and Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://www.aisc.org/globalassets/nsba/technical-documents/aisc-pci-white-paper-on-quality-
systems-in-the-construction-industry.pdf.
25. ASTM A706. Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Low-Alloy Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement (A706/A706M). ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/A0706_A0706M-16.
26. ASTM A767. Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
(A767/A767M). ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/A0767_A0767M-19.
27. ASTM A775. Standard Specification for Epoxy Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars (A775/A775M). ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/A0775_A0775M-22.
28. ASTM A882. Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Prestressing Steel Strand (A882/A882M).
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/A0882_A0882M-20.
29. ASTM A886. Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Indented, Seven-Wire Stress-Relieved for Prestressed
Concrete (A886/A886M). ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/A0886_A0886M-17.
30. ASTM A934. Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Prefabricated Steel Reinforcing Bars (A934/A984M).
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/A0934_A0934M-19.
31. ASTM A1081. Standard Test Method for Evaluating Bond of Seven-Wire Steel Prestressing Strand
(A1081/A1081M). ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/A1081_A1081M-21.

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FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
3.10 References

32. ASTM C403. Standard Test Method for Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Resistance
(C403/C403M). ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/C0403_C0403M-16.
33. ASTM C494. Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete (C494/C494M). ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/C0494_C0494M-19.
34. ASTM C617. Standard Practice for Capping Cylindrical Concrete Specimens (C617/C617M). ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/C0617_C0617M-15.
35. ASTM C1611. Standard Test Method for Slump Flow of Self-Consolidating Concrete (C1611/C1611M).
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
https://doi.org/10.1520/C1611_C1611M-21.
36. Brewe, J. 2020. “Background for the New PCI Recommended Practice on Strand Bond.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 65, No. 6 (November/December), pp. 27-32.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij65.6-05.
37. Campbell, R. R. and R. E. Tobin. 1967. “Core and Cylinder Strengths of Natural and Lightweight Concrete.”
ACI Journal Proceedings, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. V. 64, No. 4 (April), pp.190-
195.
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38. Carroll, J. C., T. E. Cousins, and C. L. Roberts-Wollmann. 2017. “The Use of Grade 300 Prestressing Strand
in Pretensioned, Prestressed Concrete Beams.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL. V. 62, No. 1 (January/February), pp. 49-65.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij62.1-01.
39. Chhetri, S. 2023. Experimental Studies of Prestressing Strand Lifting Loops in Concrete. University of
Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH. Ph.D. dissertation.
https://etd.ohiolink.edu/acprod/odb_etd/etd/r/1501/10?clear=10&p10_accession_num=ucin16847768
03514119
40. Chhetri, S., R. A. Chicchi, and S. Seguirant. 2020. “Industry Survey Results on the Use of Prestressing
Strand Lifting Loops.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 65, No. 4
(July/August), pp. 21-30.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij65.4-05.
41. Chhetri, S., R. A. Chicchi, and A. E. N. Osborn. 2021. “Experimental Investigation of 0.6 in. Diameter Strand
Lifting Loops.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 66, No. 2 (March/April),
pp. 71-87.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij66.2-03.
42. Cousins, T. 2013. High-Performance/High-Strength Lightweight Concrete for Bridge Girders and Decks.
NCHRP Report 733, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
https://doi.org/10.17226/22638.
43. Cross, R. and S. Chhetri, 2023, Extended Testing of Strand Lifting Loop Capacity. PCI Research Final Report.
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. https://doi.org/10.15554/pci.rr.misc-008 (PCI
members-only access)
44. Culmo, M. P. 2009. Connection Details for Prefabricated Bridge Elements and Systems. FHWA-IF-09-010,
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.
http:/www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/prefab/if09010/report.pdf.
45. D’Arcy, T. J., W. J. Korkosz, and L. Sennour. 1996. Durability of Precast Prestressed Concrete Structures.
(R&D 10), PCI Research Report. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pci.rr.mat-007.

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3.10 References

46. Ficenec, J. A., S. D. Kneip, M. K. Tadros, et al. 1993. “Prestressed Spliced I-Girders: Tenth Street Viaduct
Project, Lincoln, Nebraska.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 38, No. 5
(September/October), pp. 38-48.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011993.38.48.
47. Gerwick, B. C. 1993. Construction of Prestressed Concrete Structures, 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New
York, NY.
48. Grace, N. F., K. D. Patki, E. M. Soliman, et al. 2011. “Flexural Behavior of Side-by-Side Box Beam Bridges: A
Comparative Study.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 56, No. 3
(Summer), pp. 94-112.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.06012011.94.112.
49. Graybeal, B. A. 2010. Field-Cast UHPC Connections for Modular Bride Deck Elements. FHWA Tech Brief
FHWA-HRT-11-022, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/structures/11022/11022.pdf.
50. Hanna, K., G. Marcous, and M. K. Tadros. 2011. “Adjacent Box Girders without Internal Diaphragms or
Post-Tensioned Joints.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 56, No. 4 (Fall),
pp. 51-64.
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51. Hanson, J. A. 1963. “Optimum Steam-Curing Procedures in Precasting Plants.” ACI Journal, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. V. 60, No. 1 (January), pp. 75-100.
52. Homsi, E., M. Mallet, and P. LeFave. 2010. “The New Top Down Construction Method For the Washington
By-Pass in North Carolina.” In Proceedings of the PCI Annual Convention and National Bridge Conference,
May 29-June 2, Washington, DC. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
53. Klieger, P. 1960. “Some Aspects of Durability and Volume Change of Concrete for Prestressing.” Journal,
PCA Research and Development Laboratories, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL. V. 2, No. 3
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54. Kuchma, D.A., and C.R. Hart. 2009. "Development of Standard for Lifting Loops in Precast Deck Beams."
Research report ICT-09-056. Illinois Center for Transportation, Urbana, IL.
https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/items/25688/bitstreams/88420/object?dl=1
55. Laszlo, G., and R. R. Imper. 1987. “Handling and Shipping of Long Span Bridge Beams.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 32, No. 6 (November-December), pp. 86-101.
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56. Lin, C. and D. A. VanHorn. 1969. “The Effect of Midspan Diaphragms on Load Distribution in a Prestressed
Concrete Box-Beam Bridge.” Report No. 315.6. Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University Institute
of Research, Bethlehem, PA.
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57. Mast, R. F. 1989. “Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete Beams―Part 1.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 34, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 34-53.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01011989.34.53.
58. Mast, R. F. 1993. “Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete Beams―Part 2.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 38, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 70-88.
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59. McCarthy, W., K. R. White, and J. Minor. 1979. “Interior Diaphragms Omitted on the Gallup East
Interchange Bridge―Interstate 40.” Journal of Civil Engineering Design. V. 1, No. 1, pp. 95-112.
60. Moustafa, S.E. 1974. "Pullout Strength of Strand and Lifting Loops." Technical Bulletin 74-B5. Concrete
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61. Neville, A. M. 1966. “A General Relation for Strength of Concrete Specimens of Different Shapes and
Sizes.” ACI Journal Proceedings, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. V. 63, No. 10 (October),
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62. Neville, A. M. 2011. Properties of Concrete, 5th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
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63. Nickas, W. N. and D. A. Frank. 2009. “Certification Relies on a Body of Knowledge and Continuous
Improvement.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Fall supplement.
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64. Okumus, P. and M. G. Oliva. 2013. “Evaluation of Crack Control Methods for End Zone Cracking in
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65. PCI. 1985. “Fabrication and Shipment Cracks in Precast or Prestressed Beams and Columns.” PCI
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66. PCI. 1988. “Recommended Practice for Precast Prestressed Concrete Composite Bridge Deck Panels.” PCI
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67. PCI. 1992. State-of-the-Art of Precast/Prestressed Concrete Spliced-Girder Bridges. (SG-92). PCI Committee
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68. PCI. 1993. “Guidelines for the Use of Epoxy-Coated Strand.” PCI Ad Hoc Committee on Epoxy-Coated
Strand report. PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 38, No. 4 (July-August),
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69. PCI. 1994. “Guide to Using Silica Fume in Precast/Prestressed Concrete Products.” PCI Committee on
Durability report. PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 39, No. 5
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70. PCI. 1996. Quality Control Personnel Certification Level III Training Manual (TM-103-96).
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
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71. PCI. 1999. Erectors’ Manual: Standards and Guidelines for the Erection of Precast Concrete Products (MNL-
127-99). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
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72. PCI. 2006. Manual for the Evaluation and Repair of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Products (MNL-
137-06). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
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73. PCI. 2011A. State-of-the-Art Report on Full-Depth Precast Concrete Bridge Deck Panels (SOA-01-1911).
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
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74. PCI. 2011B. State of the Practice on Precast, Prestressed Adjacent Box Beam Bridges (SOP-02-2011).
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
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75. PCI. 2015. Guidelines for the Use of Self-Consolidating Concrete in Precast/Prestressed Concrete, 2nd
Edition (TR-6-15). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
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76. PCI. 2016A. PCI Quality Control Technician/Inspector Level I & II Training Manual, 5th Edition (TM-101).
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
77. PCI. 2016B. Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (CB
02). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
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78. PCI. 2017. PCI Design Handbook—Precast and Prestressed Concrete, 8th Edition. Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
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79. PCI. 2020. “Recommended Practice to Assess and Control Strand/Concrete Bonding Properties of ASTM
A416 Prestressing Strand.” PCI Strand Bond Committee report. PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 65, No. 6 (November-December), pp. 33-34.
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80. PCI. 2021. Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products,
5th Edition (MNL-116-21). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
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81. Pfeifer, D. W. and J. R. Landgren, 1982, “Energy-Efficient Accelerated Curing of Concrete for Plant-
Produced Prestressed Concrete,” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 27,
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82. Pfeifer, D. W., J. R. Landgren, and A. Zoob. 1987. Protective Systems for New Prestressed and Substructure
Concrete. FHWA/RD-86/193, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.
83. Pfeifer, D. W., M. R. Sherman, and D. B. McDonald. 1996. “Durability of Precast Concrete, Part 2: Chloride
Permeability Study.” PCI Research Program report. PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
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84. Phillips, W. R. and D. A. Sheppard. 1989. Plant Cast Precast and Prestressed Concrete―A Design Guide, 3rd
Edition. Prestressed Concrete Manufacturers Association of California.
85. Preston, H. K. 1990. “Handling Prestressed Concrete Strand.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 35, No. 6 (November-December), pp. 68-71.
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86. PTI. 2006. Post-Tensioning Manual, 6th Edition (TAB.1-06). Post-Tensioning Institute, Farmington Hills,
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87. Rabbat, B. G., T. Takayanagi, and H. G. Russell. 1982. Optimized Sections for Major Prestressed Concrete
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88. Russell, B. W. 2019A. “Sweep in Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders.” ASPIRE,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Spring, pp 38-41.
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SweepInPrecastPrestressedConcreteBridgeGirders.pdf.
89. Russell, B. W. 2019B. “Sweep in Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders, Part II.” ASPIRE,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Fall, pp. 38-43.
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90. Russell, B. W. 2020. “Sweep in Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders, Part III.” ASPIRE,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Summer, pp. 24-29.
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SweepInPrecastPrestressedConcreteBridgeGirders-Pt3.pdf.
91. Russell, H. G. 2007. Synthesis of Research and Provisions Regarding the Use of Lightweight Concrete in
Highway Bridges. FHWA-HRT-07-053, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/bridge/07051/index.cfm.
92. Russell, H. G. 2009. Adjacent Precast Concrete Box Beam Bridges: Connection Details. NCHRP Synthesis
393, National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
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93. Russell, H. G. 2012. Waterproofing Membranes for Concrete Bridge Decks. NCHRP Synthesis 425, National
Academies Press, Washington, DC.
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decks.
94. Sason, A. S. 1992. “Evaluation of Degree of Rusting on Prestressed Concrete Strand.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 37, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 25-30.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011992.25.30.
95. Sengupta, S. and J. E. Breen. 1973. The Effect of Diaphragms in Prestressed Concrete Girders and Slab
Bridges. Research Report 158-1F, Center for Highway Research, University of Texas at Austin, TX.
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96. Shahrooz, B., K. Harries, R. Castrodale, et al, 2022. Use of 0.7-in.-Diameter Strands in Precast Pretensioned
Girders. NCHRP Report 994, National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
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97. Sithichaikasem, S. and W. L. Gamble. 1972. Effects of Diaphragms in Bridges with Prestressed Concrete I-
Section Girders. Civil Engineering Studies, Structural Research Series No. 383, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL.
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4823458.pdf.
98. Stanton, J. F. and A. H. Mattock. 1986. Load Distribution and Connection Design for Precast Stemmed
Multibeam Bridge Superstructures. NCHRP Report 287, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, Washington, DC.
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99. Steinberg, E., K. Walsh, R. Miller, et al.. 2022. Design and Construction of Deck Bulb Tee Girder Bridges with
UHPC Connections. NCHRP Report 999, National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
https://doi.org/10.17226/26644.
100. Tadros, M. K., J. A. Ficenec, A. Einea, et al. 1993. “A New Technique to Create Continuity in Prestressed
Concrete Members.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 38, No. 5
(September-October), pp. 30-37.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011993.30.37.
101. Tadros, M. K., S. S. Badie, and C. Y. Tuan, 2010. Evaluation and Repair Procedures for Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Girders with Longitudinal Cracking in the Web, NCHRP Report 654, National Academies Press,
Washington, DC.
https://dx.doi.org/10.17226/14380.
102. Tadros, M. K., F. Fawzy, and K. E. Hanna. 2011. “Precast, Prestressed Girder Camber Variability.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 56, No. 1 (Winter), pp. 135-154.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01012011.135.154.
103. Washington Department of Transportation (WSDOT). 2023. Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and
Municipal Construction. M41-10. Olympia, WA: WSDOT.
https://wsdot.wa.gov/publications/manuals/fulltext/M41-10/Contents.pdf

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3.10 References

104. Wong, A. Y. C. and W. L. Gamble. 1973. Effects of Diaphragms in Continuous Slab and Girder Highway
Bridges. Department of Civil Engineering, Structural Research Series No. 391, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL.
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4822848.pdf.
105. Zia, P. and A. Caner. 1993. Cracking in Large-Sized Long-Span Prestressed Concrete AASHTO Girders: Final
Report. FHWA/NC/94-003, Research Project 23241-93-3, Center for Transportation Engineering Studies,
Department of Civil Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.

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Table of Contents

4.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 4-5

4.1 GEOMETRY ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4-5
4.1.1 Span Length versus Structure Depth .......................................................................................................................................... 4-5
4.1.1.1 Shallow Sections ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4-5
4.1.1.2 Deeper Sections ........................................................................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.1.1.3 Water Crossings .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.1.1.3.1 Vertical Profile at Water Crossings............................................................................................................................ 4-6
4.1.1.4 Grade Crossings ........................................................................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.1.1.5 Wearing Surface .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.1.2 Member Spacing ................................................................................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.1.3 Maximizing Span Lengths ................................................................................................................................................................ 4-7
4.1.3.1 Advantages of Maximum Spans ........................................................................................................................................... 4-7
4.1.3.2 Limitations of Maximum Spans ............................................................................................................................................ 4-7
4.1.4 Splicing Beams to Increase Spans ................................................................................................................................................ 4-7
4.1.5 Special Geometry Conditions ......................................................................................................................................................... 4-7
4.1.5.1 Horizontal Curves ....................................................................................................................................................................... 4-8
4.1.5.2 Vertical Curves ............................................................................................................................................................................. 4-8
4.1.5.3 Skews ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 4-8
4.1.5.4 Flared Structures ........................................................................................................................................................................ 4-9
4.1.5.5 Varying Span Lengths ............................................................................................................................................................ 4-10
4.1.6 Product Availability ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4-10
4.1.6.1 Economy of Scale ..................................................................................................................................................................... 4-10
4.2 DESIGN ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4-10
4.2.1 Advantages of Simple Spans ........................................................................................................................................................ 4-11
4.2.2 Limitations of Simple Spans ......................................................................................................................................................... 4-11
4.2.3 Continuity............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4-11
4.2.3.1 Achieving Continuity .............................................................................................................................................................. 4-12
4.2.3.2 Limitations of Continuity ..................................................................................................................................................... 4-12
4.2.4 Integral Caps and Abutments ...................................................................................................................................................... 4-12
4.2.4.1 Advantages ................................................................................................................................................................................. 4-12
4.2.4.2 Disadvantages ........................................................................................................................................................................... 4-12
4.2.5 Intermediate Diaphragms ............................................................................................................................................................. 4-12
4.2.5.1 Need for Intermediate Diaphragms ................................................................................................................................ 4-12
4.2.5.2 Steel Diaphragms ..................................................................................................................................................................... 4-12
4.2.5.3 Precast Concrete Diaphragms ............................................................................................................................................ 4-13
4.2.5.4 Temporary Diaphragms ....................................................................................................................................................... 4-13
4.2.6 Prestressing ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 4-13
4.2.6.1 Strand Considerations ........................................................................................................................................................... 4-13
4.2.6.2 Harped Strands ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4-13

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4.2.6.2.1 Harped Profiles ............................................................................................................................................................... 4-14

4.2.6.2.2 Harping Methods ............................................................................................................................................................ 4-14
4.2.6.3 Straight Strands........................................................................................................................................................................ 4-15
4.2.6.3.1 Advantages of Straight Strands ................................................................................................................................ 4-15
4.2.6.3.2 Debonding Strands ........................................................................................................................................................ 4-15
4.2.6.3.3 Limitations of Straight Strands ................................................................................................................................ 4-15
4.2.6.3.4 Use of Straight Top Strands ....................................................................................................................................... 4-16
4.2.6.4 Strand Spacing .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4-16
4.2.7 Nonprestressed Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................................. 4-16
4.2.7.1 Detailing for Ease of Fabrication ...................................................................................................................................... 4-16
4.2.7.2 Excessive Reinforcement ..................................................................................................................................................... 4-17
4.2.7.3 Welded Wire Reinforcement .............................................................................................................................................. 4-17
4.2.8 Durability ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4-18
4.2.8.1 Benefits of the Fabrication Process ................................................................................................................................. 4-19
4.2.8.2 Additional Protection ............................................................................................................................................................ 4-19
4.2.9 Bearing Systems ................................................................................................................................................................................ 4-19
4.2.9.1 Embedded Bearing Plates .................................................................................................................................................... 4-20
4.2.9.2 Bearing Devices ........................................................................................................................................................................ 4-20
4.2.9.3 Bearing Replacement ............................................................................................................................................................. 4-20
4.2.10 Concrete Compressive Strengths ............................................................................................................................................ 4-20
4.2.11 Lightweight Concrete ................................................................................................................................................................... 4-20
4.2.11.1 Material Properties .............................................................................................................................................................. 4-20
4.2.11.2 Examples of Major Bridges Constructed with Lightweight Concrete............................................................ 4-20
4.2.12 Touch Shoring ................................................................................................................................................................................. 4-21
4.2.12.1 Example Project..................................................................................................................................................................... 4-21
4.2.12.2 Limitations ............................................................................................................................................................................... 4-21
4.2.13 Spliced Beams.................................................................................................................................................................................. 4-21
4.3 PRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4-21
4.3.1 Beam Top Finish ............................................................................................................................................................................... 4-22
4.3.2 Side and Bottom Finishes ............................................................................................................................................................. 4-22
4.3.3 Appurtenances................................................................................................................................................................................... 4-22
4.4 DELIVERY AND ERECTION ................................................................................................................................................................... 4-22
4.4.1 Transportation .................................................................................................................................................................................. 4-22
4.4.1.1 Water Delivery.......................................................................................................................................................................... 4-22
4.4.1.2 Truck Delivery .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4-22
4.4.1.3 Rail Delivery .............................................................................................................................................................................. 4-23
4.4.2 Handling and Erection.................................................................................................................................................................... 4-23
4.4.2.1 Lifting Devices .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4-23
4.4.2.2 Support and Lift Locations .................................................................................................................................................. 4-23

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4.5 OTHER PRODUCTS .................................................................................................................................................................................... 4-23

4.5.1 Stay-in-Place Concrete Deck Panels ......................................................................................................................................... 4-24
4.5.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Deck Panels.............................................................................................................................. 4-24
4.5.3 Precast Concrete Substructures ................................................................................................................................................. 4-24
4.5.3.1 Advantages of Precast Concrete Substructures ......................................................................................................... 4-24
4.5.3.2 Components ............................................................................................................................................................................... 4-24
4.5.3.3 Connections ................................................................................................................................................................................ 4-25
4.5.4 Barriers ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4-25
4.6 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................................................................................................ 4-25
4.6.1 Wide Beams......................................................................................................................................................................................... 4-25
4.6.2 Adjacent Members ........................................................................................................................................................................... 4-26
4.6.3 High-Strength Concrete ................................................................................................................................................................. 4-26
4.6.4 Contract Considerations ................................................................................................................................................................ 4-26
4.7 SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4-26
4.8 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 4-27

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4.0 Introduction/4.1.1.1 Shallow Sections

Strategies for Economy

4.0 INTRODUCTION
The use of precast, prestressed concrete products for the construction of bridges results in very economical, high-
quality structures. Several factors contribute to the success of precast, prestressed concrete:
• Mass production of standardized, low-maintenance sections
• A factory environment that upholds stringent quality control requirements validated by the
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
• Rapid erection and construction
• The use of high-quality, inexpensive, and locally available materials for production
This chapter discusses issues for the designer to consider that will improve the cost effectiveness of precast,
prestressed concrete bridge construction.

4.1 GEOMETRY
All bridges must meet the specific geometric constraints for each unique site. The length of the bridge must be
sufficient to cross the obstruction beneath it. This can be accomplished by providing a lesser number of long
spans or a larger number of shorter spans. The locations of piers and bents may be restricted by roads or rail lines
and their necessary horizontal clearances. Likewise, specific requirements for ships or barges may dictate the
placement of piers on either side of a main channel. Existing utilities may limit the locations of foundations. At
other locations, such as stream and creek crossings, the designer may have more control over placement of the
substructure. The choice of span length can also be affected by the cost of substructure units. Where the
foundation conditions are poor or the piers are tall, it could be more economical to use longer spans. The choice of
span length should result from the lowest combined cost of the superstructure and substructure. Each site must
be evaluated to determine the most appropriate span arrangement to accommodate the necessary horizontal and
vertical clearances of the system below the bridge. Crane size, crane capacity or road access can also control span
length.

4.1.1 Span Length versus Structure Depth

The depth of the bridge superstructure increases incrementally based on the span length and generally this is also
true for precast, prestressed concrete structures. However, structurally efficient deeper beam sections may not
always result in cost efficiency.
Raw bridge cost is not the only basis for selecting structure type. Hydraulics or profile grades may require shallow
superstructures. Structures that can be constructed rapidly might be justified if the time to travel a detour, and
therefore user costs, can be minimized. Environmental considerations could justify the extra cost of special
aesthetic structural designs.
Superstructure depth is frequently controlled by minimum vertical clearance requirements. These are typically
established by the functional classification of the highway and the construction classification of the project. A
common requirement is that the bridge superstructure be as shallow as possible to satisfy both minimum vertical
clearance requirements and to minimize approach grades. Therefore, a high span-to-depth ratio is often desirable.

4.1.1.1 Shallow Sections

Shallower beams may require more prestressing strands and therefore higher concrete transfer strength, than
deeper beams. But, as a rule, they are less expensive because less concrete is required. In addition to the reduced
direct material cost, reduced costs can be realized because shallow beams usually have lower shipping and
handling weights. Solid slabs, voided slab beams, or stemmed members that are placed side by side are often used
for spans up to 40 ft, although some departments of transportation (DOTs) have sections that can span much
longer lengths. For a given span length, voided slab beams or stemmed members may use less material and be

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relatively lightweight. However, solid slabs may be less expensive because the forms are relatively inexpensive
and the fabrication of the solid slab is less complicated.

4.1.1.2 Deeper Sections

As span length increases, the section properties of the superstructure components need to be increased, while
their weight needs to be reduced. Deeper sections such as box beams and deeper stemmed sections, placed side
by side, become advantageous. The greater depth contributes to an increased moment of inertia, and the reduced
amount of concrete in the voided portion of the beam helps minimize the weight of the section. As span length
continues to increase, the use of superstructure components not placed side by side becomes a more cost-
effective solution. These types of systems, such as spread box beams and I-beams, require the use of a cast-in-
place (CIP) concrete deck, partial depth precast concrete panels with a CIP overlay or full-depth precast concrete
panels to span between beams. Adjacent members, such as boxes or deck bulb T do not require a deck, but may
have a concrete or asphalt overlay.

4.1.1.3 Water Crossings

For typical stream or creek crossings where the foundation conditions are good, it may be more economical to use
a larger number of shorter spans instead of a few longer spans. The cost of additional substructure units must be
evaluated against savings from the use of smaller cranes that can be used with shorter, lighter beams. Physical
constraints on the location of substructures are usually hydraulic considerations or environmental restrictions on
the number of piers. The balance between the number and costs of substructure units and the size of the
superstructure members becomes the primary factor in minimizing construction costs.

4.1.1.3.1 Vertical Profile at Water Crossings

Superstructure depth must be balanced between maintaining freeboard of the stream and minimizing the impact
on the vertical profile of the bridge and cost of approach roadways. Increased structure depth may increase the
volume of fill for the approach roadways and have an effect on right-of-way requirements to accommodate
roadway fill.

4.1.1.4 Grade Crossings

At grade crossings, span lengths are generally dictated by horizontal clearance requirements and other safety
considerations. The span lengths usually are such that the use of spread box beams or I-beams is efficient. Depth
of structure becomes a consideration in establishing the bridge profile while maintaining the required vertical
clearance for the transportation system below. As with water crossings, the structure depth will have a direct
impact on the volume of approach roadway fill and the measures necessary to accommodate that fill.

4.1.1.5 Wearing Surface

The use of a wearing surface may be desirable to improve durability and enhance the quality of the ride. A cast-in-
place concrete composite topping is a superior wearing surface for high traffic volumes and can also increase the
load-carrying capacity of the superstructure. On rural bridges with low traffic volumes, especially when deicing
salt is not used, the untopped precast concrete surface provides outstanding durability and lowest possible
construction cost. In other cases, a waterproofing membrane and asphalt surface can be used effectively.

4.1.2 Member Spacing

As span length increases, it becomes necessary to evaluate the use of various beam types, and the depth of beams
versus the number of beams required. For a given span length, a 54-in.-deep beam and a 63-in.-deep beam may
both be acceptable. The number of 54-in.-deep beams required in the bridge cross section will likely be more than
the number of 63-in.-deep beams. Future deck replacement and staged construction should also be considered in
selecting beam spacing.
For a given span, the use of fewer beams at a greater spacing will prove to be the more economical superstructure
than the use of more beams at a lesser spacing, even if the beams are deeper. The use of fewer members means
reduced volume of beam concrete and fewer beams to fabricate, ship and erect. Other savings result from the
reduction in the number of bearing devices, fewer end diaphragms to form and cast, fewer bays between the
beams in which to install and remove deck forms, and fewer hours needed for inspection. Very wide beam
spacings (in excess of 12 ft) must be carefully considered because the cost of the deck and its forming may

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4.1.2 Member Spacing/4.1.5 Special Geometry Conditions

override the savings of the reduced number of beams. Designers should recognize that the time to construct a
cast-in-place concrete deck generally adds time to the bridge construction schedule, which adds to user delays.
This is a topic for early design evaluation and should be discussed with the owner.

4.1.3 Maximizing Span Lengths

When it is necessary to limit the depth of a beam, , it is often advantageous to use the beam at its maximum span
length, even if closer spacings are required.

4.1.3.1 Advantages of Maximum Spans

By using a beam at its maximum span capability, the designer can achieve a longer span without increasing the
depth of the structure. This can provide for better horizontal and vertical clearances for the roadway, railway, or
waterway below. Additionally, for longer bridges, the use of extended spans means fewer substructures must be
constructed. Often, longer spans are necessary, and consideration of superstructure cost versus substructure cost
must be evaluated. For example, when a project requires very expensive substructures, such as those designed to
resist ship impact or that require deep or massive foundations, the cost of the superstructure with longer spans
usually becomes more economical.

4.1.3.2 Limitations of Maximum Spans

Designers must be cognizant of the limitations of local production facilities and handling, shipping, and erection
equipment. The use of beam sections that are not available through local producers will usually be more
expensive if forms must be purchased to manufacture a small number of beams. Local producers may not have
prestressing beds capable of withstanding large prestressing forces. Longer beams are heavier and may require
larger cranes for handling and erection. Special trucks and trailers may be required to transport the beams to the
jobsite. Lateral stability during fabrication, transportation, and erection needs to be considered for all girders, but
especially for long, slender girders. PCI’s Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast Prestressed
Concrete Bridge Girders (2016) discusses the stability of girders during fabrication, erection, and transport.
Generally, increased weights are not an issue for erection over water provided the beams can be transported to
the site by barge.

4.1.4 Splicing Beams to Increase Spans

To increase the span capabilities of precast, prestressed concrete beams, designers should consider the technique
of splicing. Through the use of post-tensioning or other splicing methods, continuity and its inherent benefits
relative to moment reduction in the superstructure and a reduction in the number of expansion joints can be
achieved. Splicing beams also reduces the size and weight of individual beam segments, allowing easier handling
and erection, and lighter weights for shipping. Splicing does, however, have additional costs associated with the
time to splice the sections, the splicing system itself, and, in many cases, the need for temporary supports. For
more detailed information on the use of spliced beams, see Chapter 11 and Extending Span Ranges of Precast
Prestressed Concrete Girders (Castordale and White, 2004).

4.1.5 Special Geometry Conditions

Overall bridge geometry is very often dictated by the roadway designers. The bridge location within a roadway
system frequently establishes the bridge within a horizontal curve, a vertical curve, with skewed substructures, or
with flared spans to accommodate ramps.
PCI has published several documents to assist designers with special geometry conditions:
• PCI Bridge Geometry Manual (CB-02-20), is as a resource for bridge engineers and computer-aided design
(CAD) technicians. The manual presents the basics of roadway geometry and many of the calculations
required to define the geometry and associated dimensions of bridges. This manual is not tied to any
specific CAD software and is usable with variety of standard software packages. It addresses bridge
geometry developed for straight bridges and curved bridges using both chorded, straight girders and
curved girders.
• PCI Curved Precast Concrete Bridges State-of-the-Art Report (CB-01-12), addresses how to build curved
structures with chorded and curved precast, prestressed concrete girders.

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4.1.5 Special Geometry Conditions/4.1.5.3 Skews

• PCI Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (CB-03-20), is a
resource for bridge engineers who wish to use U-shaped (tub) sections in curved or spliced bridges.

4.1.5.1 Horizontal Curves

Straight precast, prestressed concrete beams can usually be used for horizontally curved bridges. The beam
placement must take into account the degree of curvature and the span length. The primary impact of the curve is
to the location of the exterior beams. The overhang of the deck must be evaluated at the beam ends and at
midspan to ensure that proper consideration is given to the loading of the beam under both dead and live loads
due to the variance of the slab cantilever along the length of the beam.

4.1.5.2 Vertical Curves

The profile of the deck may include crest or sag vertical curves. The designer must consider the camber of the
beam relative to the deck profile to establish the proper build-up of concrete or haunch over the beam (Fig.
4.1.5.2-1). The volume of concrete in the build-up is larger in wider beams such as bulb tees (Fig. 4.1.5.2-2).
Horizontal curves also affect the volume of concrete in the buildup due to the superelevation of the roadway.
However, this build-up concrete is inexpensive since costs are almost exclusively a function of the concrete
material cost, with no additional forming, placement, or curing costs resulting from the amount of build-up. In
some locations, producers have successfully fabricated beams with a specified top profile and cross slope (within
reasonable limits) to accommodate a certain vertical profile and superelevation. This is often done with deck bulb
tees, which are wide, erected with their top flanges touching, and using no cast-in-place concrete topping or
asphalt wearing surface.
Figure 4.1.5.2-1 Figure 4.1.5.2-2
Relationship of Beam Camber, CIP Deck Profile, and Buildup over Beam
Buildup

4.1.5.3 Skews
Substructures that are skewed to the beam require some consideration. If possible, avoid skewed supports. The
LRFD Specifications modify the live-load distribution factors for skewed superstructures. Additionally, beam ends
are usually skewed so that the ends of the beams are parallel to the substructure. Small skews normally will not
affect the cost of precast, prestressed concrete beams. Extreme skews usually require the producer to take
measures to reduce spalling of the beam end during the strand transfer operation. Otherwise, one corner of the
beam end must support the dead weight of the beam when in the prestressing bed. This, combined with
cambering, usually results in spalls. One method to reduce spalls is to trim the corner of the flange along the skew
as depicted in Fig. 4.1.5.3-1. Another option is to skew the top flange and leave the end of the bottom flange
straight. If a spall does occur, it is generally minor and can be easily repaired or embedded into the diaphragm
without affecting the integrity of the bearing area. Some state DOTs have standard details that include embedded
galvanized bearing plates to strengthen beam ends.

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4.1.5.3 Skews/4.1.5.4 Flared Structures

Figure 4.1.5.3-1
Beam Ends at Support with Large Skew

4.1.5.4 Flared Structures

Flared spans are spans that have a wider beam spacing at one end than the other. By using as many parallel
beams within the span as possible, the designer can reduce the fabrication and construction costs of the
superstructure. Cost savings result from maintaining more uniform beam lengths, typical beam end skews, and
reduced deck-forming costs. Figure 4.1.5.4-1 shows two beam layouts that could be used for a flared span. Note
that with all beams flared, each of the beams is unique. The alternate layout with five parallel beams has three
unique beams and the deck forming will be more uniform.
Flared spans generate girder lengths that vary only slightly, but the different lengths can lead to designs with
varying strand patterns. It is typically more economical to specify a common strand pattern for all girders in the
span based on the most severe design, or no more than two groupings of strand patterns for the same span. This
affords the manufacturer the most flexibility in scheduling production when more than one girder is produced on
the same prestressing line.
Figure 4.1.5.4-1
Beam Configurations for a Flared Span

a) all beams flared

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4.1.5.4 Flared Structures/4.2 Design

Figure 4.1.5.4-1(cont.)
Beam Configurations for a Flared Span

b) two beams flared and five beams parallel

4.1.5.5 Varying Span Lengths

When possible, precast concrete beams should be designed with the same cross section and strand pattern.
Optimum economy from precasting results from repetition and the production of identical sections. If a bridge
consists of different span lengths, it may be better to design all of the precast concrete units with the same cross
section rather than to design each span for the minimum depth-to-span ratio. If possible, the same strand pattern
should be used in girders in the same or similar spans, although other factors such as stress at transfer or camber
may make this strategy unfeasible. If it is not possible to use the same strand pattern for all spans, the number of
different strand patterns should be minimized. Strategies such as harping and debonding can be used to reduce
stresses in girders with more strands than are necessary for strength. The optimum strategy will vary from
fabricator to fabricator, and will also vary with factors such as bed length and the ability to harp strands. Consult
with local fabricators for assistance with optimizing the designs.

4.1.6 Product Availability

Designers must determine the availability of precast concrete products in the local area. If the product selected
for the project is not available within 200 to 500 miles, depending on the geographic region, a cost premium for
shipping from a distant location or for a local fabricator to purchase forms may be added to the project. Designs
using local and readily available member types will result in lower prices.

4.1.6.1 Economy of Scale

If a single project uses a large quantity of a specific product, or if a new product will be used as a standard for
future bridges, the cost of new forms, when amortized over a large volume, becomes far less significant. Designers
should consult local producers early in the study phase of a bridge project to determine the available precast
concrete products or the costs associated with new products for a specific application. In many cases, it is possible
to create a new section by making small, inexpensive modifications to existing forms, such as casting a 3-ft 6-in.-
deep box beam in a 4-ft 0-in.-deep form, or placing AASHTO Type II I-beam side forms on a wider Type IV I-beam
bottom form. Some newer sections are designed to use modular forms where the height and/or width of the
section can be varied by adding a preset section to the formwork; such options provide the designer with greater
flexibility at a lower cost.

4.2 DESIGN
Many decisions made during the design of precast, prestressed concrete bridges have a direct economic impact on
the bridge construction cost and the time needed for construction. Some of these bridge design decisions are the
following:
• Structural system (simple versus continuous spans)
• Integral caps and abutments

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4.2 Design/4.2.3 Continuity

• Use of intermediate diaphragms

• Prestressing systems
• Durability systems
• Bearing systems
• Use of lightweight aggregate concrete
• Special construction techniques (such as accelerated bridge construction or project-accelerated
construction technologies)

4.2.1 Advantages of Simple Spans

Simple-span prestressed concrete superstructures can result in very economical bridges. Many designers rely
almost exclusively on simple spans for this very reason. With simple spans, end diaphragms and end connections
are greatly simplified, and the volume of reinforcement required over interior supports is significantly reduced.
Also, the structural effects of short- and long-term volume changes due to temperature variations, creep, and
shrinkage are substantially reduced.

4.2.2 Limitations of Simple Spans

Use of simple spans may, however, limit the span length for a product or require more beams for a span. The use
of more prestressing strands may allow for an increased span length but may create a need for increased concrete
strength at transfer of the prestress force. That may force the cycle time of the prestressed bed to be increased,
reducing the efficiency of the plant. With simple spans more joints over substructures may also be needed, which
can affect deck ride quality. Furthermore, joints must be maintained to reduce premature deterioration of the
substructure and bearing devices caused by road salts and deicers. Some designers have successfully eliminated
this problem by casting the deck continuous over supports and placing additional reinforcing steel in the deck to
reduce deck cracking (Fig. 4.2.2-1).

Figure 4.2.2-1
Detail for Casting Deck Continuous over Supports to Eliminate Deck Joint

4.2.3 Continuity
When designing continuous superstructures, designers can take advantage of increased span lengths or reduce
the number of beams required for a span. The smaller positive moments that occur in continuous systems will
reduce the required number of prestressing strands. Continuity will reduce the number of joints in the
superstructure and enhance redundancy of the structure.
A continuous superstructure also increases the resistance of the structure to horizontal forces, particularly
seismic loads and ship impact forces.

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4.2.3.1 Achieving Continuity/4.2.5.2 Steel Diaphragms

4.2.3.1 Achieving Continuity

Continuity is usually achieved with the use of enhanced, positive beam connections over supports and by
reinforcing the deck over the supports to withstand the negative moments caused by composite dead and live
loads. The use of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) in the continuity joints has been shown to provide a
smaller and more durable joint (Steinberg, et al., 2022). While the initial cost of UHPC is high, the use of smaller
joint offsets some of the cost and the improved durability leads to long-term savings. Longitudinal post-tensioning
of the beams adds cost but can also be used to achieve continuity. Refer to Chapter 11 for a full discussion of these
issues.

4.2.3.2 Limitations of Continuity

Proper detailing of continuous superstructures over the supports should be provided to avoid diaphragm
cracking. In some cases, end diaphragms with improper details have experienced cracking from volumetric
changes in the concrete. Creating continuity without post-tensioning requires a significant increase in the amount
of mild steel reinforcement in the deck. Some state DOTs design beams as simple spans but use continuous slabs
over the supports to eliminate joints and reduce the negative effects of the volumetric changes.

4.2.4 Integral Caps and Abutments

Integral pier caps and abutments have been used successfully in several geographical areas. By creating proper
connections between the superstructure and substructure, moments from the superstructure are distributed to
the substructure components. More information on integral bridges is found in Chapter 13 and in PCI IB-01, State
of the-Art of Precast/Prestressed Integral Bridges.

4.2.4.1 Advantages
In addition to the benefits of reduced positive moments in the span, the use of integral caps and abutments
significantly increases resistance to horizontal forces and redundancy of the structure. The need for transverse
joints and bearing devices is virtually eliminated. Integral abutments are flexible and tolerate a wide range of
temperature movements. Generally, integral abutments can be used for precast concrete bridges with lengths up
to 1,000 ft, provided the pier column heights and other conditions, such as accommodating thermal movements,
allow for such lengths. There is also strong potential to reduce the overall construction cost of the substructure.

4.2.4.2 Disadvantages
Design for this type of system is somewhat more difficult than for a continuous or simple-span superstructure
because substructure stiffness must be considered in the distribution of forces. Very stiff substructures make the
system sensitive to volumetric changes. Also, connection design (beam-to-beam and superstructure-to-
substructure) and construction require more attention.

4.2.5 Intermediate Diaphragms

Intermediate diaphragms are a significant cost in the construction of prestressed concrete bridges. When used,
intermediate diaphragms may be constructed of either concrete or structural steel. The weight of diaphragms
must be considered in the design of the beams.

4.2.5.1 Need for Intermediate Diaphragms

Although the LRFD Specifications implies that intermediate diaphragms are necessary, several research papers
have concluded they are not required (see Section 3.7 of this manual). The cost to construct and install forms and
reinforcement for diaphragms is very high, as is the connection to the beams. Several states have eliminated the use
of intermediate diaphragms without adversely affecting the performance of their prestressed concrete bridges.

4.2.5.2 Steel Diaphragms

Galvanized structural steel diaphragms are usually bolted to inserts in the beams, eliminating the expense of field
forming and casting associated with cast-in-place concrete. However, accurate detailing of the steel and
placement of the inserts are necessary to ensure proper fit in the field. Connections must allow for fabrication and
construction tolerances. Also, steel diaphragms may be susceptible to corrosion, resulting in higher maintenance
costs.

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4.2.6.2 Harped Strands/4.2.6.2.2 Harping Methods

4.2.5.3 Precast Concrete Diaphragms

Precast concrete diaphragms have been successfully used. They reduce the field labor costs associated with the
forming and placing of cast-in-place concrete. However, as with steel diaphragms, care must be taken in the detailing
and fabrication of the precast concrete diaphragms to accommodate fabrication and construction tolerances.
Connection schemes for precast concrete diaphragms must also be carefully considered. Development of details and
tests in Pennsylvania has resulted in the Pennsylvania DOT acceptance of a standard for precast concrete
diaphragms (PennDOT, 1996).

4.2.5.4 Temporary Diaphragms

For some longer spans and deeper beams, temporary intermediate diaphragms may be desirable to increase the
stability of the beams prior to and during placement of the concrete deck. Typically, these temporary diaphragms
are steel.

4.2.6 Prestressing
The most common strand used in precast, prestressed concrete bridge products is seven-wire, low-relaxation
Grade 270 strand. U.S. manufacturers no longer produce stress-relieved strand, and only a few still make Grade
250 strand. There is no advantage to using Grade 250 strand, and having the fabricator stock an additional strand
grade increases cost. Some strand manufacturers are producing Grade 300 strand, but it is not in use in all regions
or by all precasters.

4.2.6.1 Strand Considerations

The use of fewer strands with larger diameter is generally more cost effective than the use of a larger number of
smaller-diameter strands. The cost of the strand is usually not directly proportional to the area of the strand
(larger strands are proportionately slightly less expensive than smaller ones). But even if it were, the labor to
install the larger number of smaller-diameter strands would almost always make the use of the larger-size
strands more cost effective. As concrete design strength increases, the use of larger strands and their associated
larger forces becomes more desirable. The use of larger strands enables a larger precompression force for the
same number of smaller strands or a reduction in the total number of strands and possible increase in strand
eccentricity for the same level of precompression force. This will increase the capacity of the beam. Using a lesser
number of larger strands may also reduce congestion and facilitate concrete placement. Typically, either 0.5- or
0.6-in.-diameter strand is used for beams. For partial-depth precast concrete deck panels, 0.375-in.-diameter
strand is sometimes used.
Recent research (Shahrooz, et al., 2022) shows that, in some cases, 0.7-in.-diameter strand can be used as well.
However, at this time, 0.7-in.-diameter strand is not widely available, and its use has not been accepted in the
LRFD Specifications. Local precast concrete manufacturers may not have the equipment or capacity to use the
larger strand. Designers should consult with both the owner and local manufacturers before specifying 0.7-in.-
diameter strand.
Designers are urged to avoid using more strands or prestressing force than required by design. Excessive strand
is costly, can significantly increase both camber and concrete design strength at transfer, and may lead to
overstress or stability problems during shipping.
Beams may be designed with strands having either a straight or harped trajectory. Harping strands will control
stresses at the ends of the beams, whereas straight strands usually need to be debonded to control these stresses.
Unless a DOT requires or prohibits the use of straight debonded strand or harped strand, designers are urged to
consult with local fabricators before deciding on the use of either straight debonded strand or harped strand.
Some fabricators may have limitations or preferences that dictate the choice of which method is used.

4.2.6.2 Harped Strands

Very often, some of the prestressing strands are placed in a harped (deflected or sometimes draped) profile along
the length of the beam. By harping the strands, designers are able to place the strands at the lowest position at
midspan where the positive moment is largest, but raise the center of gravity of the prestress force near the end
of the beam where the moments are reduced (see Fig. 3.3.2.2-1 and Fig. 3.3.2.4-1). Raising the strands reduces
the eccentricity and therefore the negative moment associated with the prestress force. The reduced negative
moment results in lower compressive stresses in the bottom of the beam and lower tensile stresses in the top of

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4.2.6.2 Harped Strands/4.2.6.2.2 Harping Methods

the beam near its ends. Additionally, the vertical component of the harped strands contributes to the shear
resistance near the ends of the beam where shear forces tend to be higher. Harping places a considerable upward
force on the stressing bed. Some manufacturers do not have the capability to harp strands and others have limited
capability to harp strands. Designers should consult with local manufacturers to assess harping capability. See
Section 3.3.2 of Chapter 3 for detailed information on harping strands.

4.2.6.2.1 Harped Profiles

The method of achieving a harped strand profile requires the use of hold-down devices and either hold-up or
pick-up devices. The location of the hold-down should be approximately 0.4 to 0.45 of the beam length L from the
ends. Some designers have located the hold-down points as close to the ends as 0.3L; others have used a single
point at midspan. Based on the shape of the typical positive moment envelope, the use of the 0.4L to 0.45L
location may be the most appropriate choice. Use of a location closer to the end does not appear to provide
increased capacity, and increases the forces in the hold-up and hold-down devices.
When girders of similar lengths are fabricated, the use of a standard distance from the center of the girder to the
hold-down location simplifies fabrication since hold-down locations do not have to be changed with every slight
change in girder length. This is standard practice for some DOTs and has been proven to provide successful
designs.
Some DOTs and fabricators limit hold-down stresses due to limitations on the hold-down hardware. When using a
single hold-down at the center of the beam, the load transmitted to the anchorage for the hold-down is double
that of a two-hold-down system. In cases where the force on a single hold-down is excessive, it is acceptable to
split the strands into groups (often 2) and use multiple, staggered hold down points. If the points are close
together, there is little impact on the design.
When designing harped strand, it is important to ensure that the raised strands at the ends of the girder do not
interfere with permanent or temporary strands placed in the top flange of the girder to control either top-fiber
stress or camber or improve girder stability.

4.2.6.2.2 Harping Methods

A hold-down device normally consists of rollers attached to a vertical rod, which passes through the bottom form
and is anchored to the form substructure or foundation to resist the vertical component of the prestress force.
The force that must be resisted by the hold-down device, and therefore its size depends on the number of harped
strands and the trajectory angle of the strands. There is a cost associated with the hold-down devices which
remain in the beam and are not reused. Additionally, when the hold-down locations along the length of the
prestress bed are moved to accommodate different beam lengths, the bottom form must be patched.
Frequently, precast concrete producers use hold-up devices to raise the profile of the strand at the ends of beams
and then tension the strands in this harped profile. Other producers lift the harped strand to the proper elevation
or depress them at the hold-down device after tensioning the strands. Again, the number of harped strands and
their angles directly influence the size and cost of the hold-up and hold-down devices. Figure 4.2.6.2.2-1 shows a
typical harped strand profile in a prestressing bed. The designer can reduce the cost of the prestressed product by
minimizing both the number of harped strands and the heights of the hold-up points.
Figure 4.2.6.2.2-1
Harped Strand Profile in Casting Bed

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4.2.6.3 Straight Strands/4.2.6.3.3 Limitations of Straight Strands

4.2.6.3 Straight Strands

The use of straight strand designs may offer significant advantages in the fabrication of prestressed concrete
products. There are situations when the addition of a few straight strands can eliminate the need for harped
strands. This option should be seriously evaluated since the straight strand option, while using more strands,
results in easier and much safer fabrication. Figure 4.2.6.3-1 depicts a harped strand pattern and an alternate
straight strand pattern. The increase in stresses due to more strands may be reduced by debonding some of the
strands in the ends of the beams. See Section 3.3.2.9 for details on debonding.
Figure 4.2.6.3-1
Straight versus Harped Strand Pattern

(a)Harped strand pattern with 28 straight and 8 harped strands required (b) Alternate strand pattern with 40 straight
strands required

4.2.6.3.1 Advantages of Straight Strands

The use of straight strands is generally less expensive than the use of harped strands for several reasons:
• Straight strands do not require hold-down/hold-up devices.
• Placement of beams within the bed is less restricted with straight strands because hold-down locations
need not be considered.
• The tensioning and detensioning operations for straight strands are simpler and safer (hold-down and
hold-up devices do not have to be released).
• The use of straight strands eliminates the cost of repairing the bottom form for hold-down holes.

4.2.6.3.2 Debonding Strands

The effect of harping on stresses can be approximated by using straight strands located as required for the
maximum positive moment, and debonding some of the strands near the ends of the beam. Debonding is achieved
by sheathing the strand in plastic tubing. By selectively debonding strands, the designer can effectively control the
prestress force and eccentricity, achieving results similar to harping strands. The LRFD Specifications limits the
number of strands that can be debonded and their locations. Some local jurisdictions place additional
requirements on the quantity and location of debonded strands and some do not allow debonding at all. For more
information on debonding and the reasoning behind the current specifications, see Rabbat, et al. (1979), Horn and
Preston (1981), Russell and Burns (1994), Russell, et al. (1994), and Shahrooz, et al. (2017).

4.2.6.3.3 Limitations of Straight Strands

When increasing the number of strands, it may become necessary to increase the concrete compressive strength
at transfer or the final design compressive strength, or both, to resist the larger compressive force. Disadvantages
of using debonded strands include the elimination of the vertical components of the prestressing force, which
may result in a slight increase in shear reinforcement. Design effort may be increased to determine proper
debonding patterns, shear reinforcement, and camber. Designers should consult precast concrete producers in
the project area to determine their strand harping capabilities and debonding preferences.

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4.2.6.3.4 Use of Straight Top Strands/4.2.7.1 Detailing for Ease of Fabrication

4.2.6.3.4 Use of Straight Top Strands

When designing with straight strand patterns, research (Russell, 2018; Jayaseelan and Russell, 2019) and
experience (Brown, 2022) have shown that the use of fully tensioned permanent or temporary top strands are
effective for the following purposes:
• Satisfying compressive and tensile stress limits at transfer
• Reducing the number and lengths of debonded strands
• Reducing and controlling cambers
• Reducing prestress losses
• Improving beam stability

4.2.6.4 Strand Spacing

The LRFD Specifications currently requires that strands be spaced, center-to-center, not less than 1.75 in. for ½-
in.-diameter strand and not less than 2.0 in. for 0.6-in.-diameter strand. Most plants have fabricated stressing
headers and bulkheads that provide for a particular spacing. Before designing with unique strand spacing, the
designer should determine whether the spacing will require the producer to modify plant equipment. Designers
should consult producers in the geographic area of the project to determine strand patterns and configurations
being used.

4.2.7 Nonprestressed Reinforcement

Proper detailing of mild steel reinforcement offers the designer an important opportunity to contribute to cost
savings. As discussed in Chapter 3, the reinforcement is generally placed within the beam after the strands have
been tensioned. Most state DOTs have developed standard details for nonprestressed reinforcement in beams,
which simplifies design and fabrication.

4.2.7.1 Detailing for Ease of Fabrication

If closed reinforcement is detailed around the strands, it requires that the strands be threaded through the closed
bars. By using two-piece bars that can be placed after the strand is tensioned, the fabrication process is simplified.
Figure 4.2.7.1-1 illustrates two-piece stirrups and two-piece confinement reinforcement, along with a three-
piece confinement alternative, in an I-beam. When specifying concrete cover and spacing of strands and bars, the
designer must consider reinforcing bar diameters and bend radii to avoid conflicts. To support reinforcing steel
located in the tops of some beams and the stirrups in all beams, some producers may prefer to locate one or two
strands near the top of the beams (see Fig. 4.2.7.1-1). Support could be provided by longitudinal reinforcing bars,
but strand is slightly less expensive than mild steel reinforcement and is readily available at precast plants. This
top strand may be fully tensioned (if considered in the design), or it may be tensioned to a force of 5,000 to
10,000 lbs. The producer can then tie the reinforcement to the strand, which will provide firm support.
Figure 4.2.7.1-1
Two- and Three-Piece Closed Reinforcement

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4.2.7.2 Excessive Reinforcement/4.2.7.3 Welded Wire Reinforcement

4.2.7.2 Excessive Reinforcement

Designers should minimize the amount of reinforcing steel in prestressed concrete members. There can be a
tendency to add more reinforcement than is needed “just to be safe.” Often, the added reinforcement merely
creates congestion, making consolidation of the concrete difficult without contributing significantly to the
structural strength or behavior of the member.

4.2.7.3 Welded Wire Reinforcement

Welded wire reinforcement (WWR) can be a very cost-effective way to place mild steel reinforcing in precast,
prestressed concrete members. WWR is a prefabricated reinforcement consisting of parallel, cold-drawn wires
welded together in square or rectangular grids. Wires are securely connected at intersections by an electrical
resistance welding process. The use of WWR is particularly advantageous where large areas have uniform
reinforcing spacings, such as flanges of double tees and web shear steel in beams. Compared with reinforcing
bars, the material cost of the WWR is normally higher, but the cost of WWR installation will normally be
substantially lower. Some DOTs allow the use of WWR with smaller bars due to the higher strength of WWR.
Figure 4.2.7.3-1 shows an example of WWR details for a precast concrete I-beam.

This space intentionally left blank

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4.2.7.3 Welded Wire Reinforcement/4.2.8 Durability

Figure 4.2.7.3-1
Welded Wire Reinforcement Details Used by the Nebraska Department of Transportation

4.2.8 Durability
Prestressed concrete products have an excellent durability record. Review of data in the National Bridge
Inventory compiled by the Federal Highway Administration has confirmed the performance of precast,
prestressed bridges in all regions of the United States. Many have analyzed this data and more information is
available at https://infobridge.fhwa.dot.gov/.

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4.2.8.1 Benefits of the Fabrication Process/4.2.9 Bearing Systems

4.2.8.1 Benefits of the Fabrication Process

Most prestressed concrete products are fabricated in certified manufacturing plants where strict quality control is
maintained. The concrete is usually of much higher quality , and it generally has lower permeability, higher
durability and higher strength than field-placed concrete. Curing procedures, especially those during the first
several hours after the concrete is cast, contribute to higher concrete quality. The concrete is almost always
maintained in compression due to prestressing, and is therefore essentially crack free. These factors reduce the
penetration of water and chloride ions into the concrete, increasing its life. In addition, many precast plants use
heat to accelerate curing of the concrete. Tests have shown that this further increases the concrete’s ability to
resist chloride penetration (Pfeifer, et al., 1987; Sherman, et al., 1996A; Sherman, et al., 1996B).

4.2.8.2 Additional Protection

Additional measures can be taken to further enhance the durability of prestressed concrete. Chapter 2 discusses
several measures that can be taken to enhance the material properties of the concrete such as using low water–
cementitious material ratios and certain concrete additives. Providing the proper concrete cover around the
reinforcement is essential, but excessive cover does little to enhance durability of the product. If the ends of the
precast concrete product are not encased in cast-in-place concrete, it is important to seal or coat exposed
prestressing strands and mild steel reinforcing with an appropriate coating. See Chapter 3, Section 3.2.5.1.

4.2.9 Bearing Systems

Bearing systems for precast, prestressed concrete products can be very simple. The bearings need to be designed
to transfer the design vertical and horizontal forces to the substructure. Chapter 10 discusses the role of and
requirements for bearing plates.
Decisions regarding bearing systems can have effects on both the bridge superstructure and substructure.
Elastomeric bearings behave as isolators, which result in a reduction of the forces that are transmitted to the
superstructure from ground motion. This concept, as well as other seismic design considerations and a design
example, are discussed in NCHRP Report 472 Comprehensive Specification for the Seismic Design of Bridges
(ATC/MCEER Joint Venture 2002). Many of the recommendations from this report culminated in the AASHTO
Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design (AASHTO 2011).
Figure 4.2.9-1 provides an example of poor design and detailing of the bearing area. In this example, the beam
could be unstable; unfortunately, the inappropriate design may have been driven in part by provisions of the past
editions of the LRFD Specifications. A much better detail would be to make the pad as wide as the sole plate and to
weld the sole plate to the shoe plate embedded in the beam (see Chapter 10).
Figure 4.2.9-1
Example of a Bearing Designed without Regard for Performance during Construction

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4.2.9.1 Embedded Bearing Plates/4.2.11.2 Examples of Major Bridges Constructed with Lightweight Concrete

4.2.9.1 Embedded Bearing Plates

In most cases, embedded bearing plates are not needed. If large horizontal forces such as seismic loads must be
transmitted from the superstructure to the substructure, bearing plates may be necessary on some beams. Beams
erected on a steep grade may also need embedded bearing plates with additional beveled or tapered plates to
avoid “walking” down the grade. In lieu of costly tapered bearing plates, elastomeric bearing pads placed directly
between the precast concrete product and the substructure are commonly used, unless longitudinal grades
exceed 2%.

4.2.9.2 Bearing Devices

Elastomeric bearing pads are very economical. The bearing pad must be properly designed to accommodate the
bearing pressure and the volumetric changes in the superstructure. If necessary, laminated pads can be used, but
they cost substantially more than plain pads. Tapered bearing pads, the use of which is restricted by the LRFD
Specifications, have been used in several places to accommodate roadway grades of up to 5%. These pads are
more expensive to manufacture than flat pads, but they are much less expensive than tapered plates. For shallow
grades, many states slope the concrete cap at the bearing to provide full contact between the bearing pad and the
cap/beam. Pot bearings have been used in conjunction with bearing plates on precast concrete products, but their
expense must be carefully considered. They are normally not recommended.

4.2.9.3 Bearing Replacement

Provision for future replacement of bearing devices may be required by some owners or agencies. In these
situations, the designer must provide a suitable and practical means for raising the superstructure for removal
and replacement of the bearing device. End diaphragms, when provided for bridges, can often be designed and
detailed to serve this purpose.

4.2.10 Concrete Compressive Strengths

Concrete compressive strength requirements can significantly affect costs. Strength required at transfer of
prestress force is likely to be a predominant concern for the producer. Precast concrete plants rely on the daily
use of prestressing beds. Therefore, the concrete strength at transfer of prestress should be kept to the minimum
required to stay within allowable temporary stresses. Local fabricators are the best source of information on
details related to optimum concrete strength.

4.2.11 Lightweight Concrete

Lightweight concrete has been successfully used on many bridges in the United States since the early 1950s. Its
earliest applications were in lightweight concrete deck slabs. Lighter-weight beams may allow for longer spans or
greater beam spacings for the same strand and concrete strength, and shipping and handling of longer beams are
typically easier when the beams weigh less. Lightweight concrete use has become more popular in seismic areas
where reductions in weight will reduce seismic forces transmitted to the substructure elements, resulting in
substantial savings.

4.2.11.1 Material Properties

Concrete strengths of lightweight aggregate concrete made with structural-grade expanded shale, clay, and slate
(ESCS) produced by the rotary kiln method are in the same range as those for normal weight concrete with the
same cementitious materials content. Contact a local producer of ESCS aggregate for assistance with concrete
mixture designs. The modulus of elasticity for a lightweight concrete will be significantly less than that of a
normal weight concrete with the same strength. For detailed material properties, refer to Chapter 46,
“Lightweight Concrete and Aggregates,” in ASTM STP169D, Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and
Concrete-Making Materials (ASTM Committee C09, 2006). Obtaining concrete strengths in lightweight concrete
comparable to the commonly used strengths of normal weight concrete is not difficult. Greater creep, shrinkage,
and deflections must be appropriately evaluated and accounted for when lightweight concrete is used.
Lightweight concrete is discussed in Chapter 2.

4.2.11.2 Examples of Major Bridges Constructed with Lightweight Concrete

There are many notable bridges constructed with lightweight concrete. Some of these are as follow:

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4.2.11.2 Examples of Major Bridges Constructed with Lightweight Concrete/4.3 Production

• Suwanee River Bridge on U.S. Route 19 at Fanning Springs, Fla.—This bridge, built in 1964 with Type IV
AASHTO I-beams, used 5-ksi, 120 lb/ft3 lightweight concrete to achieve six, 121-ft spans, which were
constructed in three 2-span continuous units.
• Chesapeake Bay Bridges near Annapolis, Md.
• Napa River Bridge on State Route 29 near Napa, Calif.—This is a 2230-ft-long segmental, prestressed
concrete bridge with 250 ft spans. It was constructed in 1978.
• Sebastian Inlet Bridge over the Indian River, Fla.—In this bridge, which was built in 1964, the approach
spans are 73 ft long, and the main spans are 100, 180, and 100 ft long. A 72-in.-deep, drop-in I-beam of
lightweight concrete is supported by two cantilevered pier beams. The cast-in-place deck, curbs, and
parapets are also lightweight concrete.
• Woodrow Wilson Bridge in Washington, D.C., and the Governor Nice Bridge on Maryland Route 301 over
the Potomac River—Full-depth deck panels of lightweight concrete were used on both of these bridges.

4.2.12 Touch Shoring

Touch shoring is a technique that has been used to extend the capacity of precast, prestressed concrete beams.
The process is to provide proper temporary supports during construction to carry a predetermined portion of the
weight of the cast-in-place concrete deck when it is cast. After curing of the deck slab concrete, the temporary
shoring is removed and the slab weight is transferred to the composite system rather than the prestressed beam
alone. The additional capacity of the beams provides for wider beam spacing or longer spans compared with a
similar unshored system.

4.2.12.1 Example Project

In 1988, touch shoring was used for the main span carrying twin structures of the Florida Turnpike over
Interstate 595 in Ft. Lauderdale. For this project, a Type V I-beam, which normally is limited to simple spans of
approximately 135 ft, was used for a 150-ft-long span. This scheme was used in lieu of a spliced-beam system and
saved over $100,000.

4.2.12.2 Limitations
The drawbacks of the touch shoring system are additional cost of the temporary support and the sensitivity of the
system to possible shoring settlements during construction. Touch shoring should be used cautiously, with proper
attention given to the temporary support design and construction. Subsequent deck replacement will also require
specific design and construction provisions; this may be a deterrent to the use of touch shoring in some
applications.

4.2.13 Spliced Beams

Span ranges for concrete structures have continued to increase with advancements in materials, equipment, and
techniques. Spliced-beam technology that uses post-tensioning can extend span ranges. Beam segments can be
post-tensioned after field-cast concrete closures are made. Some owners have placed the deck and post-tensioned
a second stage on the composite section. See Chapter 11 for much more information on spliced beams.
One perceived disadvantage of a two-stage post-tensioned bridge is the concern about possible future deck
removal and replacement. Solutions for this concern could include durability strategies such as managing
chlorides with a membrane or a sacrificial bonded concrete overlay on the deck. Another solution is to design the
bridge such that approximately two thirds of the post-tensioning is installed before casting the deck and one third
after casting the deck. With this scheme, future deck removal should be possible.

4.3 PRODUCTION
Several decisions made by designers can affect production costs adversely. Relevant topics include concrete
finishes, aesthetic requirements, and elements projecting from beams. Refer to Chapter 3 for detailed discussion
of precast, prestressed concrete product manufacture.

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4.3.1 Beam Top Finish/4.4.1.2 Truck Delivery

4.3.1 Beam Top Finish

If the precast concrete product is to be covered with a concrete topping, the top surface of the precast concrete
member should be intentionally roughened to provide mechanical interlock with the topping. This can be done by
using a rough float, heavy broom, or raked finish to provide a proper bonding surface for the cast-in-place
concrete. If this concrete topping is to act compositely with the beam, the designer should provide for the proper
volume of mild steel reinforcement extending from the top of the beam into the deck. However, the projection of
this steel should be kept to the minimum required since it interferes with the leveling and finishing of the top of
the beam. If stay-in-place (SIP) concrete panels are to be used for deck forms, a smooth edge of an appropriate
width should be provided as a bearing surface for the SIP panels.

4.3.2 Side and Bottom Finishes

Precast, prestressed concrete products used as bridge components are normally cast in steel forms. The resulting
finish is typically excellent. However, as with all concrete products, there can be minor blemishes or voids, which
are generally not considered to be defects. Major flaws in the finish may need to be repaired. Since bridges are
usually viewed from some distance, minor surface flaws cannot easily be seen, especially on interior beams. A
requirement to eliminate all minor blemishes in these surfaces adds unnecessary cost to the products. It may be
desirable to provide special treatment only to products on the exteriors of bridges. Although costly, the aesthetic
qualities of bridges have been enhanced through the use of exposed aggregate concrete and special formliners to
create distinctive designs or finishes.
Adjacent members, such as box girders and deck bulb T beam, are connected by shear keys. Shear keys are joints
between the members that are usually filled with cementitious grout. Some DOTs require the sides of the girders
in the shear key areas to be roughened. This may be a sandblasted surface or an exposed aggregate surface,
depending on the DOT specification (Steinberg 2022).

4.3.3 Appurtenances
It is sometimes necessary to connect appurtenances to the surfaces of precast concrete units. To reduce the cost,
it is necessary to eliminate projections from the beams. Most precast, prestressed concrete members are cast in
precision-made steel forms. Projections can be accommodated only by modifying the forms. It is better practice to
use details that permit attachment through use of threaded inserts, embedded weld plates, or through bolts, as
shown in Section 3.2.4.

4.4 DELIVERY AND ERECTION

Transportation of precast, prestressed concrete bridge products to the bridge site can represent a significant
portion of the construction cost. The transportation system from the plant to the site and the means for erecting
the product at the bridge must be considered in the design. When a substantial quantity of precast concrete
members is required on the project, industry-certified producers are able to establish jobsite precasting plants.

4.4.1 Transportation
Construction of bridges over navigable waterways normally makes product delivery by barge possible. Inland
bridges will necessitate delivery of components by truck or rail.

4.4.1.1 Water Delivery

Manufacturing plants located on waterways that are also accessible to the project site can load products directly
on barges for delivery. When direct delivery by barge from plant to jobsite is possible, product weight is a
relatively minor concern since it will be limited only by barge capacity and plant and erection handling equipment
capacity. Direct delivery by barge will usually be more economical than overland delivery.

4.4.1.2 Truck Delivery

When precast products are shipped over land, several issues affect the cost. The most dominant consideration is
product weight. Smaller products (up to 45 tons) normally do not require special equipment or permits for
shipping. Larger components may require special trailers with additional axles, dual-steering systems, and load
distribution systems to reduce and equalize the loads to the axles. These larger components may also require the

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4.4.1.2 Truck Delivery/4.5 Other Products

shipping agency to obtain special permits for hauling over highways and bridges. Arrangements for lead and
following vehicles and coordination with local traffic-control agencies may be required. Evaluation of the
highways between the bridge site and precast concrete plant should include horizontal and vertical geometry
limitations and capacity of bridges that must be crossed. Additionally, the contractor must provide adequate
access to the bridge site by furnishing a suitable haul road. The haul road must be sufficient to support the loaded
weight of the truck and be relatively smooth and level so as not to induce excessive twisting or tilting of the
precast concrete members.

4.4.1.3 Rail Delivery

Another mode of transportation for finished products is rail. Rail transport may be especially advantageous for
heavy products where rail access is available at both the precast concrete plant and the jobsite. Placement
limitations of loads on the rail cars, as well as load capacities of the cars themselves, may also determine the
feasibility of rail shipment.
Length of products is an important consideration when considering rail transport. Short products may be
accommodated on one car whereas long products may require several cars to be attached into a “set” that will
carry a single product. If more than one car is used to carry a product, special attention must be given to the
support bolsters on the cars to provide for horizontal rotation. The products must be tied down well in all
directions to overcome significant transportation-induced loads. During design, anticipated rail shipment should
always be coordinated with precast concrete producers and the railroad.

4.4.2 Handling and Erection

Generally, precast concrete plants have cranes and other equipment for handling products at the plant. At the
bridge site, the contractor must have crane(s) to provide adequate lifting capability at the required working
radius. Unstable soil conditions may necessitate the use of mats for crane stability. Longer beams may require
special handling or a supplemental bracing system to provide proper lateral stability during lifting and shipping.
The Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (PCI, 2016)
provides guidelines and sample calculations for determining girder stability.
Environmental constraints may require that special techniques be used for erection of precast concrete
components. For long or heavy precast concrete products, the designer should discuss shipping and erection
methods with both producers and contractors during the design phase.

4.4.2.1 Lifting Devices

For most precast concrete products, the producer will provide the means for attaching the precast concrete
component to the crane. Usually, the producer will use loops of prestressing strands embedded in the concrete.
This is often the most cost-effective lifting device. Other specialty lifting devices may be required, but the
producer should be allowed to select the means of handling the product.

4.4.2.2 Support and Lift Locations

When prestressed concrete products are resting on supports, it is usually desirable for the supports to be located
near the ends of the product. However, long prestressed concrete piles may require several points of support for
handling, storing, transportation, and erection. When determining the locations of the lifting points it is important
to consider that the bending stresses are within limits and stability of the product is met. Chapters 3 and 8 discuss
this topic in detail. Designers should consult local fabricators to determine the preferred method of providing
stability while maintaining stresses within acceptable limits.

4.5 OTHER PRODUCTS

In addition to using precast, prestressed concrete beams, designers can further increase the cost effectiveness of
their designs by considering the use of other manufactured concrete components for bridges. Chapter 16
describes these products and their applications in greater detail.

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4.5.1 Stay-in-Place Concrete Deck Panels/4.5.3.2 Components

4.5.1 Stay-in-Place Concrete Deck Panels

Cast-in-place concrete bridge decks are used on most bridge superstructures and usually require temporary
forms. SIP, partial-depth, composite concrete deck panels, schematically shown in Fig. 4.5.1-1, offer several
advantages over the use of traditional removable-form systems or SIP metal forms. Since the lower portion of the
deck (SIP panel) is pretensioned, all of the advantages associated with plant-cast concrete are incorporated in the
deck. The deck durability is enhanced because the SIP panel is virtually crack free. The SIP concrete panel is not
subject to the corrosion susceptibility of a metal SIP form. Cost advantages result from the elimination of the
bottom mat of reinforcement in the deck and a reduction in the volume of concrete that must be field cast. Field
labor is not required to remove the forms after the deck cures. For further information, refer to PCI’s
“Recommended Practice for Precast Prestressed Concrete Composite Bridge Deck Panels” (1988).
Figure 4.5.1-1
Typical Deck Configuration with SIP Concrete Panels

4.5.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Deck Panels

In addition to using precast concrete as deck forms, full-depth precast concrete bridge decks have been used
successfully on many projects. The main advantages associated with this type of construction are the speed with
which the deck is placed and the previously enumerated benefits that are associated with plant-cast concrete.
Connection of this type of deck panels to the beams and connections between the individual deck units must be
properly designed to include bearing of the deck panels on the beams as well as proper shear transfer, since
composite action is usually desired. PCI’s State-of-the-Art Report on Full-Depth Precast Concrete Bridge Deck
Panels (2011) discusses the use of this product in detail.

4.5.3 Precast Concrete Substructures

Economic designs of bridge substructures can be achieved using precast concrete components, especially when
there is the possibility of form reuse. The precast concrete components are generally simple to form and fabricate.
Precast concrete substructures have been successfully used on both large and small bridges.

4.5.3.1 Advantages of Precast Concrete Substructures

Accelerating the speed of construction can decrease costs through reduced traffic maintenance requirements,
enhanced safety, and reduced overhead for the contractor. For construction over water, using smaller crews
working less time not only reduces labor costs but can significantly increase workplace and worker safety. Plant-
cast concrete will exhibit high quality in materials and production and provide long-term durability.

4.5.3.2 Components
Precast concrete substructure components include prestressed concrete piles, abutment walls, caps for pile bents,
pier columns, and caps. Precast concrete piles are precompressed to resist the stresses that result from driving.
The other components listed are normally reinforced with mild steel reinforcement. Pile bents with prestressed
piles and concrete caps have been used in lieu of piers, especially for short-span bridges. Precast concrete bent
caps are very simple to fabricate and have been used widely. For grade crossings, precast concrete pier caps
eliminate the need for erecting and removing expensive formwork, installing the reinforcing cage, and curing the

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4.5.3.2 Components/4.6.1 Wide Beams

cap at an above-grade elevation. Bridges successfully built using precast concrete columns and caps include the
Sunshine Skyway Bridge in Tampa Bay, Fla., and the Edison Bridge in Ft. Myers, Fla., shown in Fig. 4.5.3.2-1.
Figure 4.5.3.2-1
Edison Bridge, Ft. Myers, Fla., with Precast Concrete Columns and Caps

4.5.3.3 Connections
A primary concern for designers of economical precast concrete substructures is to provide effective and durable,
yet reasonably simple, means of connecting precast concrete components to other precast concrete and cast-in-
place components. The connections between precast concrete elements must be designed and detailed for full
transfer of all applicable forces. Bent caps normally provide a socket in the cap into which the piles are set and
subsequently grouted. Other connection schemes use reinforcing bar splices such as mechanical splices, or
grouted sleeves, and post-tensioning. The Federal Highway Administration has published a report (Culmo, 2009),
with a compendium of connections used by agencies. Even in moderate-to-high seismic regions, connections
appropriate for ABC projects have been tested and installed (Marsh, et al., 2011 and Eberhard, 2011).

4.5.4 Barriers
Precast concrete railings or barriers are being used more frequently than in the past. Cast-in-place railings are
normally cast independently of the bridge deck, requiring separate delivery of concrete to the jobsite. Precasting
the railing or barrier eliminates this requirement and speeds the construction process. Barriers have been
attached to bridges by bolted connections or with the use of bar-splicing devices and mechanical anchors.

4.6 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

When compared with other bridge systems, the relatively low direct cost of precast concrete components alone
can significantly reduce project expenses. Additionally, there are other benefits that can be achieved with the use
of specific products or materials.

4.6.1 Wide Beams

Over the past several years, the use of precast, prestressed concrete beams with wide top flanges has grown in
use. The increased width provides a smaller area that requires deck forming, probable reduction in the amount of
deck reinforcement, improved lateral stability for handling and shipping, and a wider work surface for
construction crews prior to installation of deck forms. Excessive width may, however, increase the volume of
haunch concrete over the beam and, for very thin flanges, increase the difficulty of deck removal and replacement.
Newer precast, prestressed concrete sections have wide bottom flanges. These wider flanges accommodate more
strands and have been optimized for the use of higher-strength concrete and/or larger strand diameters.

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4.6.2 Adjacent Members/4.7 Summary

4.6.2 Adjacent Members

By placing precast concrete beams side by side, the need for a cast-in-place concrete deck may be eliminated,
further reducing project costs and increasing the speed of construction. This is especially beneficial at remote
construction sites where transporting concrete to the site is difficult or especially time consuming. Cost savings
related to the deck include forming, placing, finishing, curing, form stripping, and the material and delivery
expense. By eliminating the deck through the use of properly designed connections, total construction can be
completed in significantly less time.
Cracking of the joints between adjacent members and associated leakage can be a problem. The use of ultra-high-
performance concrete (UHPC) in the joints can greatly improve performance (Semendary, et al., 2017; Steinberg,
et al., 2022).

4.6.3 High-Strength Concrete

The use of higher-strength concrete has been increasing. With higher strength comes the ability to increase the
span length for given beam depths and the associated economy of longer spans. These longer spans are
accompanied by increases in the amount of prestressing force in the products. Designers must take into account
the potential increase in beam camber and in concrete transfer strengths that could preclude casting on a daily
cycle. The ability of prestressing beds to withstand the larger prestress force should also be investigated. The
stability of long, slender members during handling and shipping must be considered as part of the member
design. Most PCI-certified producers are familiar with these parameters and can provide assistance.

4.6.4 Contract Considerations

During the planning phase of projects, agencies should evaluate contract procedures and use one that gives the
best opportunity to save money. When a number of small bridges are to be constructed or replaced in one area,
significant savings can be realized by grouping several bridges into one contract. The Bridge Bundling Guidebook
(FHWA, 2019) offers further information and case studies.

4.7 SUMMARY
There are several keys to the economical use of precast, prestressed concrete for bridges. These include proper
design and detailing, local availability of products, and repetitive use of products. Ongoing, open communications
among owners, designers, contractors, and manufacturers is critical, starting with the concept of the design
through final construction. As noted several times in this chapter, designers should contact local precast,
prestressed concrete fabricators to obtain information vital to the design of a cost-effective structure.

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4.8 References

4.8 REFERENCES
1. AASHTO. 2020. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Ninth Edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
2. AASHTO. 2011. AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design, second edition with 2015
interims. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
3. ASTM Committee C09. 2006. Chapter 46, “Lightweight Concrete and Aggregates.” In Significance of Tests
and Properties of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials (ASTM STP 169D). ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA., p. 522.
https://doi.org/10.1520/STP169D-EB.
4. ATC/MCEER Joint Venture. 2002. Comprehensive Specification for the Seismic Design of Bridges. NCHRP
Report No. 472. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC., 55 pp.
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_472.pdf.
5. Brown, K. 2022. “Temporary Top Strands in Prestressed Concrete Girders.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Spring, pp. 36–38.
http://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2022Spring/CBT-TemporaryTopStrands.pdf.
6. Castrodale, R. W., and C. D. White. 2004. Extending Span Ranges of Precast Prestressed Concrete Girders.
NCHRP Report 517. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. 552 pp.
https://doi.org/10.17226/23375.
7. Culmo, M. P. 2009. Connection Details for Prefabricated Bridge Elements and Systems (FHWA-IF-09-010).
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC. 568 pp.
http:/www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/prefab/if09010/report.pdf.
8. Eberhard, M. 2011. System Performance of Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC) Connections in
Moderate-to-High Seismic Regions, Quake Summit 2011―Earthquake & Multi-Hazards Resilience:
Progress and Challenges. Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation (NEES) and MCEER. June 9–11.
Buffalo, NY.
9. FHWA. 2019. Bridge Bundling Guide. Report No. FHWA-HIF-19-057. Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, DC.
www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/pdfs/alternative_project_delivery/bridge_bundling_guidebook_070219.pdf.
10. Horn, D. G., and H. K. Preston. 1981. “Use of Debonded Strands in Pretensioned Bridge Members.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 26, No. 4 (July–August), pp.42–58.
http://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011981.42.58
11. Jayaseelan, H., and B. W. Russell. 2019. “Reducing Cambers and Prestress Losses by Included Fully
Tensioned Top Prestressing Strands and Mild Reinforcing Steel,” PCI Journal, V. 64, No. 3 (May–June), pp.
29-46. http://doi.org/10.15554/pcij64.3-05.
12. Marsh, M. L., M. Wernli, B. E. Garrett, J. E. Stanton, M. O. Eberhard, and M. D. Weinert. 2011. Application of
Accelerated Bridge Construction Connections in Moderate-to-High Seismic Regions. NCHRP Report 698.
Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. 55 pp.
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_698.pdf.
13. PCI. 1988. “Recommended Practice for Precast Prestressed Concrete Composite Bridge Deck Panels.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 33, No. 2 (March–April), pp. 67–109.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij33.2-06.
14. PCI. 2001. State-of-the-Art of Precast/Prestressed Integral Bridges (IB-01). Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. 100 pp.
https://doi.org/10.15554/IB-01.

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4.8 References

15. PCI. 2011. State-of-the-Art Report on Full-Depth Precast Concrete Bridge Deck Panels (SOA-01-1911).
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/SOA-01-1911.
16. PCI. 2012. Curved Precast Concrete Bridges State-of-the-Art Report (CB-01-12). Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-01-12.
17. PCI. 2020A. Bridge Geometry Manual (CB-02-20). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-02-20.
18. PCI. 2020B. Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI CB-03-
20). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-03-20.
19. PCI. 2016. Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (CB-
02-16). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-02-16.
20. PennDOT. 1996. PennDOT Drawing 95-604-BQAD—Precast Concrete Diaphragms for Precast Concrete I-
Beam Bridges. Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, Harrisburg, PA.
https://www.dot.state.pa.us/public/Bureaus/BOPD/Bridge/NewProducts/drawings/NP11.pdf.
21. Pfeifer, D. W., J. R. Landgren, and A. B. Zosb. 1987. Protective Systems for New Prestressed and Substructure
Concrete. FHWA Report No. FHWA/RD-86/193. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
22. Rabbat, B. G., P. H. Kaar, H. G. Russell, and R. N. Bruce. 1979. “Fatigue Tests of Pretensioned Girders with
Blanketed and Draped Strands.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 24,
No. 4 (July-August), pp. 88–114.
http://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011979.88.114.
23. Russell, B. W. 2018. “Using Fully Bonded Top Strands in Pretensioned Concrete Bridge Girders,” ASPIRE,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Summer, pp. 26–28.
http://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2018Summer/CBT-UsingFullyBondedTopStrands.pdf.
24. Russell, B. W., and N. H. Burns. 1994. “Fatigue Tests on Prestressed Concrete Beams with Debonded
Strands.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 39, No. 6 (November-
December), pp. 70–88. https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011994.70.88.
25. Russell, B. W., N. H. Burns, and L. G. ZumBrunnen. 1994. “Predicting the Bond Behavior of Prestressed
Concrete Beams Containing Debonded Strands.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL. V. 39. No. 5 (September-October), pp. 60–77.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011994.60.77
26. Semendary, A., K. Walsh, and E. Steinberg. 2017. “Early-Age Behavior of an Adjacent Prestressed Concrete
Box-Beam Bridge Containing UHPC Shear Keys with Transverse Dowels.” Journal of Bridge Engineering,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V. 22, No. 5 (May).
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001034.
27. Shahrooz, B., R. A. Miller, K. A. Harries, Q. Yu and H. G. Russell. 2017. Strand Debonding for Pretensioned
Girders. NCHRP Report 849. National Academies, Washington, DC.
https://www.worldcat.org/title/strand-debonding-for-pretensioned-girders/oclc/993630084
28. Shahrooz, B., K. Harries, R. Castrodale, and R. Miller. 2022. Use of 0.7-in.-Diameter Strands in Precast
Pretensioned Girders. NCHRP Report 994. National Academies, Washington DC.
29. Sherman, M. R., D. B. McDonald, and D. W. Pfeifer. 1996A. “Durability Aspects of Precast Prestressed
Concrete—Part 1: Historical Review.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V.
41, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 62–74.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011996.62.74.

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4.8 References

30. Sherman, M. R., D. B. McDonald, and D. W. Pfeifer. 1996B. “Durability Aspects of Precast Prestressed
Concrete—Part 2: Chloride Permeability Study.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL. V. 41, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 76–95.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011996.76.95.
31. Steinberg, E., K. Walsh, R.. Miller, B. Shahrooz, R. Castrodale, and C. Prussack. 2022. Design and
Construction of Deck Bulb Tee Girder Bridges with UHPC Connections. NCHRP Report 999. National
Academies Press, Washington, D.C.

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Table of Contents

5.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5-3
5.1.1 Public Involvement ............................................................................................................................................................................. 5-3
5.1.2 Team Approach .................................................................................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.1.2.1 Early Involvement ...................................................................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.1.2.2 Team Composition ..................................................................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.1.3 Collaborative Effort ............................................................................................................................................................................ 5-3
5.2 AESTHETIC DESIGN CONCEPTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 5-4
5.2.1 Definitions............................................................................................................................................................................................... 5-4
5.3 PROJECT AESTHETICS................................................................................................................................................................................ 5-5
5.3.1 Alignment ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5-5
5.3.2 Span Arrangement .............................................................................................................................................................................. 5-5
5.3.2.1 Superstructure ............................................................................................................................................................................. 5-6
5.3.2.2 Substructure ................................................................................................................................................................................. 5-6
5.3.3 Surface Treatments............................................................................................................................................................................. 5-6
5.3.4 Standard Designs and Details......................................................................................................................................................... 5-8
5.3.5 Sketches and Study Models ............................................................................................................................................................. 5-8
5.4 COMPONENT AESTHETICS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 5-9
5.4.1 Abutments............................................................................................................................................................................................... 5-9
5.4.2 Piers ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5-9
5.4.3 Pier Caps and Crossbeams ............................................................................................................................................................ 5-10
5.4.4 Beams..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5-13
5.4.5 Traffic Barriers and Pedestrian Railings ................................................................................................................................ 5-14
5.5 APPURTENANCE AESTHETICS ............................................................................................................................................................ 5-15
5.5.1 Signs........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5-15
5.5.2 Light Standards.................................................................................................................................................................................. 5-15
5.5.3 Utilities .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5-16
5.5.4 Slope Protection ................................................................................................................................................................................ 5-16
5.5.5 Noise Walls .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 5-16
5.6 MAINTENANCE OF AESTHETIC FEATURES .................................................................................................................................. 5-17
5.6.1 Drainage ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5-17
5.6.2 Maintenance Manual ....................................................................................................................................................................... 5-17
5.7 COST OF AESTHETIC FEATURES ........................................................................................................................................................ 5-17
5.8 SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5-18
5.9 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY................................................................................................................................................ 5-18
5.10 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 5-19
5.10.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 5-19
5.10.2 Wekiva Parkway #204 Systems Interchange RAMP K .................................................................................................. 5-22
5.10.3 Coplay-Northampton Bridge .................................................................................................................................................... 5-24

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Table of Contents

5.10.4 I-59/I-20 Birmingham Central Business District Project ............................................................................................ 5-26

5.10.5 Christina River Bridge ................................................................................................................................................................. 5-28
5.10.6 Marc Basnight Bridge ................................................................................................................................................................... 5-30
5.10.7 Sarah Mildred Long Bridge ........................................................................................................................................................ 5-32
5.10.8 Interstate 78 Bridge Replacement Project ......................................................................................................................... 5-34
5.10.9 New Jersey Route 72 Eastbound Bridge Over Manahawkin Bay ............................................................................. 5-36
5.10.10 Southbound I-95 To Eastbound SR 202 Flyover Bridge ............................................................................................ 5-38
5.10.11 Bayonne Bridge Approach Structures ............................................................................................................................... 5-40
5.10.12 Estrella Underpass At Grand Avenue ................................................................................................................................. 5-42
5.10.13 North Torrey Pines Road Bridge .......................................................................................................................................... 5-44
5.10.14 Evergreen Point Floating Bridge .......................................................................................................................................... 5-46
5.10.15 SR 417 And Boggy Creek Road Interchange ................................................................................................................... 5-48
5.10.16 I-4/Selmon Expressway Connector .................................................................................................................................... 5-50
5.10.17 Maynard H. Jackson Jr. International Terminal Elevated Roadway System ..................................................... 5-52
5.10.18 Steward Street Bridge ............................................................................................................................................................... 5-54
5.10.19 I-95/I-295 North Interchange Ramp SEI .......................................................................................................................... 5-56
5.10.20 Route 36 Highlands Bridge ..................................................................................................................................................... 5-58
5.10.21 SH58 Ramp A Flyover Bridge ................................................................................................................................................ 5-60
5.10.22 Minnesota Crosstown Project ............................................................................................................................................... 5-62
5.10.23 Daggett Road Bridge .................................................................................................................................................................. 5-64
5.10.24 High-Main Street Bridge .......................................................................................................................................................... 5-66
5.10.25 Seattle Sound Transit Light Rail ........................................................................................................................................... 5-68
5.10.26 Veteran’s Glass City Skyway ................................................................................................................................................... 5-70

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5.1 Introduction/5.1.3 Collaborative Effort

Aesthetics
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is a discussion intended to help engineers incorporate aesthetics into bridge design. The primary
focus of the chapter is on typical concrete overpass and underpass bridges, although much of this information is
applicable to all bridges. Designers are encouraged to reflect on past personal experience and independently
broaden their study of aesthetics, particularly for larger structures.
This information is intentionally presented in a general, abstract way to encourage designers to apply it as
appropriate for local conditions and preferences. The suggestions can be combined in numerous ways to arrive at
a solution that is uniquely suited to a particular structure. Strict imitation of the guidelines given here will not
necessarily lead to success.
Pleasing appearance should be considered in all bridge designs, although it must be achieved in a reasonable way.
Consequently, design considerations such as site location, cost, environmental impact, constructability, and future
maintenance must be balanced against aesthetic objectives as the project progresses. The most cost-efficient way
to do this is by considering aesthetics at the onset of the design process. The goal is to create a pleasing structure
with large and simple shapes as opposed to using small ornate and brightly colored components.

5.1.1 Public Involvement

The incorporation of aesthetics in public projects must begin with the premise that success with aesthetics is in
the eye of the beholder. Engineers must accept that people living near and using a structure should be given the
opportunity to express their concerns for appearance before the design process begins. Conversely, public
meetings provide engineers with an opportunity to explain to the public those project constraints that may
influence aesthetic treatments.

5.1.2 Team Approach

Engineering efforts to incorporate aesthetics in bridge design must include all of the many professional
disciplines involved in the design of public transportation facilities. Participation of these disciplines on a design
team from the beginning of a project facilitates the best integration of a range of aesthetic design possibilities.

5.1.2.1 Early Involvement

An important step to aesthetic enhancement is team building and participation in the conceptual development of
the project. Typically, the greatest aesthetic impact is made in the selection of the primary structural elements,
including shapes, spans, and proportions. Consequently, the bridge designer must have input from all members of
the design team prior to this selection. If aesthetics are not considered until after the primary structural elements
are selected and designed, it is practically impossible to make the resulting structure attractive by adding
superficial ornamentation. Simply put, early selection of attractive primary structural elements and proportions
can produce pleasing aesthetic results, usually without adding significant cost.
5.1.2.2 Team Composition
The makeup of the team will depend on the size and complexity of the project. A project can include disciplines
for structural design, lighting, geotechnical engineering, acoustics, landscaping, civil-environmental engineering,
and maintenance. Inclusion of an architect or aesthetics consultant on the team is desirable. If there is a lead
architect, that individual must have past bridge design experience. Proper composition of the team will save a
substantial amount of time during the initial phases of design when the basic structural systems are being
suggested and evaluated.

5.1.3 Collaborative Effort

A genuine collaboration between the public and members of the design team can yield significant structural and
aesthetic improvements in bridge design. The collaborative effort will be most successful if a multi-disciplinary
team works in consultation with the public through the conceptual development of a project. This approach is
also the best method for obtaining a balance of structural efficiency, economy, and the highest overall aesthetic
quality.

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5.2.Aesthetic Design Concepts/5.2.1 Definitions

5.2 AESTHETIC DESIGN CONCEPTS

There are no generic formulas for achieving good aesthetic bridge design. Art in any form is highly subjective and
personal. However, there are some forms of architecture that have a universal and timeless appeal due to their
aesthetic quality, such as the civic structures of the Greek and Roman periods. Their appeal is embodied in the
aesthetic design concepts these ancient societies developed over many hundreds of years, including order,
balance, rhythm, line, mass, scale, unity, proportion, clarity of function, form, simplicity, color, texture, harmony,
and craftsmanship. Many of these concepts are illustrated in the 25 case studies provided in the appendix to this
chapter. Specific case studies are listed for some concepts.
Understanding and correctly applying these concepts enhances the opportunities for providing the public with a
structure of high visual quality without compromising structural integrity or substantially increasing cost. The
objective is to make bridge designs more attractive through the application of these concepts

5.2.1 Definitions
The following is a brief description of universal aesthetic concepts as they apply to bridge design. They are
provided as a reference for evaluation of the effects of proposed solutions by the multi-disciplinary design team.
Order – the presence of only those edges and lines necessary to establish the characteristic form and function of
the bridge. Application of the concept should lead the designer to a refined design to which nothing can be added
or removed without disturbing the harmony of the whole.
Balance – repetition of the various elements of the bridge, and localized details, so as to establish harmony
without monotony. Application of the concept should leave observers of the bridge with a sense of the structure in
its entirety as opposed to a sense of any one of its component parts. Examples are provided in Case Studies 4 and
24.
Rhythm – a characteristic order in the repetition of individual bridge elements. Application of the concept is
evidenced by the spacing of superstructure elements; the arrangement of substructure units and the elements
within them; the spacing of expansion and construction joints in walls, spans, parapets, or curbs; the spacing and
appearance of lighting fixtures; and any other details repeated throughout the bridge.
Line – the sight lines voluntarily or involuntarily followed by the eye when viewing a bridge. Application of the
concept establishes smooth, flowing lines in the profiles of spans, piers, abutments, wing walls, parapets, railings,
and junctures of different elements and materials. Examples are provided in Case Studies 19 and 22.
Mass – the visual heaviness or lightness of the individual parts of the bridge. Examples are provided in Case
Studies 15 and 20.
Scale – the size of individual bridge elements as they relate to each other, the bridge as a whole, and the bridge
site.
Unity – a collective arrangement of elements and materials to elicit a sense of singular form and function.
Proportion – relative size, visual mass, and spatial relation of individual components throughout the bridge and
of the individual components to the scale of the entire bridge and its surroundings. Application of the concept
should establish favorable dimensional relations between various elements; between height, width, and breadth;
between closed surfaces and openings; and between the light and dark areas caused by sunlight and shadow. The
proportions of elements should give an impression of balance. Examples are provided in Case Studies 18 and 21.
Clarity of function – the necessity that each element serves its intended function and visually conveys to the
viewer that it is appropriate and sufficient to perform its intended function. Application of the concept should
produce simplicity in arrangement of elements reflecting by size and distribution the flow of forces through the
structure. Examples are provided in Case Studies 9 and 14.
Form – the distinctive appearance of the bridge as defined by the geometric arrangement of its elements and the
individual geometry of each element. Application of the concept expresses both the overall stability of the
structural form and the function of each component element in sustaining overall stability. Examples are provided
in Case Studies 8 and 12.

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5.2.1 Definitions/5.3.2 Span Arrangement

Simplicity – limiting the elements employed in a bridge to only those essential in establishing a form sufficient to
serve the intended function. Application of the concept should produce clean lines, a minimum number of
elements, an absence of clutter, and avoid disruptive details; a form’s lack of complication. Examples are provided
in Case Studies 6 and 18.
Color – primarily utilized in bridges to either blend the bridge with its natural setting or to establish a clear
contrast with its natural setting. Application of the concept should be understood to not simply be cosmetic, but
rather a means of defining, clarifying, modifying, accentuating, or subduing the visual effect of the individual
bridge elements or the bridge as a whole. Examples are provided in Case Studies 7 and 16.
Texture – surface characteristics of component materials or the treatments applied to component surfaces to
alter the visual details of the surface. Application of the concept is effective in reducing the visual mass of
abutments and piers with large uninterrupted surfaces. Provided the texture is of appropriate scale, when viewed
from a distance, texturing can establish a sense of balance, harmony, rhythm, and line. Examples are provided in
Case Studies 14 and 17.
Harmony – the collective embodiment of each of the aesthetic design concepts within a bridge unified with its
surrounding environment. This is evidenced as an independent aesthetic design concept by the fact that bridges
of equivalence in every other facet must satisfy unique aesthetic design requirements merely by virtue of whether
they are to function in an urban setting or a rural setting. Application of the concept should blend the individual
elements of the bridge into its whole, blend the bridge with its environment, and establish its relationship to
nearby structures through structural form, function, surface finishes, color, and landscaping. Examples are
provided in Case Studies1, 11, and 23.
Craftsmanship – all aspects of construction, from carpentry work to concrete placement to the application of
surface finishes, require specialized skills or special construction procedures. The aforementioned aesthetic
concepts cannot be successful if their application is predicated on a standard of craftsmanship that cannot be
achieved.

5.3 PROJECT AESTHETICS

5.3.1 Alignment
The compatibility of bridge alignment with overall site geometry contributes substantially to the aesthetic quality
of a project. Traffic clearance, waterway opening, terrain, geotechnical conditions, right-of-way, and utilities are
typical engineering constraints that influence horizontal and vertical alignment. Such constraints are
interdisciplinary concerns that can create major aesthetic challenges.
Bridge designers are often given roadway geometry as a predetermined feature of the project. This can result in
challenges such as oddly shaped piers or straddle bents in urban interchanges.
Vertical profile is often the dominant aesthetic feature of a structure. Predetermined roadway geometry
associated with roadway design criteria, such as sight distance and design speed, is often the governing criterion.
Designers should exercise judgment in evaluating alignment and request plausible changes by the design team
that retain or improve overall project quality and improve the appearance of the structure. Alternatives should be
sought that provide an appropriate solution for the bridge without compromising the requirements of the other
engineering disciplines. Graceful horizontal and vertical alignments provide a sound beginning for a successful
bridge.

5.3.2 Span Arrangement

Generally, an aesthetic goal in design is to make the superstructure appear as slender as possible without
appearing to lack necessary strength. The superstructure of a tall bridge will look thin in comparison to the space
below the bridge. A beam of constant depth in a long bridge will look thin because the eye judges depth in relation
to length. The reverse is also true. The superstructure of a short span bridge with low underclearance will have a
tendency to look much deeper.

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5.3.2.1 Superstructure/5.3.3 Surface Treatments

5.3.2.1 Superstructure
In the effort to economize, engineers generally strive to reduce the number of beam lines by increasing the girder
spacing. To balance cost efficiency and aesthetic quality, the designer should utilize the most structurally efficient
beam cross sections that are available. However, consideration should be given to the use of high-strength
concrete as necessary to minimize girder depth. Another tool is to employ continuity over interior supports to
facilitate use of shallower girders, while at the same time eliminating problematic joints in the superstructure.
Figure 5.3.2.2-1
Balance occurs when the span lengths and height of the bridge
become proportional, as in the Folsom Lake Crossing, Folsom, Calif. (Photo: CH2M HILL)

5.3.2.2 Substructure
The very nature of a bridge is to span obstructions, such as roads, rivers, deep valleys, railroads, and the like.
Substructure units supporting these spans must have the apparent visual strength necessary to support applied
loads without themselves becoming a visual detriment to the aesthetics of the bridge. It is highly desirable to
maintain the same geometry for piers and for abutments within a bridge. Repetition of substructure geometry
creates an inherent visual symmetry that, when coupled with physical symmetry in the position of substructure
units under the bridge, produces unity in appearance, form, function, and strength. In spite of this, a unique
balance occurs when span lengths and the height of the structure become proportional. This can be illustrated
simply by the three-span bridge shown in Figure 5.3.2.2-1 taken from ASPIRE Winter 2009. Other examples are
shown in Case Study Nos. 18, 19, and 24 in the appendix to this chapter.
Certainly, there are occasions when site constraints preclude locating the substructure units where desired. The
designer should pursue alternatives that provide a degree of symmetry, or whose form most closely follows the
natural topography of the site. Furthermore, the designer should convey to the design team the potential benefits
of increasing bridge length when such an increase accommodates a more advantageous structural and aesthetic
substructure layout.

5.3.3 Surface Treatments

Structural materials have a characteristic color and texture in their natural state. With respect to each of the
structure’s surfaces, a decision must be made whether to leave the structural material natural or to add color,
texture, pattern, or surfacing material. Such additions often provide economical opportunities to enhance the
visual interest of the structure and establish harmony with its surroundings.
Textured concrete is sometimes used on portions of abutments and wide piers to reduce their visual mass as
shown in Figure 5.3.3-1. A texture can be used effectively on the exterior face of a concrete traffic barrier to
accentuate the horizontal lines of the barrier (Fig. 5.3.3-2). Color can play a significant role in the overall
aesthetic effect but should be used with full awareness that harmonious color composition is difficult to achieve.
External coatings are the most promising approach to coloring concrete and can be quite durable when correctly
applied. Textured or pigmented concrete provides the additional advantage of not requiring extensive finishing
labor because the finish is largely present when the concrete forms are removed. This option is being used more
frequently. Figure 5.3.3-3 shows bridges where color was used to help them establish harmony with their
surroundings Examples of surface treatments are shown in Case Study Nos. 4, 7, and 20 in the appendix to this
chapter.

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5.3.3 Surface Treatments

Figure 5.3.3-1
Textures are incorporated into the concrete surfaces to reduce visual mass.

a) Portland and Western b) Minnesota Crosstown Project,

L Street Bridge, Columbia City, Oregon. Crosstown Commons, Minnesota.
(Photo: OBEC Consulting Engineers) (Photo: Minnesota Department of Transportation)

Figure 5.3.3-2
Texture and color were used to accentuate the horizontal barrier.

Main Street Bridge in Pueblo, Colorado.

Contract documents should specify the quality of the surface finish desired with regard to issues such as bug
holes, wood grain and form impressions, and surface blemishes and discoloration. If it is deemed necessary, the
contractor should prepare sample panels of representative concrete textures or colors for approval. When
required, a high-quality concrete stain will even out variations in the color of surfaces. In addition, graffiti may be
more easily removed from sealed surfaces.

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5.3.3 Surface Treatments/5.3.5 Sketches and Study Models

Figure 5.3.3-3 Surface Treatments

a) Black iron oxide integral color was used in both the piers and b) Integral color was used in both the cast-in-place concrete and
superstructure of the Linn Cove Viaduct, North Carolina. (Photo: FIGG) precast concrete in Zion National Park, Utah. (Photo: Federal
Lands Highways)

c) Stain and fractured-fin texture were used in the Big Cottonwood d) The Sycamore Creek Bridge on Arizona State Road 87
Canyon Loop Road Bridge near Salt Lake City, Utah. (Photo: Michael northeast of Phoenix harmonizes with its surroundings through
Baker Jr. Inc.) the application of surface applied stain. (Photo: Arizona DOT)

5.3.4 Standard Designs and Details

Many owner agencies and consultants facilitate the design of repetitious structures with libraries of standard
designs and details. Consequently, the design of short- and medium-span bridges may be a process of selecting
and combining standard details. Precast concrete bridges, based on assemblies of standardized components, lend
themselves particularly well to this method. There is obvious economy in this approach, but bridge designers
should not neglect responsibility for the appearance of the structure.
Standard designs and standard details can be both aesthetic challenges and aesthetic opportunities. Often, the
biggest impediments to enhanced appearance are inappropriate standard details. Custom designs and details are
sometimes rejected on the notion that costs will automatically increase. However, the benefits of standardization
are based on repetition, so attractive standard details can be repeated as readily as unattractive ones.
Standard pier shapes, parapet profiles, and standard abutments essentially establish the appearance of a typical
bridge regardless of other efforts by the designer. The solution is to develop attractive standard designs and
details and allow bridge designers the flexibility to apply them appropriately.

5.3.5 Sketches and Study Models

Sketches drawn to scale are helpful for visualizing the aesthetic qualities of proposed designs and details. Scale
models can be very helpful for demonstrating the aesthetic features of individual elements and overall bridge
concepts in three dimensions. Vehicle and pedestrian objects should be included to provide perspective and scale.
This is particularly true for sketches or models used as visual aids at public presentations.

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5.4 Component Aesthetics/5.4.2 Piers

5.4 COMPONENT AESTHETICS

Discussion of the appearance of individual elements within a bridge is not meant to imply that aesthetic bridges
can be designed in pieces. All elements of the structure need to be consistent with each other and contribute to
the visual impact of the whole structure.

5.4.1 Abutments
Abutments visually anchor the ends of the bridge. The abutment location and geometry substantially define the
shape of the opening under the end spans. In general, for highway overpasses, the bridge will appear more open
and less obtrusive, and the abutment will seem less massive the farther up the slope it is moved away from the
traveled way. Specifically, the visual mass of an abutment must be in proportion to the span and depth of the
superstructure. Reducing the size of the abutment by lengthening the span is not necessarily a cost issue, as
savings in abutment walls and foundations may offset the cost of additional structure length.
For shorter structures and from viewpoints near the ends of longer structures, the shape and detail of the
abutment will make a major impression. For structures passing over pedestrian or vehicular traffic, the most
memorable aspect of the structure could be the provisions employed at the ends of the bridge. Such provisions
may include surface treatments of color and texture, the transitional geometry afforded by a sloping front face on
the abutment, or simply eliminating the presence of expansion joints that sometimes result in unsightly water
staining. To that end, the use of integral abutments is strongly encouraged because they eliminate water leaks and
the structural deterioration that frequently occurs as a result.

5.4.2 Piers
From any viewpoint, particularly at oblique angles to the structure, the shape of the piers will have a major visual
impact. Given the standardized nature of many precast concrete superstructure elements, the piers and
abutments are major opportunities to give the bridge a memorable appearance. In fact, for bridges on tall piers,
the supporting elements are often the defining visual components.
Pier placement establishes not only the points at which the structure contacts the topography but also the shape
of the openings framed by the piers and superstructure. The success of the visual relationship between the
structure and its surrounding topography will depend heavily on the apparent logic of pier placement.
Piers can be designed in many different shapes and sizes depending on the style, width, length, and height of the
bridge. Flared or tapered piers are generally more pleasing than those of uniform plan geometry (Fig. 5.4.2-1).
The cost of formwork is often cited as an obstacle to tapered or flared piers. However, if the taper or flare is done
consistently from pier to pier and in only one direction at a time, a single form can be reused repeatedly to
achieve a cost-effective improvement in appearance. On one bridge, all piers should have the same general
appearance. Other examples of the impact of pier geometry on bridge appearance are shown in Case Study Nos.
3, 8, 11, 16, and 17 in the appendix to this chapter.
Figure 5.4.2-1
These piers offer pleasing geometries.

a) Brainerd Bypass Bridge, Brainerd, Minn. b) Sanibel Island Bridge A, Lee County, Fla.
(Photo: Neil Kveberg, Minnesota DOT) (Photo: Lee County)

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5.4.2 Piers/5.4.3 Pier Caps and Crossbeams

Fly-over ramps should generally be supported by single-shaft rectangular or oblong columns, rather than by pier
lines with numerous round or square columns. Minimizing the number of individual supporting elements reduces
visual clutter under the bridge. Architectural precast concrete panels can be placed around or between columns
as one method of transforming a cluttered multi-column pier into a single aesthetic unit.

5.4.3 Pier Caps and Crossbeams

Bridges composed of multiple precast concrete beams usually require the use of a crossbeam to transfer loads
from the superstructure to the columns. In general, crossbeams interrupt the flow of the bridge’s horizontal lines
and add visual mass to both the superstructure and piers.
Generally, a recessed (raised) crossbeam (Fig. 5.4.3-1) is preferable. A semi-recessed crossbeam (Fig. 5.4.3-4) is
the next-best solution. With imagination, a lowered crossbeam will also work if the crossbeam is incorporated
into the shape of the pier as shown in Figures 5.4.2-1a and 5.4.3-3. Other examples of crossbeams are shown in
Case Study Nos. 1 and 9, in the appendix to this chapter.
The ends of pier caps and lowered crossbeams frequently present an abrupt, visually undesirable projection,
borne of functional necessity but absent of any aesthetic value. Tapering the bottom of the projecting end upward
so that the end of the projection is shallower than it is wide neutralizes the abrupt disruption of the bridge’s hori-
zontal lines while also visually characterizing the flow of forces (Fig. 5.4.3-2 and 5.4.5-1). Moreover, pier cap and
crossbeam projections of semi-circular plan geometry are effective in merging form and function (Fig. 5.4.3-5).
Figure 5.4.3-1
Piers, Caps, and Railings

a) This bridge uses raised crossbeams and open railing to reduce its perceived depth. La Center Bridge over the East Fork Lewis River,
La Center, Washington.
(Photo: Berger/ABAM Engineers Inc.)

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5.4.3 Pier Caps and Crossbeams

Figure 5.4.3-1 (cont.)

Piers, Caps, and Railings

b) and c) The use of a raised crossbeam and color accentuate slenderness as the motorist approaches this bridge located on a curve. (State
Route 456 over the Norfolk Southern Railroad, Oneida, Scott County, Tenn.
(Photo: Tennessee Department of Transportation)

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5.4.3 Pier Caps and Crossbeams

Figure 5.4.3-2
Cross Beams

Tapering the depth of the crossbeam to become a shallow projection in the profile of the bridge avoids abrupt disruption of the horizontal lines.
State Route 18 Bridge at Covington, Wash.
(Photo: Washington State DOT)

Figure 5.4.3-3
Cross Beam

This urban bridge incorporates the crossbeam into the pier. 27th Street Bridge, Kansas City, Mo.
(Photo: Harrington & Cortelyou Inc. Now Burns & Mcdonnell)

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5.4.3 Pier Caps and Crossbeams/5.4.4 Beams

Figure 5.4.3-4
Cross Beam

A semi-raised crossbeam or inverted tee beam reduces the perceived depth at the pier.
(Photo: Dan Dorgan)

Figure 5.4.3-5
Cross Beam

A semicircular projection of the precast concrete crossbeams minimizes disruption of the bridge’s horizontal
lines. Route 70 over Manasquan River Bridge, New Jersey. (Photo: Arora and Associates)

5.4.4 Beams
The selection of a precast concrete beam depends on structural requirements, cost, and aesthetics (for example,
U-beams, adjacent or spread box beams, bulb tees, and I-beams). However, for any beam type, it is visually
imperative that either the same depth beam is maintained for the entire length of the bridge or depth changes be
accomplished through gradual transitions rather than abrupt changes. Properly proportioned haunched beams of
any type satisfy the structural objective of achieving longer spans with the aesthetic benefit of a graceful shape.

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5.4.4 Beams/5.4.5 Traffic Barriers and Pedestrian Railings

The haunch conveys to the viewer a sense of the flow of forces within the structure. Haunched beams are
illustrated in Case Study Nos. 2, 4, and 23 in the appendix to this chapter.
Continuity of the structure over piers provides structural efficiency and substantially enhances the aesthetic
quality of the bridge. Continuity may enable the use of a shallower superstructure and eliminates problematic
joints, which can leak and produce unsightly staining and deterioration. The aesthetics of the bridge can be
further improved by framing continuous girder lines through a raised, recessed pier crossbeam to emphasize the
horizontal lines in the bridge.
The underside of the superstructure is in view more often than most designers anticipate, particularly when there
are pedestrians or non-vehicular traffic under the bridge. This means that the underside should be as uncluttered
and simple as possible. When a series of precast beams is used, it is important to maintain an orderly
arrangement to avoid visual confusion. Precast concrete box beams and U-beams improve aesthetics because
fewer visible elements are needed. Box sections, double tees, and NEXT beams can also offer the opportunity to
hide certain types of utility lines that otherwise would be visible and unattractive. See Case Study Nos. 3 and 13 in
the appendix to this chapter.
For structural and cost efficiencies, deck overhangs should be dimensioned to transfer loads to the exterior beams
that are comparable to loads on interior beams. Doing so will have a secondary aesthetic effect of causing a
portion of the exterior beam to be in shadow with the illusion of being shallower. It is unfortunate that regional
preferences and construction practices that evolve over time can result in adoption of specified maximum
overhang dimensions. Bridge designers should recognize the reluctance of contractors to move toward increased
overhang dimensions, given that many already own overhang brackets for the smaller overhangs they are
accustomed to constructing. However, designers must also recognize their responsibility for creating cost-
effective, aesthetically pleasing bridges.
While it would be imprudent to attempt to establish any universal rule for what the overhang dimension should
be, the benefits are numerous for establishing a superstructure cross section within which all girder lines support
comparable loads. These benefits can include cost savings by:
• reducing the number of beam lines • possibly reducing the number of pier columns
• reducing pier cap lengths • reducing the overall substructure footprint
• increasing the number of viable pier types
All of these improve the aesthetics of the bridge by reducing visual clutter and increasing open space under the
bridge. For examples, see Case Study Nos. 5 and 6 in the appendix to this chapter.
5.4.5 Traffic Barriers and Pedestrian Railings
These are bridge elements that can be varied a great deal depending on the desired appearance and structural
design requirements. The shape and proportions of the parapet or traffic barrier at the roadway level also
influence the way the superstructure is perceived. The shape and combined depth of the barrier and girder
determine the visual span/depth ratio of the superstructure. Accenting the horizontal line of the barrier improves
the overall visual appearance.
If the bridge has a pedestrian sidewalk, consider placing a concrete traffic barrier between the traffic lane and
sidewalk to make the sidewalk more pedestrian friendly. Open railings can be positive features on a bridge,
particularly if they substitute for all or part of a solid parapet. Keep the sight lines (view) from the bridge as open
as possible. Heavy horizontal pedestrian railings tend to obstruct the view, whereas a vertical railing (Fig. 5.4.5-
1) is less obtrusive.
A pedestrian screen can make the parapet appear massive with comparable negative effects on the proportions of
the entire structure. Screens should be avoided if at all possible. When they are required, designers should
carefully consider specific details. For instance, the use of simplified connections can limit visual clutter and
additional visual mass. Also, partial pedestrian cages composed of lightweight elements can achieve a measure of
transparency by virtue of their contrast with the heavy elements of the superstructure. In some cases, the use of
colored coatings such as vinyl on galvanized chain-link fencing provides color contrast and prevents staining of
the concrete.

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5.4.5 Traffic Barriers and Pedestrian Railings/5.5.2 Light Standards

Figure 5.4.5-1
Pedestrian Railings

The open railing is less obtrusive for pedestrians and the tapered crossbeam avoids a more abrupt disruption of the bridge’s horizontal lines.
Route 52 Bridge over the Wallkill River, Walden, N.Y.
(Photo: J&R Slaw Inc.)

5.5 APPURTENANCE AESTHETICS

5.5.1 Signs
Signs placed on a bridge for roadway traffic should be of the same height, if not the same size, when placed side by
side, as shown in Fig 5.5.1-1. As with the bridge itself, sign supports should have the appearance of adequate
visual strength to support the sign. Furthermore, the location and attachment of the sign supports on the bridge
become critical and should be carefully evaluated to least disturb the visual lines. Placement of the sign supports
at the pier line is appropriate for both structural and aesthetic reasons.
Figure 5.5.1-1
Signs mounted within the silhouette of the bridge (right) are preferred

5.5.2 Light Standards

When highway lighting is required on a bridge, the types of luminaries and supports should be given careful
consideration since these elements make a significant visual impact that is well within the control of the bridge
designer. Typically, light standards extending above the bridge (Fig. 5.5.2-1) should align with the substructures.
Their color and style should be coordinated with other elements of the bridge, particularly other lighting and
metal elements within the highway corridor.

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5.5.2 Light Standards/5.5.5 Noise Walls

Figure 5.5.2-1
Light standard (right) aligns with the substructure.

5.5.3 Utilities
The primary objective must be to accommodate present and future utilities with as little visual exposure as
possible. Construction and accessibility requirements often lead designers to carelessly attach utilities in exposed
areas and thereby significantly degrade the appearance of the bridge. Hiding them from view or incorporating
them into the architectural design is very important. The contractor should not be expected to resolve the
detailing of these elements in the field. Their location should be detailed on the construction drawings. For
bridges with multiple precast beams, utility lines can be concealed from view if they are located between the
beams, as depicted in Figure 5.5.3-1, rather than along the outside face of the bridge.
Figure 5.5.3-1
Two examples of utilities hidden within spaces between beams.

5.5.4 Slope Protection

Embankments at the ends of bridges commonly require some form of slope protection. Materials typically used
include precast concrete blocks, semi-open-face masonry units, cast-in-place concrete, crushed rock, or stones.
The particular material selected for a specific bridge should relate either to the bridge or to the surrounding
landscape.

5.5.5 Noise Walls

As with pedestrian screens, noise walls on bridges should be avoided if at all possible. When used, they are best
kept as clearly distinct elements apart from the bridge with favorable aesthetic characteristics of their own that
harmonize with the bridge and the surrounding landscape.

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5.6.Maintenance of Aesthetic Features/5.7 Cost Of Aesthetic Features

5.6 MAINTENANCE OF AESTHETIC FEATURES

5.6.1 Drainage
Sustaining the aesthetic quality of an in-service bridge is itself a challenge, considering the many environmental
factors to which a bridge is subjected. Although many environmental factors are beyond the control of engineers,
the deleterious effects of water are typically the most severe and yet are largely within the control of the design
team and in particular the bridge designer. Drainage details must be critically evaluated since concrete will
eventually stain if exposed to rainwater runoff. All concrete surfaces should be detailed to prevent the ponding of
water. To the extent possible, drainage should be sufficient to wash away debris that tends to pond water and
cause surface discoloration and deterioration. Additionally, a drip groove on the underside of the deck slab just
inside the fascia line (Fig. 5.6.1-1b) will control discoloration and deterioration of the outside face of the exterior
girder at virtually no additional cost.
As long as drip grooves are provided, through-barrier drains (open slots at the base of the barrier) are preferred
for deck drainage. If drainpipes are required, there should be as few of them as possible. Consideration should be
given to vehicular and pedestrian traffic below in determining the location of drains.
Figure 5.6.1-1
Illustration of drip grove under deck. Note the smooth face of
the barrier on the right, reducing the number of shadow lines.

a) b)

5.6.2 Maintenance Manual

Bridge weathering characteristics and maintenance requirements must be considered during the design phase. A
maintenance manual should show where and how future utilities can be installed, manufacturer information,
equipment warranties, concrete stain color, graffiti removal information, and any other information of use in
preserving the aesthetics of the bridge. A manual should be provided for each type of bridge to those who will be
responsible for maintenance.

5.7 COST OF AESTHETIC FEATURES

Specific aesthetic treatments are rarely cost free. However, coordination of simple details by the design team
early in the design process can produce dramatic aesthetic improvement without significant cost. Furthermore,
attention to details such as length of deck slab overhang, jointless decks, superstructure continuity, and
elimination of deck drains can substantially enhance the aesthetic quality of a bridge in both the short term and
the long term while actually reducing costs.

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5.8 Summary/5.9 References For Further Study

5.8 SUMMARY
Bridge aesthetics must be addressed in all stages of a project: conceptualization, evolution, and final design. A
collaborative effort between the engineering community and the public should be undertaken to satisfy the
utilitarian need to move vehicles and people by means of a bridge conceived as a harmonious union of form and
function that is admired and appreciated by users and observers. Thoughtful application of aesthetic design
principles transforms precast concrete bridge elements into durable, unified structures that serve as cultural
landmarks in both urban and rural environments.
Fundamental to aesthetic bridge design success is the achievement of function through the use of well-
proportioned, simple forms composed of continuous straight or smoothly curved lines and a minimum number of
elements. Careful consideration must be given to the aesthetic impact made by each element as well as the
collective harmony of all elements.
Aesthetic bridge design requires not only harmony in the integration of component parts, but also the integration
of the entire structure into its environment. Bridge designers must be able to envision a structural system of
proper proportion and scale in relation to its surroundings. A designer has perhaps no greater responsibility than
to communicate to others the importance of integrating bridge geometry with overall project geometry.
Additional examples of the concepts presented in this chapter are illustrated in the 25 case studies provided in
the appendix to this chapter. These are based on articles that were published in ASPIRE magazine.

5.9 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. Aesthetic Guidelines for Bridge Design, Minnesota Department of Transportation, Office of Bridges and
Structures, St Paul, MN, 1995, 80 pp.
https://www.dot.state.mn.us/bridge/pdf/aestheticguidelinesforbridgedesign.pdf
2. Aesthetic Bridges Users Guide, Maryland Department of Transportation, State Highway Administration,
Annapolis, MD, 2005, 244 pp.
https://www.roads.maryland.gov/OBD/oos-aesthetics-guide.pdf
3. Bridges, Fritz Leonhardt, The MIT Press, 55 Hayward Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, 1984, 308 pp.
http://www.amazon.com/Bridges-Aesthetics-Design-Fritz-
Leonhardt/dp/0262121050/ref=ntt_at_ep_dpt_1 (Fee)
4. Bridge Aesthetics Around the World, Transportation Research Board Publications Office, 500 Fifth Street
NW, Washington, DC 20001, 1991, 308 pp.
http://www.trb.org/Publications/Blurbs/154768.aspx (Fee)
5. Bridge Aesthetics Sourcebook; Practical Ideas for Short- and Medium-Span Bridges, American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington DC, 2010, 64 pp.
https://store.transportation.org/Item/PublicationDetail?ID=1622 (Fee)
6. Bridgescape, The Art of Designing Bridges, Second Edition, Frederick Gottemoeller, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Hoboken, NJ 07030, 2004, 316 pp.
http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471267732.html (Fee)
7. WisDOT Bridge Design Manual, Chapter 4 – Aesthetics, Wisconsin Department of Transportation, Madison,
WI, 2019, 18 pp.
https://wisconsindot.gov/dtsdManuals/strct/manuals/bridge/ch4.pdf

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5.10 Appendices/5.10.1 Introduction

5.10 APPENDICES
5.10.1 Introduction
Beginning with the first edition of ASPIRE in Winter 2007. Frederick Gottemoeller, an engineer and architect, has
written an Aesthetics Commentary about one of the featured bridges in nearly every issue. This appendix
comprises a collection of his commentaries about precast concrete bridges. The Commentaries are provided as
originally published. The Background and Bridge Description sections as well as the selected photographs are
extracted from the original articles describing the bridges. The ASPIRE issue, in which the project appeared, is
shown in the orange box at the bottom of the first page of each case study and is available at
http://www.aspirebridge.com. The case studies appear in the order they were published with the most recent
first.
Table of Contents
No. Name State Precast Superstructure Type Page
1 Wekiva Parkway #204 Systems Interchange FL U-Girders 5 - 22
Ramp K
2 Coplay-Northampton Bridge PA Spliced Bulb-Tee Girders 5 - 24
3 I-59/I-20 Birmingham Central Business AL Segmental Box Girders 5 - 26
District Project
4 Christina River Bridge DE Spliced Bulb-Tee Girders 5 - 28
5 Marc Basnight Bridge NC I-Beams and Segmental Box 5 - 30
Girders
6 Sarah Mildred Long Bridge NH, ME Segmental Box Girders 5 - 32
7 Interstate 78 Bridge Replacement Project PA Bulb-Tee Girders 5 - 34
8 New Jersey Route 72 Eastbound Bridge over NJ Bulb-Tee Girders 5 - 36
Manahawkin Bay
9 Southbound I-95 to Eastbound SR 202 Flyover FL Spliced U-Girders 5 - 38
Bridge
10 Bayonne Bridge Approach Structures NJ Segmental Box Girders 5 - 40
11 Estrella Underpass at Grand Avenue AZ I-Beams 5 - 42
12 North Torrey Pines Road Bridge CA Haunched Tee-Girders 5 - 44
13 Evergreen Point Floating Bridge WA Segmental Ribbed Slab 5 - 46
14 SR 417 and Boggy Creek Road Interchange FL Spliced U-Girders 5 - 48
15 I-4/Selmon Expressway Connector FL Segmental Box Girders, Bulb-Tee 5 - 50
Girders, and I-Beams
16 Maynard H. Jackson Jr. International Terminal GA I-Beams and Box Beams 5 -52
Elevated Roadway System
17 Stewart Street Bridge OH Box Beams, Tie Beams, and 5 - 54
Spandrel Panels
18 The I-95/I-295 North Interchange Ramp SE FL Segmental Box Girders 5 - 56
19 Route 36 Highlands Bridge NJ Segmental Box Girders 5 - 58

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5.10.1 Introduction

20 SH58 Ramp A Flyover Bridge CO Spliced U-Girders 5 - 60

21 Minnesota Crosstown Project MN Segmental Box Girders 5 - 62
22 Daggett Road Bridge CA Spliced Bulb-Tee Girders 5 - 64
23 High-Main Street Bridge OH Spliced Rectangular Girders 5 - 66
24 Seattle Sound Transit Light Rail WA Segmental Box Girders 5 - 68
25 Veterans’ Glass City Skyway OH Cable Stayed, Segmental Box 5 - 70
Girders

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5.10.2 Wekiva Parkway #204 Systems Interchange RAMP K

5.10.2 Wekiva Parkway #204 Systems Interchange RAMP K

Aesthetic Concepts
The project’s aesthetic goals were to achieve an efficient structure with minimal impact to the environment.
Harmony with the environment was achieved by matching the vertical geometry of the bridge to the naturally
occurring elevated southwestern section of the project limits.

Background
The Wekiva Parkway completes the State Route (SR) 429 beltway link around Orlando in central Florida and is
intended to relieve traffic and support economic development. The Wekiva Parkway #204 Systems Interchange
provides full directional access between SR 429 and SR 453 and is at the heart of the10-mile-long corridor.

The roughly 46-ft-wide Ramp K carries SR 429 to SR 453 and epitomizes the project’s innovative bridge design.
This 2550-ft-long third-level flyover curves at a 1200-ft radius. The length of the bridge was dictated by the
vertical clearance required over Ramp M and a limiting mechanically stabilized earth wall height of 30 ft at the
approaches. The Ramp K structure has seventeen 150-ft-long spans in multi-span continuous units.

The design team worked within the constraints of the landscape by matching the vertical geometry to the
naturally elevated southwestern section of the project limits to reduce the environmental impact on the region.
Noting how the natural grade generally falls off toward the east, the team designed the corridor geometry to work
with the landscape to reduce the parkway’s footprint.

Bridge Description
The superstructure of Ramp K is composed of twin variable-depth haunched U-beams spaced at 25 ft 6 in. The
beams are 6 ft deep at midspan and 9 ft 7 in. deep at the piers. The U-beams feature a constant 8 ft 6 in. center-to-
center web spacing at the top of the 10-in.-thick webs. Typically, the bottom flange width varies between just over
4 ft at the supports to exactly 6 ft at midspan, with 1-ft 9-in.-wide top flanges.

The haunched geometry in the spliced-girder system serves dual purposes: The more obvious is to blend
aesthetically with local signature bridges and historical arch structures. The other lies in the system’s efficient use
of global continuity to reduce structure depth and dead-load moment at midspan and to increase capacity at piers
where negative moment demand peaks. The variable-depth post-tensioned design made it possible to span 150 ft
with a relatively wide superstructure using only two 72-in.-deep concrete U-beams for the 46-ft-wide ramp.
Through the use of a post-tensioned integral cap and U-beams, the profile was lowered 12 ft and the project
footprint was reduced.

The spliced, precast concrete U-beams provided a cost-effective solution that lowered profiles with haunched
girders, leading to shorter columns and minimal fill material at the approaches.

OWNER: Central Florida Expressway Authority

LOCATION: Orange County, Florida
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: 2550-ft-long bridge with seventeen 150-ft spans using haunched, curved, post-
tensioned concrete U-beams with curvature radius as small as 1200 ft
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Yanko Castellanos-Ibanez and David Konz, Atkins
ASPIRE ISSUE: Spring 2021, pp. 20-24

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5.10.2 Wekiva Parkway #204 Systems Interchange RAMP K

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Interchanges are usually designed solely for the routing of vehicles. Their forms result from the sum of the
geometries of their roadways and ramps, and their topography from the automatic application of whatever
typical sections are assigned to the roadways. The outcome is generally a mechanistic landscape that looks
like nothing in nature. The Wekiva Parkway’s designers took a different approach: they designed the grading
between the ramps as an extension of the rolling Florida topography around the interchange. The roadways
and ramps look like careful additions to the preexisting natural topography. The curved and lengthened wing
walls register as attempts to preserve the existing ground surface. The user’s experience is more like driving
through a park than negotiating a high-speed interchange.
Ramp K is the most prominent feature of the interchange, and the innovation involved in its design has paid
functional, economic, and aesthetic dividends. The curved and haunched beams support the interchange-in-a-
park theme by minimizing girder depths at clearance points, thereby minimizing the amount of grading and
the length and height of the retaining walls. In addition, the deepening of the U-beams over the piers increases
the sculptural interest of the bridge for everyone passing through the interchange. Finally, the ability of just
two lines of beams to carry the ramp simplifies the appearance of Ramp K from below.
It is exciting to see the use of an integral pier cap for U-
beams. By reducing the height requirement at the
interchange’s key clearance point, the overall height of
the interchange was reduced, further supporting the
interchange-in-a-park theme. This pier cap may have
been more expensive than the other caps, but the savings
in grading and walls, as well as the interchange’s smaller
footprint, offset the higher cost of this one pier. The final
result is an attractive driving experience for the residents
and tourists in Central Florida that was also the lowest
cost design available.

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5.10.3 Coplay-Northampton Bridge

5.10.3 Coplay-Northampton Bridge

Aesthetic Features
This project involves the rehabilitation of an existing Pennsylvania historic bridge by providing the public with a
modern bridge that resembles the original structure. At the opening of the bridge, the county owner indicated
that they are extremely pleased with the final structure.

Background
This seven-span viaduct structure carried State Route 7404 (Chestnut Street) over the Lehigh River, Norfolk
Southern Railroad, Bridge Street, and the Ironton Rail Trail in the boroughs of Coplay, Lehigh County, and
Northampton, Northampton County, Pa. Almost nine decades after its construction in 1930, the historic structure
required rehabilitation due to significant deterioration, inadequate load-carrying capacity, and public safety
concerns.
The existing structure was eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places because it was composed
of three distinct structure types in use at the time of construction: a 350-ft-long three-span steel girder–floor
beam system on the western approach, three concrete arch spans in the 548-ft-long main unit over the river, and
a single-span 218-ft-long steel truss on the eastern approach. See top left photograph on the next page.

Bridge Description
The existing three steel girder-floor beam spans were replaced with prestressed concrete Pennsylvania (PA) bulb
tees made continuous for live load. The existing single-span steel truss was replaced with two spans of
prestressed concrete PA bulb-tees also made continuous for live load over a new reinforced concrete pier
founded on micropiles. The arch spans were replaced with fully continuous spliced prestressed concrete modified
(increased web thickness) PA bulb tee units—the first use of this structure type in Pennsylvania. The unit was
constructed with five girder lines with five segments each. This technology was chosen for use at this location
because of the desire to retain the existing pier footings for the river spans and the recent approval of spliced
prestressed concrete girder standards by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation.
Decorative lighting poles are mounted on the barriers at blister locations, generally at the substructure units and
along the retaining walls at each corner. The light poles and luminaires were selected to match those of the
nearby Pine Street Bridge.
In addition to decorative lighting, other architectural elements were included in the design of the bridge to
mitigate the effects of the rehabilitation and reflect the historic significance of the existing structure and its
location. The piers were designed as multi-column bents, keeping the same style as the existing approach span
piers. All piers incorporated a horizontal, incised pattern to replicate the one used on appearance of the original
bridge.

OWNER: Lehigh County, Pennsylvania

LOCATION: Boroughs of Coplay and Northampton, Pennsylvania
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: Eight-span, 1116-ft-long bridge composed of a three-span, 350-ft-long approach unit
with prestressed concrete bulb-tee beams; a three-span, 548-ft-long, fully continuous posttensioned, spliced
prestressed concrete bulb-tee beam main unit; and a two-span, 218-ft-long approach unit with prestressed
concrete bulb-tee girders
ORIGINAL AUTHOR: Thomas J. McNavage, AECOM
ASPIRE ISSUE: Summer 2020, pp. 20-23

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5.10.3 Coplay-Northampton Bridge

The existing concrete towpath apron attached to the face of the

pier immediately adjacent to the former Lehigh Canal—which is
intended to be part of the future Delaware and Lehigh Heritage
Trail network—was retained and rehabilitated to its original
condition, as shown on the right. An interpretive panel describing
the Lehigh Canal, which has been filled in at this site, and its
historic significance to the region was also installed at this location.

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Replacing a 90-year-old historic landmark is always a challenge, particularly when the old bridge includes
three different structural systems, and none of the three lends itself to emulation by modern structural
systems. If the goal is to reflect some aspect of the old bridge in the design of the new bridge, then the
challenge becomes, “Which of the old systems do we respond to?”
Thankfully, the widening acceptance of spliced precast concrete girder technology provided an answer for this
structure. It allowed the precast concrete girders for the three longest spans over the river to be haunched at
the piers. Those girders thus recall the concrete arch spans of the original bridge. This decision also adds
visual interest to the bridge. The haunched girders make evident where the forces in the bridge are the
greatest and give observers an idea of how the bridge is working.
The original bridge also provided the inspiration for the bridge’s new piers, which emulate the features of the
old piers. That provides observers another recollection of the old bridge. Finally, replicating the towpath
apron along the former canal gives future users of the Delaware and Lehigh Trail another feature that they can
relate to the old bridge. It is easy to understand why local officials are so pleased with the results of this
project.

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5.10.4 I-59/I-20 Birmingham Central Business District Project

5.10.4 I-59/I-20 Birmingham Central Business District Project

Aesthetic Features
The underside of this bridge illustrates several aesthetic concepts that result in a friendly environment for the
general public in a central business district. The shape of the columns and the decision to use individual columns
for each girder line resulted in a very open space.

Background
Serving Birmingham’s central business district (CBD), the I-59/I-20 artery has the highest rate of traffic flow in
the state of Alabama. As a result of the age and heavy use of the facility, the bridge decks had begun to deteriorate,
often requiring costly repairs that resulted in lane closures. The original bridges featured left-lane entrance and
exit ramps, with minimal or no shoulders. Three of these ramps were considered outdated and forced motorists
to make unanticipated and unsafe lane crossings, sometimes resulting in accidents that forced traffic slowdowns
or stoppages. Considering the safety concerns, traffic congestion, and maintenance issues, the Alabama
Department of Transportation (ALDOT) deemed this infrastructure functionally obsolete and determined that
immediate action to replace the artery was required.

Bridge Description
The new bridge consists of four lines of precast concrete segmental box girders, with nominal span lengths of 165
ft for a total length of 6500 ft. The 2316 precast concrete segments have typical lengths between 11 ft 6 in. and 12
ft 6 in. and an overall box-girder segment depth of 9 ft. Pairs of girder lines are connected longitudinally by a 3-ft
6-in.-wide cast-in-place closure to form east and west bound structures. The two structures are separated by a 6-
in.-wide gap.
Aesthetics were a priority for ALDOT, so the design team decided to use single
column piers under each segmental girder line. The piers are accented with
vertical fluted lines in the near and far faces, and the pier caps flare out at the
top to complement the sloping lines of the segmental girders. Each pier was
constructed from two precast elements—columns and caps—for faster
construction.

OWNER: Alabama Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Birmingham, Alabama
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: 6500-ft-long precast concrete segmental box-girder bridges with 2316 segments
total
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Lloyd Pitts, Volkert Inc.; Eric Johnson, Corven Engineering Inc.; and William (Tim)
Colquett, Alabama Department of Transportation
ASPIRE ISSUE: Spring 2020, pp. 10-14

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5.10.4 I-59/I-20 Birmingham Central Business District Project

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Faced with a request for a viaduct that would “revitalize the downtown experience for the citizens and visitors
of Birmingham,” the project’s designers thought creatively about the appearance of the space below the
structure. Such spaces are often dark and uninviting, filled with haphazardly parked cars and drifting waste
paper, depressing the activities around them. Improving the appearance of such a space requires conceiving
of it as a huge outdoor “room,” with the superstructure as its ceiling and the bridge piers articulating the
room-like impression.
The attractiveness of this “room” depends, first of all, on long, uninterrupted sight lines in both the transverse
and longitudinal directions, so that the whole area can be seen and understood at once, so that it can be
organized for use beyond parking, such as farmers markets and art fairs, and so that there are few
opportunities for concealment. The concrete box girders contribute to this goal by minimizing the number of
pier legs both longitudinally (by allowing relatively long spans) and transversely (by requiring only four pier
legs per pier line). The thin piers also avoid a problem that sometimes results when designers are asked to
provide a structure with architectural grandeur: The attempt to do so with physical mass and “architectural”
detail. The result can be an agglomeration of massive piers with nonstructural decorative details. Thus, an
individual looking along the bridge sees the piers line up one behind the other, visually filling the “room” with
concrete. In contrast, the thinness of the Birmingham piers keeps the long views open, and the “room”
inviting. The piers’ only architectural details are the closely spaced vertical grooves that visually reinforce
their thin appearance.
The concrete box girders also keep the longitudinal views simple. The sight lines are not blocked by
transverse pier caps, and there are no braces or diaphragms to catch the eye. The wide spacing between box
webs means that light can reach to the underside of the deck slab, and the whole underside of the bridge stays
bright. Finally, a reflective white coating on the underside of the structure keeps light bouncing around the
“room,” meaning the space is brighter during the day and easier to light at night.
It is heartening to see this high level of aesthetic quality achieved within the discipline of accelerated
bridge construction. Birmingham has met its schedule while achieving an “aesthetically pleasing area for
public events”—all at the same time.

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5.10.5 Christina River Bridge

5.10.5 Christina River Bridge

Aesthetic Features
This bridge features many of the design concepts defined in Chapter 5 including form, simplicity, line, balance,
and color.

Background
The Christina River Bridge project is part of a revitalization effort to improve the Wilmington, Del., riverfront. The
new multimodal bridge connects the redeveloped riverwalk attractions along the west bank and the current
industrial area on the east bank, with the hope of spurring further redevelopment in this area. The bridge will also
alleviate traffic congestion and improve mobility and circulation for the riverfront community by introducing
additional access to U.S. Route 13, and two interstate highways.

Bridge Description
The Christina River Bridge comprises three main spans of 145, 180, and 145 ft, for a total length of 470 ft and a
cast-in-place concrete frame underpass shown below. It is 45 ft wide, carrying two 11-ft-wide lanes of New
Sweden Street along with a barrier-separated, 14-ft-wide shared-use path. The bridge alignment is straight but
skewed at approximately 65 degrees to the river and on a vertical curve with approach grades of 3.5% and
4.3%.The typical cross section has five lines of girders spaced at 9 ft 6 in. with 3 ft 6 in overhangs. The girders are
5 ft 1 in. deep and are haunched in a straight-line taper to a depth of 7 ft 0 in. at each pier. The spliced girders
consist of pretensioned precast concrete bulb-tee segments that are post-tensioned after splicing.
Given this bridge’s prominent location as a focal point within the Riverwalk development, the aesthetics of the
structures were deemed quite important. The low profile, convenient access, and unencumbered views of the
downtown skyline were critical elements in the bridge’s siting and design. As the design evolved, other elements
were added to enhance the aesthetics. Bridge piers were shaped and contoured. Abutments and retaining walls
were developed in tandem to ensure a coordinated appearance, especially in the transition areas. Concrete
surfaces on the piers, abutments,
and walls received stone
formliner treatments and were
stained for maximum, but subtle,
effect. The multi-modal
underpass, stairway, and
adjacent walls were all detailed
and treated to coordinate with
the bridge detailing, presenting a
uniform, pleasing appearance.

OWNER: Delaware Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Wilmington. Delaware
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: Three-span (145, 180, 145 ft) continuous, spliced, prestressed, post-tensioned
concrete bulb-tee girder bridge
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Robert J. Healy, RK&K, and Jason Hastings, Delaware Department of Transportation
ASPIRE ISSUE: Winter 2020, pp. 16-20

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5.10.5 Christina River Bridge

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

In bridge design, seemingly intractable physical or functional constraints are often a blessing in disguise.
Satisfying them allows—indeed requires—creative imagination. Often, the result is a distinctive and
memorable bridge, like the Christina River Bridge. The designers had to keep the profile low while ensuring
the structure would meet navigation requirements and accommodate future increases in sea level. That left a
45 in. window for the girder depth, which was far too shallow to cross the 180-ft main span with conventional
precast concrete girders. Designers of steel bridges commonly solve such constraints with continuous
haunched girders, but the Delaware Department of Transportation DelDOT) wanted a low-maintenance
concrete bridge.
Therefore, the designer modified standard precast concrete girder sections to provide haunched sections over
the piers and then post-tensioned them together with standard drop-in sections to make girders that are
continuous for both live and dead loads. This concept doesn’t just solve the clearance problem—it also allows
the bridge’s shape to express the way the forces on it vary over its length, making a graceful structure that is
interesting for waterfront users to view. The shape is enhanced by the gentle arch created by the crest vertical
curve. The curve is as long as the bridge itself, much longer than what would be required by stopping-sight
distance alone.
The project also encourages pedestrian and bicycle travel along the river by providing an unusually attractive
underpass. Users can see all the way through that underpass from each end, and it is as wide as its approach
pathways. There is no threat of being hemmed-in or trapped. The light-colored reflective concrete surfaces let
daylight reflect far into the underpass and are easily lit at night. Thus, the underpass always looks bright and
inviting. Finally, differentially staining the retaining walls’ formliner “stones” ensures that they look like and
have the same aesthetic impact as the real thing.
DelDOT’s goal for the Christina River Bridge is to catalyze the redevelopment of Wilmington’s downtown
riverfront in functional, aesthetic, and symbolic terms. I’m confident that visitors to Wilmington 10 years from
now will find that the bridge has done exactly that.

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5.10.6 Marc Basnight Bridge

5.10.6 Marc Basnight Bridge

Aesthetic Features
The use of long spans and tall columns results in a long bridge where the water level views of the inlet are visible
through the bridge.

Background
The new Marc Basnight Bridge spans the remote Oregon Inlet of North Carolina’s Outer Banks and replaces the
Herbert C. Bonner Bridge, which has required nearly continuous repairs since its completion in 1963.

Bridge Description
The 2.8-mile-long bridge consists of five units: south approach, south transition, navigation unit, north transition,
and north approach. The superstructure of the north and south approach spans and the north and south
transition spans consists of precast, prestressed concrete Florida I-Beams (FIB) with a conventionally formed 9-
in.-thick cast-in-place lightweight concrete deck. See top right photograph on the next page. Stainless steel
reinforcement is used in the deck to enhance corrosion resistance. The deck of the FIB spans was constructed
using lightweight concrete to reduce dead load on the girders, allowing the girders to span longer distances at the
same girder spacing. This reduced both the total number of required spans and, more importantly, the total
number of bents and foundations, thereby lowering costs substantially. The lightweight deck was not treated
differently with regard to durability or corrosion protection; the North Carolina Department of Transportation
permitted the use of lightweight concrete in the deck without additional corrosion protection provisions.
The 3550-ft-long navigation unit, shown below, consists of nine 350-ft-long main spans and two 200-ft-long end
spans. The unit is a single, continuous post-tensioned concrete segmental structure with 238 single-cell precast
concrete box-girder segments supported on post-tensioned precast concrete columns. This is one of the longest
continuous precast, balanced-cantilever segmental concrete box-girder units in the United States. The
superstructure segments range in height from 9 ft 0 in. at midspan to 19 ft 0 in. at the interior piers. The variable-
depth segmental superstructure provides a solution that is both aesthetically pleasing and economical.

OWNER: North Carolina Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Dare County, North Carolina
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: A 14,800-ft-long bridge consisting of 71 spans of precast, prestressed Florida I-beam
girders with span lengths up to 182 ft and 11 spans of precast, variable-depth, post-tensioned segmental
concrete box girders with span lengths up to 350 ft
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Domenic Coletti, R. Dominick Amico, Nicholas Burdette, and Mohit Garg, HDR
ASPIRE ISSUE: Fall 2019, pp. 18-22

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5.10.6 Marc Basnight Bridge

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

For observers on the shore, long, relatively low bridges over water have an unfortunate aesthetic impact.
Absent the bridge, water-level observers may have 180 degrees or more of seascape to admire, along with
sunrises or sunsets and long-distance views of dramatic weather events. However, when a typical short-span
causeway is viewed from shore at the usual oblique angles, the pile bents line up one behind the other to form
a visual wall, cutting the visible water surface in half and destroying the sweeping, wide-angle exposures
otherwise available.
The Marc Basnight Bridge impressively applies modern foundation technologies to the challenging conditions
of the Oregon Inlet. Most of the major construction decisions emanated from those conditions, including the
decisions to double the spans, raise the bridge height, and use haunched girders over approximately 25% of
the bridge’s length. A happy consequence of those choices is that the bridge’s long spans and high clearances
eliminate the most objectionable feature of typical causeway bridges—the way they block views of the water
from the shore. With the new structure, long water-level views of the inlet are visible through the bridge.
The haunched girders also engage viewers by providing information about how the bridge works. The girders
are thickest over the piers, where the forces are the highest. Finally, the disc bearings and their pedestals raise
the girders above the piers just enough to provide a glimpse of sky between the tops of the piers and the
bottoms of the girders, so that the girders appear to be floating in midair.
The aesthetic consequences of decisions made for technical reasons will make the Basnight Bridge a valued
improvement to the Oregon Inlet seascape. With this example in front of them, perhaps other transportation
agencies will now consider significantly longer spans and higher clearances or other water crossings with
high scenic values, even if the technical issues are not as difficult as those faced in the Basnight project.

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5.10.7 Sarah Mildred Long Bridge

5.10.7 Sarah Mildred Long Bridge

Aesthetic Features
The Sarah Mildred Long Bridge provides a unique solution for a highway and railway crossing of a ship channel
with simplicity, form, and harmony. The use of concrete offered a context-sensitive, aesthetically pleasing
solution.

Background
Built in 1940, the original Maine–New Hampshire Bridge spanning the Piscataqua River between Portsmouth,
N.H., and Kittery, Me., served as the critical backup route between Maine and New Hampshire if traffic was
disrupted on the Interstate 95 bridge upstream. The previous structure had five main truss spans, including a
vertical lift span, along with 15 roadway spans on the Portsmouth side and seven on the Kittery side. The new
Sarah Mildred Long Bridge has twin segmental concrete approach spans in a stacked configuration leading to a
single-deck movable span at its center. The bridge is named to honor Sarah Mildred Long, an employee of the
Maine–New Hampshire Interstate Bridge Authority for 50 years.

Bridge Description
The new structure’s design provides a unique concept for a segmental bridge, while improving the skew angle and
width of the navigation span as well as safety and efficiency for vehicles, rail lines, and maritime
vessels. With the movable span in its resting position, maritime vessels can navigate the Piscataqua River while
the upper segmental approach superstructures carry U.S. Route 1A. The movable span rises to allow passage of
tall vessels. The movable span lowers to connect to the lower segmental approach superstructures, which carry
Pan Am Railways, a railroad system for the Northeastern United States, to the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard.
The new bridge features 11 upper vehicle spans with lengths varying from 160 to 320 ft. The superstructure uses
precast concrete segmental box girders with depths varying from 8 to13.5 ft and base widths varying from 15 to
16.75 ft.
The lower railway level consists of 16 spans with lengths varying from 60 to 160 ft. Many of the railway level’s
span lengths are approximately half the length of the vehicle level spans to accommodate the heavier (Cooper
E80) required live load. The goal was to maximize span lengths on each level to reduce the number of piers in the
waterway. The 160 ft length for the railway spans is significant for a segmental bridge and allowed for only an
intermediate mono shaft pier to be used at the midspans of the upper level’s 320 ft lengths. As a result, 11 fewer
piers were needed in the waterway. The lower railway spans consist of precast concrete segmental box girders
varying in depth from 9 to 11 ft, with a top flange width of 19 ft and base widths varying from 11.33 to 12 ft.
The single-level lift-span of 300 ft has a deck width of 42 ft 7 in. that provides two highway traffic lanes separated
by a 5-ft 7-in.-wide median that contains the railroad tracks.

OWNER: Maine and New Hampshire Departments of Transportation

LOCATION: Portsmouth, New Hampshire and Kittery, Maine
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: 1990-ft-long bridge with twin segmental-concrete approach spans in a stacked
configuration leading to a single-deck, movable span at the bridge’s center
ORIGINAL AUTHOR: Jeffrey S. Folsom, Maine Department of Transportation
ASPIRE ISSUE: Spring 2019, pp. 24-26

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5.10.7 Sarah Mildred Long Bridge

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

The Sarah Mildred Long Bridge is an impressive bridge that meets a set of complex functional requirements
while achieving a high level of visual quality suitable for its location within an area that encompasses two
historic cities and an attractive natural setting. Meeting both the functional and aesthetic requirements of the
project within reasonable budget required innovation in layout, design, contracting arrangements, and
construction. That the design, construction, and client team was able to meet all of these requirements so
successfully is a credit to all involved.

Projects with this kind of functional complexity often have a corresponding and unattractive visual
complexity. The old bridge was an example of that type of design. On the new bridge, concrete segmental
construction offered a solution to the aesthetic challenges. On the spans, it allowed for fewer piers and
simplified the appearance of the girders. On the towers, it eliminated the usual cross bracing and concealed
the lifting equipment. At the same time, the haunched girders, which are deeper at the piers where the forces
are the greatest, and the solid towers, rising from a massive base, provide an impression of great strength.
This impression is reinforced by the simple but robust modulation of the concrete piers.

There is also a kind of delicacy at the tops of the towers, which taper to reveal the counterweight sheaves.
Because the sheaves are a visual feature, the design conveys that the bridge is meant to move. The sheaves are
round, and things that are round rotate. Why else would they rotate but to lift the center span? Finally, the
vertical strips of tower windows that show the counterweights moving are visual compensation to drivers
stuck in the traffic backup as a ship or train passes through the crossing. Sarah Mildred Long would indeed be
proud of the bridge bearing her name.

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5.10.8 Interstate 78 Bridge Replacement Project

5.10.8 Interstate 78 Bridge Replacement Project

Aesthetic Concepts
This group of six bridges illustrates several of the aesthetic concepts defined in Section 5.2.1 of this manual. They
include simplicity and the use of texture and color on the precast panels to provide harmony between the
abutment elements and the superstructure.

Background
The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) District 5 replaced six overhead bridges located
consecutively along an 8-mile stretch of Interstate 78 (I-78) in western Berks County, Pennsylvania. This project
which spanned the 2016 and 2017 construction seasons, used accelerated bridge construction techniques and
featured the first implementation of full-height, precast concrete, cantilever abutments for PennDOT.
The bridges replaced the existing three-span structures to increase the minimum vertical clearance over I-78
from approximately 14 ft to 16 ft 6 in. and accommodate the future widening of I-78. As part of the project,
approach roadways and ramps were reconstructed to accommodate the new roadway profile and width.

Project Description
All six replacement bridges are single-span precast, prestressed concrete, bulb-tee beam bridges that include
aesthetic features such as an architectural finish and color scheme. Span lengths vary from 111 to 133 ft. Bridge
widths vary from 32 to 58 ft. Skew angles vary from 0 to 30 degrees.
The project used more than 500 prefabricated bridge elements. The precast concrete footing and stem
components were the largest prefabricated bridge elements in the project. The precast concrete footing pieces
were up to 2 ft 9 in. thick, 18 ft 6 in. long, and 14 ft 6 in. wide. The precast concrete stem components were up to 3
ft 6 in. thick, 30 ft tall, and 12 ft wide. The weight of all precast concrete pieces was limited to 50 tons. On two of
the bridges, corrugated metal pipes were used to form voids within the stem pieces to reduce the piece weight
and meet the 50-ton requirement. After erection, the voids were filled with concrete.
An architectural finish was provided on the barrier. The
exposed concrete surfaces of the bridge were stained to
enhance the appearance of the formed-stone surfaces.
The average construction duration was 45 calendar days
per bridge.

OWNER: Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, District 5

LOCATION: Interstate 78 in western Berks County, Pennsylvania
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: Six similar overhead, single-span, precast, prestressed concrete bulb-tee beam
bridges with span lengths ranging from 111 to 133 ft
ORIGINAL AUTHOR: Brian Brawand, Alfred Benesch & Company
ASPIRE ISSUE: Winter 2019, pp. 12-15

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5.10.8 Interstate 78 Bridge Replacement Project

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller
Overpass bridges on freeways have a very limited time to make an aesthetic impression because their
“audience” is typically traveling at 55 to 75 miles per hour. From the point at which the bridge is close enough
for its components to be discerned (no more than 1500 ft away) to the point at which the bridge is so close
that travelers are looking through and beyond it (perhaps 300 ft away), just 10 to 12 seconds elapse. Only the
largest elements can be seen from the traveler’s perspective. Therefore, making a memorable impression
requires visual simplicity.
When overpass bridges are closely spaced, similarity is also very important. While moving at 70 miles per
hour, travelers see the six bridges of the Interstate 78 (I-78) Underclearance Project at a rate of about one
every 1 minute and 10 seconds. Imagine the aesthetic effect if the bridges’ appearances were all different!
The I-78 bridges make their visual impression with only four significant elements:
• The brown concrete bulb tees
• The rough gray form-liner “stone” of the abutment wing walls
• The smooth, gray horizontal band of concrete at the tops of the wing walls, which follows the roadway slab
across the bulb tees and visually ties the whole bridge together
• The same gray rough “stone” on the parapet face
At a more detailed level, the designers took the trouble to make
sure that the formliner stone actually looks like a real stone wall.
Each stone is stained a slightly different color, which provides
visual texture. Plus, at the corners, the same stones and mortar
lines appear on each wall face. As a final effective detail, the
deepening of the horizontal band at each beam seat nicely frames
the bulb tees. For travelers on I-78, these visually simple, elegantly
detailed new bridges must represent a significant visual
improvement on their three-span predecessors.

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5.10.9 New Jersey Route 72 Eastbound Bridge Over Manahawkin Bay

5.10.9 New Jersey Route 72 Eastbound Bridge Over Manahawkin Bay

Aesthetic Features
One of the features of this bridge is the form of the tapered columns to match those of the original parallel bridge.

Background
Designed in the 1950s, the causeway carrying New Jersey Route 72 over Manahawkin Bay provides the only
access from the New Jersey mainland to the beach communities of Long Beach Island, an 18-mile- long coastal
barrier island. By the early 1990s, many of the fatigue-sensitive details in the original steel stringer-floor beam
bridge had failed or were failing. The New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) decided to build a new
parallel bridge for eastbound traffic and rehabilitate the existing bridge for westbound traffic. This satisfied
NJDOT’s desire for resilience.

Bridge Description
The east bound structure is 2400 ft long and 52 ft 9.75 in. wide, with six lines of Prestressed Concrete Economical
Fabrication (PCEF) XB79 x 48 bulb tees spaced at 9 ft 3 in. on center and made continuous for live load. There are
17 spans that range from 98 ft 8 in. to 147 ft 7 in. from center-to-center of bearings for a total of 102 girders. The
concrete girders are among the longest prestressed concrete girders used on any NJDOT project.
The standard 7-in.-thick web was increased to 8 in. to accommodate NJDOT’s concrete cover requirements and
increase durability, resulting in a total top flange width of 48 in. All nonprestressed reinforcement used in the
beams was galvanized to match the deck reinforcement and increase corrosion resistance; prestressing strand
was not coated.
One of the primary goals for the project was to attain geometric/aesthetic similarities between the two structures.
The existing hammerhead bridge piers consisted of a tapered wall column with a hammerhead cap. The wall
columns were tapered in two directions. For the new bridge piers, as recommended by precast concrete
manufacturers during design, the pier column segments were designed and detailed to be solid, rather than
hollow. Solid segments also reduced congestion of reinforcement and eliminated spaces where water might
intrude and accumulate inside the piers.
One of the most distinctive features of the existing bridge is that the roadway lighting fixtures are built into the
bridge railing, making the view of the bridge at night unique. The bridge is formally named the Dorland J.
Henderson Memorial Bridge, after the NJDOT engineer who designed the in-rail lighting system more than 50
years ago. As a tribute to Henderson’s contribution to the original design, NJDOT has replicated the railing lighting
in the new bridge by attaching linear lighting to the outside of the south parapet of the new bridge and the north
parapet of the existing bridge; this lighting is strictly aesthetic.

OWNER: New Jersey Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Stafford and Ship Bottom, New Jersey
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: 2400-ft-long bridge with 79-in. deep prestressed concrete beams
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Joseph Mumber, David Rue, and Steve Esposito, WSP, and Pankesh Patel, New Jersey
Department of Transportation
ASPIRE ISSUE: Spring 2018, pp 16-19

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5.10.9 New Jersey Route 72 Eastbound Bridge Over Manahawkin Bay

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Since it was built more than 50 years ago, the Dorland J. Henderson Memorial Bridge has been a distinctive
bridge, recognized in architectural circles as well as among engineers. It has been noted for its graceful,
tapered piers as well as its innovative “string of pearls” lighting. The New Jersey Department of
Transportation (NJDOT) is justifiably proud of it. The agency’s decision to keep it and build a new similar
bridge parallel to it is thus a double win. The original bridge is both preserved and amplified.
The aesthetic value of these bridges begins with their tapered piers. It is amazing how much the basic decision
to batter the piers in both directions can improve the appearance of a structure. The reason traces back to
people’s intuitive impressions of vertical structures. A structure that is wider at the bottom than at the top
looks (and is) more stable, and thus seems more satisfying. Nature provides a model: tree trunks are always
thicker near their bases than at their tops. (The appearance of retaining walls can be improved the same way,
and for the same reason, by simply battering their faces.) A taper can get out of hand if the structure is very
tall, but that can be avoided by decreasing the degree of taper. Nature again offers a model: the degree of taper
of a redwood trunk is much less than on a live oak, but they are both attractive trees. The piers borrow
another feature from nature: the hammerheads join the pier shafts by means of a curve. Tree branches
similarly curve as they join their trunks. It is nature’s way of minimizing the higher stresses of a re-entrant
corner, a problem engineers also must resolve. The team’s development of a precast concrete construction
option proves that these features can be applied even with precasting, though the contractor chose not to
employ that technique.
Finally, NJDOT’s decision to reinstate the string of pearls lighting using modern LED technology must be very
heartening to the long-time residents of this recreational area. People come to Long Beach Island to relax and
enjoy the attractive natural environment. When we insert something into such environments, there is a
heightened responsibility to make sure that the new object adds to, and does not detract from, that
environment. The new Manahawkin Bay Bridge meets that standard.

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5.10.10 Southbound I-95 To Eastbound SR 202 Flyover Bridge

5.10.10 Southbound I-95 To Eastbound SR 202 Flyover Bridge

Aesthetic Features
The long curving shape of this bridge illustrates the aesthetic concepts of line, mass, and clarity of function.

Background
The intersection of Interstate 95 (I-95) and State Road 202 (SR 202) is a major traffic interchange south of
downtown Jacksonville, Fla. I-95 carries north-south traffic through the heart of Jacksonville, while SR 202 carries
east-west traffic to beaches on the Atlantic Coast. A major congestion and safety concern of the old interchange
was that the southbound I-95 to eastbound SR 202 traffic exited to a stoplight. During rush hour, vehicles on this
exit would consistently backup onto the interstate for a mile or more. The new bridge eliminates the traffic
backup.

Bridge Description
The new bridge is a seven-span, 1342-ft-long structure, with expansion joints at end bents and at an intermediate
pier. Span lengths vary from 140 to 232 ft. The overall width of the superstructure is 47 ft 6, which accommodates
two 12-ft-wide travel lanes plus 8- and 12-ft-wide shoulders. The structure is curved on an 1100-ft horizontal
radius combined with a vertical curve that has an incoming vertical grade of +5.0% and an outgoing grade of -
3.5%. The deck has a constant superelevation of 7.5%.
The superstructure is composed of curved, spliced precast concrete U-girders that are post-tensioned to form
continuous spans. There are two 84-in.-deep constant-depth girder lines spaced at 23 ft 9 in. that support a 9-in.-
thick deck. To minimize formwork changes, both the left and right girders are designed to be cast with the same
1100-ft radius. This casting method does not significantly affect the design, but it allows for vastly increased
efficiency in girder production.
Integral pier caps are used on the project to minimize
the total structure depth from bottom of cap to top of
deck by making the design more efficient with
composite action between the cast-in-place concrete
diaphragm and the precast concrete cap. This was
important to maintain traffic clearance both during
construction and in the final alignment. The caps also
eliminate bearings, which require a large joint or gap
between the bottom of the girder or diaphragm and the
top of the cap. This eliminates the cost and long-term
maintenance requirements for bearings. From an
aesthetic perspective, the caps provide a seamless
transition from the superstructure to the substructure,
giving the appearance that everything was cast together.

OWNER: Florida Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Jacksonville, Florida
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: A 1342-ft-long curved, spliced, precast concrete. post-tensioned U-girder bridge on
an 1110-ft horizontal radius
ORIGINAL AUTHOR: Andrew Mish, Modjeski and Masters
ASPIRE ISSUE: Winter 2018, pp. 26-29

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5.10.10 Southbound I-95 To Eastbound SR 202 Flyover Bridge

The photographs in this case study were supplied by Modjeski and Masters after the original article was published.

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Curved flyover ramps can be impressive and exciting structures. The ramps provide a three-dimensional
representation of the curved, high-speed trajectories of the vehicles passing overhead. Whether or not there
are vehicles present, the ramps illustrate the dynamic function of the interchange to sort traffic into various
paths. The more the lines of the structure parallel the vehicle trajectories, the more powerful this effect is.
Ramps constructed as cast-in-place or segmental box girders are particularly effective. Ramps made of
conventional precast concrete girders are less so, because the girder lines are broken into individual chords.
So, it is great to see a new technology, precast concrete curved U-girders, spliced and post-tensioned, solve
this visual problem. The line of the girders, curved in both the horizontal and vertical planes, follow perfectly
the geometry of the ramp and thus the trajectories of the vehicles on it. The sweep of the curved girder lines is
well illustrated in the photos.
Locating the piers for curved flyover ramps can be a challenge. The horizontal and vertical clearance
envelopes of the roadways below limit the available locations, and the additional vertical clearance required
for a pier cap placed below the girders makes the challenge even greater. The dropped pier caps also visually
interrupt the curved lines of the girder edges, diminishing the effect described in the previous paragraph. The
designer of this flyover ramp addressed both problems by minimizing the distance the pier caps drop below
the girder soffits. The visual integration of the pier caps and girders created by placing them in the same plane
(more or less) makes for a seamless transition from superstructure to substructure, visually unifying the
ramp. Finally, the thin pier stem attenuates the connection between the ramp and the ground, feeding a
perception that the ramp itself is flying.
People know that bridges are inherently heavy structures. Designing our bridges to appear lighter than they
really are is one way we can use our art to make bridges memorable.

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5.10.11 Bayonne Bridge Approach Structures

5.10.11 Bayonne Bridge Approach Structures

Aesthetic Features
The new Bayonne Bridge approach piers feature aesthetics and architectural face treatments to complement the
existing architecture of the original 1931 Bayonne Bridge approach piers; thereby, demonstrating texture and
harmony concepts.

Background
Following the widening and deepening of the Panama Canal and the advent of larger post-Panamax container
ships, the restrictive 151-ft navigational clearance (air draft) of the previous Bayonne Bridge over Kill Van Kull
would have resulted in container traffic seeking other ports. In addition, there had been frequent incidents of
container ships’ masts scraping the underside of the existing bridge structure. These issues created the need to
increase the air draft of the Bayonne Bridge to maintain the ports’ economic competitiveness, protect port-related
jobs, maintain regional economic activities, and provide a safer bridge crossing for the traveling public. The
owner decided that the most expedient and efficient method to achieve the increased navigational clearance while
maintaining traffic on the bridge was to raise the main span arch roadway and to rebuild the approach structures
with a higher elevation.

Bridge Description
The new bridge consists of 24 piers and 52 spans with approach lengths of approximately 2377 and 2929 ft in
New York and New Jersey, respectively. The new layout reduced the number of piers by 14, thereby opening up
the visual sight lines to residents and pedestrians. The superstructure consists of twin single-cell concrete box
girders with widths from 39 ft 3 in. for the typical southbound segment to 64 ft 10 in. at the northbound abutment
to accommodate acceleration and deceleration lanes. Segment depths vary from 10 ft for constant depth girders
to 14 ft for span lengths of 272 ft. Segments weigh up to nearly 112 tons. The northbound roadway
accommodates a 12-ft-wide shared-use path, while the southbound roadway is designed to accommodate future
light-rail transit.
Precast concrete was also used for the hollow piers and pier caps, which included aesthetics and architectural
face treatments to complement the existing architecture of the original 1931 Bayonne Bridge approach piers.

OWNER: Port Authority of New York and New Jersey

LOCATION: Bayonne, New Jersey and Port Richmond, New York
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: Twin precast, post-tensioned segmental concrete box girders with a total single box
length of 10,614 ft and precast segmental concrete columns and pier caps
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Joseph LoBuono and Chester Werts, HDR
ASPIRE ISSUE: Summer 2017, pp. 20-23 and pp. 28-30

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5.10.11 Bayonne Bridge Approach Structures

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Talk about a challenge: significantly altering one of the iconic bridges of the twentieth century, designed by
one of the century’s master builders, Othmar Amman, and doing that while the bridge is in continuous use! I
don’t know how the design team slept at night. But they certainly rose to the challenge.
Let’s start with the decision to use precast concrete segmental construction for the approach spans. It
significantly changes the look of the bridge in comparison to the steel-plate girder spans of the original, but
the longer spans and fewer piers open up views through the structure that didn’t exist before, and create
opportunities for new ground-level activities that will benefit all of those people who live or work near the
bridge. Plus, the more massive concrete superstructure absorbs road noise, an under-appreciated benefit of
concrete segmental construction that will improve the local environment aesthetically as well as physically.
Then there are the new approach piers. The taller and wider piers are more prominent elements in the scene
than were the original piers, but visual continuity with the original piers is established by borrowing their
arched pier caps and the horizontal grooves of their columns.
I. M. Pei, the architect who redesigned the Louvre, stated the challenge of altering famous structures this way:
“How do we make history live, and still point the way to the future?” The designers of the Bayonne Bridge
reconstruction have shown how.

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5.10.12 Estrella Underpass At Grand Avenue

5.10.12 Estrella Underpass At Grand Avenue

Aesthetic Features
The widening concept for this bridge was revised so that the new bridge piers matched the original Y-shaped
piers and the aesthetic treatments were a natural extension of the existing bridge.

Background
State Route (SR) 303L is a 40-mile-long new freeway in the western and northwestern portions of the greater
Phoenix, Ariz., metropolitan area. Originally known as the Estrella Freeway, it opened in 1992 as a two-lane
freeway. Growth and future traffic projections drove the need to expand SR 303L to an ultimate configuration of
six lanes in each direction.
The Estrella Underpass at Grand Avenue bridge carries SR 303L over U.S. 60 (Grand Avenue) and the Burlington
Northern Santa Fe (BNSF) Railway. The original Estrella Underpass Bridge was constructed in 2000. The bridge is
a four-span, 536-ft-long, cast-in-place (CIP), post-tensioned concrete box girder superstructure with custom Y-
shaped columns and integral piers. The structure depth is 7 ft 4 in. and has a span arrangement of 105, 194, 118,
and 114 ft with a precast concrete drop-in span over the BNSF railway.
The challenge of maintaining traffic on U.S. 60 during construction was complicated by the limited detour options.
High traffic volumes on U.S. 60 and SR 303L precluded extended closures with off-site detours. Consequently, the
final design of this bridge widening was driven primarily by the need to maintain both vehicular and railway
traffic through this interchange. The original project design concept report proposed widening on both sides of
the existing bridge.

Bridge Description
Rather than widening the original bridge on both sides, the winning submittal proposed to place all the widening
on one side of the bridge. This had the advantages that the aesthetic treatments of the new piers were a natural
extension of the existing bridge, Construction phasing and access were improved and only one interface with the
existing bridge was required. In addition, drilled shafts were proposed instead of spread footings to reduce the
amount of excavation and eliminated associated conflicts.
The project widened the existing from an out-to-out width of 73 ft 8 in. to 197 ft 1 in. A conventional approach
would have been to widen the bridge using an identical CIP post-tensioned concrete superstructure because the
proximity of the railroad tracks created ample vertical clearance for falsework over U.S. 60 traffic. In addition, the
length of span 2 exceeded the capabilities of pretensioned precast concrete American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) girders used in the Phoenix area.
The solution adopted was a combination of 6-ft 6-in.-deep AASHTO Type Super VI girders spaced at 9 ft on
centers and wide cast-in-place concrete pier tables using a combination of pretensioning and post-tensioning. The
depth of the new structure matched that of the existing box girders. All precast concrete girders were designed
for two-stage stressing: an initial pretensioning for dead loads, and post-tensioning for final loads. The post-
tensioning also tied the precast and CIP elements together to provide continuity.

OWNER: Arizona Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Surprise, Arizona
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: 536-ft-long, four-span, post-tensioned superstructure combining AASHTO precast
concrete girders with cast-in-place concrete pier tables on integral Y-shaped piers
ORIGINAL AUTHOR: John Lange, Stanley Consultants
ASPIRE ISSUE: Spring 2017, pp. 16-19

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5.10.12 Estrella Underpass At Grand Avenue

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

The first notable aspect of this project is the willingness of the design-build team to open their minds to all the
options, not just the obvious ones, when addressing the myriad traffic maintenance and construction
requirements of this complicated site. The second notable aspect is their willingness to consider good
aesthetics as a legitimate criterion to be achieved at the same time as all of the functional requirements. Too
often there is an unspoken assumption that achieving good aesthetics is an either/or proposition: we can
solve all of the functional requirements, or we can have good aesthetics, but we can’t have both. This project
proves that assumption to be untrue.
As one example of their open mind, let’s take the team’s decision to do all of the widening on one side, rather
than symmetrically about the original centerline. The layout geometry is often presented to bridge engineers
as if it were carved in stone, not to be adjusted no matter what opportunities it forecloses. By moving off the
original centerline and widening all to one side, the team not only solved major traffic maintenance and
construction problems, it allowed the original piers to be replicated, thereby ensuring that the new lanes
would look integrated with the old as opposed to tacked-on additions.
As a second example of their open minds, let’s take the team’s decision to integrate precast concrete girders
with cast-in-place concrete pier tables. Not only did this resolve serious construction issues and reduce cost, it
also allowed the depth and shape of the original bridge to be emulated in the new construction. Recognizing
that the precast concrete girders would inevitably look different from the cast-in-place concrete pier tables,
the team even extended its concern for appearance to the details of the fascia girders at hinges and splices to
ensure visual continuity across the whole bridge. This kind of attention to detail requires more care by the
designers and builders, but its additional construction costs are not significant, while its aesthetic benefits are
crucial. Urban underpasses like these are major components of our everyday lives. It is encouraging to see a
design team make the effort to get one right aesthetically as well as functionally.

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5.10.13 North Torrey Pines Road Bridge

5.10.13 North Torrey Pines Road Bridge

Aesthetic Features
The retrofit of this historic structure was made in a way to satisfy the technical objectives while preserving the
form of the original aesthetics.

Background
The North Torrey Pines Road Bridge is situated along the scenic coastline at the northern border of San Diego,
Calif. It is a landmark structure valued by the local community of Del Mar for its historical significance and
aesthetic appeal. The original 550-ft-long bridge superstructure consisted of 15 simply supported, cast-in-place,
T-beam concrete girder spans on multi-column bents ranging in height from 30 to 70 ft.
In 2000, the city of Del Mar bought the bridge for $1 from the city of San Diego when the two cities could not
agree on whether to repair or replace the bridge. As of 2008, it had a sufficiency rating of 19 out of 100, which was
mostly attributed to severe and extensive corrosion throughout the superstructure and substructure due to the
coastal environment. The bridge also had several seismic vulnerabilities. After extensive analyses, stakeholder
meetings, and public input, the consensus from the community was a strong desire to retrofit the much-loved,
historic bridge despite the additional cost.

Bridge Description
The replacement bridge included 80 custom haunched precast, prestressed concrete girders varying in length
from 15 to 57 ft; 282 precast, prestressed concrete deck panels with a 5-in.-thick cast-in-place concrete deck; and
repaired concrete columns. The girders were pretensioned to carry AASHTO HL-93 live loading. The girders were
also post-tensioned end-to-end to transmit lateral seismic force to selected bents and the new abutments. This
also increased the girders’ vertical capacity to carry the weight of California’s permit vehicles.
The precaster built multiple custom forms to replicate the existing girder dimensions, including end haunches,
skews, and surface texture, The precaster also created a three-dimensional virtual model of each girder to ensure
that the nonprestressed and prestressed reinforcement would fit perfectly within the forms.
Now, the city of Del Mar, with help from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and local transportation
funding sources, has infused this 83-year-old landmark with new life and strength to maintain its beauty for at
least 50 more years. Retrofitting the bridge maintained its eligibility for listing on the National Register of Historic
Places. It will remain one of the more significant historic examples of concrete bridges on the coast of California.

OWNER: City of Del Mar, California

LOCATION: Del Mar, California
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: A 15-span, 550-ft-long, 50-ft-wide, cast-in-place reinforced concrete T-girder bridge,
rehabilitated using a post-tensioned superstructure, consisting of precast, prestressed concrete girders, that
replicate the original structure.
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Keith Gazaway, Nathan Johnson, and Mark Creveling, Kleinfelder Inc.
ASPIRE ISSUE: Fall 2016, pp.14-17

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5.10.13 North Torrey Pines Road Bridge

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

The North Torrey Pines Bridge is typical of its era, a time when owners were willing to build aesthetic details
like recessed column corners and haunched T girders into their bridges in order to give them an aesthetic
“personality” suitable for their locations, in this case along a beautiful seashore. The bridge reminds me of
Conde McCullough’s famous bridges along the Oregon coast, bridges also of the same era. No wonder it has
retained the affection of its community for 83 years.
So it is heartening to see that the members of its community decided to spend a bit more than the cost of a
new bridge in order to restore the old one. They recognized that aesthetics and historic preservation have a
value and that they are worth spending money on to accomplish community goals. It is a rare attitude in
today’s climate of relentless cost cutting. This step is perhaps easier to take for a city that does not have to
reconcile competing claims from across a state.
It is also heartening that the designers took a “both. . .and” approach to balancing aesthetic criteria and the
undoubtedly difficult technical requirements of the seismic retrofit. Frequently, technical needs are given first
priority, and aesthetic features made to fit into whatever space remains. In this case the designers kept
working on technical solutions until they found ones that accomplished both the seismic requirements and
the aesthetic criteria, at the same time. For years to come the citizens of Del Mar will bless them for their
persistence.

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5.10.14 Evergreen Point Floating Bridge

5.10.14 Evergreen Point Floating Bridge

Aesthetic Features
This case study focuses on the aesthetics of the space between the top of the pontoons and the underside of the
superstructure and compares it to an urban viaduct. It illustrates the aesthetic concepts of line, form, and rhythm.

Background
The original state route (SR) 520 Evergreen Point floating bridge was opened to traffic in 1963 and held the
record as the world’s longest floating bridge. The Washington State Department of Transportation determined
that the old bridge needed to be replaced to improve traffic congestion, maintenance access, and bridge
performance under extreme events such as windstorms.

Bridge Description
The new SR 520 Evergreen Point Floating Bridge and Landings project is an 8643-ft-long project crossing Lake
Washington near Seattle, Wash. The floating bridge is 7710 ft long, making it the longest floating bridge in the
world.
The support structure for the Evergreen Point Floating Bridge consists of 77 concrete pontoons joined together
and anchored to the lake bed with large steel cables. For 1150 ft at the east end and for 880 ft at the west end,
reinforced concrete columns and bent caps are rigidly attached to the pontoons. They support simple-span,
prestressed concrete girders with an 8-in.-thick, cast-in-place concrete deck. The typical span is 90 ft. These two
regions of the floating bridge are referred to as the “high-rises.” The east high-rise accommodates a 5% grade; the
west high-rise accommodates a 3% grade.
Between the eastern and western high-rise regions is a 5580-ft-long “low-rise” portion of the project. The low-rise
consists of a precast concrete, segmental, ribbed-slab superstructure supported on circular columns that are
rigidly connected to the pontoons. The low-rise has a straight plan alignment and a flat profile for the majority of
its length. It accommodates a variable grade where it transitions to the high rise to the east and to the west.
A low-profile, precast concrete segmental ribbed-slab concept was developed to address the project
requirements. Variable-depth transverse ribs run the full width of the bridge and are optimized to increase the
vertical clearance between the pontoon and the bridge soffit. The ribs are spaced at 7 ft 6 in. and frame into
longitudinal beams that are located along each of the three column lines and at each edge of the bridge. A 10-in.-
thick slab spans between the transverse ribs and the longitudinal beams.
Three lines of columns are spaced transversely across the width of the pontoon at 36 ft on center. Longitudinally,
the columns have a 30 ft typical spacing, except near the expansion joints where the spacing is reduced.

OWNER: Washington State Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Seattle and Medina, Washington
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: Precast concrete segmental ribbed-slab superstructure on circular columns
supported by floating concrete pontoons
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: David B. Birrcher and Christopher M. Hall, International Bridge Technologies Inc.
ASPIRE ISSUE: Spring 2016, pp 26-29

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5.10.14 Evergreen Point Floating Bridge

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

It may seem odd to focus a discussion of bridge aesthetics on a structure that will only be seen by the
occasional Washington State Department of Transportation maintenance worker. What makes it worthwhile in
this case is that the structural innovations pioneered here create a unique and attractive bridge that would not
be out of place in any park or urban area. The innovations were obviously inspired by the specialized
requirements of the SR 520 Evergreen Point Floating Bridge, but the result is a lightweight and economical
structure that would apply to any viaduct situation allowing modest spans and modest vertical clearances,
especially where accelerated construction is a goal.
Its economy is based on a repeating precast concrete module that combines the longitudinal spanning element,
the transversely spanning element, the deck, and the transverse column brace, all in one precast concrete piece.
This module can be manufactured off site and quickly erected. This contrasts with the usual precast concrete
bridge where only the longitudinal spanning element (I-girder, bulb tee, and others) is manufactured and the
transverse spanning element/column brace (pier cap) and the deck are cast in place in separate, time-
consuming field operations.
This manufactured module also supplies the aesthetic benefits. First of all, over most of its width it is thinner
than the typical girder/deck combination. This allows more clearance and light below, a lower overall
structure, or some combination of the two. The deepening of the transverse ribs at the longitudinal beams
creates an element of visual interest and demonstrates the flow of forces in the structure. The elimination of a
visible pier cap/column brace eliminates the transverse visual element that restricts longitudinal views
underneath a typical viaduct and makes the space below seem much more constricted than it need be. Finally,
and perhaps most importantly, the ribs themselves create a pattern on the “ceiling” of the space underneath the
viaduct that recalls the coffered ceilings of traditional monumental buildings. One can imagine lighting
elements along the longitudinal beams washing the underside of the deck between the ribs. Rather than being
feared as an ominous source of bats and pigeon droppings, as it is in so many urban viaducts, the ceiling would
be welcomed as the source of light for the whole area under the bridge.
The space under viaducts has often been considered “left-over” space. In recent years, with the growing public
interest in urban living and making cities more livable there has been new interest in taking advantage of the
space under viaducts, and not just for organized parking. Parks and playgrounds and farmers’ markets are all
uses that are now occurring under viaducts. It is time to consider what contributions the structure itself can
make to the attractiveness of those spaces.

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5.10.15 SR 417 And Boggy Creek Road Interchange

5.10.15 SR 417 And Boggy Creek Road Interchange

Aesthetic Features
The two new ramps of this interchange showcase many of the aesthetic design concepts discussed in Chapter 5
including clarity of function, line, form, color, and texture.

Background
With the steady increase in travelers, the interchange for the south entrance to the Orlando International Airport
(OIA) has become more congested. For many years, planners with the Central Florida Expressway Authority
(CFX) have known about the need for improving the movements from State Route (SR) 417, part of CFX’s tollway
around Orlando, to Boggy Creek Road and the south access road to OIA. The third and final phase of the
interchange includes two direct flyover movements.

Bridge Description
The project has two flyover ramps that were designed using curved precast concrete U-girders. Ramp H is
approximately 55 ft above ground surface at its highest point and consists of three continuous units for a total
length of 2708 ft. Each unit is comprised of several spans ranging in length from 141 to 216 ft. Ramp H has a
minimum horizontal radius of 1273 ft and the width of the bridge deck is 45 ft 3½ in. with two travel lanes. Ramp
I crosses over Ramp H, rising 90 ft above ground surface at its highest point and has two continuous units for a
total length of 1411 ft. It has spans ranging in length from 177 to 220 ft, with a minimum horizontal radius of 955
ft, a bridge deck width of 36 ft 3½ in., and one travel lane.
The cross sections of both flyover ramps consist of two side-by-side PCI 84-in.-deep U-girders with an 8¾-in.-
thick concrete deck and 10-in.-thick overhangs. The U-girder has a web thickness of 10 in. to accommodate the 4-
in.-diameter ducts for the 15-strand tendons. A variable thickness bottom flange is used throughout the girder
line and varies from a typical value of 9 in. to 1 ft 9 in. over the piers to provide additional capacity to meet
allowable stresses over the piers. The open U-girder section ultimately requires a cast-in-place lid slab to increase
the torsional resistance of the section prior to deck placement and is constructed after erection to limit the
transport weight.
The design and construction of the SR417 and Boggy Creek Road interchange introduced a new girder type to the
state of Florida. Where curved structures are required and aesthetics are important, the PCI U-girder provides an
attractive solution. This new system brings the advantages of standard precast concrete construction, including
durability, quality, speed of construction, and minimal disruption to the area below the bridge, to curved concrete
U-girders.

OWNER: Central Florida Expressway Authority

LOCATION: Orlando, Florida
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: 2708-ft-long and 1411-ft-long curved, spliced, and post-tensioned precast concrete
U-girder flyover ramp structures
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Thomas W. Stelmack, Thomas E. Davidson, and Kristian Forars, Parsons
ASPIRE ISSUE: Winter 2016, pp. 14-17

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5.10.15 SR 417 And Boggy Creek Road Interchange

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Multi-level, high-speed interchanges between limited access roadways can be visually confusing places. Cars
are moving fast along continuously curved paths, and paths merge and split as they go. The piers and
abutments of the various bridges limit drivers’ views of the paths ahead. Even if their views meet the
minimum sight distances set by safety criteria, drivers are still left with a sense of unease about what lies
ahead. If some of the intervening piers and abutments can be eliminated, drivers can better see through the
interchange, alleviating their unease.
So, the first benefit of the precast concrete curved U-girders at Boggy Creek is that they allow longer spans
and thus fewer piers. The piers are set well back from the edges of the under-passing roadways. The piers
themselves, for the most part, use single stems that have minimal effect on the view. Drivers can see a long
way ahead, with no interference from intervening piers. As an additional benefit they can better enjoy the
passing landscape.
The second benefit of the precast concrete curved U-girders is that they are seen as one long, continuous
curved girder. In a high-speed highway environment, visually simpler is almost always visually better. The
pier details enhance this result. The girders sit up above the pier caps on low concrete blocks. From many
angles you can actually see sky between the bottom of the girder and the top of the pier caps. The bearings are
so small compared to the length of the pier caps that the girders seem to be supported on pinheads. The full
sweep of the girders is visible. They almost look like they are floating on air.
As a further enhancement, coating the girders with a color that contrasts with the piers and deck emphasizes
the curvature and continuity of the girders. To top it all, the color chosen is an excellent complement to the
lush Florida vegetation.
High-level flyover ramps are always the most prominent feature of these interchanges. It is always
worthwhile to give some thought and, yes, even spend some money, to improve their appearance. The
appearance of the whole interchange will benefit. And where, as here, the interchange is a gateway to a whole
region, improving the appearance of the interchange will enhance visitors’ impression of the entire region.

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5.10.16 I-4/Selmon Expressway Connector

5.10.16 I-4/Selmon Expressway Connector

Aesthetic Features
This project linking two major highways illustrates esthetic concepts of mass, line, and simplicity as defined in
Chapter 5.

Background
The Interstate 4 (I-4)/Selmon Expressway Connector project located in Tampa, Fla., connects two major east-
west, limited-access corridors in a major Florida city. Though not originally part of the Tampa Interstate Study
master plan that began in 1987, the connector was later added to the plan. The connection provides a vital
transportation link between the Selmon Expressway (tolled facility) and the I-4. It also features a direct I-4
connection to and from the Port of Tampa. Truck-only lanes are an important component of the project, which
will remove through-truck traffic from local roadways in the Ybor City area—one of only two National Historic
Landmark Districts in Florida—within the city of Tampa. This direct cargo link was one of the first of its kind in
the United States and serves to route commercial traffic and hazardous cargo away from the Ybor historic district.

Project Description
This project is primarily a viaduct connection between I-4 to the north and the Selmon Expressway to the south,
including complex interchanges at both of these highways. The viaduct spans multiple local streets, a state road,
and railroad tracks with spurs critical to commerce and the Port of Tampa. The connector includes a series of
separate ramps created to improve the regional movement of traffic throughout the Tampa Bay area. The project
completes an important regional link in the Tampa interstate system by providing an alternative route for
commuters, improving the ability to evacuate in advance of hurricanes, and by aiding emergency response
providers
The project involves 35 bridge structures. Florida bulb-tees with a cast-in-place concrete decks are used for most
of the tangent portions. Precast concrete segmental construction—utilizing both balanced cantilever and span-by-
span construction methods—tie into the highways at either end. Other construction that is part of the project
widens or rehabilitates existing bridges using Florida U-beams and Type IV AASHTO beams.
A total of 2929 segments were required to complete the segmental portion of this project. Typical segments are
9.5 ft deep and vary in length from 9.2 to 10 ft. The segments range in width from 30 ft 1 in. to 47 ft 3½ in.
The tallest pier rises more than 87 ft above the ground and typical column dimensions for the rectangular piers
are 6 by 5 ft, 8 by 5 ft, and 8 by 7 ft.

OWNER: Florida Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Tampa, Florida
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: 135 separate bridge structures utilizing segmental post-tensioned, box-girder
construction, Florida bulb-tee beams, AASHTO Type IV beams, and Florida U-beams
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Thomas A. Andres and Richard W. Frank, Florida Department of Transportation, and
John McShaffrey, AECOM
ASPIRE ISSUE: Fall 2013, pp. 14-17

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5.10.16 I-4/Selmon Expressway Connector

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Directional ramps at major freeway interchanges are often called “flyovers,” a recognition of the curved aerial
paths that high-speed vehicles take as they make their way from one freeway to the other. Concrete box
girders are uniquely suited to this type of bridge.
In a large interchange, if the ramp widths are sufficiently standardized, there is often enough length of bridge
to support the costs of specialized segmental forming. The longer spans and narrow pier shafts of segmental
construction allow more options for pier placement and minimize the need for straddle bents. Segmental
ramp bridges also have great aesthetic potential. If the pier shafts are kept thin and the pier caps are no wider
than the soffit of the box girder, all the dominant lines of the structure—the deck edges, the overhang/web
intersections, and the soffit edges—are parallel to the curvature of the ramp. Indeed, they reflect the
trajectories of the vehicles above.
Their appearance from below also is pleasing to drivers passing through. Major interchanges are inherently
confusing places, with drivers having to weigh multiple path choices while competing for road space with
other drivers that are occupied likewise. Wide openings between the ramp piers maximize sight opportunities
for drivers passing below, while the simple, clean lines of the structure are quickly grasped and easily
understood, so that the bridges do not distract drivers.
The I-4/ Selmon flyover ramp bridges take advantage of all of this potential. The spans are long and the
number of pier shafts are relatively few. The webs are sloped and the box widths are minimized, which means
that the pier cap width and the pier shaft width are also minimized. Drivers can easily see between the thin
and widely spaced piers to the signs and ramp choices beyond. The minimal box width, sloped webs, and
resulting long overhangs also allow more daylight to penetrate the spaces below the bridges. Because of this,
drivers have an easier time recognizing traffic patterns and potential hazards. Relatively thin and widely
spaced as they may be, there are still a lot of piers and a lot of pier caps in the I-4/Selmon interchange.
Because they are simple geometric shapes with a minimum amount of detail, their potential for visual
distraction is minimized and the overall appearance remains consistent. The height and prominence of the
bearings is a welcome touch. At each pier, the box girders rest on two relatively small, raised pads.
From many angles a bit of sky is visible between the pier caps and the girder soffits. The girders appear to be
very light in weight. They look like they are floating in the air, actually “flying over.” For drivers, traversing
major interchanges will always be somewhat stressful. The I-4/Selmon Interchange’s open views, seemingly
lightweight girders, simple shapes, and, most of all, congruence of the lines of the bridges with its traffic
patterns, make this interchange less so.

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5.10.17 Maynard H. Jackson Jr. International Terminal Elevated Roadway System

5.10.17 Maynard H. Jackson Jr. International Terminal Elevated Roadway System

Aesthetic Concepts
Despite the complexity of this bridge and ramp structures, the designers implemented the aesthetic concepts of
simplicity, clarity of function, color, and texture as defined in Section 5.2.1 of this manual.

Background
For the new Maynard Holbrook Jackson Jr. International Terminal at Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International
Airport in Georgia, a sophisticated transportation system was needed to give terminal access to travelers and
terminal employees. So, while the new terminal was being built, a new, 70-span, multi-level elevated roadway
system incorporating 14 horizontal curves and 12 grade changes was being built. The structure supports large,
protective passenger canopies; provides multiple access points for vehicles and pedestrians; and is designed to
enable future expansion with minimal traffic disruption.

Project Description
The one-mile-long superstructure consists of 578 AASHTO Type III I-beams, 36 precast, prestressed concrete box
beams, and an 8-in.-thick, cast-in-place concrete deck. The complex geometry of the bridge presented an entirely
different set of design challenges. The precast concrete beam manufacturer was able to produce prestressed
concrete beams with beveled ends—often varying within a single span—to match the many different bends and
skews required by the complicated bridge geometry.

Materials and construction methods were selected to not

only satisfy the project’s requirements in a cost-
conscious manner, but also with longer term needs in
mind—such as durability and maintenance. In addition
to the artful installation of trench drains, the bridge
incorporates other maintenance-reducing features,
including:
• Minimizing permeability by paying careful attention
to the concrete
• Using as few expansion joints as possible—some as
far as 500 ft apart
• Protecting and enhancing the appearance of the
concrete by applying a highly durable water-based
coating to all exposed vertical faces of the bridge
components, which included the exterior faces of the
beams and parapets, pier caps, and columns.

OWNER: City of Atlanta, Department of Aviation

LOCATION: Atlanta, Georgia
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: A mile-long, multi-level, prestressed concrete beam bridge that features 14
horizontal curves and 12 grade changes using AASHTO Type III beams and box beams with span lengths
ranging from 40 to 90 ft
ORIGINAL AUTHOR: Barry L. Brown, Atkins
ASPIRE ISSUE: Summer 2013, pp. 14-17

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5.10.17 Maynard H. Jackson Jr. International Terminal Elevated Roadway System

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Airport-terminal roadways are hybrids; they are not quite buildings, but they are not quite bridges either.
Design speeds for these structures are low, permitted curvatures are sharp, and long spans are not required
to cross ramps below. The pier spacing for these structures mimics the bay sizes of the terminal itself. In fact,
for reasons of architectural or functional harmony, it may well be necessary for the two dimensions to match.
Like a building, the terminal roadway is seen close-up by pedestrians. For those on the lower arrival level, the
space below the terminal roadway becomes an extension of the arrivals hall, which is often filled with people.
The terminal roadway defines the boundaries and creates the ceiling of this huge outdoor space. If done well,
the roadway structure can make the arrival experience more welcoming.
This is an immense challenge. The curves of the roadway and the need to clear undercrossing ramps
necessitates multiple pier configurations and straddle bents. The key to success in this situation is to use
simple, attractive details, which are consistently repeated.
The Maynard H. Jackson Jr. International Terminal Elevated Roadway System does this very well. The piers
always use “inverted T” pier caps supported by simple square columns. The pier caps always end with
rectangular blocks, terminating the cap and at the same time disguising the “T” cross section. At the straddle
bents, the rectangular end blocks are always simple extensions of the columns. The differing planes of the
webs and flanges of the precast concrete I-girders create panels of shade and shadow that add to the visual
interest. With a highway bridge, these characteristics are seen from such a distance and at such high speed
that they are barely noticed. Here, they become valuable contributors to the overall impression.
The fact that there are no decorative architectural features adds to the effect of simplicity and calm. Adding
such features would have added only visual distraction and complication.
The simplicity and calm extend to the roadway lighting and the way it is supported by the structure. Finally,
the light-colored coating evens out the color and texture of the concrete elements and makes it possible to
appreciate the piers as simple shapes. It also reflects light within this huge arrival hall, making it brighter in
daylight and easier to light at night.
For any airport terminal seen from the landside, the terminal roadway structure is more important in
determining the architectural impression of the terminal than the terminal building itself. Many airports miss
this fact, spending much time and energy on the architecture of the building and not enough on the
appearance of the terminal roadway. By constructing a terminal roadway of this high visual quality, Atlanta
has avoided this trap.

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5.10.18 Stewart Street Bridge

5.10.18 Steward Street Bridge

Aesthetic Features
The architect for this bridge considered the surrounding neighborhood and its history in selecting aesthetic
features.

Background
The original Stewart St. Bridge over the Great Miami River in the city of Dayton, Ohio was constructed in 1911.
The bridge used a steel joist supported formwork system, often referred to as a Melan Arch System. It was a
seven-span, 660-ft-long, four-lane closed spandrel, earth-filled arch bridge with a roadway width of 42 ft and a
6.5-ft-wide sidewalk on both sides. It had become functionally and structurally deficient.

Bridge Description
The replacement bridge includes five 110-ft-long spans, measured from the centerline of piers, and two 55-ft-long
spans at each end for a total bridge length of 660 ft. The longest superstructure elements consist of 42-in.-deep by
48-in.-wide adjacent precast concrete box beams, which span 84.5 ft between centers of bearings, with a 6-in.-
thick cast-in-place concrete composite deck. End span box beams are 41.3 ft long. Architectural precast concrete
fascia panels are supported from the exterior box.
The choice of concrete as a design material resulted from the study to evaluate the final structure options, and is
anticipated to match the durability of the 100-year-old concrete structure that was replaced.
The project’s architect gave significant consideration to the complex setting and integral nature of the bridge’s
location. These included a 1950s-era residential neighborhood, the University of Dayton’s sports arena and
football stadium, modern office buildings, hotels, the region’s largest hospital, a county fairground and the
gateway to the University of Dayton.
A public involvement meeting was conducted where many possible esthetic features for the structure were
presented. Rail, lighting (above and below deck), and overlook options were discussed. Given the number of
recent bridge replacements in the region that echoed the early twentieth century arched structure theme, the
hybrid Y was enthusiastically chosen as the preferred design. This choice would enable the bridge team to
develop “a design that is a legacy of the twenty-first century,” according to one stakeholder.
Several elements provide enhanced aesthetic appeal:
• Precast concrete spandrel panels give the bridge visual continuity along its length.
• Horizontal slatted steel railings allow the river to be a part of the bridge crossing experience.
• LED lighting illuminates the superstructure.
• Above-deck light standards canted over the deck—a design inspired by the angular geometry of the
piers.
• Wide sidewalks and river overlooks at all four corners inspire a pedestrian friendly passage.

OWNER: City of Dayton

LOCATION: Dayton, Ohio
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: A 660-ft-long bridge by 93 ft wide with seven spans using precast concrete adjacent
box beams, solid precast concrete tie beams, and precast concrete spandrel fascia panels supported on Y-
shaped piers and with a cast-in-place, 6-in.-thick composite deck
ORIGINAL AUTHOR: Mike Avellano, Woolper, Inc.
ASPIRE ISSUE: Summer 2011, pp.14-17

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5.10.18 Stewart Street Bridge

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Founded at the confluence of four rivers, Dayton, Ohio, needs many bridges. The bridges, taken as a group,
provide much of the civic character of Dayton. In the past, the typical Dayton bridge consisted of multiple
earth-filled concrete arches. As these bridges are replaced, the challenge is to create new civic assets of equal
quality within the resources of local budgets.
Dayton’s rivers are mostly wide but not deep, allowing fairly short spans, well within the range of standard
precast concrete girders. These have such overwhelming cost advantages that they are the default choice for
new superstructures. Adding visual character to precast girder bridges without breaking the budget requires
creative thinking about the other parts of the bridge: the piers, parapets, and railings. Most recent
replacement bridges in Dayton include details aimed at making a precast girder bridge look a bit like an arch.
At Stewart Street, the city decided instead on a new approach. The bridge is adjacent to the University of
Dayton’s new research campus, so the city decided to create a bridge with a contemporary appearance but
with the rhythm and scale of the traditional arch bridges. A Y-shaped pier provides a repeated, standardized,
easy-to-build element that economically meets this goal. The triangular openings in the cross wall lighten the
visual weight of the piers and make them more transparent. A precast concrete fascia covers and unites the
edge girder and the barrier and recalls the monumentality of the traditional concrete arches. Its upper facet
catches the light, creating a striking horizontal band sweeping from bank to bank, interrupted just briefly at
the piers. Even the lighting poles pick up the angular theme.
With the new Stewart Street Bridge, Dayton has found a way to bring its tradition of monumental civic bridges
into the twenty-first century.

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5.10.19 I-95/I-295 North Interchange Ramp SEI

5.10.19 I-95/I-295 North Interchange Ramp SEI

Aesthetic Concepts
This bridge is an example where form follows function. The function is to provide a high-speed connection
between two major highways. Although the design and geometry are complex, the form of the finished bridge
illustrates the aesthetic concepts of simplicity, balance, proportion, and harmony as described in Section 5.2.1 of
this manual.

Background
This project was the initial stage of a three-phased approach to replace the I-95 and I-295 interchange located 1.5
miles south of Jacksonville International Airport. The purpose of this project was to improve capacity and
operations by replacing the existing partial cloverleaf interchange with an all-directional four-level, system-to-
system, high-speed interchange. This initial stage included a new segmental concrete box girder flyover bridge
(Ramp SE) that provides for the southbound I-95 to eastbound I-295 movement along with the widening of an
existing beam bridge that supports eastbound I-295 over U.S. 17 and the CSX rail line.
The interchange functions as a main access route to the City of Jacksonville. It is the first major feature
experienced by most tourists and visitors traveling into Jacksonville from the north. The Florida Department of
Transportation agreed with city officials that emphasis should be placed on the aesthetic elements of the bridge
as the city’s northern gateway.
The increased emphasis on aesthetics heavily favored a segmental concrete bridge. Given that this extremely long
flyover was going to be a third-level structure, its underside would be highly visible to drivers traveling on I-95
and I-295. With its closed box shape, clean lines, and smooth bottom soffit, the precast segmental concrete box
girder was clearly the most aesthetically pleasing choice.
To further enhance the aesthetics of the bridge, octagonal columns were used and the capitals were flared
transversely at the top, matching the slope of the webs of the box girder. The tapered shape of the capital provides
an elegant transition between the box girder and the supporting columns.

Bridge Description
The bridge is a 10-span continuous structure with a total length of 2256 ft. It is 49 ft 3 in. wide. The span lengths
range from 117 ft to 274 ft. The bridge is composed of 234 precast concrete segments with a top flange width of
49 ft 3 in. The typical segment has a depth of 9 ft 6 in. Variable depth segments are used near the piers for the
longer spans with the segment depth increasing to 12 ft 0 in.
Designing a cost-competitive precast concrete segmental bridge project with only 234 segments can be a difficult
undertaking. By using a variable-depth box to minimize concrete, splitting the pier segments to reduce the
maximum lifting weight, and using clean yet simple shapes for the bridge elements, a design solution was devised
that enabled the project to be built in a cost-effective manner, while also providing a preferred aesthetic solution.

OWNER: Florida Department of Transportation, District 2

LOCATION: Jacksonville, Florida
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: Ten span, 2256-ft-long, precast concrete segmental box girder bridge with a
maximum span of 274 ft
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Victor Ryzhikov, Antonio Ledesma, and Bob Szatynski, Parsons Brinckerhoff
ASPIRE ISSUE: Winter 2011, pp. 20-23

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5.10.19 I-95/I-295 North Interchange Ramp SEI

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

This bridge seems simple, and it is. But the simplicity masks a series of sophisticated choices about
proportions, shapes, and materials that make this bridge in fact extremely elegant. If one pays attention to the
characteristics that we usually look right past, the elegance emerges.
Start with the geometry, the lines of the structure. All of the main lines of the structure—the edges of the
parapet, the intersection of the overhang and the girder, the bottom edge of the girder—exactly follow the
curve of the ramp itself. None are interrupted by a pier cap, expansion joint, or other competing line; none are
broken into chords. The shadows cast by these elements divide the superstructure into parallel bands of
strongly contrasting light and dark that reinforce the main lines of the structure and make it appear thinner.
The overhangs are a large enough portion of the total width to make these bands significant. The end result is
a bridge that itself reflects the curving, high-speed trajectories of the vehicles that use it.
The piers are thin at their bases so that landscape flows through the bridge without interruption. They widen
at their tops just enough to provide room for the two bearings. The bearings hold the girder some distance
above the top of the pier, so that you can see daylight between them from many angles. This demonstrates
that the bridge is supported on just these two points, and makes it seem lighter than it is. It seems to float over
the landscape. It is the like a waiter carrying a heavy tray. By balancing it on his fingertips, he makes the task
seem effortless. Because the superstructure is lifted above the pier, its lines run right past the pier and are not
interrupted by a pier cap or edge. As a final refinement, the girder depth increases just a bit over the piers,
visually expressing the load concentration at that point.
Interchange bridges are mostly seen by people traveling at high speeds, who only have time to recognize the
major lines and the largest shapes. This designer concentrated on getting these elements right. Time and
money were not wasted on simulated finishes. Such finishes would be simply unrecognizable at highway
speeds and the effort would therefore be wasted.
We don’t all have the intensity of the Florida sun to play with, but in every area the sunlight has distinctive
characteristics that can be used to enhance the appearance of a bridge. It is part of our job to figure how to
take full advantage of that.

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5.10.20 Route 36 Highlands Bridge

5.10.20 Route 36 Highlands Bridge

Aesthetic Features
As explained in the aesthetics commentary, the aesthetic features of this bridge are achieved by the lines and
shapes of the structure itself.

Background
The Route 36 Highlands Bridge over the Shrewsbury River connects the seashore towns of Sea Bright Borough
and Sandy Hook with Highlands Borough on the mainland, in Monmouth County, N.J. The existing 75-year-old
double-leaf steel bascule bridge had 11-ft-wide lanes and lacked shoulders. The bridge’s obsolescence created
extensive congestion especially during the summer months when the shores along the Atlantic Ocean are visited
by beachgoers. The bridge opened twice an hour for maritime traffic on the Shrewsbury River.

Bridge Description
The new twin bridges will provide 65-ft minimum vertical clearances above mean high water in the navigation
channel and upgrade the width of the travel lanes to 12 ft and add 8-ft-wide shoulders. The nine span twin
bridges have span lengths that range from 109 ft 4 in. for Span 1 to a maximum of 231 ft 7 in. over the navigation
channel. Remaining spans vary in length from 172 to 179 ft. The 65-ft vertical clearance over the navigation
channel is achieved with vertical gradients of +5.7% to -6.5%. Each structure is approximately 1611 ft long with a
deck width of approximately 46 ft. The horizontal alignment features a reverse curvature with 1000 and 650 ft
radii.
The superstructure of each bridge consists of a match-cast, single cell, trapezoidal box girder. Segment depths
range from approximately 11 ft at Piers 3, 4, and 5 and taper to a constant 7 ft in Spans 4 and 5. Elsewhere, a
constant depth of 8 ft is maintained, except at the east abutment end of Span, 9 which tapers down to 7 ft 6 in. to
accommodate vertical clearance requirements under the structure.
The substructure piers were constructed using hollow, rectangular precast, concrete segments that were match-
cast. Pier heights range from approximately 12 ft near the abutments to 58 ft at the navigational channel. The
segments measure approximately 16 by 8 ft and range in height from 6 ft to a typical 10 ft.
The project includes architectural features that reflect the historic setting and character of the existing bridge,
including two monuments located at the bridge abutments. As defined by the New Jersey Department of
Transportation, these features also include:
• Decorative fish tiles replicated from the existing bridge located on the pylons and light pole pilasters
• Five-bar open steel rectangular railing to enhance the openness of the bridge and provide unobstructed
views of the Atlantic Ocean
• Rustications and reveals in the pier columns and form liner finishes on the waterline footings

OWNER: New Jersey Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Monmouth County, New Jersey
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: Twin, 1611-ft-long precast concrete segmental box girder bridges with precast
concrete segmental box piers
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Dominic E. Salsa, J.H. Reid General Contractor and Joseph E. Salvadori, Dywidag
Systems International–USA Inc.
ASPIRE ISSUE: Summer 2010, pp. 26-29

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5.10.20 Route 36 Highlands Bridge

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Waterfront communities faced with replacing an existing drawbridge by a fixed, high-level bridge often
overestimate the visual impact of the additional height and underestimate the visual benefit of removing the
existing low-level bridge. Because of the long spans made possible by post-tensioned segmental concrete
construction, people will be able to see right through the Route 36 Bridge and enjoy near and distant views. At
the same time, the removal of the low-level drawbridge and its forest of piers will open up water-level views
that haven’t been seen since its construction. The whole bay will be visually reunited.
The horizontal and vertical geometry of a bridge is often obscured by topography or buildings, and its visual
impact unseen. In fact, the geometry describes a ribbon in space with interacting curves that can make the
ribbon itself attractive, or not. In a long viaduct, especially overwater, the potential aesthetic power of the
geometry becomes obvious. The curves required to get the Route 36 Bridge up and over the channel give the
structure an attractive flowing, undulating appearance. They show signs of having been refined to do exactly
that. The segmental box exactly follows these curves, reinforcing their impact.
The segmental box brings still more to the table. Because the box is both trapezoidal and haunched, the soffits
of the boxes vary in width, making the intersections of the box sides and soffits three-dimensional curves in
space. These curves visually interact with the curved horizontal and vertical alignments of the bridge, creating
wavelike forms that, with their reflections in the water, frame the views beyond. Given the visual quality and
complexity of the superstructure, the designer has sensibly kept the piers simple, so that the superstructure
remains the star of the show.
All of this may seem abstract, but people recognize the effect. I’ve shown photos of similar bridges at
community meetings and had people spontaneously applaud. And the great thing is that it is all accomplished
with the lines and shapes of the structure itself; nothing needed to be added or pasted on.

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5.10.21 SH58 Ramp A Flyover Bridge

5.10.21 SH58 Ramp A Flyover Bridge

Aesthetic Features
Colorado Department of Transportation (CDOT) is using curved precast concrete U-girders to create cost-
effective, long-span bridges where aesthetics and urban issues are key factors. Ramp A incorporates the aesthetic
concepts of line, mass, function, simplicity, and color.

Background
Ramp A connects eastbound I-70 traffic to westbound State Highway (SH) 58. As originally designed, the bridge
was to feature curved, precast concrete girders with unique detailing. The design was value-engineered to feature
details and cross-sections similar to those developed for previous projects. This approach provided efficiencies to
both the contractor and precaster, which helped meet the numerous construction challenges presented by the
difficult urban site.

Bridge Description
The 11-span bridge crosses Clear Creek, a bike path, three traffic openings, eastbound and westbound I-70, and
eastbound SH58. The project included the state’s longest span using constant depth, precast concrete U-girder
construction. Its superstructure features two lines of spliced, post-tensioned, precast concrete girders, divided
into three units. Unit 1 consists of four continuous spans with lengths of 153, 205, 235, and 186 ft that cross Clear
Creek, the bike path, and eastbound and westbound I-70. Unit 2 has three spans with lengths of 147.5, 205, and
186 ft that cross eastbound SH58. Unit 3 consists of four spans with lengths of 187.5, 200, 200, and 188 ft. The
bridge begins in a spiral curve in Unit 1, which continues through Unit 2 and transitions in Unit 3 to a straight
section at the end of the bridge.
The superstructure consists of two lines of 86-in.-deep modified CDOT U84 concrete girders spliced near the
quarter points of the typical span. The first and last pairs of girders in the spiral curve were cast at varying radii.
The remaining girders in the central curve were cast with an 809-ft radius for both girder lines. The straight
girders in Unit 3 were cast in a conventional girder form.
The superstructure contains 30 curved and eight straight precast concrete girders and 265 precast concrete deck
panels with a cast-in-place concrete deck. The curved girders were cast in special curved forms that conformed to
the design radii. The forms were designed in discreet panels that had break points at each end adjusted to the
necessary curvature. Girder lengths varied from 93 ft 2 in. to 119 ft 7 in. and weighed from 220 kips to 265 kips.
Integral pier caps on all fixed interior piers resolved clearance issues and presented a lighter, consistent visual
appearance. All integral pier caps were transversely post-tensioned and fully fixed to the superstructure.
Expansion piers used a conventional hammerhead cap post-tensioned to enhance durability and provide a
shallower design that blended aesthetically with the interior pier caps.

OWNER: Colorado Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Golden, Colorado
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: 2115-ft-long precast concrete flyover ramp with modified CDOT curved girders
ORIGINAL AUTHOR: Gregg A. Reese, Summit Engineering Group Inc. (Now Modjeski and Masters, Inc.)
ASPIRE ISSUE: Spring 2010, pp. 28-31

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5.10.21 SH58 Ramp A Flyover Bridge

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Large, multilevel interchanges are inherently confusing and stressful. Vehicles of all sizes hurtle along curved
ramps in patterns that are unreadable at ground level. Drivers are continually trying to see ahead to what is
coming next: sign, ramp, or merging vehicle. Within and contributing to this visual cacophony are the bridges
themselves, and their phalanxes of piers.
Improving a confusing and stressful scene requires simplifying it. In the case of interchange bridges that
means using fewer girders, fewer piers, and fewer columns within each pier. In addition to reducing the
number of elements in the visual field this opens up view corridors through the interchange, so that drivers
can anticipate what is coming next, and improves the safety of the interchange. Simplifying the features of the
bridge itself further reduces the number of visual elements the driver must absorb. Ramp A brings new
techniques and new technology to these goals.
First of all, the torsional stiffness of the U-girders allows only two girders in the ramp cross section. Then,
splicing and post-tensioning the girders allows for longer spans and fewer piers. Having only two girders to
support, the piers themselves can be simple and straight forward. Since the girders are curved, they can
smoothly follow the curve of the ramp, so that all of the lines of the ramp are parallel to each other. Coloring
the girders a darker color emphasizes this consistency, and makes the ramp appear thinner and thus the
spaces below seem more open. The open, graceful appearance of this bridge will make this interchange easier
and more enjoyable to use.

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5.10.22 Minnesota Crosstown Project

5.10.22 Minnesota Crosstown Project

Aesthetic Features
The standardization of the segments used in the six segmental box girder bridges in the Minnesota Crosstown
Project illustrate the aesthetic design concepts of balance, rhythm, mass, and proportion as described in Chapter
5. The photograph on the next page shows two of the bridges under construction.

Background
The project is situated in the southern portion of Minneapolis and in Richfield, with the Mall of America and the
Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport nearby. The old configuration was essentially an at-grade interchange.
The traffic from Highway 62 merged into the left-most (fast) lane of I-35W and caused traffic delays as the traffic
wove together. This 1960s design had exceeded its design capacity, had a high accident rate, and was outdated
with an aging infrastructure. Additionally, the area has long since undergone densely populated urban sprawl,
with homes and businesses built to the edge of the right-of-way along the corridor.

Project Description
The new layout includes elevated structures that separate the traffic and eliminate the merging and weaving
requirements. The use of precast balanced cantilever techniques permitted construction in these highly confined
areas.
The superstructure for the six segmental bridges used a modified AASHTO/PCI/ASBI Section 8-2 (2400-2) with a
depth and length of 8 ft, and weighing up to 80 tons. To accommodate the three unique roadway widths varying
from 33 ft 4 in. to a maximum of 45 ft 4 in., the deck flanges were narrowed or extended as needed to accomplish
the bridge width variations. Also, the bottom slab thickness was increased to 24 in. at the piers then tapered to 9
in. thick for the typical precast segments.
The bridge type selection process for these flyover ramps was based on a combination of several factors:

• The box girder geometry and balanced cantilever construction method offered an approach that better
fits the confined work area.

• The segments could be erected during brief night-time or weekend traffic closures.

• With six bridges comprising 461 precast segments, the Minnesota Department of Transportation
believed the volume was sufficient to overcome the investment for a casting yard and provide an
alternative that was more economical than other bridge types.

OWNER: Minnesota Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Crosstown Commons., Minnesota
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: Precast post-tensioned box girders
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Keith Molnau, Minnesota Department of Transportation and Franklin Hines, FIGG
ASPIRE ISSUE: Spring 2009, pp. 30-33

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5.10.22 Minnesota Crosstown Project

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

Economy and elegance have a fruitful convergence in Minnesota’s Crosstown Reconstruction. The Minnesota
DOT has learned, as New Mexico, Florida, and other states did before them, that concrete segmental
construction provides both an economical and attractive solution for flyover ramps in complex interchanges.
Let’s start with the economics. In these interchanges the ramp widths can usually be sufficiently standardized
to produce long lengths of bridges with similar widths. This means that there will be a large number of similar
segments that in turn justifies the establishment of a casting yard. It also allows the standardization of the
substructure, resulting in additional economy through the repeated use of a few standard pier forms. Once
those economic basics have been met, the inherent advantages of the box girder come into play.
The small footprint of the piers compared to a typical multi-column pier bent means there are more places to
put the piers, a great advantage in a complex interchange. That, plus the act that the critical vertical clearance
point is often not on the bottom of the girder but on the bottom of the thin overhanging wing, usually
eliminates the need for costly and unsightly straddle bents. Finally, balanced cantilever construction
minimizes falsework and allows traffic to be maintained with minimal disruption, another savings.
All of these points of economy have their aesthetic payoff as well. First, the box girder, with its wide overhang
and deep shadow line, looks thinner than a typical girder bridge of the same depth. The piers occupy a much
smaller part of the visual field than typical multi-column pier bents. All piers are essentially the same, varying
only in height. They don’t have to be modified or rotated from place to place, as multi-column pier bents often
do, in order to fit into tight locations. The result is an interchange that is easy to see through and to
understand, a great advantage to drivers trying to navigate it. Finally, the girders themselves smoothly and
continuously parallel the curves of the ramps. They fit right into the interchange. After all, an interchange is
basically an assembly of curves.

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5.10.23 Daggett Road Bridge

5.10.23 Daggett Road Bridge

Aesthetic Features
The Daggett Road Bridge illustrates that low-level bridges can be designed to achieve smooth horizontal lines
while satisfying the structural, geometric, and environmental constraints.

Background
Daggett Road provides the link between California State Highway 4 and Rough and Ready Island, a former U.S.
Navy facility that was decommissioned and turned over to the Port of Stockton, California. The new structure
replaces an old steel truss swing-span bridge over Burns Cut-off with a four-lane precast concrete spliced girder
bridge.

Bridge Description
The Daggett Road Bridge consists of a three-span, spliced bulb-tee girder bridge with post-tensioned integral bent
caps. Each of the eight girder lines consists of three segments: two over the piers/end spans and one middle drop-
in segment. The 100-ft-long middle span drop-in segments had to be installed from cranes operating on top of the
partially completed deck over the end spans. The girders have a depth of 4 ft 7 in.
The system was the least intrusive to the sensitive environmental areas, provided reduced structure depth,
facilitated more flexibility for the incorporation of aesthetics, and reduced approach roadway costs associated
with the structure depth. Precasting the girders in segments, then splicing them using post-tensioning tendons
after placement, permitted the design to take advantage of the efficiency of a continuous structure without the
need for extensive falsework in and around the waterway. Even with all the versatility and adaptability offered by
the selected precast girder system, a special erection scheme was necessary to stay out of the channel and above
the high-water elevation.
The end span/pier segments comprised prismatic bulb-tee girders that span between each abutment and the
nearest bent, and cantilever nearly 24 ft into the middle span. The girders are pretensioned for shipping and
handling stresses. The pier segments also contain ducts for two stages of longitudinal post-tensioning: one for the
girder-only section and one for girder and deck composite section.
The middle span drop-in segments span between the cantilever ends of the end span/pier segments. They also
consist of a constant depth bulb-tee shape for the positive moment region. They are pretensioned for lifting and
handling stresses and contain ducts for the two stage post-tensioning of the continuous girder and composite
sections.
The cast-in-place integral bent system provides the connection of the precast pier segment to the columns. The
integral cap is formed and cast around and under the end span/pier segments, and stressed before the drop-in
segments are erected, using transverse post-tensioning ducts passing through the end span/pier segments. The
resulting joint is capable of transferring longitudinal moment between the columns and the superstructure
through torsion and shear friction at the bent cap/girder interface.

OWNER: Port of Stockton, California

LOCATION: Stockton, California
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: Three-span, spliced bulb-tee girder bridge with integral bent caps
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Ahmad Abdel-Karim, Thomas Barnard, and Orin Brown, DMJM Harris | AECOM
ASPIRE ISSUE: Winter 2008. pp. 42-45

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5.10.23 Daggett Road Bridge

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

For many precast concrete girder bridges, particularly low ones, the biggest aesthetic problem is often the size
and shape of the pier caps. They can break up the horizontal lines of the bridge, creating a visual stop at each
pier line. On very low bridges, they can look like a series of transverse walls segmenting the space under the
bridge.
The Daggett Road Bridge avoids these potential problems. Driven by the necessities of the site, the designers
have come up with innovative techniques to raise the pier caps into the plane of the girders. The method also
creates structure continuity across the piers, allowing the girders to be shallower than usual. Shallowness is
especially appreciated in a structure that is low to the water like this one. The result is a graceful, well-
proportioned structure that sweeps cleanly from bank to bank while leaving a significant opening below.
There is a tendency to downplay the appearance of small, out of the way bridges, like the Daggett Road Bridge.
However, almost all bridges are important features in somebody’s neighborhood or somebody’s park. They all
deserve attention to their appearance. Our goal should be to achieve efficiency, economy, and elegance on
every structure. The structural innovations used in this structure would benefit the appearance of other
precast concrete girder bridges, as well as create functional advantages such as longer spans. They should be
considered wherever precast girders are being designed.

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5.10.24 High Main Street Bridge

5.10.24 High-Main Street Bridge

Aesthetic Features
The High-Main Street Bridge is an example of modern bridge construction used to emulate the previous arch
bridge and harmonize it with the historic surroundings.

Background
The High-Main Street Bridge over the Great Miami River in Hamilton, Ohio, is located in the heart of the city’s
historic district and carries the city’s main thoroughfare across the river. The existing bridge, a spandrel-filled
concrete arch structure, consisted of five 95-ft long spans. Built in 1915 to replace yet an earlier single-span steel
truss bridge it was badly deteriorated—but also highly cherished by the community. The existing bridge featured
extra-wide sidewalks for pedestrians and cyclists and sweeping views of the river. It was built on the former site
of historic Fort Hamilton (active from 1791 to 1796), and a concrete replica of the old log fort wall flanks the east
bridge abutment. The four-story-tall Soldiers, Sailors and Pioneers Memorial Building and Heritage Hall—home of
the McCloskey Museum—portray the city and county history and dominate the landscape at the bridge’s eastern
end.
Replacing such a high-profile bridge required considerable input and great sensitivity. These needs were
emphasized by the bridge’s eligibility for place mention the National Register of Historic Places and its position as
a contributing structure in the Hamilton Civic Center Historic District. Despite this pedigree, however, the
structure was structurally and functionally obsolete, requiring an immediate solution.

Bridge Description
The new bridge uses precast concrete spliced-girders with three full elliptical-arch spans and half-arch spans at
each end. Span lengths are 75.5, 128, 134, 128, and 77.5 ft to complete a 550 ft-long bridge. Eleven girder lines are
used at a spacing of 9 ft 3 in. center-to-center. The arch profiles range from about 3.5 ft deep at the apex of each
span to about 15 ft deep at the piers. The girders are rectangular with the exterior girder section including formed
relief to convey an integral bottom flange, adding to the aesthetics.
The girders also provided the flexibility to craft special
aesthetic features using specially made forms, while
still realizing economies by producing multiple pieces
from each form. Casting the pieces in a quality-
controlled plant also ensured more uniformity of
appearance and better quality.

OWNER: Ohio Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Hamilton, Ohio
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: A five-span bridge with precast concrete girders with deep haunches spliced
together to create an historic look
ORIGINAL AUTHOR: John C. Shanks Jr., Burgess & Niple, Inc.
ASPIRE ISSUE: Fall 2007, pp. 16-20

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5.10.24 High Main Street Bridge

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

The design of the High-Main Street Bridge started with the agreement between the Federal Highway
Administration, Ohio Department of Transportation, City of Hamilton, and the Ohio State Historic Preservation
Office that established fundamental aesthetic guidelines and mandated consultation with local historic groups.
The resulting working group indicated a strong preference for a design that would emulate the best features of
the existing bridge, citing as a model the Discovery Bridge in Columbus, Ohio, a flat plate arch of similar size
built in the 1990s.
Normally in a situation like this, it is preferable to develop a contemporary bridge design fitting the historical
and monumental context of the site. However, it is not uncommon for communities to insist, as in this case, on a
more traditional structure. So, the design team resolved to use the best of modern technology to create a bridge
that recalled the best features of the aging bridge.
The most positive aspects of the existing bridge were the graceful elliptical shape of the arches and the extreme
thinness of the deck at midspan. Through the inspiration of Franklin County Engineer Mark Sherman and
others, Ohio’s precast concrete industry has built a number of similarly sized monumental bridges using
custom precast concrete girders. The team decided to use this technology, but to splice the girders to make
them continuous. This allowed the transfer of moment to the pier sections, so that the midspans could be kept
very thin. The end spans were designed as half-arches to allow for river walks on both banks. For economy, the
more complicated pier segments of the girders were made identical, and all dimensional variations were taken
up in the simpler center drop-in sections. The details of the fascia girders, overlooks, and railings were all
derived from the architecture of the Soldiers, Sailors and Pioneers Monument, symbolically extending its
influence from the east to the west bank. The sidewalk paving patterns are the same as those used for the
existing High Street sidewalks east of the bridge. The railing includes a series of bronze medallions depicting
momentous events in Hamilton’s history.
One of the least attractive aspects of the old bridge was the pronounced hump in its profile. By lengthening the
vertical curve to about the length of the bridge the team gave the bridge a more graceful curve and improved
drivers’ sight distance. However, this placed additional emphasis on keeping the girders thin in order to
maintain the hydraulic opening. To extend the monumental district’s presence to the west bank, a pair of raised
plazas was developed with seating, flagpoles, and lighting. These replaced features that had been there before
but at a grander scale. The west bank itself was regraded to create a pair of small amphitheaters flanking the
plazas that provide visual and handicapped access to the river. They will also be a good location for civic
celebrations, such as the annual art festival and the 4th of July fireworks. All of these features are aimed at
integrating the new structure into not only the physical fabric of the monumental district but also into its daily
life.

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5.10.25 Seattle Sound Transit Light Rail

5.10.25 Seattle Sound Transit Light Rail

Aesthetic Features
The long line of this elevated structure is clearly visible to the public from the ground and needed to incorporate
aesthetic design concepts such as sight lines, mass, proportion, and balance.

Background
The last link in the new Seattle Sound Transit light rail system comprises a 5.1-mile-long project, which is
approximately 80 percent above ground with 4.2 miles of elevated guideway carrying twin tracks with
continuously welded rails fastened to the top of the superstructure. The track elevation ranges from 20 ft above
ground to as high as 70 ft.

Bridge Description
The superstructure features a 7-ft-deep precast concrete segmental box girder, with the segments put into place
by an overhead traveling gantry. Typical spans for the project are 120 ft. However, where the structure crosses I-
5, the Duwamish River, and the BNSF tracks, spans vary from 220 to 350 ft. The superstructure is 26 ft 6 in. wide
and carries two light rail tracks. It also contains a maintenance and emergency exit walkway between the tracks.
An important decision early in the design process led to the development of a unique triangular-shaped cross-
section for the box girder. This design was developed for several reasons. The appearance of the 4-mile-long
ribbon of concrete entered into the design equation. For this reason, the width of the bottom slab was sized to
satisfy the box girder bending stresses.
Lateral stability at the piers was provided by external diaphragms. These outside diaphragms were integrated
with the pier shapes designed as twin walls with a center diaphragm. The resultant profile produces a sleek,
narrow section. This significantly reduces material quantities when compared with traditional box girder designs.
The inclined webs of the V-shaped box girder also provide a less intrusive appearance to the guideway.
Throughout the design process, aesthetics remained a key concern. For example, instead of traditional straddle
bents typical in high-seismic regions, resulting in bulky rectangular boxes atop circular columns, the straddle
bents received the same reveal treatments provided on typical piers. The sloping sides of the bent beams and
lower arch-shaped reveal treatments give the effect of reducing the depth of the bent beams.
By “building over the top,” the new rail line avoids disrupting traffic on major thoroughfares, creates a much
smaller footprint than a surface rail line would require, stays out of the water where the line crosses the
Duwamish River, and minimizes the structures impact on the wetlands. All of this pleases the multiple groups and
state agencies charged with oversight.

OWNER: Seattle Sound Transit

LOCATION: Seattle, Washington
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: 4.2 miles of 26-ft 6-in.-wide precast concrete segmental box girders carrying two
light rail tracks
ORIGINAL AUTHOR: Wayne Endicott
ASPIRE ISSUE: Fall 2007, pp. 42-47

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5.10.25 Seattle Sound Transit Light Rail

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

This issue of ASPIRE™ brings an embarrassment of riches to someone who likes to see improved appearance
in bridges—they are all noteworthy. Spokane’s Monroe Street Bridge is a particularly fine example of the
sensitive reconstruction of an existing historic bridge. However, I decided to focus on the Seattle Sound
Transit light rail link because it helps answer a question that I am often asked: what is the increased cost of
aesthetics?
The preliminary design for the rail link was quite a different structure. Based on the region’s experience in the
construction of highway bridges, it had been assumed that precast concrete U-shaped girders would once
again offer the most economical solution. After all, it is a long viaduct with many similar spans. However, that
led to a design that required hammerhead pier caps at each pier and one girder for each rail track. The weight
of the precast girders created construction difficulties, as did the many curves that had to be accommodated.
With all of that in mind, the designer asked for and received permission to evaluate the original assumption.
The result is the design now under construction. It turned out to be 15 percent less expensive than the
preliminary design. It is also a more attractive design. With a single segmental box section and without the
miles of hammerheads, it is much sleeker, less massive, and more transparent. The designers did an excellent
job of marrying the piers and the girders in an attractive and structurally honest way. Finally, the piers have
vertical insets that create shadow lines that minimize their apparent width. At piers near stations mirrored
tiles are set in these insets to create a flash of color for users approaching the structure, something that will
surely be appreciated during Seattle’s rainy weather.
So now, when I am asked the question about the added cost of esthetics I say, based on the Seattle Sound
Transit light rail link, the cost could be less. Of course, the real answer is, it depends. If you start with a
standard structure and just add decoration to it, you automatically add cost. But if you look at the problem
from the ground up, consider all of the options and try to improve the structure’s efficiency, economy, and
elegance all at the same time, you will certainly come up with a better-looking structure. You might even reap
some savings.

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5.10.26 Veteran’s Glass City Skyway

5.10.26 Veteran’s Glass City Skyway

Aesthetic Features
The Veterans’ Glass City Skyway was built not only to improve traffic flow but to provide a signature bridge that
reflects the glass making history of Toledo.

Background
Prior to construction of the Veterans’ Glass City Skyway, Interstate 280 crossed the Maumee River in the heart of
Toledo on the Craig Memorial Bridge, one of the few remaining movable bridges on the interstate system. An
average of 900 annual openings of the bascule span stops interstate traffic. In 1988, replacement of the existing
bridge was identified as the highest transportation priority for the northwest Ohio region. A new high-level bridge
would ease traffic congestion on I-280 and maintain shipping to the Port of Toledo. By retaining the existing
bridge for local vehicular and pedestrian traffic, the project would also facilitate commerce within the City of
Toledo by effectively adding another local crossing over the Maumee River.

Bridge Description
The new bridge is an 8800-ft-long structure including two approach structures and a cable-stayed bridge with a
single 400-ft-tall pylon supporting twin 612-ft 6-in.-long spans with a single plane of cables. The bridge provides
120-ft vertical and 400-ft horizontal clearances, a six-lane roadway, and world-class aesthetics built around a
theme of “Glass.”
The superstructure of the cable-stayed bridge consists of twin parallel single cell precast concrete box girders
connected by delta frames between the boxes to transfer the loads from the precast segments to the cables.
Except for 3 ft at the top, the uppermost 199 ft of the pylon is clad on all four sides in specially manufactured
glass. The glass is designed to reflect the sky during the day and shine with more than 16 million color
combinations across the skyline at night, courtesy of 384 LED fixtures.

OWNER: Ohio Department of Transportation

LOCATION: Toledo, Ohio
BRIDGE DESCRIPTION: Cable-stayed bridge with a single 400-ft-tall pylon supporting twin 612-
ft 6-in.-long spans with a single plane of cables
ORIGINAL AUTHORS: Michael Gramza, Ohio Department of Transportation and Jeff Walters,
FIGG
ASPIRE ISSUE: Summer 2007, pp. 30-34

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5.10.26 Veteran’s Glass City Skyway

AESTHETICS
COMMENTARY
by Frederick Gottemoeller

The Veterans’ Glass City Skyway has to be understood first of all as an expression of civic will and civic pride.
The project aims to do more than build a bridge, as important as that bridge might be. Of course, the project
will relieve traffic congestion caused by the original routing of I-280 across the Craig Memorial Bridge.
However, it will also reconnect neighborhoods that were severed when I-280 was built, catalyze the shoreline
development and redevelopment of an important stretch of the Maumee River, and give Toledo, Ohio, and all
northwestern Ohio a new symbol of growth and optimism.
Public agencies are often unwilling to accept project objectives beyond the narrowest possible definition of
functional transportation. The Ohio Department of Transportation and local communities are to be
congratulated for recognizing that a major transportation facility in an urban area is an inseparable element
of the urban fabric, that it, therefore, facilitates (or inhibits) transportation, land use, urban design, and
symbolic functions; and that efforts to improve all of these functions are legitimate uses of public
transportation funds.
With this in mind, the community helped to define parameters for both the bridge and for the areas below and
beside it. Parks are being built as integral parts of the project to fill the land areas vacated by I-280 and the
area directly below the bridge. By providing centers of positive activity and attractive amenities, the parks
will stitch together the severed neighborhoods and provide an impetus for their improvement and
redevelopment. They also will provide an attractive backdrop for the bridge itself.
The choice of segmental concrete box girders for the approaches supports the desired park development. The
girders provide a smooth, solid, and light colored “ceiling” for the spaces in the park. The wide overhangs and
the light color will promote the penetration of sunlight into the parks. The box girders allow piers with single,
slim shafts that keep views through the parks open and unobstructed. The piers have been provided with
graceful capitals that allow the shaft to stay thin while still accommodating two bearings at the top.
That brings us to the main span itself, and here the shift is from the neighborhood scale to the scale of the
Maumee River, the city itself, and indeed all of the locations from which the bridge and its pylon are visible.
The first thing to notice is that the deck girder is the same size and shape as the approach girders, so that the
one flows smoothly into the other, and the entire bridge seems of a single piece. The second thing is how the
tapered facets of the lower part of the tower simulate the piers of the nearby drawbridge, creating a similar
image of graceful mass and solid support. The third thing to notice is how these facets smoothly transition
above the deck into a needlelike tower made to appear even thinner by the vertical lighted glass. The details
of the tower show that this is accomplished while still keeping the load-bearing elements of the tower
structurally efficient. The full impact of the pylon will be at night when the lighting is functioning, making it
even more memorable.
Finally, to fully understand the impact of the bridge one has to shift scales once again, to the scale of the whole
greater Toledo region; everywhere within the advertising reach of the Toledo newspapers and broadcasting
stations. The region’s residents will see frequent images of the bridge in newspaper articles, in backgrounds of
TV shots and in advertising brochures. It will become a symbol of the place where they live and, in some small
way, part of their own self-image. It will also be recognized as a symbol of the Toledo region when it appears
in national media. The Veterans’ Glass City Skyway will join Boston’s Zakim Bridge and Tampa Bay’s Sunshine
Skyway as new bridges that are now nationally recognized symbols of the places where they were built.

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Table of Contents

NOTATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-3

6.0 SCOPE AND DISCLAIMER .......................................................................................................................................................................... 6-5
6.0.1 Scope ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-5
6.0.2 Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-5
6.1 PRELIMINARY PLAN ................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-5
6.1.1 General ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-5
6.1.2 Development.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-5
6.1.3 Factors for Consideration ................................................................................................................................................................ 6-5
6.1.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 6-6
6.1.3.2 Site ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-6
6.1.3.3 Structure ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-6
6.1.3.4 Hydraulics ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-6
6.1.3.5 Construction ................................................................................................................................................................................. 6-7
6.1.3.6 Utilities ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 6-7
6.1.4 Required Details ................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-7
6.2 SUPERSTRUCTURE ................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-10
6.2.1 Beam Layout ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-10
6.2.2 Jointless Bridges ................................................................................................................................................................................ 6-10
6.3 SUBSTRUCTURES ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-10
6.3.1 Piers ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6-10
6.3.1.1 Open Pile Bents......................................................................................................................................................................... 6-10
6.3.1.2 Encased Pile Bents .................................................................................................................................................................. 6-10
6.3.1.3 Hammerhead Piers ................................................................................................................................................................. 6-10
6.3.1.4 Multi-Column Bents ................................................................................................................................................................ 6-12
6.3.1.5 Wall Piers .................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-12
6.3.1.6 Precast Concrete Segmental Piers.................................................................................................................................... 6-12
6.3.2 Abutments............................................................................................................................................................................................ 6-12
6.3.3 Hydraulics ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 6-13
6.3.4 Safety ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-13
6.3.5 Aesthetics ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 6-13
6.4 FOUNDATIONS............................................................................................................................................................................................ 6-13
6.5 PRELIMINARY MEMBER SELECTION ............................................................................................................................................... 6-14
6.5.1 Product Types .................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-14
6.5.2 Design Criteria ................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-14
6.5.2.1 Live Loads ................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-15
6.5.2.2 Dead Loads ................................................................................................................................................................................. 6-16
6.5.2.3 Composite Deck ........................................................................................................................................................................ 6-16
6.5.2.4 Concrete Strength and Allowable Stresses .................................................................................................................. 6-17
6.5.2.5 Strands and Spacing ............................................................................................................................................................... 6-18

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6.5.2.6 Design Limits ............................................................................................................................................................................. 6-18

6.5.3 High-Strength Concrete ................................................................................................................................................................. 6-18
6.5.3.1 Attainable Strengths .............................................................................................................................................................. 6-18
6.5.3.2 Limiting Stresses ..................................................................................................................................................................... 6-18
6.6 DESCRIPTION OF DESIGN CHARTS ................................................................................................................................................... 6-19
6.6.1 Product Groups.................................................................................................................................................................................. 6-19
6.6.2 Maximum Spans Versus Spacings ............................................................................................................................................. 6-19
6.6.3 Number of Strands ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6-19
6.6.4 Controls................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6-19
6.7 PRELIMINARY DESIGN EXAMPLES ................................................................................................................................................... 6-20
6.7.1 Preliminary Design Example No. 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 6-20
6.7.2 Preliminary Design Example No. 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 6-20
6.8 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 6-21
6.9 PRELIMINARY DESIGN CHARTS ......................................................................................................................................................... 6-23
6.10 PRELIMINARY DESIGN DATA ........................................................................................................................................................... 6-41

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Notation

NOTATION
𝑓𝑏 = calculated concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam

𝑓𝑐′ = compressive strength of concrete for use in design

𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = minimum concrete compressive strength required at transfer

𝑓𝑡 = calculated concrete stress at the top fiber of the beam

L = span length

Mr = nominal factored flexural resistance of the section

Mu = factored moment at the section

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6.0 Scope/6.1.3 Factors for Consideration

Preliminary Design
6.0 SCOPE AND DISCLAIMER
6.0.1 Scope
Preliminary design is usually the first step in designing an economical precast, prestressed concrete bridge. This
chapter discusses the preliminary plan, superstructure and substructure considerations, foundations, and
member selection criteria with design aids and examples. Additional information is given in Chapter 4.

6.0.2 Disclaimer
The information in this chapter is for preliminary design purposes only. The graphs and tables are intended to
provide an initial estimate of the section shape and depth needed for a given span and girder spacing and to
provide an approximate number of prestressing strands. The tables also provide initial estimates of camber and
stresses. The graphs and tables are based on the assumptions listed in Section 6.5. Design situations that deviate
from the assumptions listed in Section 6.5 will affect the final design. Changes made by owners to section
dimensions or strand patterns will also affect the final design.
The engineer of record (EOR) is responsible for performing all necessary calculations to verify the final design of
the girder. This responsibility includes, but is not limited to, conformance to the current version of the AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, state or local additions, deletions, or modifications to the LRFD Specifications,
and other state or local specifications.
The sections of this chapter contain lists of items the EOR should consider in the design process. The items listed
in this chapter are intended to be as complete as practical for most bridge design projects. The EOR should
evaluate the total project and ensure appropriate items that may not be listed are also considered on a project-by-
project basis. This may be especially necessary for designs in high seismic regions.

6.1 PRELIMINARY PLAN

6.1.1 General
The preliminary planning process consists of collecting and analyzing site information, applying established
policies and practices, considering alternatives, and evaluating costs, all for the purpose of providing the bridge
that is both cost effective and functionally, structurally, and aesthetically appropriate. The preliminary plan lays
the groundwork for the final bridge design. It specifies the structure type and is the basis for the design schedule
estimate and construction cost estimate.

6.1.2 Development
The preliminary planning process begins with bridge site data. Preliminary studies such as type, size, and location
studies, geometric data, foundation data, and hydraulic data are reviewed. Preliminary geometric approval is
received. Stakeholders evaluate structure alternatives by considering such details as length, type, geometric
constraints such as vertical and horizontal clearances, span arrangement, staging, falsework, substructure
requirements, environmental and community issues, and costs. Plan, elevation, and section views are developed
and approved. Cost estimates are prepared. The preliminary plan and cost estimate are approved before final
design begins.

6.1.3 Factors for Consideration

A number of factors should be addressed at the preliminary design stage.

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6.1.3.1 General/6.1.3.4 Hydraulics

6.1.3.1 General
Funding classification (for example, state funds, federal and state funds, or local funds) and available funding level
should be determined. Environmental concerns include site conditions (for example, wetlands or environmentally
sensitive areas) and mitigating measures.

6.1.3.2 Site
Site requirements that should be determined include topography, horizontal alignment (curves and skews),
required clearances, vertical alignment and limits, superelevation, and existing and proposed utilities. Safety
considerations include sight distances, horizontal clearance to piers, and hazards to pedestrians.
End slopes are controlled by soil conditions and stability, right-of-way availability, fill height or depth of cut,
roadway alignment and functional classification, and existing site conditions.

6.1.3.3 Structure
Structural considerations include foundation and groundwater conditions, requirements for future widening, and
anticipated settlement. Aesthetics, including general appearance, level of visibility, and compatibility with
surroundings and adjacent structures, should be evaluated. Railroad separations may require negotiations with
the railroad owner concerning clearances, geometry, utilities, drainage, and provision for maintenance roads.
The total length of the bridge can be based on horizontal and vertical clearances to roadway(s) or rail(s) below or
above, or hydraulic studies if the structure will be over water, as well as environmental concerns such as wildlife
crossings or other restrictions as set by the owner agency. The bridge width is typically controlled by the width of
the approaching roadway. The span lengths in most bridges are controlled by such factors as the following:
• Allowable beam depth due to clearance requirements
• Placement of piers in waterways
• Horizontal clearance between supports and rights-of-way below
• Economic ratio of end span to interior span
For multi-span bridges, the ratios of span lengths in adjacent spans of continuous units shown in Table 6.1.3.3-1
have been found to produce a balanced design in cases where the reinforcement requirements for end spans are
comparable to those for interior spans.
Table 6.1.3.3-1 Suggested Ratios of Spans for Multi-span Bridges
End span/interior span Condition
0.95 Simple span for beam and deck weight,
continuous span for all other loads
0.80 Simple span for beam weight, continuous
span for all other loads
As previously noted, bridge details are largely dictated by obstructions above and below ground, maximum span
limitations, and required abutment locations. However, to the extent possible, large skews, steep profile grades,
sharp horizontal curves, and differing span lengths should be avoided. Slightly lengthening the bridge may be
preferable to using an extreme skew angle that tightly fits the bridge site.

6.1.3.4 Hydraulics
Hydraulic considerations include bridge deck drainage, stream flow conditions and channel drift, passage of flood
debris, scour, and the effect of the pier as an obstruction (for example, the pier’s shape, width, skew, number of
columns), banks and pier protection, permit requirements for navigation, and stream work limitations. After piers
have been located, specific information on scour and backwater is obtained.
Vertical clearances for water crossings should satisfy floodway clearance requirements. In accordance with the
flood history, nature of the site, character of drift, and other factors, the minimum vertical clearance (for example,
for the 100-year flood) is determined. The roadway profile and the bridge superstructure depth should
accommodate this clearance requirement. Bridges over navigable waters should also comply with any clearance
requirements of the U.S. Coast Guard.

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6.1.3.5 Construction/6.1.4 Required Details

6.1.3.5 Construction
Construction considerations include falsework and other construction clearances, working space requirements,
hauling and erection details, access to the site, construction season, and construction scheduling limitations.
Safety considerations such as traffic flow, staging, detours, and falsework requirements should be addressed.
Access routes should be checked and sites reviewed to ensure that the precast concrete beams can be transported
to the site. Possible routes to the site should be adequate to handle the truck and trailer that will be hauling the
beams. Generally, the designer is not responsible for construction of the bridge. However, prudent designers
always consider constructability issues. Therefore, it is recommended that both size and weight of the beams be
checked and hauling permit requirements determined during the preliminary design phase. The details related to
erecting the beams once they reach the site also need to be assessed. The site should be reviewed to determine
whether space is adequate for the contractor to position the cranes and other equipment necessary to lift and
place the beams.
For all girders, but especially for long girders, lateral stability during transport, erection, and construction must
be considered until the girders are properly braced in the bridge. The Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability
of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (PCI, 2016A) can assist in evaluating the lateral stability of the
girders. A spreadsheet for evaluating lateral stability and an associated User Manual for Calculating the Lateral
Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (PCI 2016B) are also available.
Precast elements are ideal for use for Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC). The use of ABC techniques can cut
construction time considerably, increasing safety and decreasing user inconvenience. Please consult the Federal
Highway Administration website (www.fhwa.dot.gov) for the most current information on the use of precast
elements for ABC.

6.1.3.6 Utilities
Often, it is required that the bridge support electric, water, telephone, and other utility conduits. Most loads
imposed by these utilities, except perhaps those of large water pipes, do not significantly affect structural design.
However, aesthetics and accessibility to utility lines, as well as relocation of existing utilities, may affect the
selection of the superstructure system.

6.1.4 Required Details

The preliminary plan should include, as a minimum, the details listed. Fig. 6.1.4-1 shows examples of some of
these details.
• Location, including highway identification, name of city or county, and major features crossed
• Total length
• Total width
• Span arrangement with expansion joint locations
• Abutment and pier type with dimensions
• Foundation type with dimensions
• End slopes, with type and rate
• Profile grade and superelevation diagram
• Horizontal alignment
• Hydraulic data
• Cross section, including barrier type and wearing surface type
• Beam type, number, and spacing
• Deck thickness and build-up dimensions, if applicable
• Minimum vertical and horizontal clearances, with dimensions
• Utilities
• Borings
• Superstructure bearing types (expansion, fixed, guided, etc.)
• Design method (or specification)
• Design loads, including anticipated future loads.

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6.1.4 Required Details

Figure 6.1.4-1
Example Preliminary Plan

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6.1.4 Required Details

PRELIMINARY

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6.2 Superstructure/6.3.1.3 Hammerhead Piers

6.2 SUPERSTRUCTURE
6.2.1 Beam Layout
Redundant supporting elements minimize the risk of catastrophic collapse. A typical guideline would recommend
a minimum of four beams or webs. This number allows the bridge to be repaired in phases under traffic. For
roadways less than 30 ft wide, a minimum of three beams or webs may sometimes be justified.
When establishing beam layout, deck overhangs should be limited to 0.50 times the beam spacing. In some cases,
this ratio has been increased to 0.625. However, large overhangs may require more costly form erection brackets
and provisions to prevent overturning of the exterior beams.
Design aids are provided at the end of this chapter to assist with superstructure system selection for preliminary
design.

6.2.2 Jointless Bridges

Using integral abutments at bridge ends makes it possible to construct long, continuous jointless bridges with
prestressed concrete beams. Some proponents believe that lengths on the order of 1,000 ft are realistic with this
construction method. The elimination of joints minimizes beam end deterioration from inadequate protection
from leaking joints and deleterious materials such as deicing chemicals applied to the deck. Chapter 13 has more
information on integral bridges.

6.3 SUBSTRUCTURES
6.3.1 Piers
When selecting the pier type, preliminary designs should be made for various configurations to evaluate costs.
The most economical pier may not be the one with the least material; in some cases, particularly on large bridge
projects, the pier that is easiest to form and that maximizes repetitive use of forms is most cost effective.
Designs for structures crossing bodies of water may require consideration of vessel collision. These structures
may also incorporate dolphins or fender systems
The most commonly used pier types are illustrated in Fig. 6.3.1-1 and discussed in the following sections.

6.3.1.1 Open Pile Bents

Open pile bents are used on low-volume roads and stream crossings where the possibility of debris entrapment
between piles is not likely. Open pile bents are extremely economical. This type of pier can be readily combined
with precast concrete pile caps to permit rapid construction.
6.3.1.2 Encased Pile Bents
Encased pile bents are used in water crossings where the channel carries debris or where protection against ice is
desired. This pier type is usually preferred when scour is a concern and spans are of medium length.

6.3.1.3 Hammerhead Piers

With increasing pier height, the hammerhead pier becomes more economical because it needs less material and
forming than other types of piers. Hammerhead piers are sometimes used as crash walls when constructed
adjacent to railroad tracks. Other types of piers may also be used next to railroads as long as sufficient crash wall
requirements are provided.

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6.3.1.3 Hammerhead Piers

Figure 6.3.1-1
Types of Commonly Used Piers

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6.3.1.4 Multi-Column Bents/6.3.2 Abutments

6.3.1.4 Multi-Column Bents

Multi-column bents are piers where a concrete beam is supported on at least two columns. This pier type is used
for wide superstructures and longer spans. Generally, a circular column is the simplest and the most economical
shape because forms for them are commercially available and require no form ties, which reduces labor
considerably. Forms for this type of pier are most likely found in a typical contractor’s inventory. Columns may be
extensions of piles or drilled shafts.
In situations where vertical clearance is a concern, a cap shaped like an inverted tee may be used to reduce the
depth of cap beneath the superstructure.

6.3.1.5 Wall Piers

Traditionally used for river crossings, a wall pier is typically constructed as a combination of a solid shaft and
hammerhead pier to resist lateral loads. Some states now use wall piers for bridges over divided highways. These
types of piers can be precast with simple forming systems. The decreased forming costs and increased labor
efficiency generally compensate for the expense of added material. This pier configuration also helps resist the
collision loads specified by the LRFD Specifications. See Article 6.5.4 of the 9th edition of the AASHTO LRFD
Specifications for information on vehicle collision loads (CT) and Article 3.14 for information on vessel collision
loads (CV).

6.3.1.6 Precast Concrete Segmental Piers

Precast concrete segmental piers can be thin-walled hollow segments, match cast or mass produced with a thin
mortar or epoxy joint between segments. Shims can be used to maintain proper vertical alignment. The joint
should be designed to resist the anticipated loads, provide a thorough closure of the joint, and consider
permissible creep and shrinkage characteristics.
Post-tensioned threaded bars are generally inserted in ducts cast in the segments and stressed. Later, ducts are
grouted solid. Another alternative is the use of splice sleeves that couple reinforcing bars to provide full bar
capacity. Figure 6.3.1.6-1 shows a drawing of a column designed with precast concrete and cast-in-place (C.I.P)
segments.
Figure 6.3.1.6-1
Segmental Concrete Pier Column with Precast and Cast-in-place (C.I.P.) Segments

6.3.2 Abutments
Unlike piers, abutment types do not vary widely. The most common types of abutments are the backwall type and
the integral type. For more information on integral abutments, see Chapter 13. Among the advantages of the
integral type is the elimination of the deck joint, which often leaks and causes deterioration, and is therefore a

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6.3.2 Abutments/6.4 Foundations

maintenance item. Integral abutments are flexible and tolerate movement caused by temperature-change-related
expansion and contraction of the superstructure. It may be necessary, however, to use a backwall abutment if
bridge length or skew dictate.
For precast concrete abutment walls, full capacity may be accomplished by means of field welding of connecting
steel plates, followed by corrosion protection of exposed steel.
Location of the abutments is a function of the profile grade of the bridge, the minimum vertical and horizontal
clearances required, and the type and rate of end slope.

6.3.3 Hydraulics
Pier shapes that streamline flow and reduce scour are recommended. Consideration is based on the anticipated
depth of scour at the bridge piers. Measures to protect the piers from scour activity (for example, riprap and pier
alignment to stream flow) are recommended.
For bridges over navigable channels, piers adjacent to the channel may require pier protection as determined by
the U.S. Coast Guard. The requirement is based on the horizontal clearance provided for the navigation channel
and the type of navigation traffic using the channel. In many cases, piers in navigable waterways should be
designed to resist vessel impact in accordance with the LRFD Specifications.

6.3.4 Safety
Because of safety concerns, fixed objects should be placed as far from the edge of the roadway as economically
feasible, maintaining minimum horizontal clearances to bridge piers and retaining walls.
Redundant supporting elements minimize the risk of catastrophic collapse. A typical guideline would recommend
a minimum of two columns for roadways from 30 to 40 ft wide or three columns for roadways 40 to 60 ft wide.
Also recommended is collision protection or design for collision loads in accordance with LRFD Specifications on
piers with one or two columns.

6.3.5 Aesthetics
The principal direction of view of the piers should be considered when determining their size, shape, and spacing.
The piers should be correctly sized to handle the structural loads required by the design and shaped to enhance
the aesthetics of the overall structure. Column spacing should not be so small as to create the appearance of a
“forest of columns.” Chapter 5 discusses aesthetics in greater detail.

6.4 FOUNDATIONS
Typical foundation types include the following:
• Spread footings
• Drilled shafts
• Steel pipe piles
• Prestressed concrete piles
• Steel H-piles
• Timber piles
Round or square columns of multi-column bents usually rest on single drilled shafts or on footings that cap
multiple piles. Single columns usually rest on footings that cap multiple piles or drilled shafts.
Prestressed concrete piles are used extensively in the coastal regions, as well as other locations. For short bents
on stream crossings, a line of piles may be extended into the cap, forming a trestle pile bent. Prestressed piles are
economically competitive even when the soil is suitable for drilled shafts.
Prestressed piles can double as foundations and piers, thus reducing the amount of on-site forming and
concreting. Precast, prestressed concrete piles come in different sizes and shapes, ranging from 10 × 10 in. square
piles to 66-in.-diameter, hollow cylinder piles.
For more information on precast and prestressed piles, see Specification for Precast, Prestressed Concrete Piles.
(ANSI/PCI 142).

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6.5 Preliminary Member Selection/6.5.2 Design Criteria

6.5 PRELIMINARY MEMBER SELECTION

6.5.1 Product Types
The preliminary design charts in Section 6.9 are based on a blend of “national” and regional products. Data used
to generate the design charts and basic information resulting from computer runs are provided in tables in
Section 6.10. Traditional sections such as rectangular box beams, AASHTO I-beams, and AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee
sections are included because these are still commonly used for bridges with a wide range of configurations.
Several other beam types are also included because they represent innovative design approaches and newer
concepts gaining more widespread use. These include a noncomposite deck bulb-tee family of shapes, various
composite U-beams, and a variation on traditional double-tee stemmed beams known as the NEXT beam.
The design charts are not an exhaustive summary of available products, as many regional standards exist beyond
those presented herein. There are dozens of additional beam types that have not been covered but are used
successfully by individual states or regionally. Washington state, Utah, Texas, Nebraska, Florida, Pennsylvania, the
New England states, and other states have produced many variations on traditional I-beams, wide-flange concrete
beams, multi-web stemmed beams, solid and hollow plank sections, and others. Many of the states have design
charts similar to those presented in this chapter indicating the span capability of local products. As with most
design and construction decisions, knowledge of the local marketplace is important in determining the optimal
configuration for a bridge.

6.5.2 Design Criteria

The design charts and graphs provided in this chapter were developed to satisfy flexure at the Strength I and
Service III limit states according to the AASHTO LRFD Specifications, 5th Edition (2010) and the 2011 Interim
Revisions. Subsequent changes to the LRFD Specifications have not been significant enough to affect the
usefulness of the charts and tables for the intended purpose, preliminary design. The EOR is responsible for
verifying that the final design complies with the current version of the LRFD Specifications and all state or local
specifications. The following criteria were used to develop the various design data points used to make up the
families of curves.
• Prestressed beam concrete design strength 𝑓′𝑐 is 8 ksi. The minimum value of the concrete strength at
transfer of prestress 𝑓′𝑐𝑖 is stated in the tables, but does not exceed 6.8 ksi.
• Allowable tension at transfer was taken as 0.24√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ . Use of this value requires bonded auxiliary
reinforcement to be present. If bonded auxiliary reinforcement is not used, a lower stress value is used.
For some sections, it was not possible to find a workable solution using non-prestressed steel, so top
strand was needed and this is shown in the tables.
• Transformed section properties are used for all stress calculations.
• The approximate method from the LRFD Specifications is used for long-term prestress loss computations
with an assumed relative humidity of 70%. (See Chapter 8 for details on this method.)
• Strands are 0.6-in.-diameter, Grade 270, low-relaxation type.
• A standard, single-slope, 42-in.-high barrier rail is assumed on each side of the bridge. The estimated
weight of 0.500 kips/ft is shared equally by the exterior and first interior beams for all preliminary beam
calculations.
• A 0.035-ksf future wearing surface allowance is included, with the load effect distributed evenly to all
beams.
• For bridges with a cast-in-place concrete deck, the deck concrete compressive strength is 4.0 ksi. The
minimum thickness is given in Table 6.5.2.3-1, and ½-in. is deducted for long-term wear when
determining structural properties. See Section 6.5.2.3.
• Shear design was checked for an assumed stirrup layout using the Sectional Design Model from the LRFD
Specifications. (See Chapter 8 for details on this model.)
• Exceptions to these assumptions were necessary for some sections. These exceptions are noted in the
tables and charts.

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6.5.2 Design Criteria/6.5.2.1 Live Loads

Various trial designs were performed considering both an exterior and the first interior beam. For spread box, I-
beam, and bulb-tee type cross sections, a standard overhang of 3.5 ft measured from the centerline of the exterior
beam was used for all variations of the typical section. This is in the range of standard overhangs for closed box
and I-beam bridges.
Beam spacings of 6, 8, 10, and 12 ft were chosen to represent reasonable upper and lower bounds of spacings in
use today. Within that range of spacings, it is generally found that for the narrower beam spacings, the exterior
beam governs―that is, the exterior beam requires more strands for a given span length than an interior beam or
has a slightly shorter maximum span length. For wider beam spacings, the interior beam begins to control. This is
a reflection of the LRFD live load distribution factor variations between exterior and interior beams. Given the
possibility of future widening of the bridge, exterior beams should not be designed with less capacity than interior
beams.
Generally, for the range of parameters studied, the controlling beam (interior or exterior) was found to require
several more strands and only reduced the maximum possible span length on the order of 5 to10 ft. Therefore, it
is not unnecessarily conservative to make all the beams of equal configuration. Because of the sensitivity of the
exterior beam design to the weight of railing, method of distribution, actual overhang distance, and other
assumptions that vary from state to state, the preliminary design charts presented herein are for a typical first
interior beam. The engineer is cautioned to use these charts accordingly and also to check an exterior beam
design for the specific bridge conditions to make sure that the governing member is identified.
For composite U-beams, the overhang measured from the centerline of the exterior beam was selected as 6 ft.
With precast concrete section widths of 6 to 8 ft for common U-beams, this results in a physical overhang beyond
the exterior web on the order of 2 to 3 ft, a reasonable dimension. The spacing of U-beams was chosen to vary
from 10 to 18 ft. The minimum spacing of 10 ft reflects a reasonable minimum spacing given that the precast
concrete section will typically be 6 to 8 ft wide at its top. At the upper end, a beam spacing of 18 ft was selected.
This is the upper end of the limit of the empirical live load distribution factors given in the LRFD Specifications and
results in a clear deck span between boxes of about 10 to 12 ft, which is still a reasonable slab span for
conventionally reinforced decks and is easily accommodated by traditional deck forming systems including stay-
in-place, precast concrete deck panels.
Two NEXT beam types, Type D and Type F, were chosen for evaluation. The Type D section has a thick top flange
(8 in.) that can serve directly as the structural slab for the bridge. The design considers that a 3-in.-thick asphalt
wearing surface is used. The other beam type, Type F, has a 4-in.-thick top flange that primarily serves as a
continuous stay-in-place form for a traditional 8-in.-thick composite cast-in-place deck with a future overlay
allowance.

6.5.2.1 Live Loads

The live load considered for the charts is the HL-93 loading, with all designs based on a single-span bridge. A
random check of selected designs for the Type 3, 3S2 and 3-3 rating loads indicated that the HL-93 designs
governed the design and resulted in designs with inventory and operating rating factors greater than 1.0 for the
various notional rating vehicles. Special or state-specific trucks or loadings are not considered.
Live load moment and shear are distributed to the beams in accordance with the empirical equations for live load
distribution found in the LRFD Specifications, Article 4.6.2.2. The charts were created using the distribution
factors in the 5th edition, but they have not changed in the 9th edition, which is current at the time of this update .
Previous editions of this manual advised the engineer to check the rigid rotation model for beam/slab bridges in
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.2d. Beginning with the seventh edition of the LRFD Specifications, this check is now only
required for steel bridges. However, rigid end diaphragms for beam/slab concrete bridges are still required under
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.2b.
Because various types of beams and cross sections have been studied, a unique approach to live load distribution
is required for each solution. The following load distribution models from LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 were considered
in the development of the design graphs:
• For AASHTO I-beam and bulb-tee sections, cross section Type (k) was used.
• For spread box beams, cross section Type (b) was used.

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6.5.2.1 Live Loads/6.5.2.3 Composite Deck

• For U-beams, cross section Type (c) was used.

• For adjacent box beams with a cast-in-place concrete overlay, cross section Type (f) was used. All
adjacent box beams were assumed to have a composite, cast-in-place concrete slab. Charts for
noncomposite box beams with an asphalt overlay were not developed.
• For deck bulb-tee bridges without transverse post-tensioning in the flanges, cross section Type (j) was
used.
• For double-tee NEXT Type D and F beams, cross section Type (j) was used. In calculating the live load
distribution factor, the beam spacing S in the equation was taken as the center-to-center distance
between the units (S2 in Fig. 6.5.2.1-1; see Design Examples 9.7 and 9.8). Research by Bahjat, et al.
(2014) suggests that beam spacing S in the equation may also be based on the average spacing of stems of
the units S*. NEXT girders have two stem spacings: the spacing between the stems of the unit itself (S1 in
Fig. 6.5.2.1-1) and the spacing of stems between adjacent units (S3 in Fig. 6.5.2.1-1). Use of the average
stem spacing S* as the beam spacing S will usually result in a more favorable distribution of live load,
which may reduce the number of strands needed.

Figure 6.5.2.1-1
Definitions of Spacing for NEXT Beams

Source: Bahjat, et al. (2014).

6.5.2.2 Dead Loads

The design of the first interior beam was performed assuming that the beam carries 50% of the weight of the
barrier rail. A 42-in.-high, single-slope barrier rail was assumed, weighing approximately 0.500 kips/ft, with half
of this load carried by the exterior beam and half by the first interior beam. The practice of distributing the
parapet load to exterior and interior beams varies widely among engineers and agencies, from even distribution
to all beams to rules requiring a larger share of this load be carried by the exterior beam(s). For purposes of
developing the design charts, it was assumed that the exterior beam carries the other 50% of the barrier rail..
With heavy parapet loads, stiff beams, and relatively short overhangs, this approach is considered a reasonable
approximation. Cast-in-place slab loads are assigned on a tributary basis. An allowance of 0.035 ksf is provided
between gutter lines, uniformly carried by all beams, to provide for an additional wearing surface (DW) loading.

6.5.2.3 Composite Deck

For all spread beam designs (box, I-beam, U-beam, etc.), a composite deck section is used, with the thickness as
shown in Table 6.5.2.3-1. Note that the tables assume composite slabs for adjacent box beam bridges and solid
slabs. It is a common practice for a number of states to use composite, adjacent box beams for bridges. However,
some county and local jurisdictions use noncomposite (asphalt deck) structures; these structures are not
addressed in the preliminary design charts.

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6.5.2.3 Composite Deck/6.5.2.4 Concrete Strength and Allowable Stresses

Table 6.5.2.3-1
Assumed Deck Thickness
Cast-in-Place
Beam
Beam Type Deck
Spacing, ft
Thickness, in.
Adjacent 6.0
Box Beams, 48 in. wide
6, 8, 10, 12 8.0
Adjacent 6.0
Box Beams, 36 in. wide 6, 8, 10 8.0
12 8.5
Bulb Tees, BT-54, BT- 6, 8, 10 8.0
63, BT-72 12 9.0
Deck Bulb Tees Adjacent None
6, 8 8.0
I-Beams, Types II, III, IV 10 8.5
12 9.5
6, 8, 10 8.0
I-Beams, Types V, VI
12 9.0
NEXT Beams, Type D Adjacent None
NEXT Beams, Type F Adjacent 8.0
10, 14 8.0
U-Beams
18 10
Solid Slabs 12, 16, 20 4.0
See Appendix C for spliced U-beams and curved spliced U-beams from PCI Zone 6.

The deck concrete has a 4.0 ksi compressive strength in all cases. For stringer or spread box structures, a haunch
thickness of 2 in. was typically included to represent the potential additional dead load on the section as well as to
slightly offset the deck from the top of the precast concrete section. The use of the haunch to offset the composite
slab is a practice that varies throughout the United States. Some agencies ignore the haunch when calculating the
composite section properties then require a haunch to be added to the dead load calculation. Others use the
minimum haunch as typical for the entire span length (that is the approach taken herein). There are other
approaches as well.
For all design cases, a ½ in. reduction in slab thickness is included for wear. This ½ in is included in the dead load
calculation but is excluded when finding section properties.
For adjacent sections that are considered to have a composite topping, the topping thickness is assumed to be
equal to 6 in. for box beams and 8 in. for NEXT Type F beams. The topping weight is based on the indicated
thickness. However, composite section properties were determined with the assumption that long-term wear
and/or longitudinal profiling (deck grinding) reduces the thickness by ½ in.

6.5.2.4 Concrete Strength and Allowable Stresses

The precast concrete products are assumed to have 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 6.8 ksi and 𝑓𝑐′ = 8.0 ksi , and the cast-in-place topping is
assumed to have 𝑓𝑐′ = 4.0 ksi. These material properties are in keeping with readily available concrete mixtures
throughout the United States. Substantially higher precast concrete transfer strengths have been achieved and are
available on a regional basis. The concrete tensile stress limits are taken as 0.24√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ksi at transfer and
0.19√𝑓𝑐′ ksi ≤ 0.600 ksi at service. The concrete compression stress limit is taken as 0.6𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ksi at transfer and
0.6𝑓𝑐′ ksi at service. The stress limits at transfer of prestressing force are those used in the 5 th edition of the LRFD
Specifications. Note that the current 9th edition of the LRFD Specifications states that the concrete compression
stress limit at transfer is now 0.65𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ksi. Compression stress at transfer is usually controlled by harping strand,
debonding, or both. The design tables do consider harping or debonding, but the number of strands that are
harped or debonded is not explicitly stated. Thus, this change in the allowable stress may change the number of
harped or debonded strands but not the overall number of strands shown in the tables.

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6.5.2.5 Strands and Spacing/6.5.3.2 Limiting Stresses

6.5.2.5 Strands and Spacing

The use of 0.6-in.-diameter, seven-wire, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands is assumed in all applications. The center-
to-center strand spacing is assumed to be 2 in. These larger strands, as compared with traditional ½-in.-diameter
strands, provide about 40% higher tensile capacity with only about 20% increase in diameter.
All strands are assumed to have an initial tension of 202.5 ksi before transfer. Member end stresses are assumed
to be controlled through debonding (shielding) or harping of some of the strands as needed, or through a
combination of debonding and harping. Prestress losses are calculated using the LRFD Specifications approximate
method for long-term losses in lieu of the detailed time-dependent estimates. Losses are based on an assumed
70% relative humidity. The approximate method of finding loss of prestress force is only allowed for certain
bridge cross sections when finding losses for final design purposes. When finding losses for final design of other
bridge cross sections, the refined method must be used. However, for preliminary design, the approximate
method gives a reasonable enough value of loss of prestressing force to allow for initial selection of the girder.
Strand patterns used by producers vary. For the box beams in the charts in Section 6.9, two layers of strands are
assumed in the bottom flanges.

6.5.2.6 Design Limits

The charts depict the maximum span length achievable for a certain beam spacing given the materials and
allowable stresses described herein. The selection of a unique number of strands, transfer strength, beam spacing,
and span length is an interaction of various checks. For each design data point, a check of initial stresses at
transfer, final stresses at service load, and factored moment capacity was considered. The concrete strength was
stipulated as 8.0 ksi at 28 days and not to exceed 6.8 ksi at transfer (although it could be lower if all checks were
satisfied otherwise). Most owners or precasters use a 3 ksi minimum concrete strength for initial handling, as
recommended in PCI MNL-116 Section C5.3.17. At times, any of the stress or strength criteria can control and so
the chart simply indicates a specific combination of span length, number of strands, and beam spacing where all
checks were satisfied.
For the longer spans, camber growth and stability of the beams during handling and shipping should also be
evaluated.

6.5.3 High-Strength Concrete

Analysis of current practice suggests that 8.0 ksi concrete can be obtained with little difficulty on a consistent
basis everywhere in the United States. Therefore, 8.0 ksi is the strength used for the development of the design
charts.

6.5.3.1 Attainable Strengths

In recent years, higher-strength concretes have been commercially achieved. The strengths range from 10 to 15
ksi. Use of such strengths is expected to increase in the future. The use of higher-strength concrete permits the
use of longer span lengths, wider beam spacings, or shallower sections. The increased span capacity should be
weighed against the possible cost increase associated with producing higher-strength concrete. Chapter 4
discusses many of these considerations.

6.5.3.2 Limiting Stresses

The LRFD Specifications allows the use of design concrete strengths greater than 10.0 ksi for normal weight
concrete when allowed by specific articles or when physical tests are made to establish the relationships between
the concrete strength and other properties. Appendix C5 of the 9th edition of LRFD Specifications contains a table
showing the articles for which strengths greater than 10.0 ksi are currently permitted. These include Articles
5.4.2.3, Shrinkage and Creep; 5.4.2.4, Modulus of Elasticity; 5.4.2.6, Modulus of Rupture; and 5.9.5, Loss of
Prestress.
Three NCHRP research projects have been completed to address design provisions for specified compressive
strengths up to 15 and 18 ksi. Hawkins and Kuchma (2007) addressed shear strength; Rizkalla, et al. (2007)
addressed compression and flexure behavior; and Ramirez and Russell (2008) address development and transfer
length of strand and development and splice length of non-prestressed/deformed reinforcing. The three research
projects provide revisions to allow more provisions to be extended to specified concrete compressive strengths

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6.5.3.2 Limiting Stresses/6.6.4 Controls

greater than 10.0 ksi for normal weight concrete. Implementation of these provisions will support greater use of
concrete with specified compressive strengths greater than 10.0 ksi.

6.6 DESCRIPTION OF DESIGN CHARTS

6.6.1 Product Groups
The design charts in Section 6.9 provide preliminary design information for different products grouped into
several types, as follows:
CHARTS PRODUCTS
Charts BB-1 through BB-10 AASHTO box beams
BT-1 through BT-4 AASHTO-PCI bulb tees
DBT-1 through DBT-2 Deck bulb tees
IB-1 through IB-6 AASHTO I-beams
NEXT-1 and NEXT-6 NEXT double-tee beams
U-1 through U-5 U-beams
Slab Solid slabs
(Geometric properties for products are given in Appendix B.)

6.6.2 Maximum Spans Versus Spacings

Within each group, the first chart (BB-1, BT-1, etc.) depicts the maximum attainable span versus member spacing
for all member depths within the group. This type of chart is convenient to use in the early stages of design to
identify product types, spacings, and approximate depths for the span length being considered.

6.6.3 Number of Strands

The remainder of the charts within each group give the number of strands needed for specified span lengths and
beam spacings. This type of information is needed to develop an estimate of the final design requirements, and to
determine whether the number of strands needed is within the prestressing bed capacity of local producers.
Otherwise, the member depth, or spacing if applicable, must be adjusted.
In developing the charts, no attempt was made to judge whether the number of strands given is feasible for local
production. The number of strands was strictly based on flexural stress or strength requirements. In some cases,
such as shallow I-beams at wide spacing, shear capacity may require an unreasonable stirrup arrangement. A
complete check should be made during final design.
It should be noted that all charts were based on providing the lowest possible center of gravity of strands in the
midspan section. This is accomplished by filling the first (bottom) row to capacity before any strands can be
placed in the second row, and so on.

6.6.4 Controls
For each scenario, various potential controls were checked. In general, the maximum span was first established by
satisfying the Strength I and Service III limit states. When strands could no longer be added to the section, or
doing so did not increase span capacity, the practical maximum span was established. However, obtaining the
maximum span usually required using a large number of strands for a particular beam section. Checks of stress at
transfer were also performed. To mitigate the high stresses in the transfer region, the use of harping (with a hold
down at 0.4L) or debonding was used to control the beam end stresses. Maximum debonding limits of 40% of the
strands in a row and 25% of the total number of strands were enforced with the exception that if the number of
debonded strands were only one strand over the maximum due to rounding, that was considered an acceptable
solution. The charts do not indicate which specific load combination controlled the design; however, for narrower
beam spacings, the trend was generally for the Service III load combination to govern, whereas for wider beam
spacings and longer spans, the Strength I load combination was a common control. Most of the intermediate to
longer spans required some debonding or harping to control the end zone stresses.

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6.7 Preliminary Design Examples/6.7.2 Preliminary Design Example No. 2

6.7 PRELIMINARY DESIGN EXAMPLES

6.7.1 Preliminary Design Example No. 1
Design a simple span for HL-93 loading with a 95 ft design span. The total width of the bridge is 36 ft 0 in. The
conditions do not allow for field forming of the concrete deck.
Referring to the preliminary design charts, the only applicable products to avoid deck forming would be adjacent
box beams or deck bulb tees. Using the charts, possible solutions are summarized in Table 6.7.1-1.
Table 6.7.1-1
Product Options for Example No. 1*
Depth, Topping. No. of Design
Products Spacing, in.
in. (Deck) Strands Chart
41 72 No 26 DBT-2
Deck Bulb Tees, 6-ft-Wide
53 72 No 20 DBT-2
Flange
65 72 No 18 DBT-2
BII-36 33 36 Yes 22 BB-7
BIII-36 39 36 Yes 18 BB-7
AASHTO BIV-36 42 36 Yes 16 BB-7
Box Beams BII-48 33 48 Yes 25 BB-2
BIII-48 39 48 Yes 22 BB-2
BIV-48 42 48 Yes 18 BB-2
*Refer to Section 6.5 for design assumptions.

As indicated by Table 6.7.1-1, the deck bulb tee generally requires more depth, but fewer beams and, therefore,
fewer total strands. Please note that the product may not be available in all regions. Further, unless weight of a
single beam is a factor, wider units allow casting, transporting, and installing fewer pieces. This usually results in
lower cost.
Detailed Design Examples 9.3, 9.4, and 9.5 in Chapter 9 have similar spans and loading requirements. In those
examples, AASHTO BIII-48 box beams and DBT-53s are used. Referring to Table 6.7.1-1, it is clear that a
shallower section could be used.

6.7.2 Preliminary Design Example No. 2

Design a simple span for HL-93 loading with 120 ft design span. The total width of the bridge is 51 ft 0 in. with an
8-in.-thick cast-in-place deck slab. Table 6.7.2-1 shows the product options and the number of strands required
for each product.

6 - 20 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.7.2 Preliminary Design Example No. 2/6.8 References

Table 6.7.2-1
Product Options for Example No. 2*
Deck
Depth, Spacing, No. of Design
Products Thickness,
in. ft Strands Chart
in.
54 8 8.0 42 IB-4
IV
54 6 8.0 36 IB-4
63 12 9.0 46 IB-5
V 63 10 8.0 48 IB-5
AASHTO I- 63 8 8.0 42 IB-5
Beams 63 6 8.0 32 IB-5
72 12 9.0 40 IB-6
72 10 8.0 42 IB-6
VI
72 8 8.0 36 IB-6
72 6 8.0 26 IB-6
BT-54 54 6 8.0 34 BT-2
BT-63 63 6 8.0 28 BT-3
AASHTO-
72 6 8.0 24 BT-4
PCI Bulb
72 8 8.0 34 BT-4
Tees BT-72
72 10 See Note 1 See Note 1 BT-4
72 12 9.0 36 BT-4
Deck Bulb Tees, 6-ft- 53 6 None 30 DBT-2
Wide Flange 65 6 None 26 DBT-2
AASHTO BIV-36 39 3 6.0 27 BB-7
Box Beams BIV-48 42 4 6.0 31 BB-2
U66G5 66 10 8.0 47 U-4
Washington
78 14 8.0 49 U-5
U-Beams U78G5
78 10 8.0 43 U-5
*Refer to Section 6.5 for design assumptions.

Note 1: The BT-72 girder at a spacing of 10 feet is sufficient for an interior girder, but not for an exterior girder.
Bridges constructed using the BT-72 with the interior girders spaced at 10 feet may be suitable if the exterior
girders are spaced at less than 10 feet or the deck is increased to 9 inches or the actual applied loads are less than
assumed in this example.
It is generally most beneficial to use the widest possible spacing to minimize the number of beam lines. Clearance
requirements may dictate the structure depth. Assuming no maximum depth limitations, the most economical
products will be the deepest in order to minimize the number of strands required. Accordingly, an AASHTO Type
VI I-beam or 72-in.-deep bulb tee (BT-72) at 12 ft spacing is recommended. However, because the bulb tee is a
lighter section and the number of strands required (36 strands) is less, a BT-72 at 12 ft spacing is a more efficient
solution.
A deck bulb tee can be used for this bridge if the product is locally available. An AASHTO box beam is also suitable
if the superstructure depth needs to be relatively shallow.
Detailed Design Example 9.3 in Chapter 9 has a 120-ft simple span, with concrete strength of 6.5 ksi and HL-93
loading conditions. Referring to Table 6.7.2-1, the BT-72 was chosen with 9 ft spacing.

6.8 REFERENCES
1. AASHTO. 2011. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 5th Edition with 2011 Interim Revisions.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.

2. AASHTO. 2020. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Ninth Edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.

6 - 21 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.8 References

3. Bahjat, R., D. Ericson, S. F. Brena, and S. A. Cvijan. 2014. “Evaluation of Moment Live-Load Distribution of a
Next-F Beam Bridge through Field Load Testing and FE Modeling.” 2014 PCI National Bridge Conference,
Washington DC.

4. Hawkins, N. M., and D. A., Kuchma, 2007. Application of LRFD Bridge Design Specifications to High-Strength
Structural Concrete: Shear Provisions. NCHRP Report 579. Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC.
197 pp.
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_579.pdf.

5. PCI. 2016A. Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (CB-02-
16). Prestressed/Precast Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-02-16.

6. PCI. 2016B. User Manual for Calculating the Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders
(CB-04-20H). Prestressed/Precast Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-04-20.

7. PCI MNL-116-21 Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete
Products, 5th Edition, Prestressed/Precast Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. (fee).

8. PCI. Specification for Precast, Prestressed Concrete Piles (ANSI/PCI 142). Prestressed/Precast Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL.

9. Ramirez, J. A., and B. W. Russell. 2008. Transfer, Development, and Splice Length for Strand/Reinforcement in
High-Strength Concrete. NCHRP Report 603. Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC. 122 pp.
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_603.pdf.

10. Rizkalla, S., A. Mirmiran, P. Zia, H. Russell, and R. Mast. 2007. Application of the LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications to High-Strength Structural Concrete: Flexure and Compression Provisions. NCHRP Report 595.
Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC. 28 pp.
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_595.pdf.

6 - 22 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

6.9 PRELIMINARY DESIGN CHARTS

The design charts listed in Table 6.9-1 are included in this section. Section 6.10 provides tables that correspond
to each of these charts and show input and output data from which the charts were developed. These charts and
tables are for preliminary design only. The EOR is responsible for performing all necessary calculations to verify
the final design. Lateral stability of longer girders has not been verified. The EOR or other responsible parties
must check for lateral stability. The Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete
Bridge Girders (PCI, 1996A) should be consulted for guidance.
Table 6.9-1
Design Charts
Chart No. Beam Type Chart Type
BB-1 AASHTO box beams 48 in. wide Maximum span versus beam spacing
BB-2 AASHTO adjacent box beams 48 in. wide No. of strands versus span length
BB-3 AASHTO spread box beams BII-48 No. of strands versus span length
BB-4 AASHTO spread box beams BIII-48 No. of strands versus span length
BB-5 AASHTO spread box beams BIV-48 No. of strands versus span length
BB-6 AASHTO box beams 36 in. wide Maximum span versus beam spacing
BB-7 AASHTO adjacent box beams 36 in. wide No. of strands versus span length
BB-8 AASHTO spread box beams BII-36 No. of strands versus span length
BB-9 AASHTO spread box beams BIII-36 No. of strands versus span length
BB-10 AASHTO spread box beams BIV-36 No. of strands versus span length
BT-1 AASHTO-PCI bulb tees Maximum span versus beam spacing
BT-2 AASHTO-PCI bulb tees BT-54 No. of strands versus span length
BT-3 AASHTO-PCI bulb tees BT-63 No. of strands versus span length
BT-4 AASHTO-PCI bulb tees BT-72 No. of strands versus span length
DBT-1 Deck bulb tees Maximum span versus section depth
DBT-2 Deck bulb tees No. of strands versus span length
IB-1 AASHTO I-beams Maximum span versus beam spacing
IB-2 AASHTO I-beams Type II No. of strands versus span length
IB-3 AASHTO I-beams Type III No. of strands versus span length
IB-4 AASHTO I-beams Type IV No. of strands versus span length
IB-5 AASHTO I-beams Type V No. of strands versus span length
IB-6 AASHTO I-beams Type VI No. of strands versus span length
NEXT-1 NEXT Type D beams Maximum span versus section depth
NEXT-2 NEXT Type D × 96 beams No. of strands versus span length
NEXT-3 NEXT Type D × 120 beams No. of strands versus span length
NEXT-4 NEXT Type F beams Maximum span versus section depth
NEXT-5 Next Type F × 96 beams No. of strands versus span length
NEXT-6 Next Type F × 144 beams No. of strands versus span length
U-1 U-beams Maximum span versus beam spacing
U-2 Texas U-40 beams No. of strands versus span length
U-3 Texas U-54 beams No. of strands versus span length
U-4 Washington U66G5 beams No. of strands versus span length
U-5 Washington U78G5 beams No. of strands versus span length
Slab Solid slabs No. of strands versus span length

6 - 23 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart BB-1
AASHTO Box Beams 48 in. Wide

MAXIMUM SPAN VS. BEAM SPACING

130

120
MAXIMUM SPAN, FT

110

100

90 BIV-48
BIII-48
80
BII-48
70

60
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
BEAM SPACING, FT

Chart BB-2
AASHTO Adjacent Box Beams 48 in. Wide
35
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

30

25

20

BIV-48
15
BIII-48
10 BII-48

0
30 50 70 90 110 130
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 24 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart BB-3
AASHTO Spread Box Beams BII-48
35
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

30
BII-48
25
6 ft Ext.
20 6 ft Int.
8 ft Ext.
15
8 ft Int.
10 ft Ext.
10
10 ft Int.

5 12 ft Ext.
12 ft Int.
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SPAN LENGTH, FT

Chart BB-4
AASHTO Spread Box Beams BIII-48
35
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

30

25
BIII-48
6 ft Ext.
20 6 ft Int.
8 ft Ext.
15
8 ft int.
10 10 ft Ext.
10 ft Int.
5
12 ft Ext.
12 ft. Int
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 25 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart BB-5
AASHTO Spread Box Beams BIV-48
35
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

30

25
BIV-48
6 ft Ext.
20
6 ft Int.
8 ft Ext.
15
8 ft Int.

10 10 ft Ext.
10 ft Int.
5 12 ft Ext.
12 ft Int.
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
SPAN LENGTH, FT

Chart BB-6
AASHTO Box Beams 36 in. Wide

MAXIMUM SPAN VS. BEAM SPACING

100

95

90
MAXIMUM SPAN, FT

85

80 BIV-36

75 BIII-36
BII-36
70

65

60
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
BEAM SPACING, FT

6 - 26 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart BB-7
AASHTO Adjacent Box Beams 36 in. Wide
30
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

25

20

15
BIV-36
BIII-36
10 BII-36

0
30 50 70 90 110 130
SPAN LENGTH, FT

Chart BB-8
AASHTO Spread Box Beams BII-36
30
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

25

BII-36
20
6 ft Ext.
6 ft Int.
15
8 ft Ext.
8 ft Int.
10
10 ft Ext.
10 ft Int.
5
12 ft Ext.
12 ft Int.
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 27 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart BB-9
AASHTO Spread Box Beams BIII-36
30
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

25
BIII-36
20
6 ft Ext.
6 ft Int.
15
8 ft Ext.
8 ft Int.
10
10 ft Ext.
10 ft Int.
5
12 ft Ext.
12 ft Int.
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SPAN LENGTH, FT

Chart BB-10
AASHTO Spread Box Beams BIV-36
30
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

25

BIV-36
20
6 ft Ext.
6 ft Int.
15
8 ft Ext.
8 ft Int.
10
10 ft Ext.
10 ft Int.
5
12 ft Ext.
12 ft Int.
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 28 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart BT-1
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tees

MAXIMUM SPAN VS. BEAM SPACING

160

150

140
MAXIMUM SPAN, FT

130

120 BT-54
BT-63
110
BT-72
100

90

80
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
BEAM SPACING, FT

Chart BT-2
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tees BT-54
40

35
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

30 PCI BT-54

25 6 ft Ext.
6 ft Int.
20
8ft Ext

15 8 ft Int.
10 ft Ext.
10
10 ft Int.

5 12 ft Ext.
12 ft Int.
0
30 50 70 90 110 130
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 29 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart BT-3
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tees BT-63
40

35
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

30
PCI BT-63

25 6 ft Ext.
6 ft Int.
20
8 ft Ex.
15 8 ft Int.
10 ft Ext.
10
10 ft Int.
5 12 ft Ext.
12 ft Int.
0
30 50 70 90 110 130 150
SPAN LENGTH, FT

Chart BT-4
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tees BT-72
45

40
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

35
PCI BT-72
30
6 ft Ext.
25 6 ft Int.

20 8 ft Ext.
8 ft Int.
15
10 ft Ext.
10 10 ft Int.

5 12 ft Ext.
12 ft Int.
0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 30 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart DBT-1
Deck Bulb Tees

MAXIMUM SPAN VS. SECTION DEPTH FOR 6-FT-WIDE TOP FLANGE

180
170
160
MAXIMUM SPAN, FT

150
140
130
120
6′ - 0″
110
100
Section Depth
90
80
35 40 45 50 55 60 65
SECTION DEPTH, IN.

Chart DBT-2
Deck Bulb Tees

60 DBT, 6-FT-WIDE
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

TOP FLANGE
50
35 in. Ext.
40 41 in. Ext.
53 in. Ext.
30
65 in. Ext.
6′ – 0″
20 35 in. Int.
41 in. Int.
10
53 in. Int.
0 65 in. Int.
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 31 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart IB-1
AASHTO I-Beams

MAXIMUM SPAN VS. BEAM SPACING

160

140
MAXIMUM SPAN, FT

120
TYPE II
100 TYPE III
TYPE IV
80 TYPE V
TYPE VI
60

40
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
BEAM SPACING, FT

Chart IB-2
AASHTO I-Beams Type II
20

18
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

16
AASHTO
14
TYPE II
12 6 ft Ext.
10 6 ft Int.

8 8 ft Ext.
8 ft Int.
6
10 ft Ext
4
10 ft Int.
2 12 ft Ext.

0 12 ft Int.
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 32 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart IB-3
AASHTO I-Beams Type III
35
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

30
AASHTO
25 TYPE III
20 6 ft Ext.
6 ft Int.
15 8 ft Ext
8 ft Int.
10
10 ft Ext.
10 ft Int.
5
12 ft Ext.

0 12 ft Int.
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
SPAN LENGTH, FT

Chart IB-4
AASHTO I-Beams Type IV
50

45
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

40 AASHTO
35 TYPE IV
30 6 ft Ext.

25 6 ft Int.
8 ft Ext.
20
8 ft Int.
15
10 ft Ext.
10
10 ft Int.
5 12 ft Ext.

0 12 ft Int.
30 50 70 90 110 130
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 33 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart IB-5
AASHTO I-Beams Type V
60
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

50
AASHTO
TYPE V
40
6 ft Ext.
30 6 ft Int.
8 ft Ext.
20 8 ft Int.
10 ft Ext.
10 10 ft Int.
12 ft Ext.
0 12 ft Int.
40 60 80 100 120 140
SPAN LENGTH, FT

Chart IB-6
AASHTO I-Beams Type VI
60
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

50
AASHTO
TYPE VI
40
6 ft Ext.

30 6 ft Int.
8 ft Ext.
20 8 ft Int.
10 ft Ext.
10 10 ft Int.
12 ft Ext.
0 12 ft Int.
60 80 100 120 140 160
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 34 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart NEXT-1
NEXT Type D Beams

28″-36″
0″

Chart NEXT-2
NEXT Type D × 96 Beams
45
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

40

35

30
NEXT
25 TYPE D × 96
20
NEXT 28 D x 96
15 96″ NEXT 32 D x 96
10 NEXT 36 D x 96
5 NEXT 40 D x 96

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 35 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart NEXT-3
NEXT Type D × 120 Beams
45
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

40

35

30 NEXT
TYPE D × 120
25

20
NEXT 28 D x 120
15 120″
NEXT 32 D x 120
10 NEXT 36 D x 120
5 NEXT 40 D x 120

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
SPAN LENGTH, FT

Chart NEXT-4
NEXT Type F Beams

24″-36″

6 - 36 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart NEXT-5
NEXT Type F × 96 Beams
40
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

35

30

25 NEXT
TYPE F × 96
20
NEXT 24 F x 96
15
96″ NEXT 28 F x 96
10
NEXT 32 F x 96
5 NEXT 36 F x 96

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
SPAN LENGTH, FT

Chart NEXT-6
NEXT Type F × 144 Beams

45
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

40

35

30 NEXT
25 TYPE F × 144
20
NEXT 24 F x 144
15 144″
NEXT 28 F x 144
10 NEXT 32 F x 144
5 NEXT 36 F x 144
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 37 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart U-1
U-Beams

MAXIMUM SPAN VS. BEAM SPACING

160
150
140
MAXIMUM SPAN, FT

130
120
U-40
110
U-54
100
U66G5
90
U78G5
80
40″-54″ 66″-78″
70
60
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
BEAM SPACING, FT

Chart U-2
Texas U-40 Beams

60
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

50

TxDOT
40
U-40 BEAM

30 10 FT Ext.
10 FT Int.
20 14 FT Ext.
14 FT Int.
10 18 FT Ext.
40″
18 FT Int.
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 38 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart U-3
Texas U-54 Beams
60
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

50

40
TxDOT
U-54 BEAM
30 10 FT EXT.
10 FT INT.
20 14 Ft Int.
14 FT INT.
10 54″ 18 FT Ext.
18 FT INT.
0
40 60 80 100 120
SPAN LENGTH, FT

Chart U-4
Washington U66G5 Beams
60
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

50

WSDOT
40
U66G5 BEAM
30 10 ft Ext.
10 ft Int.
20 14 ft Ext.
14 ft Int
10 18 ft Ext.
66″
18 ft Int.

0
30 50 70 90 110 130 150
SPAN LENGTH, FT

6 - 39 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts

Chart U-5
Washington U78G5 Beams
60
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN.-DIAMETER STRANDS

50

WSDOT
40 U78G5 BEAM

30 10 ft Ext.
10 ft Int.
20 14 ft Ext.
14 ft Int.
10 78″ 18 ft Ext.
18 ft Int.
0
40 60 80 100 120 140
SPAN LENGTH, FT

Chart SS
Solid Slabs

20
NUMBER OF 0.6-IN. DIAMTER STRANDS

18
16
14
12
10 12 In. Slab

8 16 In. Slab

6 20 In. Slab

4
2
0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
SPAN LENGTH, FT

Note: Graph shows number of bottom strands. Due to the shallow section depth, non-prestressed steel cannot
be placed in the tensile zone with sufficient clearance, so two top strands are needed in 12- and 16-in.-deep
sections.

6 - 40 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

6.10 PRELIMINARY DESIGN DATA

This section contains input data and results from computer runs to generate the preliminary design charts
presented in Section 6.9. These table numbers correspond to the chart numbers in Section 6.9.

Table BB-1
AASHTO Box Beams 48 in. Wide: Maximum Span (ft) vs. Beam Spacing
Spacing
4 ft 6 ft 8 ft 10 ft 12 ft
Beam
BIV-48 120 105 100 95 90
BIII-48 115 100 95 90 85
BII-48 100 90 85 80 75

6 - 41 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-2
AASHTO Adjacent Box Beams 48 in. Wide
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO BII Adjacent 48-in.-Wide Exterior Box Beam
BII 40 6 1.358* 6 0.08 0.059 0.454 817 1,077 Strength
BII 45 6 1.344* 6 -0.02 -0.121 0.610 992 1,077 Strength
BII 50 6 1.813* 8 0.03 -0.053 0.720 1,186 1,414 Strength
BII 55 6 1.800* 8 -0.18 -0.269 0.910 1,393 1,414 Strength
BII 60 6 2.266* 10 -0.18 -0.238 1.051 1,612 1,741 Strength
BII 65 6 2.727* 12 -0.21 -0.229 1.208 1,843 2,058 Strength
BII 70 6 3.185 14 -0.27 -0.240 1.382 2,088 2,365 Strength
BII 75 6 3.178 14 -0.87 -0.517 1.631 2,345 2,365 Stress
BII 80 6 4.091 18 -0.58 -0.326 1.779 2,615 2,951 Stress
BII 85 6 4.540 20 -0.87 -0.399 2.001 2,898 3,231 Stress
BII 90 6 4.986 22 -1.26 -0.493 2.240 3,194 3,502 Stress
BII 95 6 5.612 25 -1.54 -0.517 2.490 3,503 3,873 Stress
BII 100 6 6.409 29 -1.65 -0.479 2.754 3,825 4,327 Stress

AASHTO BIII Adjacent 48-in.-Wide Exterior Box Beam

BIII 40 6 0.822* 4 -0.02 -0.105 0.414 836 846 Strength
BIII 45 6 1.266* 6 0.04 0.005 0.481 1,015 1,253 Strength
BIII 50 6 1.254* 6 -0.06 -0.158 0.625 1,214 1,253 Strength
BIII 55 6 1.694* 8 -0.02 -0.083 0.720 1,427 1,648 Strength
BIII 60 6 2.130* 10 0.04 -0.025 0.828 1,652 2,033 Strength
BIII 65 6 2.121* 10 -0.21 -0.226 1.009 1,890 2,033 Strength
BIII 70 6 2.554* 12 -0.22 -0.198 1.143 2,142 2,408 Strength
BIII 75 6 2.547* 12 -0.64 -0.424 1.349 2,406 2,408 Stress
BIII 80 6 2.979* 14 -0.75 -0.427 1.508 2,685 2,773 Stress
BIII 85 6 3.407 16 -0.92 -0.447 1.682 2,976 3,128 Stress
BIII 90 6 3.833 18 -1.16 -0.484 1.868 3,281 3,474 Stress
BIII 95 6 4.675 22 -0.88 -0.321 2.015 3,600 4,137 Stress
BIII 100 6 4.885 23 -1.56 -0.502 2.256 3,932 4,298 Stress
BIII 105 6 5.653 27 -1.53 -0.416 2.467 4,277 4,879 Stress
BIII 110 6 6.409 31 -1.54 -0.359 2.693 4,637 5,427 Stress
BIII 115 6 6.789 33 -2.33 -0.503 2.965 5,009 5,690 Stress

AASHTO BIV Adjacent 48-in.-Wide Exterior Box Beam

BIV 40 6 0.799* 4 0.00 -0.061 0.373 845 905 Strength
BIV 45 6 1.228* 6 0.06 0.059 0.429 1,027 1,340 Strength
BIV 50 6 1.215* 6 -0.02 -0.088 0.561 1,229 1,340 Strength
BIV 55 6 1.639* 8 0.04 0.002 0.643 1,444 1,765 Strength
BIV 60 6 1.626* 8 -0.12 -0.168 0.798 1,672 1,765 Strength
BIV 65 6 2.046* 10 -0.09 -0.104 0.903 1,914 2,179 Strength
BIV 70 6 2.033* 10 -0.37 -0.297 1.080 2,169 2,179 Stress
BIV 75 6 2.447* 12 -0.40 -0.258 1.209 2,437 2,583 Strength
BIV 80 6 2.857* 14 -0.45 -0.233 1.349 2,719 2,977 Strength
BIV 85 6 3.263 16 -0.53 -0.222 1.502 3,015 3,361 Strength
BIV 90 6 3.250 16 -1.17 -0.459 1.724 3,325 3,361 Stress
BIV 95 6 3.651 18 -1.40 -0.473 1.900 3,648 3,735 Stress
BIV 100 6 4.047 20 -1.71 -0.499 2.087 3,985 4,100 Stress
BIV 105 6 4.640 23 -1.77 -0.426 2.259 4,336 4,630 Stress
BIV 110 6 5.001 25 -2.32 -0.497 2.487 4,701 4,954 Stress
BIV 115 6 5.724 29 -2.28 -0.376 2.689 5,079 5,574 Stress
BIV 120 6 6.075 31 -3.06 -0.474 2.942 5,472 5,872 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 42 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-3
AASHTO Spread Box Beams BII-48
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.
AASHTO BII 48-in.-Wide Exterior Beam
6 45 8 2.300* 10 0.21 0.072 0.651 1,556 1,883 Strength
6 50 8 2.283* 10 0.05 -0.207 0.871 1,873 1,883 Strength
6 55 8 2.738* 12 0.06 -0.241 1.046 2,210 2,238 Strength
6 60 8 3.187 14 0.03 -0.299 1.242 2,567 2,586 Stress
6 65 8 4.085 18 0.33 -0.124 1.398 2,944 3,262 Strength
6 70 8 4.518 20 0.24 -0.232 1.636 3,342 3,590 Strength
6 75 8 4.945 22 0.06 -0.363 1.894 3,760 3,912 Stress
6 80 8 5.550 25 -0.03 -0.417 2.168 4,197 4,363 Stress
6 85 8 6.324 29 0.00 -0.400 2.457 4,655 4,930 Stress
8 35 8 2.334* 10 0.28 0.240 0.39 1,572 1,906 Strength
8 40 8 2.788* 12 0.39 0.229 0.523 1,916 2,271 Strength
8 45 8 3.237 14 0.51 0.169 0.687 2,328 2,630 Strength
8 50 8 3.680 16 0.62 0.068 0.878 2,790 2,985 Strength
8 55 8 4.118 18 0.71 -0.060 1.093 3,277 3,333 Strength
8 60 8 4.994 22 1.08 0.034 1.272 3,791 4,016 Strength
8 65 8 5.598 25 1.25 -0.051 1.529 4,329 4,495 Strength
8 70 8 6.372 29 1.54 -0.069 1.804 4,893 5,104 Strength
10 35 8 2.334* 10 0.25 0.116 0.422 1,785 1,920 Strength
10 40 8 2.788* 12 0.34 0.076 0.567 2,174 2,291 Strength
10 45 8 3.237 14 0.43 -0.019 0.744 2,641 2,657 Strength
10 50 8 4.134 18 0.73 0.097 0.890 3,165 3,377 Strength
10 55 8 4.567 20 0.81 -0.075 1.123 3,717 3,731 Strength
10 60 8 5.614 25 1.27 0.068 1.318 4,298 4,577 Strength
10 65 8 6.388 29 1.56 0.028 1.592 4,908 5,212 Strength
12 40 8 2.317* 10 0.15 -0.055 0.608 1,843 1,930 Strength
12 45 8 2.771* 12 0.18 -0.127 0.785 2,249 2,304 Strength
12 50 8 3.680 16 0.40 0.020 0.929 2,705 3,043 Strength
12 55 8 4.118 18 0.39 -0.127 1.163 3,189 3,407 Strength
12 60 8 4.550 20 0.31 -0.304 1.423 3,701 3,767 Stress
12 65 8 5.197 23 0.32 -0.387 1.680 4,241 4,301 Strength
12 70 8 5.979 27 0.35 -0.428 1.983 4,810 4,961 Stress
12 75 8 6.745 31 0.31 -0.506 2.314 5,406 5,608 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 43 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-3 (continued)

Final
Slab
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of Camber fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++

AASHTO BII 48-in.-Wide Interior Beam

6 50 8 2.283* 10 0.05 -0.13 0.836 1,726 1,883 Strength
6 55 8 2.738* 12 0.06 -0.138 0.999 2,015 2,238 Strength
6 60 8 3.187 14 0.03 -0.168 1.183 2,319 2,586 Strength
6 65 8 3.630 16 -0.04 -0.221 1.386 2,640 2,928 Strength
6 70 8 4.069 18 -0.19 -0.294 1.608 2,976 3,262 Stress
6 75 8 4.501 20 -0.43 -0.390 1.850 3,328 3,590 Stress
6 80 8 4.929 22 -0.79 -0.506 2.111 3,697 3,912 Stress
6 85 8 5.931 27 -0.53 -0.325 2.353 4,083 4,649 Stress
6 90 8 6.308 29 -1.23 -0.509 2.678 4,485 4,930 Stress
8 45 8 2.300* 10 0.14 -0.055 0.703 1,730 1,906 Strength
8 50 8 2.754* 12 0.16 -0.080 0.866 2,052 2,271 Strength
8 55 8 3.204 14 0.16 -0.129 1.052 2,392 2,630 Strength
8 60 8 3.647 16 0.12 -0.202 1.259 2,750 2,985 Strength
8 65 8 4.085 18 0.00 -0.298 1.488 3,126 3,333 Stress
8 70 8 4.518 20 -0.2 -0.418 1.738 3,520 3,677 Stress
8 75 8 5.165 23 -0.28 -0.438 1.981 3,933 4,183 Stress
8 80 8 5.947 27 -0.32 -0.409 2.264 4,364 4,802 Stress
8 85 8 6.713 31 -0.44 -0.411 2.571 4,815 5,402 Stress
10 40 8 2.317* 10 0.2 0.066 0.555 1,658 1,920 Strength
10 45 8 2.771* 12 0.25 0.039 0.712 1,990 2,291 Strength
10 50 8 3.220 14 0.28 -0.022 0.895 2,360 2,657 Strength
10 55 8 3.664 16 0.27 -0.110 1.102 2,748 3,019 Strength
10 60 8 4.101 18 0.2 -0.223 1.332 3,157 3,377 Strength
10 65 8 4.534 20 0.05 -0.362 1.586 3,585 3,731 Stress
10 70 8 4.961 22 -0.21 -0.527 1.864 4,034 4,080 Stress
10 75 8 5.963 27 -0.02 -0.397 2.127 4,504 4,897 Stress
10 80 8 6.729 31 -0.12 -0.424 2.443 4,995 5,524 Stress
12 40 8 2.317* 10 0.15 -0.059 0.609 1,851 1,930 Strength
12 45 8 2.771* 12 0.18 -0.112 0.781 2,219 2,304 Strength
12 50 8 3.220 14 0.18 -0.202 0.982 2,628 2,675 Strength
12 55 8 4.118 18 0.39 -0.065 1.148 3,058 3,407 Strength
12 60 8 4.550 20 0.31 -0.213 1.400 3,509 3,767 Strength
12 65 8 4.978 22 0.14 -0.389 1.679 3,982 4,124 Stress
12 70 8 5.582 25 -0.01 -0.492 1.978 4,477 4,633 Stress
12 75 8 6.356 29 -0.11 -0.528 2.298 4,994 5,286 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 44 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-4
AASHTO Spread Box Beams BIII-48
Final
Slab
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of Camber fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++

AASHTO BIII 48-in.-Wide Exterior Beam

6 50 8 2.147* 10 0.16 0.004 0.681 1,897 2,176 Strength
6 55 8 2.573* 12 0.22 0.010 0.818 2,239 2,589 Strength
6 60 8 2.995* 14 0.27 -0.004 0.972 2,602 2,996 Strength
6 65 8 2.981* 14 0.00 -0.282 1.201 2,986 2,996 Strength
6 70 8 3.399 16 -0.05 -0.332 1.388 3,390 3,395 Stress
6 75 8 4.232 20 0.24 -0.164 1.533 3,814 4,173 Strength
6 80 8 4.635 22 0.13 -0.255 1.754 4,260 4,552 Strength
6 85 8 4.827 23 -0.31 -0.480 2.019 4,726 4,740 Stress
6 90 8 5.574 27 -0.20 -0.414 2.254 5,212 5,433 Stress
6 95 8 6.307 31 -0.13 -0.374 2.507 5,720 6,102 Stress
8 40 8 2.175* 10 0.25 0.142 0.453 1,931 2,199 Strength
8 45 8 2.602* 12 0.34 0.129 0.581 2,347 2,622 Strength
8 50 8 3.023 14 0.44 0.083 0.731 2,814 3,040 Strength
8 55 8 3.440 16 0.54 0.014 0.901 3,307 3,452 Strength
8 60 8 3.852 18 0.62 -0.077 1.089 3,826 3,860 Strength
8 65 8 4.676 22 0.97 0.044 1.241 4,370 4,658 Strength
8 70 8 5.250 25 1.16 0.004 1.458 4,941 5,224 Strength
8 75 8 5.615 27 1.13 -0.173 1.722 5,538 5,589 Strength
8 80 8 6.347 31 1.41 -0.166 1.969 6,160 6,304 Strength
10 35 8 2.189* 10 0.23 0.265 0.317 1,797 2,213 Strength
10 40 8 2.175* 10 0.21 0.018 0.489 2,190 2,213 Strength
10 45 8 3.037 14 0.44 0.223 0.568 2,661 3,067 Strength
10 50 8 3.454 16 0.55 0.143 0.732 3,189 3,488 Strength
10 55 8 3.866 18 0.64 0.038 0.916 3,747 3,904 Strength
10 60 8 4.689 22 0.97 0.143 1.064 4,334 4,723 Strength
10 65 8 5.264 25 1.16 0.085 1.281 4,949 5307 Strength
10 70 8 5.628 27 1.17 -0.110 1.545 5,594 5,685 Strength
10 75 8 6.360 31 1.43 -0.125 1.794 6,269 6,429 Strength
12 40 8 2.175* 10 0.19 0.128 0.461 1,864 2,223 Strength
12 45 8 2.602* 12 0.25 0.107 0.597 2,269 2,656 Strength
12 50 8 3.023 14 0.30 0.049 0.758 2,730 3,085 Strength
12 55 8 3.440 16 0.33 -0.034 0.940 3,219 3,511 Strength
12 60 8 3.852 18 0.33 -0.141 1.143 3,736 3,933 Strength
12 65 8 4.259 20 0.27 -0.274 1.369 4,283 4,352 Strength
12 70 8 4.868 23 0.32 -0.315 1.587 4,857 4,973 Strength
12 75 8 5.615 27 0.42 -0.304 1.837 5,461 5,750 Strength
12 80 8 5.976 29 0.10 -0.529 2.145 6,093 6,134 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 45 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-4 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO BIII 48-in.-Wide Interior Beam
6 50 8 2.147* 10 0.16 0.058 0.654 1,770 2,176 Strength
6 55 8 2.132* 10 0.00 -0.166 0.842 2,067 2,176 Strength
6 60 8 2.559* 12 0.01 -0.156 0.984 2,379 2,589 Strength
6 65 8 2.981* 14 0.00 -0.163 1.142 2,708 2,996 Strength
6 70 8 3.399 16 -0.05 -0.189 1.316 3,054 3,395 Strength
6 75 8 3.811 18 -0.15 -0.233 1.506 3,416 3,787 Strength
6 80 8 4.218 20 -0.31 -0.294 1.711 3,795 4,173 Strength
6 85 8 4.621 22 -0.56 -0.373 1.933 4,191 4,552 Stress
6 90 8 5.196 25 -0.70 -0.371 2.161 4,604 5,090 Stress
6 95 8 5.561 27 -1.22 -0.503 2.433 5,035 5,433 Stress
6 100 8 6.293 31 -1.30 -0.446 2.685 5,483 6,102 Stress
8 50 8 2.147* 10 0.08 -0.117 0.731 2,101 2,199 Strength
8 55 8 2.573* 12 0.10 -0.122 0.875 2,449 2,622 Strength
8 60 8 2.995* 14 0.11 -0.146 1.036 2,816 3,040 Strength
8 65 8 3.412 16 0.08 -0.190 1.215 3,201 3,452 Strength
8 70 8 3.825 18 0.00 -0.254 1.411 3,605 3,860 Strength
8 75 8 4.232 20 -0.14 -0.337 1.625 4,028 4,261 Stress
8 80 8 4.635 22 -0.37 -0.439 1.856 4,470 4,658 Stress
8 85 8 5.210 25 -0.51 -0.462 2.095 4,931 5,224 Stress
8 90 8 5.949 29 -0.52 -0.413 2.344 5,413 5,949 Stress
8 95 8 6.674 33 -0.59 -0.389 2.611 5,913 6,654 Stress
10 45 8 2.161* 10 0.15 -0.019 0.603 2,035 2,213 Strength
10 50 8 2.588* 12 0.19 -0.034 0.744 2,413 2,642 Strength
10 55 8 3.009 14 0.21 -0.070 0.904 2,810 3,067 Strength
10 60 8 3.426 16 0.21 -0.127 1.084 3,228 3,488 Strength
10 65 8 3.838 18 0.16 -0.206 1.283 3,666 3904 Strength
10 70 8 4.246 20 0.05 -0.306 1.501 4,125 4,315 Stress
10 75 8 4.648 22 -0.13 -0.426 1.738 4,606 4,723 Stress
10 80 8 5.223 25 -0.25 -0.469 1.985 5,108 5,307 Stress
10 85 8 5.963 29 -0.27 -0.442 2.242 5,632 6,059 Stress
10 90 8 6.688 33 -0.34 -0.441 2.521 6,177 6,794 Stress
12 40 8 2.175* 10 0.19 0.118 0.464 1,891 2,223 Strength
12 45 8 2.602* 12 0.25 0.108 0.597 2,267 2,656 Strength
12 50 8 3.023 14 0.3 0.067 0.753 2,685 3,085 Strength
12 55 8 3.440 16 0.33 0.003 0.929 3,124 3,511 Strength
12 60 8 3.852 18 0.33 -0.083 1.126 3,585 3,933 Strength
12 65 8 4.259 20 0.27 -0.191 1.344 4,068 4,352 Strength
12 70 8 4.662 22 0.14 -0.322 1.583 4,574 4,767 Stress
12 75 8 5.237 25 0.08 -0.377 1.833 5,103 5,364 Stress
12 80 8 5.976 29 0.10 -0.362 2.095 5,654 6,134 Stress
12 85 8 6.701 33 0.06 -0.376 2.380 6,230 6,890 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 46 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-5
AASHTO Spread Box Beams BIV-48
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO BIV 48-in.-Wide Exterior Beam
6 50 8 2.085* 10 0.18 0.079 0.608 1,909 2,322 Strength
6 55 8 2.072* 10 0.06 -0.143 0.790 2,254 2,322 Strength
6 60 8 2.486* 12 0.09 -0.138 0.926 2,620 2,765 Strength
6 65 8 2.896* 14 0.11 -0.152 1.078 3,006 3,200 Strength
6 70 8 3.302 16 0.11 -0.184 1.245 3,414 3,629 Strength
6 75 8 3.702 18 0.07 -0.233 1.428 3,842 4,050 Strength
6 80 8 4.098 20 -0.02 -0.299 1.626 4,291 4,465 Strength
6 85 8 4.490 22 -0.17 -0.383 1.839 4,761 4,873 Stress
6 90 8 5.051 25 -0.20 -0.388 2.057 5,252 5,454 Stress
6 95 8 5.408 27 -0.56 -0.523 2.317 5,764 5,826 Stress
6 100 8 6.124 31 -0.50 -0.472 2.555 6,296 6,552 Stress
8 40 8 2.111* 10 0.24 0.206 0.401 1,939 2,346 Strength
8 45 8 2.526* 12 0.34 0.208 0.515 2,357 2,798 Strength
8 50 8 2.935* 14 0.44 0.181 0.65 2,826 3,245 Strength
8 55 8 3.340 16 0.55 0.133 0.803 3,322 3,686 Strength
8 60 8 3.741 18 0.65 0.064 0.973 3,843 4,123 Strength
8 65 8 4.136 20 0.74 -0.025 1.160 4,391 4,554 Strength
8 70 8 4.528 22 0.80 -0.133 1.364 4,965 4,980 Strength
8 75 8 5.089 25 0.95 -0.165 1.574 5,565 5,589 Strength
8 80 8 5.812 29 1.23 -0.127 1.792 6,192 6,372 Strength
8 85 8 6.521 33 1.52 -0.114 2.029 6,844 7,134 Strength
10 40 8 2.111* 10 0.21 0.093 0.434 2,198 2,360 Strength
10 45 8 2.526* 12 0.30 0.071 0.558 2,671 2,818 Strength
10 50 8 2.935* 14 0.38 0.015 0.704 3,202 3,272 Strength
10 55 8 3.753 18 0.65 0.170 0.813 3,762 4,167 Strength
10 60 8 4.149 20 0.75 0.067 0.997 4,351 4,608 Strength
10 65 8 4.540 22 0.83 -0.057 1.200 4,970 5,045 Strength
10 70 8 5.101 25 0.98 -0.107 1.411 5,618 5,673 Strength
10 75 8 5.824 29 1.25 -0.088 1.630 6,296 6,482 Strength
10 80 8 6.533 33 1.52 -0.096 1.869 7,003 7,276 Strength
12 45 8 2.098* 10 0.13 -0.052 0.585 2,279 2,369 Strength
12 50 8 2.513* 12 0.17 -0.086 0.727 2,742 2,831 Strength
12 55 8 2.922* 14 0.19 -0.144 0.889 3,233 3,290 Strength
12 60 8 3.741 18 0.41 0.008 1.014 3,754 4,197 Strength
12 65 8 4.136 20 0.40 -0.098 1.216 4,303 4,645 Strength
12 70 8 4.528 22 0.35 -0.226 1.438 4,881 5,089 Strength
12 75 8 5.089 25 0.36 -0.281 1.668 5,488 5,729 Strength
12 80 8 5.446 27 0.11 -0.469 1.945 6,124 6,145 Stress
12 85 8 6.162 31 0.15 -0.478 2.204 6,789 6,966 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 47 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-5 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO BIV 48-in.-Wide Interior Beam
6 55 8 2.072* 10 0.06 -0.079 0.757 2,092 2,322 Strength
6 60 8 2.486* 12 0.09 -0.056 0.883 2,408 2,765 Strength
6 65 8 2.473* 12 -0.16 -0.289 1.083 2,741 2,765 Strength
6 70 8 2.883* 14 -0.21 -0.295 1.238 3,091 3,200 Strength
6 75 8 3.289 16 -0.29 -0.319 1.408 3,458 3,629 Stress
6 80 8 3.689 18 -0.42 -0.358 1.592 3,842 4,050 Stress
6 85 8 4.085 20 -0.62 -0.414 1.790 4,243 4,465 Stress
6 90 8 4.477 22 -0.90 -0.486 2.004 4,662 4,873 Stress
6 95 8 5.038 25 -1.06 -0.477 2.220 5,098 5,454 Stress
6 100 8 5.762 29 -1.05 -0.394 2.442 5,552 6,192 Stress
6 105 8 6.112 31 -1.69 -0.531 2.715 6,024 6,552 Stress
8 50 8 2.085* 10 0.12 -0.034 0.655 2,124 2,346 Strength
8 55 8 2.499* 12 0.16 -0.024 0.783 2,476 2,798 Strength
8 60 8 2.909* 14 0.19 -0.032 0.927 2,847 3,245 Strength
8 65 8 2.896* 14 -0.07 -0.295 1.145 3,236 3,245 Strength
8 70 8 3.302 16 -0.14 -0.336 1.320 3,645 3,686 Stress
8 75 8 3.702 18 -0.25 -0.396 1.511 4,073 4,123 Stress
8 80 8 4.098 20 -0.44 -0.472 1.718 4,520 4,554 Stress
8 85 8 4.690 23 -0.47 -0.453 1.914 4,988 5,191 Stress
8 90 8 5.421 27 -0.42 -0.376 2.132 5,474 5,983 Stress
8 95 8 5.774 29 -0.90 -0.524 2.404 5,981 6,372 Stress
8 100 8 6.484 33 -0.98 -0.489 2.656 6,508 7,134 Stress
10 45 8 2.098* 10 0.16 0.055 0.536 2,056 2,360 Strength
10 50 8 2.513* 12 0.22 0.056 0.662 2,438 2,818 Strength
10 55 8 2.922* 14 0.27 0.038 0.805 2,839 3,272 Strength
10 60 8 2.909* 14 0.06 -0.237 1.024 3,261 3,272 Strength
10 65 8 3.314 16 0.02 -0.292 1.201 3,704 3,722 Strength
10 70 8 4.124 20 0.24 -0.135 1.340 4,169 4,608 Strength
10 75 8 4.515 22 0.14 -0.231 1.553 4,654 5,045 Strength
10 80 8 4.703 23 -0.25 -0.458 1.811 5,162 5,262 Stress
10 85 8 5.433 27 -0.2 -0.400 2.037 5,692 6,079 Stress
10 90 8 6.149 31 -0.19 -0.368 2.282 6,243 6,881 Stress
12 40 8 2.111* 10 0.19 0.181 0.409 1,909 2,369 Strength
12 45 8 2.098* 10 0.13 -0.055 0.586 2,289 2,369 Strength
12 50 8 2.513* 12 0.17 -0.075 0.724 2,712 2,831 Strength
12 55 8 2.922* 14 0.19 -0.116 0.881 3,155 3,290 Strength
12 60 8 3.327 16 0.18 -0.178 1.056 3,621 3,745 Strength
12 65 8 3.728 18 0.14 -0.260 1.251 4,109 4,197 Strength
12 70 8 4.124 20 0.04 -0.362 1.464 4,620 4,645 Stress
12 75 8 4.716 23 0.04 -0.372 1.669 5,154 5,310 Strength
12 80 8 5.076 25 -0.24 -0.532 1.937 5,712 5,729 Stress
12 85 8 5.799 29 -0.25 -0.507 2.186 6,293 6,557 Stress
12 90 8 6.508 33 -0.31 -0.509 2.455 6,898 7,372 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 48 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-6
AASHTO Box Beams 36 in. Wide: Maximum Span (ft) vs. Beam Spacing
Spacing
4 ft 6 ft 8 ft 10 ft 12 ft
Beam
BIV-36 120 95 90 85 80
BIII-36 110 90 85 80 75
BII-36 100 80 75 70 65

Table BB-7
AASHTO Adjacent Box Beams 36 in. Wide
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO BII Adjacent 36-in.-Wide Exterior Box Beam
BII-36 40 6 1.114* 4 0.00 -0.094 0.499 660 722 Strength
BII-36 50 6 1.690* 6 -0.04 -0.140 0.754 959 1,061 Strength
BII-36 60 6 2.257* 8 -0.23 -0.260 1.078 1,305 1,386 Stress
BII-36 70 6 2.815* 10 -0.68 -0.450 1.465 1,692 1,698 Stress
BII-36 80 6 3.940 14 -0.82 -0.380 1.829 2,121 2,284 Stress
BII-36 90 6 5.262 19 -0.89 -0.266 2.251 2,594 2,931 Stress
BII-36 100 6 6.227 23 -1.97 -0.421 2.814 3,109 3,378 Stress

AASHTO BIII Adjacent 36-in.-Wide Exterior Box Beam

BIII-36 40 6 1.038* 4 0.03 0.001 0.394 684 839 Strength
BIII-36 50 6 1.572* 6 0.05 0.006 0.59 987 1,236 Strength
BIII-36 60 6 2.099* 8 0.00 -0.053 0.846 1,344 1,620 Strength
BIII-36 70 6 2.618* 10 -0.20 -0.170 1.155 1,745 1,989 Strength
BIII-36 80 6 3.130 12 -0.67 -0.343 1.517 2,190 2,346 Stress
BIII-36 90 6 4.160 16 -0.78 -0.272 1.849 2,680 3,022 Stress
BIII-36 100 6 4.871 19 -1.67 -0.435 2.302 3,215 3,478 Stress
BIII-36 110 6 5.784 23 -2.72 -0.537 2.793 3,794 4,035 Stress

AASHTO BIV Adjacent 36-in.-Wide Exterior Box Beam

BIV-36 40 6 1.004* 4 0.04 0.032 0.354 698 897 Strength
BIV-36 50 6 1.521* 6 0.08 0.056 0.528 1,001 1,324 Strength
BIV-36 60 6 2.030* 8 0.06 0.018 0.757 1,364 1,736 Strength
BIV-36 70 6 2.532* 10 -0.07 -0.072 1.036 1,772 2,135 Strength
BIV-36 80 6 3.027 12 -0.40 -0.215 1.364 2,225 2,521 Strength
BIV-36 90 6 3.515 14 -1.05 -0.408 1.741 2,723 2,894 Stress
BIV-36 100 6 4.248 17 -1.73 -0.508 2.126 3,268 3,429 Stress
BIV-36 110 6 5.604 23 -1.71 -0.309 2.508 3,858 4,365 Stress
BIV-36 120 6 6.473 27 -2.89 -0.429 2.999 4,494 4,874 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 49 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-8
AASHTO Spread Box Beams BII-36
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO BII 36-in.-Wide Exterior Beam
6 20 8 0.419* 4 -0.03 -0.142 0.517 456 491 Stress
6 25 8 1.027* 6 0.00 0.044 0.540 612 879 Strength
6 30 8 1.009* 6 -0.06 -0.154 0.687 794 879 Strength
6 35 8 1.609* 8 -0.01 -0.037 0.762 1,003 1,248 Strength
6 40 8 1.591* 8 -0.13 -0.294 0.957 1,232 1,248 Stress
6 45 8 2.182* 10 -0.10 -0.248 1.086 1,504 1,610 Stress
6 50 8 2.764* 12 -0.08 -0.243 1.243 1,809 1,966 Stress
6 55 8 3.337 14 -0.06 -0.267 1.424 2,133 2,314 Stress
6 60 8 3.902 16 -0.08 -0.321 1.630 2,476 2,655 Stress
6 65 8 4.457 18 -0.14 -0.403 1.861 2,837 2,990 Stress
6 70 8 5.236 21 -0.07 -0.387 2.102 3,218 3,461 Stress
6 75 8 6.225 25 0.18 -0.282 2.357 3,617 4,053 Stress
6 80 8 6.702 27 -0.18 -0.483 2.691 4,035 4,340 Stress
8 20 8 1.046* 6 0.01 0.062 0.457 683 865 Strength
8 25 8 1.646* 8 0.07 0.171 0.506 944 1,263 Strength
8 30 8 1.627* 8 0.04 -0.100 0.678 1,230 1,263 Strength
8 35 8 2.219* 10 0.10 -0.059 0.782 1,541 1,633 Strength
8 40 8 2.800* 12 0.19 -0.053 0.913 1,875 1,998 Strength
8 45 8 3.373 14 0.28 -0.109 1.080 2,276 2,358 Strength
8 50 8 4.510 18 0.65 0.106 1.190 2,727 3,061 Strength
8 55 8 4.776 19 0.60 -0.193 1.462 3,201 3,233 Strength
8 60 8 5.778 23 0.94 -0.117 1.692 3,699 3,872 Strength
8 65 8 6.754 27 1.32 -0.085 1.953 4,222 4,491 Strength
10 20 8 1.046* 6 0.01 -0.001 0.465 778 868 Strength
10 25 8 1.646* 8 0.06 0.080 0.522 1,076 1,272 Strength
10 30 8 2.237* 10 0.13 0.121 0.610 1,401 1,647 Strength
10 35 8 2.819* 12 0.21 0.123 0.728 1,754 2,018 Strength
10 40 8 3.391 14 0.32 0.085 0.877 2,134 2,384 Strength
10 45 8 3.955 16 0.42 -0.019 1.063 2,590 2,746 Strength
10 50 8 4.510 18 0.50 -0.176 1.284 3,102 3,104 Strength
10 55 8 5.795 23 0.97 0.035 1.467 3,641 3,942 Strength
10 60 8 6.278 25 0.98 -0.228 1.779 4,207 4,266 Strength
12 20 8.5 1.046* 6 0.01 0.023 0.459 728 884 Strength
12 25 8.5 1.646* 8 0.04 0.130 0.517 973 1,297 Strength
12 30 8.5 1.627* 8 -0.01 -0.144 0.703 1,236 1,297 Strength
12 35 8.5 2.219* 10 0.03 -0.107 0.825 1,519 1,681 Strength
12 40 8.5 2.800* 12 0.05 -0.108 0.980 1,823 2,060 Strength
12 45 8.5 3.373 14 0.06 -0.188 1.174 2,222 2,436 Strength
12 50 8.5 3.937 16 0.03 -0.321 1.404 2,671 2,809 Stress
12 55 8.5 4.493 18 -0.05 -0.493 1.667 3,148 3,177 Stress
12 60 8.5 5.778 23 0.27 -0.296 1.896 3,652 4,045 Stress
12 65 8.5 6.754 27 0.39 -0.308 2.204 4,184 4,715 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 50 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-8 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO BII 36-in.-Wide Interior Beam
6 20 8 0.419* 4 -0.03 -0.143 0.517 457 491 Stress
6 25 8 1.027* 6 0.00 0.043 0.541 614 879 Strength
6 30 8 1.009* 6 -0.06 -0.148 0.685 784 879 Strength
6 35 8 1.609* 8 -0.01 -0.014 0.753 968 1,248 Strength
6 40 8 1.591* 8 -0.13 -0.251 0.941 1,166 1,248 Stress
6 45 8 2.182* 10 -0.10 -0.182 1.060 1,402 1,610 Strength
6 50 8 2.764* 12 -0.08 -0.149 1.206 1,663 1,966 Strength
6 55 8 2.746* 12 -0.42 -0.475 1.468 1,939 1,966 Stress
6 60 8 3.319 14 -0.49 -0.490 1.659 2,228 2,314 Stress
6 65 8 3.884 16 -0.62 -0.532 1.873 2,533 2,655 Stress
6 70 8 4.723 19 -0.55 -0.441 2.066 2,852 3,155 Stress
6 75 8 5.725 23 -0.36 -0.288 2.302 3,186 3,760 Stress
6 80 8 6.208 25 -0.80 -0.444 2.617 3,535 4,053 Stress
8 20 8 1.046* 6 0.01 0.143 0.433 554 865 Strength
8 25 8 1.027* 6 -0.01 -0.050 0.565 741 887 Strength
8 30 8 1.627* 8 0.04 0.079 0.625 944 1,263 Strength
8 35 8 1.609* 8 -0.04 -0.166 0.807 1,163 1,263 Strength
8 40 8 2.200* 10 0.00 -0.095 0.918 1,399 1,633 Strength
8 45 8 2.782* 12 0.04 -0.072 1.060 1,678 1,998 Strength
8 50 8 2.764* 12 -0.22 -0.420 1.324 1,989 1,998 Stress
8 55 8 3.337 14 -0.28 -0.460 1.519 2,316 2,358 Stress
8 60 8 3.902 16 -0.38 -0.530 1.741 2,659 2,712 Stress
8 65 8 4.740 19 -0.32 -0.469 1.944 3,019 3,233 Stress
8 70 8 5.743 23 -0.17 -0.349 2.193 3,396 3,872 Stress
8 75 8 6.719 27 -0.03 -0.271 2.471 3,790 4,491 Stress
10 20 8 1.046* 6 0.01 0.080 0.447 644 868 Strength
10 25 8 1.027* 6 -0.02 -0.138 0.590 861 892 Strength
10 30 8 1.627* 8 0.02 -0.036 0.662 1,095 1,272 Strength
10 35 8 2.219* 10 0.07 0.031 0.764 1,347 1,647 Strength
10 40 8 2.200* 10 -0.06 -0.273 0.990 1,617 1,647 Stress
10 45 8 2.782* 12 -0.06 -0.288 1.153 1,939 2,018 Stress
10 50 8 3.355 14 -0.08 -0.346 1.348 2,296 2,384 Stress
10 55 8 3.919 16 -0.14 -0.436 1.571 2,672 2,746 Stress
10 60 8 4.758 19 -0.07 -0.398 1.779 3,065 3,282 Stress
10 65 8 5.760 23 0.08 -0.304 2.036 3,478 3,942 Stress
10 70 8 6.243 25 -0.26 -0.523 2.377 3,910 4,266 Stress
12 20 8.5 1.046* 6 0.01 0.021 0.459 731 884 Strength
12 25 8.5 1.646* 8 0.04 0.127 0.517 976 1,297 Strength
12 30 8.5 1.627* 8 -0.01 -0.146 0.704 1,240 1,297 Strength
12 35 8.5 2.219* 10 0.03 -0.110 0.825 1,524 1,681 Strength
12 40 8.5 2.800* 12 0.05 -0.111 0.980 1,829 2,060 Strength
12 45 8.5 3.373 14 0.06 -0.171 1.171 2,191 2,436 Strength
12 50 8.5 3.937 16 0.03 -0.277 1.397 2,594 2,809 Stress
12 55 8.5 4.493 18 -0.05 -0.419 1.655 3,017 3,177 Stress
12 60 8.5 5.271 21 -0.08 -0.468 1.932 3,460 3,704 Stress
12 65 8.5 6.260 25 -0.02 -0.434 2.231 3,924 4,382 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 51 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-9
AASHTO Spread Box Beams BIII-36
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO BIII 36-in.-Wide Exterior Beam
6 45 8 2.145* 8 0.19 0.040 0.567 1,524 1,756 Strength
6 50 8 2.678* 10 0.30 0.085 0.687 1,834 2,176 Strength
6 55 8 2.663* 10 0.14 -0.200 0.912 2,162 2,176 Strength
6 60 8 3.189 12 0.21 -0.198 1.070 2,511 2,589 Strength
6 65 8 3.708 14 0.26 -0.219 1.248 2,878 2,996 Strength
6 70 8 4.219 16 0.29 -0.264 1.445 3,265 3,395 Stress
6 75 8 4.944 19 0.46 -0.210 1.646 3,672 3,962 Strength
6 80 8 5.403 21 0.34 -0.325 1.907 4,097 4,325 Stress
6 85 8 5.856 23 0.13 -0.462 2.187 4,542 4,681 Stress
6 90 8 6.761 27 0.42 -0.367 2.433 5,007 5,375 Stress
8 35 8 2.175* 8 0.23 0.190 0.325 1,552 1,771 Strength
8 40 8 2.709* 10 0.35 0.236 0.424 1,891 2,199 Strength
8 45 8 3.234 12 0.50 0.232 0.554 2,296 2,622 Strength
8 50 8 3.752 14 0.66 0.189 0.710 2,751 3,040 Strength
8 55 8 4.263 16 0.82 0.118 0.889 3,230 3,452 Strength
8 60 8 4.988 19 1.11 0.143 1.073 3,734 4,042 Strength
8 65 8 5.446 21 1.22 -0.004 1.319 4,263 4,421 Strength
8 70 8 6.362 25 1.67 0.078 1.534 4,817 5,166 Strength
10 30 8 2.190* 8 0.20 0.334 0.182 1,410 1,780 Strength
10 35 8 2.175* 8 0.21 0.068 0.357 1,766 1,780 Strength
10 40 8 2.709* 10 0.31 0.084 0.469 2,149 2,213 Strength
10 45 8 3.234 12 0.44 0.046 0.612 2,610 2,642 Strength
10 50 8 4.278 16 0.79 0.260 0.702 3,126 3,488 Strength
10 55 8 4.523 17 0.82 0.001 0.939 3,670 3,696 Strength
10 60 8 5.461 21 1.19 0.100 1.128 4,242 4,481 Strength
10 65 8 5.914 23 1.28 -0.095 1.396 4842 4,867 Strength
12 35 8.5 2.175* 8 0.18 0.147 0.349 1,552 1,805 Strength
12 40 8.5 2.709* 10 0.27 0.187 0.463 1,863 2,247 Strength
12 45 8.5 2.693* 10 0.17 -0.129 0.693 2,242 2,247 Strength
12 50 8.5 3.752 14 0.45 0.113 0.785 2,695 3,119 Strength
12 55 8.5 4.263 16 0.51 0.017 0.988 3,177 3,550 Strength
12 60 8.5 4.508 17 0.38 -0.254 1.257 3,687 3,764 Strength
12 65 8.5 5.446 21 0.62 -0.167 1.480 4,225 4,572 Strength
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 52 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-9 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO BIII 36-in.-Wide Interior Beam
6 45 8 2.145* 8 0.19 0.084 0.547 1,438 1,756 Strength
6 50 8 2.130* 8 0.07 -0.160 0.744 1,707 1,756 Strength
6 55 8 2.663* 10 0.14 -0.111 0.872 1,990 2,176 Strength
6 60 8 3.189 12 0.21 -0.083 1.018 2,288 2,589 Strength
6 65 8 3.708 14 0.26 -0.078 1.184 2,601 2,996 Strength
6 70 8 3.693 14 -0.16 -0.391 1.450 2,929 2,996 Stress
6 75 8 4.204 16 -0.23 -0.424 1.652 3,273 3,395 Stress
6 80 8 4.929 19 -0.16 -0.356 1.855 3,632 3,962 Stress
6 85 8 5.388 21 -0.43 -0.455 2.118 4,008 4,325 Stress
6 90 8 6.304 25 -0.20 -0.318 2.345 4,399 5,031 Stress
6 95 8 6.747 27 -0.68 -0.461 2.645 4,806 5,375 Stress
8 40 8 2.160* 8 0.20 0.155 0.429 1,432 1,771 Strength
8 45 8 2.145* 8 0.12 -0.096 0.622 1,719 1,771 Strength
8 50 8 2.678* 10 0.20 -0.065 0.751 2,037 2,199 Strength
8 55 8 3.204 12 0.27 -0.057 0.901 2,372 2,622 Strength
8 60 8 3.723 14 0.33 -0.073 1.072 2,724 3,040 Strength
8 65 8 4.234 16 0.36 -0.113 1.263 3,093 3,452 Strength
8 70 8 4.479 17 0.13 -0.321 1.516 3,480 3,657 Strength
8 75 8 4.944 19 -0.03 -0.428 1.772 3,885 4,042 Stress
8 80 8 5.871 23 0.20 -0.297 1.994 4,307 4,796 Stress
8 85 8 6.318 25 -0.13 -0.452 2.291 4,748 5,166 Stress
10 35 8 2.175* 8 0.21 0.256 0.303 1,377 1,780 Strength
10 40 8 2.160* 8 0.17 0.014 0.486 1,654 1,780 Strength
10 45 8 2.693* 10 0.25 0.043 0.609 1,983 2,213 Strength
10 50 8 3.219 12 0.33 0.037 0.758 2,349 2,642 Strength
10 55 8 3.738 14 0.41 0.005 0.929 2,733 3,067 Strength
10 60 8 4.248 16 0.46 -0.053 1.124 3,136 3,488 Strength
10 65 8 4.494 17 0.28 -0.281 1.382 3,559 3,696 Strength
10 70 8 4.958 19 0.15 -0.410 1.644 4,001 4,091 Stress
10 75 8 5.885 23 0.36 -0.303 1.875 4,463 4,867 Stress
10 80 8 6.333 25 0.07 -0.484 2.184 4,946 5,249 Stress
12 35 8.5 2.175* 8 0.18 0.144 0.349 1,557 1,805 Strength
12 40 8.5 2.709* 10 0.27 0.185 0.464 1,869 2,247 Strength
12 45 8.5 2.693* 10 0.17 -0.128 0.693 2,239 2,247 Strength
12 50 8.5 3.219 12 0.22 -0.168 0.864 2,651 2,685 Strength
12 55 8.5 3.738 14 0.24 -0.236 1.060 3,083 3,119 Stress
12 60 8.5 4.248 16 0.22 -0.332 1.283 3,536 3,550 Stress
12 65 8.5 4.973 19 0.28 -0.334 1.514 4,010 4,170 Stress
12 70 8.5 5.432 21 0.09 -0.509 1.811 4,507 4,572 Stress
12 75 8.5 6.347 25 0.21 -0.454 2.080 5,026 5,366 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 53 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BB-10
AASHTO Spread Box Beams BIV-36
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO BIV 36-in.-Wide Exterior Beam
6 60 8 3.083 12 0.28 -0.073 0.953 2,528 2,765 Strength
6 70 8 4.079 16 0.43 -0.100 1.287 3,289 3,629 Strength
6 80 8 4.769 19 0.16 -0.371 1.754 4,129 4,239 Stress
6 90 8 6.108 25 0.31 -0.349 2.216 5,046 5,395 Stress
8 40 8 2.616* 10 0.34 0.305 0.368 1,898 2,346 Strength
8 50 8 3.111 12 0.44 0.007 0.703 2,763 2,798 Strength
8 60 8 4.357 17 0.85 0.039 0.999 3,752 3,905 Strength
8 70 8 5.712 23 1.37 0.041 1.404 4,841 5,132 Strength
10 40 8 2.616* 10 0.31 0.168 0.409 2,157 2,360 Strength
10 50 8 3.626 14 0.56 0.096 0.688 3,138 3,272 Strength
10 60 8 4.823 19 0.94 0.023 1.041 4,260 4,369 Strength
10 70 8 6.162 25 1.41 -0.067 1.488 5,494 5,614 Strength
12 50 8 3.111 12 0.29 -0.037 0.747 2,678 2,831 Strength
12 60 8 4.106 16 0.39 -0.184 1.119 3,662 3,745 Strength
12 70 8 5.257 21 0.44 -0.342 1.588 4,757 4,828 Stress
12 80 8 6.579 27 0.46 -0.498 2.134 5,962 6,087 Stress

AASHTO BIV 36-in.-Wide Interior Beam

6 60 8 2.560* 10 -0.02 -0.271 0.990 2,317 2,322 Stress
6 70 8 3.570 14 0.03 -0.239 1.297 2,967 3,200 Strength
6 80 8 4.303 17 -0.30 -0.427 1.713 3,679 3,840 Stress
6 90 8 5.658 23 -0.26 -0.333 2.141 4,456 5,016 Stress
8 50 8 2.588* 10 0.23 0.028 0.666 2,061 2,346 Strength
8 60 8 3.083 12 0.11 -0.238 1.031 2,756 2,798 Strength
8 70 8 4.079 16 0.12 -0.290 1.387 3,521 3,686 Stress
8 80 8 5.230 21 0.08 -0.330 1.822 4,358 4,728 Stress
8 90 8 6.553 27 0.03 -0.347 2.318 5,269 5,924 Stress
10 50 8 3.111 12 0.36 0.138 0.665 2,374 2,818 Strength
10 60 8 3.598 14 0.24 -0.197 1.069 3,170 3,272 Strength
10 70 8 4.796 19 0.36 -0.210 1.456 4,044 4,369 Strength
10 80 8 5.685 23 0.01 -0.477 1.986 5,000 5,203 Stress
12 50 8 3.111 12 0.29 -0.024 0.743 2,648 2,831 Strength
12 60 8 4.106 16 0.39 -0.128 1.104 3,530 3,745 Strength
12 70 8 5.257 21 0.44 -0.233 1.558 4,496 4,828 Strength
12 80 8 6.579 27 0.46 -0.328 2.087 5,549 6,087 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 54 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BT-1
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tees: Maximum Span vs. Beam Spacing
Spacing
6 ft 8 ft 10 ft 12 ft
Beam
PCI BT54 125 115 105 95
PCI BT63 140 130 115 105
PCI BT72 155 145 130 120

6 - 55 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BT-2
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee BT-54
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee, 54-in.-Deep Exterior Beam
6 60 8 2.300* 10 0.33 0.087 0.700 2,562 2,908 Strength
6 65 8 2.193* 10 0.20 -0.140 0.872 2,901 2,908 Strength
6 70 8 2.643* 12 0.33 -0.062 0.980 3,258 3,467 Strength
6 75 8 3.050 14 0.45 -0.032 1.122 3,663 4,000 Strength
6 80 8 3.444 16 0.55 -0.019 1.277 4,087 4,525 Strength
6 85 8 3.824 18 0.65 -0.025 1.446 4,531 5,044 Strength
6 90 8 3.679 18 0.25 -0.330 1.683 4,994 5,044 Stress
6 95 8 4.038 20 0.22 -0.366 1.877 5,477 5,555 Stress
6 100 8 4.384 22 0.13 -0.418 2.083 5,978 6,060 Stress
6 105 8 4.717 24 -0.04 -0.488 2.303 6,499 6,558 Stress
6 110 8 5.478 28 0.16 -0.338 2.514 7,039 7,495 Stress
6 115 8 5.758 30 -0.50 -0.459 2.775 7,599 7,954 Stress
6 120 8 6.454 34 -0.99 -0.372 3.028 8,177 8,731 Stress
8 40 8 2.075* 8 0.24 0.316 0.282 1,888 2,356 Strength
8 45 8 2.001* 8 0.24 0.086 0.429 2,293 2,356 Strength
8 50 8 2.489* 10 0.37 0.150 0.516 2,747 2,931 Strength
8 55 8 2.961* 12 0.53 0.192 0.619 3,226 3,501 Strength
8 60 8 3.392 14 0.69 0.197 0.753 3,729 4,045 Strength
8 65 8 3.808 16 0.86 0.182 0.901 4,257 4,584 Strength
8 70 8 4.210 18 1.03 0.146 1.065 4,809 5,117 Strength
8 75 8 4.598 20 1.19 0.090 1.243 5,386 5,645 Strength
8 80 8 4.973 22 1.31 0.014 1.436 5,988 6,168 Strength
8 85 8 5.335 24 1.41 -0.081 1.644 6,614 6,686 Strength
8 90 8 6.122 28 1.77 0.038 1.844 7,265 7,667 Strength
8 95 8 6.430 30 1.57 -0.113 2.096 7,941 8,149 Strength
10 40 8 2.075* 8 0.22 0.198 0.314 2,147 2,365 Strength
10 45 8 2.571* 10 0.34 0.262 0.393 2,607 2,945 Strength
10 50 8 3.051 12 0.49 0.292 0.493 3,122 3,521 Strength
10 55 8 3.489 14 0.64 0.283 0.624 3,665 4,072 Strength
10 60 8 3.913 16 0.80 0.251 0.771 4,237 4,619 Strength
10 65 8 4.322 18 0.97 0.196 0.935 4,836 5,162 Strength
10 70 8 4.718 20 1.11 0.120 1.115 5,462 5,700 Strength
10 75 8 5.101 22 1.24 0.023 1.311 6,117 6,234 Strength
10 80 8 5.935 26 1.65 0.156 1.487 6,799 7,270 Strength
10 85 8 6.263 28 1.66 -0.001 1.730 7,510 7,772 Strength
10 90 8 6.578 30 1.46 -0.180 1.989 8,248 8,270 Strength
12 40 9 2.075* 8 0.19 0.180 0.325 2,130 2,410 Strength
12 45 9 2.571* 10 0.30 0.255 0.408 2,538 3,004 Strength
12 50 9 2.489* 10 0.25 -0.018 0.586 2,991 3,004 Strength
12 55 9 2.961* 12 0.35 0.009 0.705 3,463 3,593 Strength
12 60 9 3.392 14 0.44 -0.002 0.857 3,957 4,159 Strength
12 65 9 3.808 16 0.51 -0.035 1.027 4,471 4,721 Strength
12 70 9 4.210 18 0.57 -0.090 1.214 5,008 5,280 Strength
12 75 9 4.598 20 0.58 -0.165 1.419 5,568 5,835 Strength
12 80 9 4.973 22 0.53 -0.262 1.641 6,150 6,386 Stress
12 85 9 5.335 24 0.41 -0.379 1.881 6,755 6,934 Stress
12 90 9 6.122 28 0.52 -0.293 2.119 7,415 7,980 Stress
12 95 9 6.430 30 0.01 -0.491 2.413 8,129 8,497 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 56 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BT-2 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee, 54-in.-Deep Interior Beam
6 60 8 2.300* 10 0.33 0.081 0.703 2,577 2,908 Strength
6 65 8 2.757* 12 0.48 0.170 0.799 2,918 3,467 Strength
6 70 8 2.643* 12 0.33 -0.069 0.982 3,274 3,467 Strength
6 75 8 3.050 14 0.45 -0.025 1.119 3,645 4,000 Strength
6 80 8 3.444 16 0.55 0.002 1.267 4,032 4,525 Strength
6 85 8 3.306 16 0.22 -0.274 1.485 4,435 4,525 Stress
6 90 8 3.679 18 0.25 -0.275 1.658 4,854 5,044 Stress
6 95 8 4.038 20 0.22 -0.292 1.843 5,288 5,555 Stress
6 100 8 4.384 22 0.13 -0.326 2.041 5,739 6,060 Stress
6 105 8 4.717 24 -0.04 -0.375 2.251 6,206 6,558 Stress
6 110 8 5.013 26 -0.33 -0.456 2.489 6,690 7,030 Stress
6 115 8 5.758 30 -0.50 -0.304 2.702 7,190 7,954 Stress
6 120 8 6.026 32 -1.30 -0.418 2.965 7,706 8,406 Stress
6 125 8 6.661 36 -2.08 -0.357 3.249 8,239 8,957 Stress
8 45 8 2.001* 8 0.24 0.212 0.384 1,970 2,356 Strength
8 55 8 2.399* 10 0.32 0.084 0.620 2,692 2,931 Strength
8 60 8 2.864* 12 0.47 0.154 0.720 3,076 3,501 Strength
8 65 8 2.757* 12 0.34 -0.105 0.908 3,478 3,501 Strength
8 70 8 3.172 14 0.44 -0.082 1.051 3,897 4,045 Strength
8 75 8 3.574 16 0.54 -0.078 1.207 4,334 4,584 Strength
8 80 8 3.961 18 0.61 -0.092 1.378 4,789 5,117 Strength
8 85 8 4.334 20 0.64 -0.123 1.562 5,261 5,645 Strength
8 90 8 4.695 22 0.62 -0.172 1.760 5,752 6,168 Strength
8 95 8 5.042 24 0.54 -0.239 1.972 6,262 6,686 Strength
8 100 8 5.353 26 0.35 -0.337 2.212 6,789 7,179 Stress
8 105 8 5.651 28 -0.01 -0.453 2.466 7,336 7,667 Stress
8 110 8 6.392 32 -0.39 -0.342 2.698 7,901 8,627 Stress
8 115 8 6.640 34 -1.25 -0.508 2.994 8,485 9,080 Stress
10 40 8 2.075* 8 0.22 0.286 0.288 1,917 2,365 Strength
10 45 8 2.001* 8 0.21 0.065 0.433 2,282 2,365 Strength
10 50 8 2.489* 10 0.32 0.141 0.518 2,688 2,945 Strength
10 55 8 2.961* 12 0.46 0.197 0.619 3,111 3,521 Strength
10 60 8 3.392 14 0.59 0.218 0.751 3,553 4,072 Strength
10 65 8 3.286 14 0.46 -0.072 0.955 4,013 4,072 Strength
10 70 8 3.695 16 0.55 -0.087 1.116 4,493 4,619 Strength
10 75 8 4.090 18 0.63 -0.120 1.292 4,992 5,162 Strength
10 80 8 4.471 20 0.65 -0.173 1.484 5,512 5,700 Strength
10 85 8 4.838 22 0.62 -0.245 1.691 6,051 6,234 Strength
10 90 8 5.193 24 0.54 -0.336 1.912 6,611 6,764 Stress
10 95 8 5.510 26 0.35 -0.460 2.164 7,192 7,270 Stress
10 100 8 6.274 30 0.24 -0.356 2.395 7,794 8,270 Stress
10 105 8 6.563 32 -0.40 -0.519 2.677 8,416 8,763 Stress
12 40 9 2.075* 8 0.19 0.174 0.326 2,145 2,410 Strength
12 45 9 2.571* 10 0.30 0.249 0.410 2,555 3,004 Strength
12 50 9 3.051 12 0.42 0.291 0.513 3,010 3,593 Strength
12 55 9 2.961* 12 0.35 0.001 0.707 3,485 3,593 Strength
12 60 9 3.392 14 0.44 -0.011 0.859 3,981 4,159 Strength
12 65 9 3.808 16 0.51 -0.045 1.029 4,498 4,721 Strength
12 70 9 4.210 18 0.57 -0.100 1.217 5,038 5,280 Strength
12 75 9 4.598 20 0.58 -0.177 1.422 5,599 5,835 Strength
12 80 9 4.973 22 0.53 -0.274 1.644 6,184 6,386 Stress
12 85 9 5.335 24 0.41 -0.392 1.884 6,791 6,934 Stress
12 90 9 6.122 28 0.52 -0.296 2.119 7,422 7,980 Stress
12 95 9 6.430 30 0.01 -0.473 2.409 8,077 8,497 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 57 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BT-3
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee BT-63
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee, 63-in.-Deep Exterior Beam
6 65 8 2.097* 10 0.28 0.055 0.698 2,990 3,347 Strength
6 70 8 2.525* 12 0.42 0.153 0.779 3,355 3,994 Strength
6 75 8 2.419* 12 0.28 -0.055 0.944 3,735 3,994 Strength
6 80 8 2.821* 14 0.41 0.010 1.051 4,144 4,628 Strength
6 85 8 2.701* 14 0.17 -0.231 1.241 4,595 4,628 Strength
6 90 8 3.069 16 0.25 -0.208 1.382 5,065 5,241 Strength
6 95 8 3.425 18 0.31 -0.200 1.534 5,556 5,847 Strength
6 100 8 3.769 20 0.34 -0.206 1.698 6,066 6,446 Strength
6 105 8 4.102 22 0.31 -0.227 1.872 6,596 7,038 Strength
6 110 8 4.423 24 0.24 -0.262 2.057 7,145 7,623 Strength
6 115 8 4.742 26 0.13 -0.306 2.248 7,715 8,209 Stress
6 120 8 5.021 28 -0.09 -0.381 2.467 8,304 8,761 Stress
6 125 8 5.291 30 -0.43 -0.469 2.697 8,913 9,306 Stress
6 130 8 6.001 34 -0.74 -0.327 2.886 9,541 10,272 Stress
6 135 8 6.262 36 -1.52 -0.435 3.128 10,189 10,616 Stress
8 50 8 2.351* 10 0.34 0.313 0.394 2,769 3,370 Strength
8 55 8 2.274* 10 0.33 0.089 0.545 3,252 3,370 Strength
8 60 8 2.715* 12 0.47 0.147 0.634 3,760 4,028 Strength
8 65 8 3.136 14 0.62 0.182 0.740 4,294 4,673 Strength
8 70 8 3.530 16 0.78 0.192 0.868 4,852 5,300 Strength
8 75 8 3.911 18 0.95 0.184 1.008 5,436 5,921 Strength
8 80 8 4.280 20 1.10 0.160 1.160 6,044 6,537 Strength
8 85 8 4.638 22 1.24 0.119 1.325 6,678 7,147 Strength
8 90 8 4.984 24 1.36 0.061 1.502 7,337 7,752 Strength
8 95 8 5.326 26 1.46 -0.007 1.687 8,020 8,360 Strength
8 100 8 5.630 28 1.50 -0.108 1.900 8,729 8,935 Strength
8 105 8 5.924 30 1.47 -0.224 2.126 9,463 9,505 Strength
8 110 8 6.654 34 1.46 -0.114 2.313 10,222 10,651 Strength
10 50 8 2.351* 10 0.31 0.173 0.436 3,144 3,385 Strength
10 55 8 2.799* 12 0.44 0.219 0.524 3,692 4,048 Strength
10 60 8 3.227 14 0.59 0.241 0.629 4,268 4,701 Strength
10 65 8 3.627 16 0.74 0.236 0.757 4,873 5,336 Strength
10 70 8 4.015 18 0.90 0.213 0.898 5,506 5,966 Strength
10 75 8 4.391 20 1.04 0.171 1.053 6,166 6,592 Strength
10 80 8 4.754 22 1.16 0.111 1.221 6,856 7,214 Strength
10 85 8 5.107 24 1.27 0.033 1.403 7,573 7,831 Strength
10 90 8 5.455 26 1.36 -0.057 1.593 8,319 8,452 Strength
10 95 8 6.200 30 1.73 0.055 1.774 9,093 9,626 Strength
10 100 8 6.495 32 1.56 -0.089 2.008 9,895 10,207 Strength
12 50 9 2.351* 10 0.26 0.160 0.450 3,075 3,443 Strength
12 55 9 2.799* 12 0.37 0.216 0.540 3,560 4,120 Strength
12 60 9 2.715* 12 0.30 -0.037 0.717 4,066 4,120 Strength
12 65 9 3.136 14 0.39 -0.017 0.839 4,594 4,788 Strength
12 70 9 3.530 16 0.47 -0.024 0.984 5,145 5,438 Strength
12 75 9 3.911 18 0.54 -0.049 1.144 5,718 6,084 Strength
12 80 9 4.280 20 0.57 -0.092 1.319 6,315 6,727 Strength
12 85 9 4.638 22 0.56 -0.153 1.508 6,935 7,366 Strength
12 90 9 4.984 24 0.50 -0.230 1.711 7,578 8,002 Strength
12 95 9 5.326 26 0.40 -0.320 1.924 8,246 8,641 Stress
12 100 9 5.630 28 0.19 -0.451 2.170 8,960 9,250 Stress
12 105 9 6.355 32 0.10 -0.376 2.394 9,741 10,456 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 58 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BT-3 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee, 63-in.-Deep Interior Beam
6 65 8 2.097* 10 0.28 0.050 0.700 3,007 3,347 Strength
6 70 8 2.525* 12 0.42 0.147 0.782 3,374 3,994 Strength
6 75 8 2.419* 12 0.28 -0.062 0.947 3,756 3,994 Strength
6 80 8 2.806* 14 0.40 -0.002 1.062 4,154 4,614 Strength
6 85 8 2.686* 14 0.16 -0.232 1.245 4,569 4,614 Strength
6 90 8 3.054 16 0.23 -0.196 1.380 5,000 5,227 Strength
6 95 8 3.410 18 0.30 -0.174 1.526 5,448 5,833 Strength
6 100 8 3.755 20 0.32 -0.166 1.682 5,912 6,432 Strength
6 105 8 3.609 20 -0.18 -0.436 1.905 6,393 6,432 Stress
6 110 8 3.936 22 -0.30 -0.451 2.081 6,890 7,024 Stress
6 115 8 4.252 24 -0.47 -0.479 2.267 7,405 7,609 Stress
6 120 8 4.537 26 -0.74 -0.533 2.477 7,936 8,168 Stress
6 125 8 5.251 30 -0.51 -0.362 2.655 8,484 9,266 Stress
6 130 8 5.511 32 -1.23 -0.445 2.886 9,050 9,805 Stress
6 135 8 6.132 36 -1.84 -0.349 3.123 9,632 10,484 Stress
6 140 8 6.314 38 -2.98 -0.495 3.409 10,231 10,725 Stress
8 55 8 2.274* 10 0.33 0.241 0.484 2,772 3,370 Strength
8 60 8 2.189* 10 0.28 0.038 0.633 3,168 3,370 Strength
8 65 8 2.623* 12 0.41 0.119 0.719 3,581 4,028 Strength
8 70 8 2.525* 12 0.29 -0.108 0.888 4,012 4,028 Strength
8 75 8 2.918* 14 0.39 -0.066 1.009 4,461 4,660 Strength
8 80 8 3.299 16 0.49 -0.040 1.142 4,928 5,286 Strength
8 85 8 3.668 18 0.58 -0.030 1.286 5,414 5,907 Strength
8 90 8 4.025 20 0.64 -0.034 1.442 5,918 6,523 Strength
8 95 8 3.893 20 0.28 -0.317 1.665 6,441 6,523 Stress
8 100 8 4.232 22 0.22 -0.347 1.843 6,984 7,134 Stress
8 105 8 4.560 24 0.11 -0.392 2.033 7,545 7,739 Stress
8 110 8 4.857 26 -0.08 -0.463 2.246 8,126 8,319 Stress
8 115 8 5.582 30 0.14 -0.311 2.430 8,725 9,464 Stress
8 120 8 5.853 32 -0.45 -0.413 2.667 9,345 10,029 Stress
8 125 8 6.485 36 -0.96 -0.338 2.911 9,983 11,085 Stress
8 130 8 6.679 38 -1.93 -0.505 3.205 10,641 11,576 Stress
10 50 8 2.351* 10 0.31 0.290 0.397 2,767 3,385 Strength
10 55 8 2.274* 10 0.28 0.075 0.546 3,202 3,385 Strength
10 60 8 2.715* 12 0.40 0.143 0.634 3,656 4,048 Strength
10 65 8 3.121 14 0.52 0.181 0.746 4,128 4,687 Strength
10 70 8 3.023 14 0.41 -0.072 0.930 4,621 4,687 Strength
10 75 8 3.411 16 0.50 -0.062 1.067 5,134 5,322 Strength
10 80 8 3.786 18 0.59 -0.069 1.217 5,667 5,953 Strength
10 85 8 4.149 20 0.64 -0.092 1.380 6,221 6,579 Strength
10 90 8 4.501 22 0.65 -0.130 1.555 6,796 7,200 Strength
10 95 8 4.840 24 0.62 -0.185 1.744 7,392 7,818 Strength
10 100 8 5.150 26 0.52 -0.268 1.956 8,009 8,411 Strength
10 105 8 5.448 28 0.35 -0.365 2.181 8,647 9,000 Stress
10 110 8 5.737 30 0.08 -0.478 2.419 9,307 9,586 Stress
10 115 8 6.424 34 -0.27 -0.387 2.641 9,989 10,724 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 59 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BT-3 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee, 63-in.-Deep Interior Beam (continued)
12 50 9 2.351* 10 0.26 0.154 0.451 3,095 3,443 Strength
12 55 9 2.799* 12 0.37 0.210 0.542 3,583 4,120 Strength
12 60 9 2.715* 12 0.30 -0.045 0.718 4,091 4,120 Strength
12 65 9 3.121 14 0.38 -0.034 0.850 4,622 4,774 Strength
12 70 9 3.515 16 0.46 -0.042 0.995 5,175 5,424 Strength
12 75 9 3.897 18 0.53 -0.067 1.155 5,751 6,071 Strength
12 80 9 4.266 20 0.56 -0.111 1.330 6,350 6,713 Strength
12 85 9 4.624 22 0.55 -0.172 1.519 6,972 7,353 Strength
12 90 9 4.970 24 0.49 -0.251 1.723 7,619 7,988 Strength
12 95 9 5.286 26 0.35 -0.359 1.952 8,289 8,600 Stress
12 100 9 5.591 28 0.14 -0.483 2.197 8,983 9,209 Stress
12 105 9 6.316 32 0.04 -0.390 2.415 9,702 10,416 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BT-4
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee BT-72
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee, 72-in.-Deep Exterior Beam
6 40 8 0.833* 4 0.05 0.031 0.244 1,449 1,537 Strength
6 45 8 1.292* 6 0.13 0.201 0.260 1,731 2,294 Strength
6 50 8 1.231* 6 0.11 0.067 0.362 2,044 2,294 Strength
6 55 8 1.671* 8 0.21 0.212 0.398 2,372 3,044 Strength
6 60 8 1.598* 8 0.18 0.061 0.516 2,715 3,044 Strength
6 65 8 2.021* 10 0.30 0.183 0.569 3,074 3,786 Strength
6 70 8 1.936* 10 0.22 0.015 0.703 3,449 3,786 Strength
6 75 8 2.340* 12 0.36 0.116 0.774 3,840 4,521 Strength
6 80 8 2.244* 12 0.23 -0.071 0.925 4,248 4,521 Strength
6 85 8 2.614* 14 0.34 -0.001 1.024 4,673 5,229 Strength
6 90 8 2.505* 14 0.12 -0.211 1.194 5,137 5,229 Strength
6 95 8 2.859* 16 0.21 -0.173 1.316 5,635 5,930 Strength
6 100 8 3.203 18 0.28 -0.148 1.447 6,154 6,623 Strength
6 105 8 3.536 20 0.34 -0.135 1.588 6,693 7,309 Strength
6 110 8 3.405 20 -0.09 -0.387 1.796 7,252 7,309 Stress
6 115 8 3.723 22 -0.14 -0.395 1.955 7,831 7,989 Stress
6 120 8 4.030 24 -0.23 -0.416 2.123 8,430 8,661 Stress
6 125 8 4.312 26 -0.40 -0.459 2.311 9,050 9,307 Stress
6 130 8 4.584 28 -0.62 -0.514 2.509 9,690 9,946 Stress
6 135 8 5.264 32 -0.29 -0.355 2.672 10,349 11,205 Stress
6 140 8 5.499 34 -0.87 -0.445 2.898 11,029 11,657 Stress
6 145 8 6.100 38 -1.19 -0.350 3.111 11,730 12,365 Stress
6 150 8 6.286 40 -2.10 -0.484 3.375 12,450 12,640 Stress
8 40 8 1.347* 6 0.11 0.185 0.220 1,916 2,303 Strength
8 45 8 1.799* 8 0.20 0.312 0.254 2,329 3,059 Strength
8 50 8 1.738* 8 0.20 0.135 0.375 2,791 3,059 Strength
8 55 8 2.172* 10 0.31 0.229 0.433 3,279 3,810 Strength
8 60 8 2.100* 10 0.29 0.028 0.574 3,792 3,810 Strength
8 65 8 2.516* 12 0.42 0.095 0.653 4,331 4,555 Strength
8 70 8 2.903* 14 0.55 0.135 0.753 4,895 5,275 Strength
8 75 8 3.279 16 0.70 0.161 0.865 5,485 5,989 Strength
8 80 8 3.644 18 0.86 0.172 0.987 6,101 6,698 Strength
8 85 8 3.998 20 1.01 0.168 1.120 6,741 7,401 Strength
8 90 8 4.343 22 1.14 0.151 1.264 7,408 8,099 Strength
8 95 8 4.676 24 1.27 0.119 1.419 8,100 8,792 Strength
8 100 8 4.984 26 1.37 0.064 1.594 8,817 9,460 Strength
8 105 8 5.283 28 1.44 -0.005 1.779 9,560 10,122 Strength
8 110 8 5.572 30 1.47 -0.088 1.975 10,329 10,779 Strength
8 115 8 5.852 32 1.47 -0.183 2.181 11,123 11,431 Strength
8 120 8 6.108 34 1.23 -0.301 2.408 11,942 12,059 Strength
8 125 8 6.727 38 1.17 -0.235 2.623 12,787 13,279 Strength
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 61 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BT-4 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee, 72-in.-Deep Exterior Beam (continued)
10 40 8 1.347* 6 0.11 0.105 0.242 2,175 2,308 Strength
10 45 8 1.799* 8 0.19 0.216 0.283 2,642 3,068 Strength
10 50 8 2.239* 10 0.29 0.301 0.339 3,166 3,824 Strength
10 55 8 2.172* 10 0.28 0.091 0.478 3,719 3,824 Strength
10 60 8 2.594* 12 0.40 0.147 0.556 4,300 4,575 Strength
10 65 8 2.987* 14 0.52 0.176 0.657 4,910 5,302 Strength
10 70 8 3.368 16 0.66 0.188 0.769 5,549 6,025 Strength
10 75 8 3.739 18 0.81 0.185 0.893 6,216 6,743 Strength
10 80 8 4.099 20 0.95 0.166 1.029 6,912 7,457 Strength
10 85 8 4.449 22 1.07 0.132 1.176 7,637 8,166 Strength
10 90 8 4.788 24 1.19 0.082 1.335 8,390 8,871 Strength
10 95 8 5.101 26 1.27 0.008 1.516 9,172 9,552 Strength
10 100 8 5.405 28 1.33 -0.081 1.707 9,983 10,229 Strength
10 105 8 5.699 30 1.35 -0.185 1.91 10,822 10,902 Strength
10 110 8 6.377 34 1.57 -0.091 2.093 11,691 12,215 Strength
10 115 8 6.635 36 1.33 -0.235 2.328 12,587 12,855 Strength
12 40 9 1.347* 6 0.09 0.070 0.252 2,249 2,341 Strength
12 45 9 1.799* 8 0.16 0.185 0.294 2,678 3,114 Strength
12 50 9 2.239* 10 0.25 0.276 0.350 3,154 3,882 Strength
12 55 9 2.172* 10 0.22 0.074 0.491 3,651 3,882 Strength
12 60 9 2.594* 12 0.32 0.138 0.571 4,169 4,647 Strength
12 65 9 2.987* 14 0.42 0.175 0.675 4,710 5,389 Strength
12 70 9 2.903* 14 0.32 -0.064 0.850 5,273 5,389 Strength
12 75 9 3.279 16 0.40 -0.054 0.977 5,860 6,127 Strength
12 80 9 3.644 18 0.47 -0.060 1.117 6,470 6,861 Strength
12 85 9 3.998 20 0.52 -0.081 1.269 7,105 7,592 Strength
12 90 9 4.343 22 0.52 -0.117 1.434 7,763 8,319 Strength
12 95 9 4.676 24 0.50 -0.168 1.611 8,446 9,042 Strength
12 100 9 4.984 26 0.43 -0.244 1.810 9,153 9,742 Strength
12 105 9 5.283 28 0.29 -0.334 2.021 9,885 10,438 Stress
12 110 9 5.572 30 0.09 -0.443 2.246 10,657 11,131 Stress
12 115 9 6.245 34 0.09 -0.364 2.453 11,505 12,486 Stress
12 120 9 6.498 36 -0.44 -0.526 2.716 12,383 13,149 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BT-4 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee, 72-in.-Deep Interior Beam
6 40 8 0.833* 4 0.05 0.028 0.246 1,459 1,537 Strength
6 45 8 1.292* 6 0.13 0.198 0.262 1,742 2,294 Strength
6 50 8 1.231* 6 0.11 0.064 0.364 2,057 2,294 Strength
6 55 8 1.671* 8 0.21 0.208 0.400 2,386 3,044 Strength
6 60 8 1.598* 8 0.18 0.056 0.518 2,731 3,044 Strength
6 65 8 2.021* 10 0.30 0.179 0.571 3,092 3,786 Strength
6 70 8 1.936* 10 0.22 0.009 0.706 3,468 3,786 Strength
6 75 8 2.340* 12 0.36 0.110 0.777 3,861 4,521 Strength
6 80 8 2.244* 12 0.23 -0.077 0.928 4,271 4,521 Strength
6 85 8 2.614* 14 0.34 -0.007 1.027 4,697 5,229 Strength
6 90 8 2.505* 14 0.12 -0.212 1.195 5,140 5,229 Strength
6 95 8 2.859* 16 0.21 -0.164 1.311 5,600 5,930 Strength
6 100 8 3.203 18 0.28 -0.127 1.437 6,077 6,623 Strength
6 105 8 3.077 18 -0.10 -0.358 1.629 6,571 6,623 Stress
6 110 8 3.405 20 -0.09 -0.342 1.772 7,083 7,309 Stress
6 115 8 3.723 22 -0.14 -0.338 1.924 7,611 7,989 Stress
6 120 8 4.030 24 -0.23 -0.345 2.085 8,158 8,661 Stress
6 125 8 4.312 26 -0.40 -0.374 2.266 8,721 9,307 Stress
6 130 8 4.584 28 -0.62 -0.414 2.455 9,302 9,946 Stress
6 135 8 4.848 30 -0.90 -0.464 2.653 9,900 10,579 Stress
6 140 8 5.102 32 -1.27 -0.526 2.860 10,516 11,205 Stress
6 145 8 5.726 36 -1.58 -0.399 3.053 11,150 12,039 Stress
6 150 8 5.929 38 -2.46 -0.504 3.297 11,801 12,365 Stress
6 155 8 6.448 42 -3.20 -0.458 3.558 12,469 12,597 Stress
8 40 8 1.347* 6 0.11 0.229 0.201 1,750 2,303 Strength
8 45 8 1.292* 6 0.11 0.091 0.300 2,086 2,303 Strength
8 50 8 1.738* 8 0.20 0.224 0.337 2,458 3,059 Strength
8 55 8 1.671* 8 0.18 0.060 0.456 2,847 3,059 Strength
8 60 8 2.100* 10 0.29 0.170 0.512 3,254 3,810 Strength
8 65 8 2.021* 10 0.23 -0.013 0.650 3,678 3,810 Strength
8 70 8 2.431* 12 0.35 0.074 0.725 4,120 4,555 Strength
8 75 8 2.813* 14 0.47 0.136 0.821 4,581 5,275 Strength
8 80 8 2.716* 14 0.33 -0.076 0.986 5,060 5,275 Strength
8 85 8 3.081 16 0.43 -0.037 1.101 5,558 5,989 Strength
8 90 8 3.435 18 0.53 -0.011 1.227 6,076 6,698 Strength
8 95 8 3.322 18 0.25 -0.252 1.419 6,613 6,698 Strength
8 100 8 3.660 20 0.29 -0.248 1.563 7,169 7,401 Strength
8 105 8 3.989 22 0.27 -0.257 1.718 7,745 8,099 Strength
8 110 8 4.307 24 0.23 -0.278 1.882 8,340 8,792 Strength
8 115 8 4.599 26 0.11 -0.322 2.066 8,956 9,460 Stress
8 120 8 4.881 28 -0.05 -0.378 2.260 9,591 10,122 Stress
8 125 8 5.155 30 -0.28 -0.447 2.464 10,245 10,779 Stress
8 130 8 5.420 32 -0.58 -0.527 2.677 10,920 11,431 Stress
8 135 8 6.052 36 -0.84 -0.418 2.878 11,615 12,681 Stress
8 140 8 6.621 40 -1.30 -0.359 3.119 12,329 13,852 Stress
8 145 8 6.794 42 -2.27 -0.518 3.401 13,064 14,401 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table BT-4 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO-PCI Bulb-Tee, 72-in.-Deep Interior Beam (continued)
10 40 8 1.347* 6 0.11 0.144 0.228 2,028 2,308 Strength
10 45 8 1.799* 8 0.19 0.275 0.261 2,413 3,068 Strength
10 50 8 1.738* 8 0.18 0.103 0.380 2,841 3,068 Strength
10 55 8 2.172* 10 0.28 0.203 0.437 3,287 3,824 Strength
10 60 8 2.100* 10 0.24 0.009 0.575 3,752 3,824 Strength
10 65 8 2.516* 12 0.35 0.084 0.653 4,237 4,575 Strength
10 70 8 2.903* 14 0.46 0.134 0.752 4,742 5,302 Strength
10 75 8 2.813* 14 0.35 -0.092 0.920 5,268 5,302 Strength
10 80 8 3.183 16 0.44 -0.067 1.040 5,814 6,025 Strength
10 85 8 3.543 18 0.53 -0.056 1.171 6,382 6,743 Strength
10 90 8 3.892 20 0.59 -0.060 1.312 6,970 7,457 Strength
10 95 8 4.231 22 0.63 -0.077 1.465 7,581 8,166 Strength
10 100 8 4.559 24 0.64 -0.107 1.628 8,213 8,871 Strength
10 105 8 4.436 24 0.22 -0.396 1.857 8,867 8,871 Stress
10 110 8 4.733 26 0.09 -0.460 2.051 9,543 9,552 Stress
10 115 8 5.439 30 0.36 -0.308 2.213 10,241 10,902 Strength
10 120 8 5.714 32 0.14 -0.401 2.429 10,961 11,570 Stress
10 125 8 5.964 34 -0.36 -0.517 2.665 11,703 12,215 Stress
10 130 8 6.579 38 -0.69 -0.448 2.890 12,468 13,472 Stress
12 40 9 1.347* 6 0.09 0.066 0.253 2,264 2,341 Strength
12 45 9 1.799* 8 0.16 0.180 0.295 2,696 3,114 Strength
12 50 9 2.239* 10 0.25 0.271 0.352 3,175 3,882 Strength
12 55 9 2.172* 10 0.22 0.068 0.492 3,674 3,882 Strength
12 60 9 2.594* 12 0.32 0.131 0.573 4,195 4,647 Strength
12 65 9 2.987* 14 0.42 0.168 0.677 4,738 5,389 Strength
12 70 9 2.903* 14 0.32 -0.072 0.852 5,304 5,389 Strength
12 75 9 3.279 16 0.40 -0.063 0.979 5,894 6,127 Strength
12 80 9 3.644 18 0.47 -0.069 1.120 6,507 6,861 Strength
12 85 9 3.998 20 0.52 -0.090 1.272 7,144 7,592 Strength
12 90 9 4.343 22 0.52 -0.127 1.437 7,805 8,319 Strength
12 95 9 4.676 24 0.50 -0.179 1.614 8,490 9,042 Strength
12 100 9 4.984 26 0.43 -0.255 1.813 9,200 9,742 Strength
12 105 9 5.283 28 0.29 -0.346 2.025 9,935 10,438 Stress
12 110 9 5.572 30 0.09 -0.451 2.248 10,694 11,131 Stress
12 115 9 6.245 34 0.09 -0.358 2.452 11,479 12,486 Stress
12 120 9 6.498 36 -0.44 -0.504 2.710 12,288 13,149 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table DBT-1
Deck Bulb Tees: Maximum Span vs. Section Depth
DBT Depth, in. 35 41 53 65
Span, ft 90 100 140 170

Table DBT-2
Deck Bulb Tee, 6-ft-Wide Flange Beams
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
Deck Bulb Tee, 35-in.-Deep Exterior Beam
6 50 0 2.717* 10 0.85 -0.121 0.853 1,497 1,558 Strength
6 55 0 3.217 12 1.21 -0.132 1.003 1,760 1,857 Strength
6 60 0 3.640 14 1.57 -0.194 1.181 2,037 2,133 Strength
6 65 0 4.035 16 1.96 -0.285 1.371 2,328 2,405 Stress
6 70 0 4.404 18 2.38 -0.401 1.574 2,633 2,673 Stress
6 75 0 5.351 22 3.23 -0.250 1.748 2,953 3,197 Stress
6 80 0 5.662 24 3.50 -0.424 1.978 3,286 3,454 Stress
6 85 0 6.440 28 4.24 -0.385 2.205 3,633 3,918 Stress
Deck Bulb Tee, 35-in.-Deep Interior Beam
6 45 0 2.932* 10 0.88 0.246 0.678 1,309 1,558 Strength
6 50 0 2.743* 10 0.91 -0.074 0.869 1,548 1,558 Strength
6 55 0 3.254 12 1.30 -0.032 1.003 1,799 1,857 Strength
6 60 0 3.686 14 1.72 -0.039 1.163 2,063 2,133 Strength
6 65 0 4.092 16 2.18 -0.067 1.335 2,339 2,405 Strength
6 70 0 4.473 18 2.67 -0.114 1.518 2,628 2,673 Strength
6 75 0 4.829 20 3.20 -0.182 1.712 2,930 2,937 Strength
6 80 0 5.774 24 4.07 0.068 1.868 3,245 3,454 Strength
6 85 0 6.029 26 4.30 -0.068 2.10 3,573 3,688 Strength
6 90 0 6.262 28 4.71 -0.222 2.344 3,915 3,918 Strength

Deck Bulb Tee, 41-in.-Deep Exterior Beam

6 50 0 2.677* 10 0.81 0.256 0.627 1,512 1,851 Strength
6 55 0 2.508* 10 0.82 -0.023 0.794 1,778 1,851 Strength
6 60 0 2.995* 12 1.18 0.036 0.910 2,058 2,209 Strength
6 65 0 3.419 14 1.56 0.055 1.048 2,353 2,543 Strength
6 70 0 3.821 16 1.99 0.057 1.196 2,662 2,873 Strength
6 75 0 4.201 18 2.46 0.041 1.354 2,985 3,199 Strength
6 80 0 4.559 20 2.96 0.007 1.522 3,323 3,521 Strength
6 85 0 4.897 22 3.48 -0.043 1.699 3,675 3,840 Strength
6 90 0 5.215 24 3.76 -0.109 1.886 4,042 4,155 Strength
6 95 0 5.477 26 3.94 -0.213 2.094 4,423 4,444 Strength
6 100 0 6.773 32 5.87 0.247 2.245 4,818 4,961 Strength
Deck Bulb Tee, 41-in.-Deep Interior Beam
6 50 0 2.677* 10 0.81 0.181 0.677 1,604 1,851 Strength
6 55 0 3.178 12 1.16 0.264 0.779 1,861 2,209 Strength
6 60 0 2.995* 12 1.18 -0.022 0.949 2,130 2,209 Strength
6 65 0 3.419 14 1.56 0.008 1.080 2,412 2,543 Strength
6 70 0 3.821 16 1.99 0.021 1.221 2,707 2,873 Strength
6 75 0 4.201 18 2.46 0.017 1.370 3,015 3,199 Strength
6 80 0 4.559 20 2.96 -0.003 1.529 3,337 3,521 Strength
6 85 0 4.897 22 3.48 -0.039 1.696 3,671 3,840 Strength
6 90 0 5.215 24 3.76 -0.091 1.873 4,019 4,155 Strength
6 95 0 5.477 26 3.94 -0.180 2.071 4,381 4,444 Strength
6 100 0 6.250 30 4.98 0.007 2.245 4,756 4,808 Strength
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table DBT-2 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
Deck Bulb Tee, 53-in.-Deep Exterior Beam
6 60 0 2.251* 10 0.69 0.132 0.636 2,100 2,437 Strength
6 65 0 2.105* 10 0.67 -0.086 0.768 2,402 2,437 Strength
6 70 0 2.548* 12 0.98 0.000 0.855 2,719 2,911 Strength
6 75 0 2.946* 14 1.30 0.058 0.957 3,051 3,362 Strength
6 80 0 3.326 16 1.67 0.103 1.067 3,398 3,809 Strength
6 85 0 3.138 16 1.57 -0.159 1.226 3,760 3,809 Strength
6 90 0 3.492 18 1.95 -0.138 1.350 4,137 4,252 Strength
6 95 0 3.830 20 2.37 -0.129 1.480 4,529 4,691 Strength
6 100 0 4.151 22 2.81 -0.132 1.618 4,935 5,126 Strength
6 105 0 4.457 24 3.26 -0.147 1.763 5,357 5,557 Strength
6 110 0 4.724 26 3.50 -0.188 1.922 5,794 5,965 Strength
6 115 0 4.976 28 3.61 -0.240 2.089 6,245 6,369 Strength
6 120 0 5.214 30 3.67 -0.304 2.262 6,712 6,769 Stress
6 125 0 5.897 34 4.57 -0.127 2.418 7,193 7,539 Strength
6 130 0 6.057 36 4.49 -0.243 2.622 7,690 7,889 Strength
6 135 0 6.182 38 4.25 -0.384 2.841 8,201 8,216 Stress
6 140 0 6.627 42 4.45 -0.359 3.083 8,727 8,801 Stress
Deck Bulb Tee, 53-in.-Deep Interior Beam
6 55 0 2.386* 10 0.68 0.242 0.577 1,987 2,437 Strength
6 60 0 2.251* 10 0.69 0.039 0.699 2,270 2,437 Strength
6 65 0 2.704* 12 0.99 0.140 0.777 2,566 2,911 Strength
6 70 0 2.548* 12 0.98 -0.083 0.912 2,874 2,911 Strength
6 75 0 2.946* 14 1.30 -0.019 1.011 3,195 3,362 Strength
6 80 0 3.326 16 1.67 0.033 1.116 3,529 3,809 Strength
6 85 0 3.690 18 2.07 0.073 1.227 3,877 4,252 Strength
6 90 0 3.492 18 1.95 -0.192 1.387 4,239 4,252 Strength
6 95 0 3.830 20 2.37 -0.174 1.512 4,615 4,691 Strength
6 100 0 4.151 22 2.81 -0.168 1.643 5,004 5,126 Strength
6 105 0 4.457 24 3.26 -0.173 1.781 5,408 5,557 Strength
6 110 0 4.724 26 3.50 -0.204 1.934 5,825 5,965 Strength
6 115 0 4.976 28 3.61 -0.247 2.093 6,257 6,369 Strength
6 120 0 5.214 30 3.67 -0.300 2.259 6,703 6,769 Stress
6 125 0 5.437 32 3.91 -0.364 2.432 7,163 7,165 Stress
6 130 0 6.057 36 4.49 -0.217 2.603 7,638 7,889 Strength
6 135 0 6.182 38 4.25 -0.346 2.814 8,126 8,216 Stress
6 140 0 6.627 42 4.45 -0.310 3.047 8,629 8,801 Strength
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table DBT-2 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
Deck Bulb Tee, 65-in.-Deep Exterior Beam
6 65 0 2.024* 10 0.59 0.179 0.555 2,452 3,022 Strength
6 70 0 1.900* 10 0.58 0.005 0.662 2,777 3,022 Strength
6 75 0 2.312* 12 0.84 0.107 0.728 3,117 3,614 Strength
6 80 0 2.171* 12 0.79 -0.084 0.846 3,473 3,614 Strength
6 85 0 2.541* 14 1.07 -0.011 0.929 3,845 4,182 Strength
6 90 0 2.896* 16 1.39 0.051 1.018 4,232 4,746 Strength
6 95 0 2.730* 16 1.28 -0.166 1.152 4,634 4,746 Strength
6 100 0 3.065 18 1.61 -0.121 1.252 5,053 5,306 Strength
6 105 0 3.385 20 1.98 -0.087 1.358 5,486 5,862 Strength
6 110 0 3.693 22 2.37 -0.062 1.468 5,935 6,413 Strength
6 115 0 3.496 22 2.10 -0.311 1.624 6,400 6,413 Stress
6 120 0 3.783 24 2.47 -0.303 1.746 6,880 6,961 Stress
6 125 0 4.040 26 2.81 -0.315 1.879 7,376 7,486 Stress
6 130 0 4.285 28 3.04 -0.336 2.018 7,888 8,006 Stress
6 135 0 4.519 30 3.07 -0.366 2.162 8,414 8,522 Stress
6 140 0 4.741 32 3.05 -0.405 2.311 8,957 9,035 Stress
6 145 0 4.934 34 2.93 -0.462 2.472 9,515 9,524 Stress
6 150 0 5.493 38 3.25 -0.325 2.631 10,088 10,433 Stress
6 155 0 5.612 40 2.85 -0.432 2.822 10,677 10,853 Stress
6 160 0 6.038 44 2.96 -0.378 3.028 11,282 11,623 Stress
6 165 0 6.085 46 2.29 -0.533 3.248 11,902 11,973 Stress
6 170 0 6.647 52 2.45 -0.424 3.531 12,537 12,888 Stress
Deck Bulb Tee, 65-in.-Deep Interior Beam
6 65 0 2.024* 10 0.59 0.073 0.629 2,718 3,022 Strength
6 70 0 2.444* 12 0.85 0.185 0.690 3,042 3,614 Strength
6 75 0 2.312* 12 0.84 0.004 0.801 3,378 3,614 Strength
6 80 0 2.690* 14 1.13 0.088 0.877 3,728 4,182 Strength
6 85 0 2.541* 14 1.07 -0.108 0.998 4,091 4,182 Strength
6 90 0 2.896* 16 1.39 -0.041 1.084 4,468 4,746 Strength
6 95 0 3.238 18 1.75 0.017 1.175 4,859 5,306 Strength
6 100 0 3.065 18 1.61 -0.203 1.311 5,264 5,306 Strength
6 105 0 3.385 20 1.98 -0.163 1.412 5,683 5,862 Strength
6 110 0 3.693 22 2.37 -0.131 1.519 6,117 6,413 Strength
6 115 0 3.988 24 2.77 -0.109 1.630 6,565 6,961 Strength
6 120 0 4.252 26 3.16 -0.107 1.754 7,028 7,486 Strength
6 125 0 4.505 28 3.46 -0.113 1.882 7,506 8,006 Strength
6 130 0 4.285 28 3.04 -0.378 2.048 7,998 8,006 Stress
6 135 0 4.519 30 3.07 -0.400 2.187 8,506 8,522 Stress
6 140 0 4.741 32 3.05 -0.431 2.331 9,027 9,035 Stress
6 145 0 5.348 36 3.51 -0.255 2.466 9,564 9,990 Strength
6 150 0 5.493 38 3.25 -0.335 2.639 10,115 10,433 Stress
6 155 0 5.612 40 2.85 -0.434 2.823 10,682 10,853 Stress
6 160 0 6.038 44 2.96 -0.371 3.023 11,263 11,623 Stress
6 165 0 6.085 46 2.29 -0.518 3.236 11,859 11,973 Stress
6 170 0 6.385 50 1.97 -0.536 3.484 12,470 12,606 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table IB-1
AASHTO I-Beams: Maximum Span (ft) vs. Beam Spacing
Spacing
6 ft 8 ft 10 ft 12 ft
Beam
Type II 75 65 60 55
Type III 100 90 80 70
Type IV 125 125 115 100
Type V 140 140 130 120
Type VI 150 150 140 130

Table IB-2
AASHTO I-Beam Type II
Slab Final
Spacing Span
Thickness
𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of
Camber
fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO I-Beam Type II, Exterior Beam
6 20 8 1.876* 4 0.12 0.538 -0.070 492 810 Strength
6 25 8 1.810* 4 0.15 0.312 0.110 650 834 Strength
6 30 8 1.730* 4 0.14 0.058 0.323 818 834 Strength
6 35 8 2.602* 6 0.32 0.316 0.358 997 1,240 Strength
6 40 8 2.496* 6 0.27 0.005 0.637 1,189 1,240 Stress
6 45 8 3.320 8 0.45 0.171 0.753 1,418 1,638 Strength
6 50 8 4.033 10 0.61 0.225 0.976 1,687 2,010 Strength
6 55 8 3.888 10 0.33 -0.228 1.374 1,985 2,010 Stress
6 60 8 4.560 12 0.38 -0.258 1.674 2,299 2,375 Stress
6 65 8 5.204 14 0.35 -0.328 2.012 2,630 2,732 Stress
6 70 8 5.822 16 0.25 -0.438 2.388 2,977 3,083 Stress
8 20 8 1.876* 4 0.11 0.434 -0.042 599 812 Strength
8 25 8 1.810* 4 0.13 0.170 0.157 788 838 Strength
8 30 8 2.695* 6 0.29 0.415 0.186 989 1,249 Strength
8 35 8 2.602* 6 0.27 0.088 0.463 1,203 1,249 Strength
8 40 8 3.439 8 0.44 0.254 0.576 1,431 1,653 Strength
8 45 8 4.164 10 0.59 0.301 0.800 1,704 2,033 Strength
8 50 8 4.033 10 0.38 -0.161 1.202 2,006 2,033 Stress
8 55 8 4.717 12 0.42 -0.199 1.510 2,321 2,408 Stress
8 60 8 5.373 14 0.40 -0.279 1.861 2,650 2,777 Stress
8 65 8 6.002 16 0.27 -0.399 2.254 2,992 3,140 Stress
10 20 8.5 1.876* 4 0.10 0.337 -0.012 697 823 Strength
10 25 8.5 2.774* 6 0.23 0.573 0.004 918 1,268 Strength
10 30 8.5 2.695* 6 0.25 0.234 0.275 1,152 1,268 Strength
10 35 8.5 3.544 8 0.40 0.381 0.390 1,401 1,682 Strength
10 40 8.5 3.439 8 0.31 -0.034 0.754 1,666 1,682 Stress
10 45 8.5 4.164 10 0.38 -0.051 1.031 1,984 2,072 Strength
10 50 8.5 4.860 12 0.43 -0.131 1.361 2,337 2,457 Stress
10 55 8.5 5.528 14 0.39 -0.291 1.745 2,750 2,838 Stress
10 60 8.5 6.170 16 0.26 -0.501 2.180 3,185 3,214 Stress
12 20 9.5 1.876* 4 0.09 0.241 0.036 789 843 Strength
12 25 9.5 2.774* 6 0.20 0.394 0.090 1,091 1,301 Strength
12 30 9.5 3.635 8 0.34 0.478 0.209 1,424 1,727 Strength
12 35 9.5 4.386 10 0.47 0.449 0.451 1,784 2,130 Strength
12 40 9.5 5.107 12 0.59 0.357 0.754 2,174 2,529 Strength
12 45 9.5 5.800 14 0.67 0.167 1.120 2,641 2,924 Strength
12 50 9.5 6.465 16 0.69 -0.103 1.548 3,164 3,316 Strength
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table IB-2 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO I-Beam Type II, Interior Beam
6 20 8 1.876* 4 0.12 0.535 -0.068 496 810 Strength
6 25 8 1.810* 4 0.15 0.308 0.111 655 834 Strength
6 30 8 1.730* 4 0.14 0.052 0.324 824 834 Strength
6 35 8 2.602* 6 0.32 0.310 0.360 1,004 1,240 Strength
6 40 8 2.496* 6 0.27 -0.002 0.640 1,197 1,240 Stress
6 45 8 3.320 8 0.45 0.163 0.756 1,427 1,638 Strength
6 50 8 4.033 10 0.61 0.228 0.975 1,683 2,010 Strength
6 55 8 3.888 10 0.33 -0.199 1.365 1,950 2,010 Stress
6 60 8 4.560 12 0.38 -0.198 1.655 2,228 2,375 Stress
6 65 8 5.204 14 0.35 -0.235 1.982 2,519 2,732 Stress
6 70 8 5.822 16 0.25 -0.309 2.347 2,822 3,083 Stress
6 75 8 6.342 18 -0.09 -0.465 2.806 3,138 3,408 Stress
8 20 8 1.876* 4 0.11 0.430 -0.041 604 812 Strength
8 25 8 1.810* 4 0.13 0.165 0.159 795 838 Strength
8 30 8 2.695* 6 0.29 0.409 0.187 997 1,249 Strength
8 35 8 2.602* 6 0.27 0.081 0.465 1,212 1,249 Strength
8 40 8 3.439 8 0.44 0.245 0.578 1,441 1,653 Strength
8 45 8 4.164 10 0.59 0.291 0.802 1,715 2,033 Strength
8 50 8 4.033 10 0.38 -0.172 1.204 2,019 2,033 Stress
8 55 8 4.717 12 0.42 -0.211 1.513 2,336 2,408 Stress
8 60 8 5.373 14 0.40 -0.292 1.864 2,667 2,777 Stress
8 65 8 6.002 16 0.27 -0.414 2.258 3,011 3,140 Stress
10 20 8.5 1.876* 4 0.10 0.333 -0.011 703 823 Strength
10 25 8.5 2.774* 6 0.23 0.568 0.005 925 1,268 Strength
10 30 8.5 2.695* 6 0.25 0.227 0.276 1,160 1,268 Strength
10 35 8.5 3.544 8 0.40 0.373 0.391 1,411 1,682 Strength
10 40 8.5 3.439 8 0.31 -0.044 0.755 1,678 1,682 Stress
10 45 8.5 4.164 10 0.38 -0.061 1.033 1,997 2,072 Strength
10 50 8.5 4.860 12 0.43 -0.142 1.363 2,352 2,457 Stress
10 55 8.5 5.528 14 0.39 -0.268 1.742 2,721 2,838 Stress
10 60 8.5 6.170 16 0.26 -0.44 2.172 3,106 3,214 Stress
12 20 9.5 1.876* 4 0.09 0.236 0.036 796 843 Strength
12 25 9.5 2.774* 6 0.20 0.426 0.089 1,050 1,301 Strength
12 30 9.5 3.635 8 0.34 0.555 0.205 1,321 1,727 Strength
12 35 9.5 3.544 8 0.29 0.116 0.580 1,611 1,727 Strength
12 40 9.5 4.282 10 0.37 0.095 0.876 1,921 2,130 Strength
12 45 9.5 4.990 12 0.39 -0.013 1.234 2,290 2,529 Strength
12 50 9.5 5.671 14 0.34 -0.191 1.653 2,700 2,924 Stress
12 55 9.5 6.324 16 0.19 -0.421 2.131 3,128 3,316 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table IB-3
AASHTO I-Beam Type III
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO I-Beam Type III, Exterior Beam
6 50 8 2.110* 8 0.24 -0.004 0.719 1,827 1,990 Strength
6 60 8 2.512* 10 0.19 -0.195 1.100 2,424 2,469 Stress
6 70 8 3.410 14 0.24 -0.189 1.509 3,136 3,366 Strength
6 80 8 4.238 18 0.12 -0.284 2.012 3,928 4,235 Stress
6 90 8 4.961 22 -0.38 -0.496 2.636 4,793 5,058 Stress
6 100 8 6.582 30 -0.52 -0.297 3.261 5,730 6,586 Stress
8 40 8 2.311* 8 0.30 0.313 0.355 1,554 2,005 Strength
8 50 8 2.755* 10 0.39 0.130 0.696 2,180 2,492 Strength
8 60 8 3.107 12 0.29 -0.169 1.165 2,883 2,954 Strength
8 70 8 3.989 16 0.27 -0.230 1.627 3,647 3,862 Stress
8 80 8 4.802 20 0.01 -0.386 2.188 4,476 4,749 Stress
8 90 8 5.980 26 -0.25 -0.414 2.845 5,370 5,981 Stress
10 40 8.5 2.311* 8 0.25 0.151 0.435 1,801 2,033 Strength
10 50 8.5 2.755* 10 0.26 -0.108 0.830 2,527 2,530 Strength
10 60 8.5 3.693 14 0.32 -0.169 1.265 3,340 3,472 Strength
10 70 8.5 4.559 18 0.18 -0.363 1.820 4,280 4,396 Stress
10 80 8.5 5.831 24 0.06 -0.439 2.463 5,356 5,711 Stress
12 40 9.5 2.955* 10 0.33 0.253 0.426 2,226 2,589 Strength
12 50 9.5 3.932 14 0.49 0.116 0.844 3,245 3,559 Strength
12 60 9.5 4.838 18 0.52 -0.173 1.400 4,414 4,514 Strength
12 70 9.5 6.147 24 0.55 -0.347 2.059 5,704 5,881 Stress

AASHTO I-Beam Type III, Interior Beam

6 50 8 2.110* 8 0.24 -0.010 0.721 1,839 1,990 Strength
6 60 8 2.512* 10 0.19 -0.202 1.104 2,439 2,469 Stress
6 70 8 3.410 14 0.24 -0.167 1.499 3,093 3,366 Strength
6 80 8 4.238 18 0.12 -0.222 1.982 3,804 4,235 Strength
6 90 8 4.961 22 -0.38 -0.387 2.583 4,574 5,058 Stress
6 100 8 6.086 28 -0.94 -0.396 3.240 5,402 6,214 Stress
8 40 8 2.311* 8 0.30 0.307 0.357 1,565 2,005 Strength
8 50 8 2.755* 10 0.39 0.122 0.699 2,195 2,492 Strength
8 60 8 3.107 12 0.29 -0.178 1.168 2,901 2,954 Strength
8 70 8 3.989 16 0.27 -0.240 1.631 3,669 3,862 Stress
8 80 8 4.802 20 0.01 -0.398 2.193 4,501 4,749 Stress
8 90 8 5.980 26 -0.25 -0.428 2.851 5,399 5,981 Stress
10 40 8.5 2.311* 8 0.25 0.145 0.437 1,814 2,033 Strength
10 50 8.5 3.348 12 0.46 0.215 0.729 2,543 3,003 Strength
10 60 8.5 3.693 14 0.32 -0.178 1.268 3,361 3,472 Strength
10 70 8.5 4.559 18 0.18 -0.348 1.816 4,249 4,396 Stress
10 80 8.5 5.831 24 0.06 -0.374 2.445 5,211 5,711 Stress
12 40 9.5 2.311* 8 0.18 -0.036 0.550 2,066 2,079 Strength
12 50 9.5 3.348 12 0.29 -0.057 0.918 2,904 3,076 Strength
12 60 9.5 4.270 16 0.24 -0.238 1.452 3,846 4,038 Stress
12 70 9.5 5.637 22 0.22 -0.261 2.055 4,873 5,435 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table IB-4
AASHTO I-Beam Type IV
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO I-Beam Type IV, Exterior Beam
6 65 8 2.108* 12 0.25 -0.001 0.908 2,997 3,467 Strength
6 75 8 2.294* 14 0.06 -0.210 1.282 3,747 4,000 Strength
6 80 8 2.591* 16 0.02 -0.221 1.457 4,175 4,525 Strength
6 85 8 2.875* 18 -0.05 -0.251 1.649 4,630 5,044 Strength
6 90 8 3.148 20 -0.18 -0.296 1.856 5,105 5,555 Strength
6 95 8 3.409 22 -0.36 -0.356 2.079 5,600 6,060 Stress
6 100 8 3.658 24 -0.62 -0.431 2.318 6,115 6,558 Stress
6 105 8 3.871 26 -1.02 -0.537 2.589 6,650 7,030 Stress
6 110 8 4.461 30 -1.01 -0.447 2.821 7,205 7,954 Stress
6 115 8 5.031 34 -1.03 -0.380 3.071 7,780 8,771 Stress
6 120 8 5.206 36 -1.72 -0.533 3.389 8,375 9,067 Stress
6 125 8 5.699 40 -2.36 -0.533 3.706 8,990 9,541 Stress
8 60 8 2.222* 12 0.28 0.014 0.804 3,127 3,501 Strength
8 65 8 2.548* 14 0.35 0.025 0.949 3,536 4,045 Strength
8 70 8 2.426* 14 0.14 -0.224 1.187 3,962 4,045 Strength
8 75 8 2.731* 16 0.11 -0.242 1.364 4,406 4,584 Strength
8 80 8 3.024 18 0.04 -0.277 1.556 4,869 5,117 Strength
8 85 8 3.304 20 -0.07 -0.327 1.765 5,350 5,645 Stress
8 90 8 3.573 22 -0.25 -0.393 1.99 5,849 6,168 Stress
8 95 8 3.830 24 -0.51 -0.474 2.232 6,368 6,686 Stress
8 100 8 4.441 28 -0.46 -0.374 2.452 6,905 7,667 Stress
8 105 8 4.648 30 -0.93 -0.503 2.744 7,461 8,149 Stress
8 110 8 5.225 34 -1.01 -0.443 3.000 8,036 9,100 Stress
8 115 8 5.760 38 -1.27 -0.420 3.290 8,631 10,011 Stress
8 120 8 6.254 42 -2.05 -0.432 3.615 9,244 10,884 Stress
8 125 8 6.731 46 -2.55 -0.464 3.957 9,877 11,550 Stress
10 55 8.5 2.328* 12 0.29 0.063 0.686 3,152 3,550 Strength
10 60 8.5 2.662* 14 0.36 0.059 0.835 3,601 4,106 Strength
10 65 8.5 2.548* 14 0.18 -0.206 1.080 4,070 4,106 Strength
10 70 8.5 2.862* 16 0.15 -0.243 1.265 4,560 4,658 Strength
10 75 8.5 3.163 18 0.08 -0.297 1.468 5,069 5,206 Stress
10 80 8.5 3.452 20 -0.04 -0.369 1.689 5,603 5,749 Stress
10 85 8.5 3.728 22 -0.22 -0.474 1.935 6,209 6,288 Stress
10 90 8.5 4.385 26 -0.14 -0.383 2.145 6,841 7,334 Stress
10 95 8.5 4.997 30 -0.12 -0.332 2.393 7,499 8,343 Stress
10 100 8.5 5.209 32 -0.56 -0.511 2.714 8,183 8,841 Stress
10 105 8.5 5.786 36 -0.68 -0.506 3.003 8,893 9,826 Stress
10 110 8.5 6.645 42 -0.94 -0.374 3.312 9,629 11,213 Stress
12 45 9.5 2.042* 10 0.20 0.069 0.470 2,785 3,028 Strength
12 50 9.5 2.424* 12 0.28 0.059 0.594 3,342 3,622 Strength
12 55 9.5 2.767* 14 0.33 0.011 0.758 3,931 4,193 Strength
12 60 9.5 3.097 16 0.35 -0.060 0.945 4,553 4,760 Strength
12 65 9.5 3.415 18 0.35 -0.154 1.153 5,207 5,324 Strength
12 70 9.5 4.142 22 0.54 -0.035 1.309 5,893 6,440 Strength
12 75 9.5 4.431 24 0.46 -0.175 1.562 6,612 6,993 Strength
12 80 9.5 4.684 26 0.30 -0.351 1.853 7,362 7,522 Stress
12 85 9.5 5.311 30 0.36 -0.338 2.113 8,145 8,571 Stress
12 90 9.5 5.916 34 0.37 -0.354 2.397 8,960 9,605 Stress
12 95 9.5 6.480 38 0.25 -0.411 2.721 9,807 10,606 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table IB-4 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO I-Beam Type IV, Interior Beam
6 65 8 2.108* 12 0.25 -0.007 0.912 3,014 3,467 Strength
6 75 8 2.294* 14 0.06 -0.217 1.286 3,767 4,000 Strength
6 80 8 2.591* 16 0.02 -0.219 1.456 4,168 4,525 Strength
6 85 8 2.875* 18 -0.05 -0.236 1.640 4,586 5,044 Strength
6 90 8 2.718* 18 -0.57 -0.506 1.915 5,020 5,044 Stress
6 95 8 3.409 22 -0.36 -0.314 2.053 5,471 6,060 Stress
6 100 8 3.658 24 -0.62 -0.374 2.282 5,938 6,558 Stress
6 105 8 3.871 26 -1.02 -0.464 2.543 6,423 7,030 Stress
6 110 8 4.461 30 -1.01 -0.358 2.765 6,925 7,954 Stress
6 115 8 4.650 32 -1.60 -0.477 3.056 7,443 8,406 Stress
6 120 8 5.206 36 -1.72 -0.409 3.310 7,979 9,067 Stress
6 125 8 5.699 40 -2.36 -0.390 3.613 8,532 9,541 Stress
8 60 8 2.222* 12 0.28 0.008 0.807 3,146 3,501 Strength
8 65 8 2.548* 14 0.35 0.018 0.952 3,557 4,045 Strength
8 70 8 2.426* 14 0.14 -0.231 1.191 3,985 4,045 Strength
8 75 8 2.731* 16 0.11 -0.250 1.367 4,431 4,584 Strength
8 80 8 3.024 18 0.04 -0.285 1.560 4,896 5,117 Strength
8 85 8 3.304 20 -0.07 -0.336 1.770 5,379 5,645 Stress
8 90 8 3.573 22 -0.25 -0.403 1.995 5,880 6,168 Stress
8 95 8 3.830 24 -0.51 -0.485 2.237 6,400 6,686 Stress
8 100 8 4.441 28 -0.46 -0.385 2.458 6,940 7,667 Stress
8 105 8 4.648 30 -0.93 -0.514 2.750 7,498 8,149 Stress
8 110 8 5.225 34 -1.01 -0.455 3.006 8,075 9,100 Stress
8 115 8 5.760 38 -1.27 -0.432 3.297 8,672 10,011 Stress
8 120 8 6.254 42 -2.05 -0.444 3.622 9,287 10,884 Stress
8 125 8 6.731 46 -2.55 -0.478 3.965 9,922 11,550 Stress
10 55 8.5 2.328* 12 0.29 0.057 0.688 3,171 3,550 Strength
10 60 8.5 2.662* 14 0.36 0.052 0.838 3,623 4,106 Strength
10 65 8.5 2.548* 14 0.18 -0.214 1.083 4,095 4,106 Strength
10 70 8.5 2.862* 16 0.15 -0.251 1.268 4,586 4,658 Strength
10 75 8.5 3.163 18 0.08 -0.305 1.471 5,098 5,206 Stress
10 80 8.5 3.452 20 -0.04 -0.377 1.693 5,631 5,749 Stress
10 85 8.5 3.728 22 -0.22 -0.467 1.933 6,185 6,288 Stress
10 90 8.5 4.385 26 -0.14 -0.359 2.135 6,760 7,334 Stress
10 95 8.5 4.612 28 -0.51 -0.499 2.430 7,356 7,840 Stress
10 100 8.5 5.209 32 -0.56 -0.450 2.689 7,974 8,841 Stress
10 105 8.5 5.786 36 -0.68 -0.425 2.969 8,614 9,826 Stress
10 110 8.5 6.300 40 -1.21 -0.451 3.302 9,275 10,755 Stress
10 115 8.5 6.796 44 -1.85 -0.500 3.654 9,958 11,668 Stress
12 45 9.5 2.042* 10 0.20 0.112 0.458 2,637 3,028 Strength
12 50 9.5 2.424* 12 0.28 0.126 0.575 3,111 3,622 Strength
12 55 9.5 2.328* 12 0.17 -0.142 0.810 3,605 3,622 Strength
12 60 9.5 2.662* 14 0.18 -0.180 0.986 4,122 4,193 Strength
12 65 9.5 2.984* 16 0.14 -0.239 1.184 4,663 4,760 Strength
12 70 9.5 3.293 18 0.06 -0.317 1.402 5,227 5,324 Stress
12 75 9.5 3.590 20 -0.07 -0.416 1.642 5,815 5,884 Stress
12 80 9.5 3.875 22 -0.29 -0.534 1.903 6,427 6,440 Stress
12 85 9.5 4.539 26 -0.27 -0.457 2.130 7,064 7,522 Stress
12 90 9.5 5.158 30 -0.33 -0.421 2.397 7,726 8,571 Stress
12 95 9.5 5.756 34 -0.45 -0.413 2.688 8,413 9,605 Stress
12 100 9.5 6.312 38 -0.73 -0.444 3.018 9,126 10,606 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table IB-5
AASHTO I-Beam Type V
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO I-Beam Type V, Exterior Beam
6 85 8 2.034* 16 0.01 -0.213 1.144 4,967 5,227 Strength
6 90 8 2.271* 18 0.00 -0.218 1.275 5,461 5,833 Strength
6 95 8 2.497* 20 -0.03 -0.240 1.417 5,997 6,432 Strength
6 100 8 2.714* 22 -0.09 -0.273 1.570 6,554 7,024 Strength
6 105 8 2.921* 24 -0.18 -0.318 1.733 7,134 7,609 Strength
6 110 8 3.103 26 -0.38 -0.384 1.914 7,736 8,168 Stress
6 115 8 3.276 28 -0.65 -0.461 2.105 8,361 8,720 Stress
6 120 8 3.774 32 -0.55 -0.366 2.268 9,007 9,805 Stress
6 125 8 3.928 34 -0.94 -0.467 2.479 9,676 10,237 Stress
6 130 8 4.384 38 -0.96 -0.411 2.672 10,366 10,924 Stress
6 135 8 4.811 42 -1.04 -0.379 2.885 11,079 11,481 Stress
8 65 8 2.119* 14 0.33 -0.016 0.730 4,500 4,660 Strength
8 70 8 2.386* 16 0.41 -0.028 0.848 5,091 5,286 Strength
8 75 8 2.642* 18 0.48 -0.054 0.978 5,710 5,907 Strength
8 80 8 2.889* 20 0.55 -0.093 1.119 6,357 6,523 Strength
8 85 8 3.126 22 0.60 -0.146 1.271 7,031 7,134 Strength
8 90 8 3.353 24 0.62 -0.212 1.434 7,732 7,739 Strength
8 95 8 3.892 28 0.86 -0.114 1.578 8,461 8,894 Strength
8 100 8 4.083 30 0.80 -0.217 1.772 9,218 9,464 Strength
8 105 8 4.265 32 0.68 -0.332 1.977 10,002 10,029 Strength
8 110 8 4.765 36 0.87 -0.281 2.156 10,813 11,143 Strength
8 115 8 4.912 38 0.63 -0.431 2.392 11,652 11,673 Stress
8 120 8 5.357 42 0.69 -0.430 2.612 12,519 12,719 Stress
8 125 8 5.787 46 0.44 -0.444 2.843 13,413 13,519 Stress
10 60 8 2.214* 14 0.34 0.050 0.621 4,444 4,687 Strength
10 65 8 2.488* 16 0.42 0.028 0.739 5,079 5,322 Strength
10 70 8 2.751* 18 0.50 -0.008 0.869 5,745 5,953 Strength
10 75 8 3.005 20 0.56 -0.059 1.010 6,441 6,579 Strength
10 80 8 3.249 22 0.62 -0.124 1.163 7,168 7,200 Strength
10 85 8 3.821 26 0.87 -0.016 1.290 7,926 8,411 Strength
10 90 8 4.028 28 0.86 -0.121 1.476 8,714 9,000 Strength
10 95 8 4.225 30 0.81 -0.240 1.674 9,534 9,586 Strength
10 100 8 4.742 34 1.01 -0.191 1.847 10,383 10,743 Strength
10 105 8 4.920 36 0.87 -0.338 2.068 11,264 11,316 Strength
10 110 8 5.381 40 0.98 -0.342 2.283 12,175 12,409 Strength
10 115 8 5.827 44 0.94 -0.363 2.511 13,117 13,487 Strength
10 120 8 6.260 48 0.66 -0.402 2.751 14,090 14,548 Stress
12 60 9 2.214* 14 0.27 0.043 0.622 4,320 4,774 Strength
12 65 9 2.488* 16 0.32 0.030 0.740 4,886 5,424 Strength
12 70 9 2.751* 18 0.36 0.002 0.870 5,477 6,071 Strength
12 75 9 3.005 20 0.38 -0.041 1.013 6,094 6,713 Strength
12 80 9 3.249 22 0.38 -0.097 1.168 6,736 7,353 Strength
12 85 9 3.483 24 0.35 -0.167 1.335 7,404 7,988 Strength
12 90 9 3.692 26 0.23 -0.261 1.523 8,098 8,600 Strength
12 95 9 3.892 28 0.06 -0.369 1.724 8,818 9,209 Stress
12 100 9 4.083 30 -0.18 -0.490 1.938 9,565 9,814 Stress
12 105 9 4.594 34 -0.17 -0.443 2.126 10,339 11,014 Stress
12 110 9 5.074 38 -0.22 -0.425 2.337 11,141 12,179 Stress
12 115 9 5.525 42 -0.33 -0.448 2.575 12,035 13,312 Stress
12 120 9 5.961 46 -0.79 -0.489 2.826 12,959 14,431 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table IB-5 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO I-Beam Type V, Interior Beam
6 85 8 2.034* 16 0.01 -0.219 1.148 4,992 5,227 Strength
6 90 8 2.271* 18 0.00 -0.220 1.276 5,470 5,833 Strength
6 95 8 2.497* 20 -0.03 -0.232 1.413 5,967 6,432 Strength
6 100 8 2.714* 22 -0.09 -0.256 1.560 6,484 7,024 Strength
6 105 8 2.561* 22 -0.58 -0.491 1.765 7,020 7,024 Stress
6 110 8 2.762* 24 -0.76 -0.534 1.930 7,574 7,609 Stress
6 115 8 3.276 28 -0.65 -0.410 2.074 8,149 8,720 Stress
6 120 8 3.441 30 -0.99 -0.486 2.267 8,742 9,266 Stress
6 125 8 3.928 34 -0.94 -0.391 2.432 9,355 10,237 Stress
6 130 8 4.072 36 -1.43 -0.489 2.644 9,987 10,605 Stress
6 135 8 4.504 40 -1.55 -0.440 2.847 10,639 11,216 Stress
8 70 8 2.016* 14 0.23 -0.053 0.805 4,322 4,660 Strength
8 75 8 2.276* 16 0.27 -0.047 0.919 4,812 5,286 Strength
8 80 8 2.526* 18 0.31 -0.053 1.042 5,323 5,907 Strength
8 85 8 2.402* 18 0.07 -0.275 1.226 5,854 5,907 Strength
8 90 8 2.635* 20 0.04 -0.303 1.370 6,408 6,523 Strength
8 95 8 2.858* 22 -0.03 -0.343 1.524 6,982 7,134 Stress
8 100 8 3.072 24 -0.13 -0.395 1.688 7,578 7,739 Stress
8 105 8 3.261 26 -0.33 -0.468 1.871 8,195 8,319 Stress
8 110 8 3.776 30 -0.23 -0.367 2.026 8,834 9,464 Stress
8 115 8 3.945 32 -0.55 -0.465 2.230 9,495 10,029 Stress
8 120 8 4.433 36 -0.51 -0.395 2.407 10,177 11,143 Stress
8 125 8 4.567 38 -1.02 -0.525 2.641 10,881 11,673 Stress
8 130 8 5.000 42 -1.17 -0.502 2.858 11,608 12,719 Stress
8 135 8 5.419 46 -1.71 -0.495 3.085 12,356 13,519 Stress
8 140 8 5.810 50 -2.46 -0.512 3.332 13,126 14,093 Stress
10 65 8 2.119* 14 0.26 -0.024 0.721 4,412 4,687 Strength
10 70 8 2.386* 16 0.31 -0.029 0.836 4,945 5,322 Strength
10 75 8 2.642* 18 0.36 -0.046 0.963 5,500 5,953 Strength
10 80 8 2.889* 20 0.38 -0.076 1.100 6,078 6,579 Strength
10 85 8 3.126 22 0.39 -0.119 1.248 6,679 7,200 Strength
10 90 8 3.353 24 0.36 -0.174 1.407 7,303 7,818 Strength
10 95 8 3.556 26 0.25 -0.252 1.587 7,951 8,411 Strength
10 100 8 3.749 28 0.09 -0.342 1.777 8,623 9,000 Strength
10 105 8 3.933 30 -0.14 -0.445 1.979 9,319 9,586 Stress
10 110 8 4.438 34 -0.08 -0.379 2.153 10,038 10,743 Stress
10 115 8 4.602 36 -0.44 -0.507 2.377 10,782 11,316 Stress
10 120 8 5.051 40 -0.53 -0.490 2.593 11,550 12,409 Stress
10 125 8 5.486 44 -0.80 -0.490 2.821 12,341 13,487 Stress
10 130 8 5.906 48 -1.37 -0.507 3.061 13,158 14,548 Stress
12 60 9 2.214* 14 0.27 0.038 0.624 4,346 4,774 Strength
12 65 9 2.488* 16 0.32 0.023 0.742 4,915 5,424 Strength
12 70 9 2.751* 18 0.36 -0.005 0.873 5,509 6,071 Strength
12 75 9 3.005 20 0.38 -0.048 1.015 6,128 6,713 Strength
12 80 9 3.249 22 0.38 -0.105 1.170 6,772 7,353 Strength
12 85 9 3.483 24 0.35 -0.176 1.338 7,443 7,988 Strength
12 90 9 3.692 26 0.23 -0.270 1.527 8,140 8,600 Strength
12 95 9 3.892 28 0.06 -0.378 1.728 8,863 9,209 Stress
12 100 9 4.083 30 -0.18 -0.500 1.941 9,613 9,814 Stress
12 105 9 4.594 34 -0.17 -0.454 2.130 10,389 11,014 Stress
12 110 9 5.074 38 -0.22 -0.436 2.341 11,192 12,179 Stress
12 115 9 5.525 42 -0.33 -0.445 2.574 12,022 13,312 Stress
12 120 9 5.961 46 -0.79 -0.472 2.820 12,879 14,431 Stress
12 125 9 6.370 50 -1.42 -0.526 3.088 13,764 15,516 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table IB-6
AASHTO I-Beam Type VI
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO I-Beam Type VI, Exterior Beam
6 95 8 2.083* 18 -0.02 -0.184 1.209 6,121 6,623 Strength
6 100 8 2.299* 20 -0.03 -0.186 1.331 6,671 7,309 Strength
6 105 8 2.166* 20 -0.39 -0.393 1.512 7,263 7,309 Stress
6 110 8 2.368* 22 -0.48 -0.417 1.653 7,878 7,989 Stress
6 115 8 2.562* 24 -0.61 -0.451 1.802 8,516 8,661 Stress
6 120 8 2.735* 26 -0.80 -0.502 1.967 9,176 9,307 Stress
6 125 8 3.219 30 -0.68 -0.387 2.102 9,859 10,579 Stress
6 130 8 3.374 32 -0.98 -0.459 2.284 10,564 11,205 Stress
6 135 8 3.834 36 -0.91 -0.369 2.436 11,293 12,151 Stress
6 140 8 3.960 38 -1.37 -0.468 2.643 12,044 12,542 Stress
6 145 8 4.373 42 -1.43 -0.418 2.828 12,818 13,235 Stress
8 75 8 2.182* 16 0.34 -0.041 0.841 5,776 5,989 Strength
8 80 8 2.425* 18 0.41 -0.051 0.955 6,432 6,698 Strength
8 85 8 2.659* 20 0.47 -0.073 1.079 7,115 7,401 Strength
8 90 8 2.885* 22 0.53 -0.106 1.212 7,827 8,099 Strength
8 95 8 3.102 24 0.57 -0.150 1.355 8,567 8,792 Strength
8 100 8 3.298 26 0.55 -0.212 1.514 9,335 9,460 Strength
8 105 8 3.803 30 0.78 -0.111 1.645 10,131 10,779 Strength
8 110 8 3.981 32 0.72 -0.197 1.823 10,955 11,431 Strength
8 115 8 4.151 34 0.60 -0.293 2.011 11,807 12,078 Strength
8 120 8 4.314 36 0.43 -0.400 2.207 12,687 12,720 Stress
8 125 8 4.751 40 0.54 -0.364 2.392 13,596 13,949 Strength
8 130 8 4.885 42 0.24 -0.501 2.614 14,532 14,557 Stress
8 135 8 5.587 48 0.52 -0.337 2.790 15,497 15,874 Strength
10 65 8 2.020* 14 0.29 0.007 0.642 5,129 5,302 Strength
10 70 8 2.277* 16 0.36 0.000 0.747 5,802 6,025 Strength
10 75 8 2.526* 18 0.43 -0.020 0.861 6,507 6,743 Strength
10 80 8 2.766* 20 0.49 -0.052 0.986 7,243 7,457 Strength
10 85 8 2.998* 22 0.55 -0.096 1.121 8,011 8,166 Strength
10 90 8 3.221 24 0.59 -0.152 1.266 8,809 8,871 Strength
10 95 8 3.741 28 0.81 -0.051 1.390 9,639 10,229 Strength
10 100 8 3.933 30 0.78 -0.140 1.563 10,501 10,902 Strength
10 105 8 4.117 32 0.72 -0.240 1.746 11,393 11,570 Strength
10 110 8 4.602 36 0.91 -0.182 1.902 12,317 12,894 Strength
10 115 8 4.757 38 0.75 -0.314 2.112 13,272 13,530 Strength
10 120 8 5.195 42 0.86 -0.299 2.303 14,258 14,791 Strength
10 125 8 5.333 44 0.58 -0.454 2.533 15,276 15,414 Stress
10 130 8 5.750 48 0.45 -0.467 2.745 16,325 16,650 Stress
12 65 9 2.020* 14 0.21 -0.006 0.643 5,017 5,389 Strength
12 70 9 2.277* 16 0.26 -0.007 0.748 5,624 6,127 Strength
12 75 9 2.526* 18 0.30 -0.020 0.863 6,256 6,861 Strength
12 80 9 2.766* 20 0.32 -0.046 0.989 6,914 7,592 Strength
12 85 9 2.998* 22 0.33 -0.083 1.125 7,599 8,319 Strength
12 90 9 2.885* 22 0.07 -0.321 1.319 8,311 8,319 Strength
12 95 9 3.423 26 0.24 -0.201 1.436 9,050 9,742 Strength
12 100 9 3.617 28 0.12 -0.282 1.611 9,815 10,438 Strength
12 105 9 3.803 30 -0.06 -0.374 1.796 10,609 11,131 Stress
12 110 9 3.981 32 -0.30 -0.477 1.991 11,429 11,820 Stress
12 115 9 4.461 36 -0.28 -0.421 2.160 12,277 13,188 Stress
12 120 9 4.904 40 -0.33 -0.396 2.355 13,153 14,502 Stress
12 125 9 5.333 44 -0.42 -0.393 2.564 14,098 15,802 Stress
12 130 9 5.750 48 -0.72 -0.411 2.786 15,101 17,089 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table IB-6 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO I-Beam Type VI, Interior Beam
6 95 8 2.083* 18 -0.02 -0.190 1.213 6,149 6,623 Strength
6 100 8 2.299* 20 -0.03 -0.188 1.333 6,682 7,309 Strength
6 105 8 2.166* 20 -0.39 -0.387 1.509 7,234 7,309 Stress
6 110 8 2.368* 22 -0.48 -0.403 1.644 7,806 7,989 Stress
6 115 8 2.562* 24 -0.61 -0.427 1.787 8,398 8,661 Stress
6 120 8 2.735* 26 -0.8 -0.469 1.946 9,009 9,307 Stress
6 125 8 2.900* 28 -1.07 -0.520 2.113 9,641 9,946 Stress
6 130 8 3.374 32 -0.98 -0.405 2.249 10,293 11,205 Stress
6 135 8 3.522 34 -1.37 -0.475 2.432 10,965 11,707 Stress
6 140 8 3.960 38 -1.37 -0.392 2.593 11,657 12,542 Stress
6 145 8 4.079 40 -1.92 -0.489 2.799 12,370 12,903 Stress
6 150 8 4.483 44 -2.05 -0.437 2.985 13,102 13,444 Stress
8 80 8 2.080* 16 0.22 -0.057 0.901 5,476 5,989 Strength
8 85 8 2.317* 18 0.25 -0.051 1.009 6,024 6,698 Strength
8 90 8 2.203* 18 0.04 -0.247 1.175 6,592 6,698 Strength
8 95 8 2.425* 20 0.02 -0.259 1.301 7,183 7,401 Strength
8 100 8 2.639* 22 -0.02 -0.281 1.435 7,796 8,099 Strength
8 105 8 2.845* 24 -0.08 -0.314 1.578 8,431 8,792 Strength
8 110 8 3.029 26 -0.22 -0.364 1.737 9,088 9,460 Stress
8 115 8 3.206 28 -0.41 -0.424 1.905 9,768 10,122 Stress
8 120 8 3.374 30 -0.670 -0.494 2.082 10,470 10,779 Stress
8 125 8 3.849 34 -0.60 -0.401 2.229 11,194 12,078 Stress
8 130 8 4.000 36 -0.96 -0.491 2.423 11,941 12,720 Stress
8 135 8 4.427 40 -1.01 -0.439 2.603 12,711 13,949 Stress
8 140 8 4.842 44 -1.11 -0.400 2.794 13,503 15,088 Stress
8 145 8 4.956 46 -1.75 -0.528 3.021 14,318 15,496 Stress
8 150 8 5.337 50 -2.39 -0.52 3.237 15,155 16,207 Stress
10 75 8 2.182* 16 0.25 -0.050 0.831 5,653 6,025 Strength
10 80 8 2.425* 18 0.30 -0.053 0.943 6,247 6,743 Strength
10 85 8 2.659* 20 0.33 -0.067 1.063 6,864 7,457 Strength
10 90 8 2.885* 22 0.34 -0.093 1.193 7,506 8,166 Strength
10 95 8 3.102 24 0.33 -0.129 1.333 8,172 8,871 Strength
10 100 8 2.976* 24 0.00 -0.363 1.528 8,861 8,871 Stress
10 105 8 3.486 28 0.16 -0.249 1.655 9,576 10,229 Strength
10 110 8 3.666 30 -0.01 -0.325 1.830 10,315 10,902 Strength
10 115 8 3.839 32 -0.24 -0.411 2.014 11,078 11,570 Stress
10 120 8 4.003 34 -0.53 -0.508 2.207 11,867 12,234 Stress
10 125 8 4.457 38 -0.53 -0.453 2.380 12,680 13,530 Stress
10 130 8 4.885 42 -0.58 -0.420 2.571 13,518 14,791 Stress
10 135 8 5.301 46 -0.70 -0.401 2.772 14,381 16,034 Stress
10 140 8 5.692 50 -1.21 -0.404 2.990 15,269 17,242 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table IB-6 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
AASHTO I-Beam Type VI, Interior Beam (continued)
12 65 9 2.020* 14 0.21 -0.011 0.645 5,047 5,389 Strength
12 70 9 2.277* 16 0.26 -0.013 0.750 5,656 6,127 Strength
12 75 9 2.526* 18 0.30 -0.027 0.865 6,291 6,861 Strength
12 80 9 2.766* 20 0.32 -0.053 0.991 6,952 7,592 Strength
12 85 9 2.998* 22 0.33 -0.091 1.127 7,639 8,319 Strength
12 90 9 3.221 24 0.32 -0.140 1.274 8,354 9,042 Strength
12 95 9 3.423 26 0.24 -0.210 1.439 9,095 9,742 Strength
12 100 9 3.617 28 0.12 -0.290 1.614 9,864 10,438 Strength
12 105 9 3.803 30 -0.06 -0.383 1.799 10,660 11,131 Stress
12 110 9 3.981 32 -0.30 -0.487 1.995 11,483 11,820 Stress
12 115 9 4.461 36 -0.28 -0.431 2.164 12,334 13,188 Stress
12 120 9 4.904 40 -0.33 -0.406 2.359 13,213 14,502 Stress
12 125 9 5.333 44 -0.42 -0.397 2.565 14,119 15,802 Stress
12 130 9 5.750 48 -0.72 -0.403 2.782 15,053 17,089 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table NEXT-1
NEXT Beam Type D: Maximum Span vs. Section Depth
NEXT D-8, in. 28 32 36 40
Span, ft. 60 70 80 85

NEXT D-10, in. 28 32 36 40

Span, ft. 55 65 75 80

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table NEXT-2
NEXT Beam Type D × 96
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
NEXT Beam 28 D × 8-ft-Wide Exterior Beam
8 20 0 0.509* 6 -0.01 -0.169 0.386 357 362 Stress
8 30 0 1.601* 10 0.13 -0.046 0.515 672 869 Strength
8 40 0 2.034* 12 0.11 -0.386 0.817 1,061 1,086 Stress
8 50 0 3.473 18 0.50 -0.371 1.102 1,570 1,720 Stress
8 60 0 5.185 26 1.22 -0.327 1.458 2,164 2,467 Stress
8 70 0 6.680 34 1.80 -0.503 1.939 2,831 3,114 Stress
NEXT Beam 28 D × 8-ft-Wide Interior Beam
8 20 0 1.102* 8 0.05 -0.056 0.436 524 591 Strength
8 30 0 2.120* 12 0.24 -0.060 0.647 922 1,086 Strength
8 40 0 3.056 16 0.52 -0.226 0.951 1,395 1,511 Strength
8 50 0 4.407 22 1.09 -0.372 1.343 2,020 2,109 Stress
8 60 0 6.031 30 2.00 -0.499 1.815 2,742 2,815 Stress

NEXT Beam 32 D × 8-ft-Wide Exterior Beam

8 20 0 0.414* 6 -0.01 -0.123 0.335 364 398 Stress
8 30 0 0.870* 8 -0.01 -0.237 0.499 689 707 Strength
8 40 0 1.791* 12 0.11 -0.213 0.666 1,090 1,242 Strength
8 50 0 2.647* 16 0.22 -0.358 0.936 1,617 1,745 Stress
8 60 0 3.891 22 0.56 -0.400 1.229 2,231 2,459 Stress
8 70 0 5.407 30 1.20 -0.378 1.565 2,923 3,319 Stress
NEXT Beam 32 D × 8-ft-Wide Interior Beam
8 20 0 0.942* 8 0.04 0.001 0.366 531 663 Strength
8 30 0 1.392* 10 0.10 -0.186 0.580 938 986 Strength
8 40 0 2.257* 14 0.27 -0.259 0.812 1,425 1,495 Strength
8 50 0 3.556 20 0.73 -0.262 1.094 2,067 2,237 Strength
8 60 0 4.690 26 1.20 -0.458 1.491 2,809 2,895 Stress
8 70 0 6.445 36 2.29 -0.412 1.907 3,638 3,879 Stress

NEXT Beam 36 D × 8-ft-Wide Exterior Beam

8 20 0 0.345* 6 -0.01 -0.093 0.299 372 434 Stress
8 30 0 0.758* 8 -0.01 -0.166 0.431 706 785 Strength
8 40 0 1.596* 12 0.10 -0.105 0.561 1,120 1,398 Strength
8 50 0 1.961* 14 0.02 -0.404 0.832 1,664 1,690 Stress
8 60 0 3.153 20 0.31 -0.356 1.052 2,298 2,549 Stress
8 70 0 4.212 26 0.53 -0.451 1.357 3,014 3,322 Stress
8 80 0 5.539 34 0.98 -0.472 1.693 3,811 4,277 Stress
NEXT Beam 36 D × 8-ft-Wide Interior Beam
8 20 0 0.820* 8 0.03 0.031 0.319 542 735 Strength
8 30 0 1.228* 10 0.08 -0.100 0.493 961 1,103 Strength
8 40 0 2.022* 14 0.23 -0.117 0.676 1,461 1,690 Strength
8 50 0 2.800* 18 0.43 -0.274 0.950 2,121 2,265 Strength
8 60 0 3.902 24 0.84 -0.349 1.253 2,881 3,067 Stress
8 70 0 4.942 30 1.24 -0.535 1.625 3,734 3,824 Stress
8 80 0 6.506 40 2.18 -0.512 2.021 4,675 4,935 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table NEXT-2 (Continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
NEXT Beam 40 D × 8-ft-Wide Exterior Beam
8 20 0 0.308* 6 -0.01 -0.072 0.271 378 470 Stress
8 30 0 0.701* 8 0.00 -0.116 0.380 719 863 Strength
8 40 0 1.091* 10 -0.02 -0.237 0.534 1,144 1,220 Strength
8 50 0 1.853* 14 0.06 -0.267 0.711 1,701 1,885 Strength
8 60 0 2.600* 18 0.12 -0.378 0.938 2,352 2,538 Stress
8 70 0 3.665 24 0.38 -0.389 1.176 3,087 3,457 Stress
8 80 0 4.674 30 0.56 -0.490 1.469 3,906 4,330 Stress
8 90 0 6.208 40 1.34 -0.368 1.770 4,810 5,633 Stress
NEXT Beam 40 D × 8-ft-Wide Interior Beam
8 20 0 0.756* 8 0.02 0.054 0.283 552 807 Strength
8 30 0 1.146* 10 0.07 -0.039 0.427 979 1,220 Strength
8 40 0 1.501* 12 0.10 -0.226 0.627 1,491 1,554 Strength
8 50 0 2.256* 16 0.24 -0.322 0.852 2,165 2,213 Strength
8 60 0 3.358 22 0.61 -0.312 1.088 2,942 3,160 Strength
8 70 0 4.376 28 0.99 -0.414 1.391 3,811 4,042 Stress
8 80 0 5.632 36 1.63 -0.453 1.728 4,775 5,120 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table NEXT-3
NEXT Beam Type D × 120
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
NEXT Beam 28 D × 10-ft-Wide Exterior Beam
12 20 0 1.089* 8 0.05 -0.033 0.354 515 591 Strength
12 30 0 2.082* 12 0.23 -0.08 0.556 950 1,086 Strength
12 40 0 2.995* 16 0.47 -0.305 0.848 1,475 1,511 Stress
12 50 0 4.749 24 1.22 -0.293 1.179 2,165 2,289 Strength
12 60 0 6.285 32 2.04 -0.534 1.641 2,962 2,966 Stress
NEXT Beam 28 D × 10-ft-Wide Interior Beam
12 20 0 1.665* 10 0.11 0.082 0.392 681 818 Strength
12 25 0 2.129* 12 0.21 0.037 0.506 910 1,086 Strength
12 30 0 2.588* 14 0.35 -0.043 0.637 1,159 1,300 Strength
12 35 0 3.042 16 0.50 -0.158 0.787 1,430 1,511 Strength
12 40 0 3.980 20 0.87 -0.048 0.897 1,723 1,925 Strength
12 45 0 4.366 22 1.06 -0.303 1.123 2,074 2,109 Strength
12 50 0 5.594 28 1.75 -0.158 1.294 2,468 2,643 Strength
12 55 0 6.330 32 2.23 -0.305 1.541 2,884 2,966 Strength

NEXT Beam 32 D × 10-ft-Wide Exterior Beam

12 20 0 0.937* 8 0.04 0.021 0.298 523 666 Strength
12 25 0 1.412* 10 0.10 0.060 0.359 733 993 Strength
12 30 0 1.373* 10 0.09 -0.195 0.500 967 993 Strength
12 35 0 1.799* 12 0.16 -0.239 0.604 1,224 1,253 Strength
12 40 0 2.220* 14 0.24 -0.313 0.723 1,505 1,510 Stress
12 45 0 3.087 18 0.53 -0.202 0.820 1,838 2,017 Strength
12 50 0 3.495 20 0.64 -0.373 0.994 2,212 2,267 Stress
12 55 0 4.256 24 0.96 -0.381 1.154 2,609 2,721 Stress
12 60 0 5.003 28 1.33 -0.419 1.329 3,030 3,165 Stress
12 65 0 5.699 32 1.68 -0.509 1.531 3,474 3,581 Stress
12 70 0 6.686 38 2.33 -0.464 1.731 3,941 4,160 Stress
NEXT Beam 32 D × 10-ft-Wide Interior Beam
12 20 0 1.451* 10 0.09 0.137 0.325 700 930 Strength
12 25 0 1.412* 10 0.10 -0.109 0.464 935 993 Strength
12 30 0 1.838* 12 0.18 -0.141 0.564 1,191 1,253 Strength
12 35 0 2.259* 14 0.29 -0.202 0.678 1,468 1,510 Strength
12 40 0 3.126 18 0.56 -0.055 0.755 1,769 2,017 Strength
12 45 0 3.533 20 0.73 -0.205 0.919 2,129 2,267 Strength
12 50 0 4.294 24 1.08 -0.210 1.079 2,534 2,721 Strength
12 55 0 5.040 28 1.49 -0.243 1.254 2,960 3,165 Strength
12 60 0 5.736 32 1.90 -0.328 1.455 3,410 3,581 Strength
12 65 0 6.384 36 2.30 -0.463 1.683 3,882 3,970 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 81 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table NEXT-3 (Continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
NEXT Beam 36 D × 10-ft-Wide Exterior Beam
12 20 0 0.819* 8 0.03 0.052 0.258 530 738 Strength
12 25 0 0.786* 8 0.02 -0.131 0.363 745 790 Strength
12 30 0 1.216* 10 0.08 -0.101 0.422 984 1,111 Strength
12 35 0 1.607* 12 0.14 -0.114 0.503 1,247 1,409 Strength
12 40 0 1.995* 14 0.21 -0.153 0.598 1,535 1,705 Strength
12 45 0 2.378* 16 0.29 -0.235 0.719 1,876 1,999 Strength
12 50 0 2.757* 18 0.38 -0.352 0.859 2,259 2,290 Stress
12 55 0 3.505 22 0.66 -0.295 0.973 2,666 2,846 Strength
12 60 0 3.842 24 0.72 -0.477 1.149 3,097 3,110 Stress
12 65 0 4.539 28 1.03 -0.487 1.298 3,553 3,632 Stress
12 70 0 5.518 34 1.63 -0.363 1.441 4,033 4,360 Stress
12 75 0 6.129 38 1.93 -0.457 1.635 4,537 4,821 Stress
NEXT Beam 36 D × 10-ft-Wide Interior Beam
12 20 0 0.819* 8 0.03 -0.072 0.337 717 738 Strength
12 25 0 1.249* 10 0.08 -0.035 0.395 959 1,111 Strength
12 30 0 1.640* 12 0.15 -0.039 0.473 1,221 1,409 Strength
12 35 0 2.027* 14 0.24 -0.066 0.564 1,505 1,705 Strength
12 40 0 2.411* 16 0.34 -0.118 0.667 1,813 1,999 Strength
12 45 0 2.790* 18 0.46 -0.218 0.799 2,183 2,290 Strength
12 50 0 3.538 22 0.76 -0.158 0.914 2,597 2,846 Strength
12 55 0 3.874 24 0.88 -0.336 1.089 3,034 3,110 Strength
12 60 0 4.571 28 1.23 -0.341 1.238 3,495 3,632 Strength
12 65 0 5.225 32 1.59 -0.388 1.409 3,980 4,126 Stress
12 70 0 5.840 36 1.93 -0.476 1.601 4,489 4,591 Stress
12 75 0 6.734 42 2.58 -0.434 1.789 5,026 5,253 Stress

NEXT Beam 40 D × 10-ft-Wide Exterior Beam

12 20 0 0.759* 8 0.03 0.076 0.237 533 810 Strength
12 25 0 0.730* 8 0.02 -0.08 0.328 749 868 Strength
12 30 0 1.139* 10 0.07 -0.033 0.375 990 1,228 Strength
12 35 0 1.516* 12 0.13 -0.023 0.442 1,256 1,565 Strength
12 40 0 1.487* 12 0.09 -0.242 0.568 1,546 1,565 Strength
12 45 0 1.860* 14 0.15 -0.29 0.669 1,890 1,900 Strength
12 50 0 2.623* 18 0.38 -0.162 0.740 2,276 2,563 Strength
12 55 0 2.984* 20 0.47 -0.262 0.870 2,687 2,891 Strength
12 60 0 3.316 22 0.53 -0.397 1.019 3,122 3,197 Stress
12 65 0 3.997 26 0.82 -0.363 1.141 3,582 3,801 Stress
12 70 0 4.668 30 1.15 -0.350 1.274 4,067 4,396 Stress
12 75 0 5.276 34 1.44 -0.388 1.435 4,577 4,943 Stress
12 80 0 5.876 38 1.74 -0.447 1.608 5,111 5,482 Stress
12 85 0 6.725 44 2.33 -0.387 1.778 5,670 6,233 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table NEXT-3 (Continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
NEXT Beam 40 D × 10-ft-Wide Interior Beam
12 20 0 0.759* 8 0.03 -0.034 0.309 730 810 Strength
12 25 0 1.168* 10 0.07 0.018 0.355 976 1,228 Strength
12 30 0 1.544* 12 0.13 0.036 0.420 1,241 1,565 Strength
12 35 0 1.516* 12 0.13 -0.175 0.542 1,529 1,565 Strength
12 40 0 1.888* 14 0.2 -0.198 0.628 1,841 1,900 Strength
12 45 0 2.257* 16 0.29 -0.262 0.740 2,215 2,233 Strength
12 50 0 3.013 20 0.55 -0.153 0.823 2,633 2,891 Strength
12 55 0 3.344 22 0.66 -0.284 0.972 3,075 3,197 Strength
12 60 0 4.025 26 0.98 -0.246 1.094 3,541 3,801 Strength
12 65 0 4.348 28 1.08 -0.417 1.265 4,031 4,100 Stress
12 70 0 4.987 32 1.42 -0.435 1.417 4,546 4,671 Stress
12 75 0 5.591 36 1.75 -0.489 1.588 5,085 5,214 Stress
12 80 0 6.470 42 2.40 -0.409 1.749 5,649 5,991 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table NEXT-4
NEXT Beam Type F: Maximum Span vs. Section Depth
NEXT F-8, in. 24 28 32 36
Span, ft. 55 65 75 80

NEXT F-12, in. 24 28 32 36

Span, ft. 50 60 65 75

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table NEXT-5
NEXT Beam Type F × 96
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
NEXT Beam 24 F × 8-ft-Wide Beam
8 20 8 1.055* 8 0.01 -0.116 0.457 616 753 Strength
8 25 8 1.688* 10 0.07 -0.049 0.502 820 1,034 Strength
8 30 8 2.232* 12 0.13 -0.074 0.602 1,041 1,277 Strength
8 35 8 2.769* 14 0.18 -0.144 0.727 1,279 1,515 Strength
8 40 8 3.299 16 0.22 -0.26 0.877 1,535 1,748 Stress
8 45 8 3.822 18 0.20 -0.449 1.061 1,839 1,977 Stress
8 50 8 4.816 22 0.41 -0.427 1.237 2,177 2,400 Stress
8 55 8 5.716 26 0.53 -0.501 1.467 2,532 2,785 Stress

NEXT Beam 28 F × 8-ft-Wide Beam

8 20 8 1.133* 8 0.04 0.071 0.332 640 904 Strength
8 25 8 1.098* 8 0.01 -0.182 0.457 853 922 Strength
8 30 8 1.652* 10 0.07 -0.132 0.511 1,083 1,229 Strength
8 35 8 2.139* 12 0.11 -0.154 0.609 1,331 1,511 Strength
8 40 8 2.621* 14 0.16 -0.212 0.727 1,598 1,788 Strength
8 45 8 3.097 16 0.18 -0.328 0.875 1,916 2,060 Stress
8 50 8 3.567 18 0.15 -0.492 1.048 2,268 2,326 Stress
8 55 8 4.470 22 0.35 -0.440 1.199 2,638 2,826 Stress
8 60 8 5.301 26 0.49 -0.464 1.394 3,028 3,287 Stress
8 65 8 6.117 30 0.60 -0.527 1.610 3,436 3,730 Stress

NEXT Beam 32 F × 8-ft-Wide Beam

8 20 8 0.613* 6 0 -0.123 0.332 663 711 Stress
8 25 8 1.112* 8 0.04 -0.030 0.357 884 1,078 Strength
8 30 8 1.604* 10 0.10 0.032 0.400 1,123 1,424 Strength
8 35 8 1.574* 10 0.04 -0.230 0.544 1,381 1,424 Strength
8 40 8 2.015* 12 0.07 -0.251 0.640 1,659 1,745 Strength
8 45 8 2.451* 14 0.09 -0.322 0.762 1,989 2,060 Stress
8 50 8 2.882* 16 0.09 -0.431 0.905 2,356 2,371 Stress
8 55 8 3.760 20 0.32 -0.310 1.004 2,741 2,977 Stress
8 60 8 4.135 22 0.22 -0.503 1.201 3,146 3,253 Stress
8 65 8 4.903 26 0.35 -0.499 1.371 3,571 3,790 Stress
8 70 8 5.657 30 0.46 -0.528 1.561 4,016 4,309 Stress
8 75 8 6.661 36 0.75 -0.449 1.778 4,482 4,996 Stress

NEXT Beam 36 F × 8-ft-Wide Beam

8 20 8 0.645* 6 0.01 -0.029 0.265 685 825 Stress
8 25 8 1.095* 8 0.05 0.066 0.284 914 1,234 Strength
8 30 8 1.068* 8 0.03 -0.132 0.396 1,162 1,234 Strength
8 35 8 1.512* 10 0.07 -0.086 0.446 1,430 1,619 Strength
8 40 8 1.915* 12 0.12 -0.086 0.526 1,718 1,979 Strength
8 45 8 2.314* 14 0.16 -0.127 0.629 2,060 2,333 Strength
8 50 8 2.708* 16 0.19 -0.201 0.750 2,440 2,682 Strength
8 55 8 3.099 18 0.20 -0.299 0.888 2,840 3,027 Stress
8 60 8 3.485 20 0.17 -0.421 1.040 3,261 3,366 Stress
8 65 8 4.205 24 0.32 -0.376 1.178 3,702 3,990 Stress
8 70 8 4.912 28 0.47 -0.359 1.332 4,165 4,595 Stress
8 75 8 5.576 32 0.56 -0.391 1.516 4,649 5,161 Stress
8 80 8 6.198 36 0.55 -0.471 1.730 5,155 5,690 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table NEXT-6
NEXT Beam Type F × 144
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
NEXT Beam 24 F × 12-ft-Wide Beam
12 20 8 1.738* 10 0.08 0.090 0.293 830 1,035 Strength
12 25 8 2.266* 12 0.15 0.029 0.372 1,103 1,309 Strength
12 30 8 2.788* 14 0.22 -0.085 0.476 1,397 1,559 Strength
12 35 8 3.303 16 0.28 -0.253 0.604 1,714 1,805 Stress
12 40 8 4.359 20 0.53 -0.162 0.702 2,055 2,286 Strength
12 45 8 4.786 22 0.49 -0.514 0.908 2,460 2,502 Stress
12 50 8 6.132 28 0.90 -0.411 1.077 2,909 3,131 Stress

NEXT Beam 28 F × 12-ft-Wide Beam

12 20 8 1.140* 8 0.04 -0.070 0.283 860 915 Strength
12 25 8 1.675* 10 0.09 -0.052 0.328 1,143 1,251 Strength
12 30 8 2.148* 12 0.14 -0.107 0.410 1,448 1,543 Strength
12 35 8 2.615* 14 0.20 -0.205 0.513 1,777 1,832 Strength
12 40 8 3.571 18 0.41 -0.063 0.583 2,130 2,398 Strength
12 45 8 4.022 20 0.45 -0.275 0.733 2,550 2,675 Stress
12 50 8 4.845 24 0.63 -0.329 0.888 3,016 3,182 Stress
12 55 8 5.653 28 0.80 -0.428 1.064 3,505 3,675 Stress
12 60 8 6.762 34 1.15 -0.397 1.259 4,018 4,351 Stress

NEXT Beam 32 F × 12-ft-Wide Beam

12 20 8 1.141* 8 0.04 0.059 0.219 889 1,067 Strength
12 25 8 1.617* 10 0.09 0.096 0.256 1,182 1,447 Strength
12 30 8 2.045* 12 0.16 0.075 0.324 1,497 1,777 Strength
12 35 8 2.468* 14 0.22 0.019 0.408 1,837 2,105 Strength
12 40 8 2.886* 16 0.29 -0.071 0.510 2,202 2,428 Strength
12 45 8 3.300 18 0.33 -0.219 0.636 2,636 2,748 Strength
12 50 8 4.107 22 0.53 -0.185 0.746 3,118 3,359 Strength
12 55 8 4.470 24 0.50 -0.435 0.922 3,624 3,649 Stress
12 60 8 5.216 28 0.64 -0.495 1.080 4,155 4,219 Stress
12 65 8 6.254 34 0.98 -0.423 1.247 4,712 5,011 Stress

NEXT Beam 36 F × 12-ft-Wide Beam

12 20 8 1.113* 8 0.04 0.139 0.173 916 1,218 Strength
12 25 8 1.085* 8 0.04 -0.073 0.265 1,218 1,249 Strength
12 30 8 1.515* 10 0.09 -0.050 0.310 1,544 1,642 Strength
12 35 8 1.905* 12 0.13 -0.075 0.380 1,894 2,012 Strength
12 40 8 2.292* 14 0.18 -0.130 0.466 2,271 2,378 Strength
12 45 8 2.675* 16 0.22 -0.233 0.574 2,719 2,740 Strength
12 50 8 3.456 20 0.41 -0.144 0.651 3,216 3,455 Strength
12 55 8 3.796 22 0.4 -0.333 0.802 3,739 3,787 Stress
12 60 8 4.495 26 0.56 -0.342 0.931 4,287 4,442 Stress
12 65 8 5.181 30 0.71 -0.382 1.076 4,862 5,083 Stress
12 70 8 5.798 34 0.77 -0.490 1.258 5,464 5,671 Stress
12 75 8 6.720 40 1.07 -0.450 1.432 6,093 6,530 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table U-1
U-Beams: Maximum Span (ft) vs. Beam Spacing
Spacing
10 ft 14 ft 18 ft
Beam
U40 105 95 80
U54 120 110 95
U66 130 120 105
U78 135 125 110

See Appendix C for spliced U-beams and curved spliced U-beams from PCI Zone 6.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table U-2
Texas U-40 Beam
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
Texas U-40 Exterior Beam
10 55 8 2.138* 18 0.03 -0.161 1.388 3,619 3,621 Strength
10 60 8 2.668* 22 0.14 -0.087 1.577 4,187 4,421 Strength
10 65 8 2.863* 24 0.04 -0.211 1.849 4,785 4,815 Strength
10 70 8 3.361 28 0.12 -0.181 2.087 5,411 5,590 Strength
10 75 8 3.663 31 0.00 -0.272 2.399 6,065 6,142 Strength
10 80 8 4.082 35 -0.10 -0.314 2.727 6,749 6,850 Strength
10 85 8 4.485 39 -0.26 -0.378 3.079 7,461 7,543 Strength
10 90 8 4.873 43 -0.53 -0.464 3.456 8,201 8,220 Stress
10 95 8 5.517 49 -0.53 -0.429 3.825 8,971 9,209 Stress
14 45 8 2.014* 16 0.09 0.027 0.992 2,887 3,255 Strength
14 50 8 2.244* 18 0.07 -0.073 1.217 3,465 3,672 Strength
14 55 8 2.462* 20 -0.01 -0.194 1.470 4,077 4,086 Strength
14 60 8 2.987* 24 0.05 -0.161 1.691 4,722 4,904 Strength
14 65 8 3.494 28 0.10 -0.155 1.941 5,400 5,710 Strength
14 70 8 3.805 31 -0.05 -0.272 2.268 6,112 6,287 Strength
14 75 8 4.233 35 -0.19 -0.343 2.616 6,857 7,034 Strength
14 80 8 4.645 39 -0.42 -0.439 2.991 7,636 7,768 Stress
14 85 8 5.316 45 -0.45 -0.414 3.361 8,448 8,849 Stress
18 40 10 2.101* 16 0.07 0.007 0.920 3,054 3,434 Strength
18 45 10 2.340* 18 0.02 -0.130 1.169 3,722 3,876 Strength
18 50 10 2.889* 22 0.05 -0.126 1.398 4,469 4,754 Strength
18 55 10 3.418 26 0.06 -0.155 1.662 5,261 5,621 Strength
18 60 10 3.773 29 -0.06 -0.301 1.991 6,098 6,266 Strength
18 65 10 4.223 33 -0.23 -0.420 2.369 6,978 7,077 Stress
18 70 10 4.935 39 -0.28 -0.419 2.749 7,902 8,278 Stress
18 75 10 5.623 45 -0.40 -0.456 3.166 8,871 9,457 Stress

Texas U-40 Interior Beam

10 60 8 2.022* 18 -0.25 -0.145 1.520 3,229 3,621 Strength
10 65 8 2.221* 20 -0.42 -0.218 1.761 3,667 4,023 Strength
10 70 8 2.408* 22 -0.66 -0.307 2.024 4,126 4,421 Strength
10 75 8 2.584* 24 -1.01 -0.412 2.309 4,607 4,815 Stress
10 80 8 2.749* 26 -1.47 -0.534 2.616 5,108 5,205 Stress
10 85 8 3.349 31 -1.56 -0.429 2.881 5,632 6,142 Stress
10 90 8 3.751 35 -1.97 -0.447 3.218 6,177 6,850 Stress
10 95 8 4.137 39 -2.51 -0.484 3.579 6,744 7,543 Stress
10 100 8 4.784 45 -2.77 -0.397 3.929 7,333 8,554 Stress
10 105 8 5.136 49 -3.6 -0.477 4.336 7,944 9,209 Stress
14 55 8 2.138* 18 -0.17 -0.197 1.451 3,486 3,672 Strength
14 60 8 2.346* 20 -0.34 -0.30 1.712 4,000 4,086 Strength
14 65 8 2.863* 24 -0.35 -0.246 1.941 4,538 4,904 Strength
14 70 8 3.046 26 -0.66 -0.388 2.254 5,102 5,309 Stress
14 75 8 3.374 29 -0.95 -0.464 2.564 5,690 5,910 Stress
14 80 8 3.797 33 -1.28 -0.504 2.915 6,305 6,662 Stress
14 85 8 4.485 39 -1.41 -0.417 3.258 6,945 7,768 Stress
14 90 8 4.873 43 -1.97 -0.506 3.663 7,612 8,492 Stress
14 95 8 5.517 49 -2.32 -0.475 4.062 8,304 9,555 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table U-2 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
Texas U-40 Interior Beam (continued)
18 45 10 2.014 16 -0.09 -0.161 1.193 3,179 3,434 Strength
18 50 10 2.244 18 -0.22 -0.292 1.469 3,772 3,876 Strength
18 55 10 2.784 22 -0.26 -0.268 1.719 4,397 4,754 Strength
18 60 10 2.987 24 -0.54 -0.450 2.063 5,053 5,189 Stress
18 65 10 3.494 28 -0.72 -0.482 2.383 5,743 6,051 Stress
18 70 10 4.091 33 -0.94 -0.487 2.753 6,467 7,077 Stress
18 75 10 4.795 39 -1.15 -0.456 3.151 7,224 8,278 Stress
18 80 10 5.474 45 -1.46 -0.461 3.586 8,016 9,457 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table U-3
Texas U-54 Beam
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
Texas U-54 Exterior Beam
10 65 8 2.095* 20 0.19 -0.002 1.143 4,927 5,388 Strength
10 70 8 2.274* 22 0.17 -0.061 1.320 5,576 5,922 Strength
10 75 8 2.444* 24 0.12 -0.132 1.513 6,255 6,452 Strength
10 80 8 2.606* 26 0.04 -0.216 1.720 6,964 6,978 Strength
10 85 8 2.896* 29 0.03 -0.237 1.917 7,704 7,758 Strength
10 90 8 3.283 33 0.07 -0.215 2.129 8,474 8,745 Strength
10 95 8 3.657 37 0.09 -0.208 2.357 9,275 9,716 Strength
10 100 8 3.767 39 -0.23 -0.352 2.635 10,106 10,196 Strength
10 105 8 4.120 43 -0.32 -0.373 2.893 10,967 11,142 Strength
10 110 8 4.461 47 -0.46 -0.41 3.166 11,858 12,073 Stress
14 65 8 2.376* 22 0.16 -0.029 1.198 5,542 5,999 Strength
14 70 8 2.553* 24 0.11 -0.117 1.397 6,277 6,543 Strength
14 75 8 2.721* 26 0.02 -0.219 1.612 7,046 7,084 Strength
14 80 8 3.018 29 -0.02 -0.259 1.819 7,851 7,889 Strength
14 85 8 3.412 33 -0.02 -0.257 2.043 8,691 8,914 Strength
14 90 8 3.792 37 -0.06 -0.272 2.284 9,566 9,926 Strength
14 95 8 4.160 41 -0.14 -0.305 2.543 10,476 10,926 Strength
14 100 8 4.268 43 -0.58 -0.488 2.853 11,421 11,422 Stress
14 105 8 4.860 49 -0.49 -0.420 3.112 12,402 12,891 Stress
18 50 10 2.074* 18 0.12 0.037 0.815 4,554 5,106 Strength
18 55 10 2.276* 20 0.10 -0.059 1.001 5,363 5,683 Strength
18 60 10 2.470* 22 0.05 -0.173 1.207 6,219 6,257 Strength
18 65 10 2.931* 26 0.10 -0.151 1.386 7,120 7,397 Strength
18 70 10 3.241 29 0.05 -0.226 1.611 8,068 8,246 Strength
18 75 10 3.648 33 0.02 -0.264 1.856 9,061 9,331 Strength
18 80 10 4.041 37 -0.06 -0.322 2.124 10,100 10,406 Strength
18 85 10 4.422 41 -0.19 -0.401 2.413 11,185 11,471 Strength
18 90 10 4.791 45 -0.40 -0.500 2.723 12,315 12,527 Stress

Texas U-54 Interior Beam

10 80 8 2.048* 22 -0.40 -0.206 1.606 5,418 5,922 Strength
10 85 8 2.205* 24 -0.59 -0.264 1.802 5,976 6,452 Strength
10 90 8 2.352* 26 -0.84 -0.333 2.012 6,558 6,978 Strength
10 95 8 2.492* 28 -1.17 -0.413 2.235 7,163 7,499 Stress
10 100 8 2.745* 31 -1.45 -0.438 2.460 7,792 8,254 Stress
10 105 8 3.109 35 -1.65 -0.410 2.686 8,445 9,233 Stress
10 110 8 3.208 37 -2.28 -0.533 2.963 9,121 9,716 Stress
10 115 8 3.551 41 -2.65 -0.531 3.218 9,822 10,671 Stress
10 120 8 4.130 47 -2.68 -0.410 3.453 10,547 12,073 Stress
14 75 8 2.165* 22 -0.37 -0.318 1.601 5,991 5,999 Strength
14 80 8 2.606* 26 -0.35 -0.247 1.766 6,640 7,084 Strength
14 85 8 2.759* 28 -0.59 -0.345 1.997 7,317 7,622 Strength
14 90 8 3.026 31 -0.80 -0.389 2.231 8,022 8,403 Strength
14 95 8 3.147 33 -1.24 -0.521 2.505 8,755 8,914 Stress
14 100 8 3.514 37 -1.48 -0.527 2.759 9,516 9,926 Stress
14 105 8 4.120 43 -1.48 -0.413 2.995 10,305 11,422 Stress
14 110 8 4.461 47 -1.86 -0.452 3.283 11,123 12,404 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table U-3 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
Texas U-54 Interior Beam (continued)
18 60 10 2.189* 20 -0.08 -0.154 1.201 5,276 5,683 Strength
18 65 10 2.376* 22 -0.20 -0.253 1.418 5,998 6,257 Strength
18 70 10 2.553* 24 -0.37 -0.368 1.655 6,755 6,828 Strength
18 75 10 2.997* 28 -0.42 -0.345 1.863 7,547 7,964 Strength
18 80 10 3.277 31 -0.65 -0.427 2.128 8,376 8,790 Stress
18 85 10 3.667 35 -0.85 -0.461 2.401 9,241 9,869 Stress
18 90 10 4.044 39 -1.13 -0.513 2.696 10,142 10939 Stress
18 95 10 4.657 45 -1.23 -0.451 2.977 11,080 12,527 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table U-4
Washington U66G5 Beam
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
Washington U66G5 Exterior Beam
10 50 8 0.950* 10 0.05 -0.033 0.593 3,226 3,433 Strength
10 55 8 1.134* 12 0.06 -0.033 0.709 3,797 4,106 Strength
10 60 8 1.310* 14 0.07 -0.044 0.841 4,400 4,775 Strength
10 65 8 1.477* 16 0.07 -0.066 0.988 5,034 5,439 Strength
10 70 8 1.636* 18 0.05 -0.099 1.151 5,699 6,099 Strength
10 75 8 1.787* 20 0.00 -0.144 1.330 6,397 6,754 Strength
10 80 8 1.930* 22 -0.09 -0.199 1.524 7,126 7,405 Strength
10 85 8 2.065* 24 -0.22 -0.264 1.734 7,886 8,052 Strength
10 90 8 2.304* 27 -0.32 -0.278 1.936 8,679 8,994 Strength
10 95 8 2.411* 29 -0.57 -0.372 2.188 9,502 9,610 Strength
10 100 8 2.744* 33 -0.67 -0.348 2.400 10,358 10,831 Strength
10 105 8 2.834* 35 -1.07 -0.464 2.683 11,245 11,434 Stress
10 110 8 3.147 39 -1.29 -0.463 2.927 12,164 12,629 Stress
10 115 8 3.450 43 -1.56 -0.475 3.187 13,114 13,808 Stress
10 120 8 3.742 47 -1.91 -0.500 3.464 14,096 14,970 Stress
14 45 8 1.019* 10 0.06 0.034 0.466 3,007 3,450 Strength
14 50 8 1.210* 12 0.08 0.028 0.580 3,613 4,130 Strength
14 55 8 1.392* 14 0.09 0.010 0.712 4,255 4,807 Strength
14 60 8 1.566* 16 0.09 -0.021 0.862 4,934 5,481 Strength
14 65 8 1.732* 18 0.07 -0.064 1.029 5,649 6,151 Strength
14 70 8 1.890* 20 0.01 -0.120 1.214 6,400 6,818 Strength
14 75 8 2.039* 22 -0.08 -0.187 1.416 7,188 7,482 Strength
14 80 8 2.181* 24 -0.22 -0.267 1.635 8,013 8,143 Strength
14 85 8 2.427* 27 -0.33 -0.297 1.849 8,873 9,109 Strength
14 90 8 2.774* 31 -0.42 -0.278 2.059 9,770 10,374 Strength
14 95 8 2.879* 33 -0.74 -0.402 2.343 10,704 11,001 Strength
14 100 8 3.206 37 -0.93 -0.410 2.588 11,674 12,247 Stress
14 105 8 3.523 41 -1.18 -0.433 2.852 12,680 13,480 Stress
14 110 8 3.829 45 -1.50 -0.469 3.135 13,722 14,701 Stress
14 115 8 4.125 49 -1.91 -0.519 3.435 14,801 15,910 Stress
18 40 10 1.081* 10 0.05 0.033 0.406 3,149 3,557 Strength
18 45 10 1.279* 12 0.06 0.010 0.532 3,841 4,260 Strength
18 50 10 1.468* 14 0.06 -0.033 0.682 4,617 4,961 Strength
18 55 10 1.649* 16 0.04 -0.093 0.854 5,440 5,660 Strength
18 60 10 1.821* 18 0.00 -0.168 1.048 6,310 6,356 Strength
18 65 10 2.237* 22 0.02 -0.116 1.193 7,227 7,741 Strength
18 70 10 2.392* 24 -0.10 -0.223 1.431 8,191 8,429 Strength
18 75 10 2.651* 27 -0.21 -0.282 1.667 9,203 9,438 Strength
18 80 10 3.011 31 -0.31 -0.296 1.904 10,261 10,761 Strength
18 85 10 3.129 33 -0.62 -0.456 2.219 11,367 11,419 Stress
18 90 10 3.468 37 -0.84 -0.502 2.500 12,520 12,728 Stress
18 95 10 4.024 43 -0.94 -0.441 2.750 13,719 14,673 Stress
18 100 10 4.339 47 -1.30 -0.523 3.077 14,966 15,957 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 92 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table U-4 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
Washington U66G5 Interior Beam
10 60 8 1.051* 12 -0.03 -0.06 0.806 3,553 4,106 Strength
10 70 8 1.123* 14 -0.23 -0.213 1.150 4,550 4,775 Strength
10 75 8 1.277* 16 -0.31 -0.231 1.307 5,085 5,439 Strength
10 80 8 1.422* 18 -0.43 -0.258 1.479 5,644 6,099 Strength
10 85 8 1.560* 20 -0.59 -0.296 1.665 6,228 6,754 Strength
10 90 8 1.690* 22 -0.82 -0.343 1.866 6,837 7,405 Strength
10 95 8 1.812* 24 -1.11 -0.400 2.081 7,470 8,052 Stress
10 100 8 1.801* 25 -1.60 -0.537 2.346 8,128 8,373 Stress
10 105 8 2.132* 29 -1.82 -0.488 2.545 8,812 9,610 Stress
10 110 8 2.453* 33 -2.12 -0.452 2.759 9,521 10,831 Stress
10 115 8 2.762* 37 -2.46 -0.428 2.990 10,255 12,034 Stress
10 120 8 3.061 41 -2.89 -0.416 3.236 11,014 13,221 Stress
10 125 8 3.349 45 -3.40 -0.415 3.497 11,799 14,391 Stress
10 130 8 3.627 49 -4.02 -0.427 3.774 12,609 15,546 Stress
14 55 8 1.134* 12 0.00 -0.068 0.741 3,793 4,130 Strength
14 60 8 1.310* 14 -0.02 -0.081 0.879 4,356 4,807 Strength
14 65 8 1.477* 16 -0.06 -0.105 1.033 4,945 5,481 Strength
14 70 8 1.636* 18 -0.12 -0.141 1.205 5,563 6,151 Strength
14 75 8 1.787* 20 -0.22 -0.188 1.393 6,210 6,818 Strength
14 80 8 1.930* 22 -0.38 -0.246 1.597 6,885 7,482 Strength
14 85 8 2.065* 24 -0.59 -0.315 1.819 7,589 8,143 Strength
14 90 8 2.067* 25 -0.97 -0.465 2.092 8,322 8,473 Strength
14 95 8 2.411* 29 -1.15 -0.431 2.301 9,084 9,743 Stress
14 100 8 2.744* 33 -1.38 -0.411 2.527 9,876 11,001 Stress
14 105 8 2.834* 35 -1.93 -0.532 2.828 10,697 11,625 Stress
14 110 8 3.147 39 -2.32 -0.537 3.089 11,548 12,865 Stress
14 115 8 3.676 45 -2.51 -0.431 3.314 12,429 14,701 Stress
14 120 8 3.966 49 -3.06 -0.464 3.612 13,339 15,910 Stress
18 45 10 1.019* 10 0.00 -0.079 0.582 3,417 3,557 Strength
18 50 10 1.210* 12 -0.02 -0.104 0.723 4,056 4,260 Strength
18 55 10 1.392* 14 -0.05 -0.142 0.886 4,729 4,961 Strength
18 60 10 1.566* 16 -0.11 -0.195 1.070 5,438 5,660 Strength
18 65 10 1.732* 18 -0.20 -0.262 1.275 6,182 6,356 Strength
18 70 10 1.890* 20 -0.35 -0.343 1.501 6,963 7,050 Strength
18 75 10 2.290* 24 -0.41 -0.296 1.678 7,781 8,429 Strength
18 80 10 2.306* 25 -0.75 -0.476 1.982 8,637 8,773 Stress
18 85 10 2.662* 29 -0.95 -0.474 2.227 9,530 10,101 Stress
18 90 10 3.007 33 -1.21 -0.489 2.493 10,461 11,419 Stress
18 95 10 3.341 37 -1.56 -0.520 2.782 11,430 12,728 Stress
18 100 10 3.890 43 -1.75 -0.442 3.039 12,437 14,673 Stress
18 105 10 4.200 47 -2.25 -0.507 3.372 13,482 15,957 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table U-5
Washington U78G5 Beam
Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
Washington U78G5 Exterior Beam
10 65 8 1.151* 14 0.04 -0.076 0.789 5,149 5,595 Strength
10 70 8 1.302* 16 0.05 -0.092 0.911 5,833 6,376 Strength
10 75 8 1.447* 18 0.03 -0.118 1.046 6,551 7,153 Strength
10 80 8 1.585* 20 0.01 -0.153 1.193 7,301 7,925 Strength
10 85 8 1.715* 22 -0.06 -0.199 1.353 8,084 8,693 Strength
10 90 8 1.838* 24 -0.15 -0.254 1.525 8,900 9,457 Strength
10 95 8 1.841* 25 -0.37 -0.380 1.740 9,749 9,837 Strength
10 100 8 2.159* 29 -0.39 -0.343 1.893 10,631 11,307 Strength
10 105 8 2.253* 31 -0.63 -0.433 2.111 11,546 12,036 Stress
10 110 8 2.340* 33 -0.92 -0.532 2.341 12,495 12,761 Stress
10 115 8 2.633* 37 -1.05 -0.53 2.534 13,476 14,197 Stress
10 120 8 3.124 43 -0.99 -0.434 2.692 14,490 16,321 Stress
10 125 8 3.395 47 -1.21 -0.461 2.914 15,537 17,715 Stress
14 55 8 1.063* 12 0.05 -0.021 0.571 4,338 4,833 Strength
14 60 8 1.228* 14 0.06 -0.034 0.680 5,032 5,627 Strength
14 65 8 1.385* 16 0.06 -0.057 0.804 5,764 6,418 Strength
14 70 8 1.536* 18 0.05 -0.092 0.942 6,534 7,205 Strength
14 75 8 1.679* 20 0.02 -0.138 1.094 7,342 7,990 Strength
14 80 8 1.815* 22 -0.05 -0.195 1.260 8,188 8,771 Strength
14 85 8 1.944* 24 -0.15 -0.262 1.439 9,071 9,549 Strength
14 90 8 2.170* 27 -0.23 -0.285 1.611 9,992 10,690 Strength
14 95 8 2.276* 29 -0.42 -0.380 1.827 10,951 11,441 Strength
14 100 8 2.375* 31 -0.67 -0.485 2.057 11,947 12,189 Stress
14 105 8 2.680* 35 -0.79 -0.490 2.250 12,981 13,674 Stress
14 110 8 2.975* 39 -0.96 -0.509 2.458 14,053 15,147 Stress
14 115 8 3.467 45 -0.95 -0.438 2.635 15,163 17,334 Stress
14 120 8 3.741 49 -1.21 -0.488 2.876 16,310 18,776 Stress
18 50 10 1.128* 12 0.04 -0.051 0.535 4,685 4,963 Strength
18 55 10 1.299* 14 0.03 -0.086 0.660 5,522 5,781 Strength
18 60 10 1.462* 16 0.02 -0.135 0.803 6,408 6,597 Strength
18 65 10 1.618* 18 -0.02 -0.198 0.962 7,342 7,410 Strength
18 70 10 1.997* 22 0.02 -0.149 1.076 8,325 9,029 Strength
18 75 10 2.137* 24 -0.07 -0.240 1.271 9,356 9,835 Strength
18 80 10 2.374* 27 -0.15 -0.290 1.461 10,436 11,019 Strength
18 85 10 2.491* 29 -0.33 -0.413 1.698 11,564 11,799 Strength
18 90 10 2.814* 33 -0.43 -0.438 1.902 12,741 13,352 Stress
18 95 10 3.127 37 -0.57 -0.480 2.124 13,966 14,894 Stress
18 100 10 3.636 43 -0.60 -0.434 2.317 15,240 17,190 Stress
18 105 10 3.927 47 -0.84 -0.512 2.578 16,562 18,708 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 94 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.10 Preliminary Design Data

Table U-5 (continued)

Slab Final
Spacing Span 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Thickness Camber Control
ft ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++
Washington U78G5 Interior Beam
10 80 8 1.118* 16 -0.27 -0.231 1.168 5,875 6,376 Strength
10 85 8 1.252* 18 -0.35 -0.252 1.308 6,485 7,153 Strength
10 90 8 1.145* 18 -0.64 -0.409 1.523 7,122 7,153 Stress
10 95 8 1.265* 20 -0.80 -0.446 1.686 7,784 7,925 Stress
10 100 8 1.379* 22 -1.02 -0.493 1.861 8,474 8,693 Stress
10 105 8 1.601* 25 -1.20 -0.486 2.016 9,189 9,837 Stress
10 110 8 1.909* 29 -1.34 -0.440 2.170 9,932 11,307 Stress
10 115 8 1.991* 31 -1.73 -0.520 2.389 10,701 12,036 Stress
10 120 8 2.282* 35 -1.96 -0.496 2.569 11,496 13,481 Stress
10 125 8 2.562* 39 -2.24 -0.484 2.762 12,319 14,909 Stress
10 130 8 2.833* 43 -2.58 -0.485 2.968 13,168 16,321 Stress
10 135 8 3.095 47 -2.99 -0.497 3.188 14,044 17,715 Stress
14 65 8 1.151* 14 -0.03 -0.110 0.816 5,116 5,627 Strength
14 70 8 1.302* 16 -0.06 -0.128 0.942 5,758 6,418 Strength
14 75 8 1.447* 18 -0.11 -0.156 1.082 6,429 7,205 Strength
14 80 8 1.352* 18 -0.31 -0.321 1.299 7,130 7,205 Strength
14 85 8 1.484* 20 -0.43 -0.368 1.465 7,862 7,990 Strength
14 90 8 1.609* 22 -0.60 -0.425 1.644 8,624 8,771 Stress
14 95 8 1.727* 24 -0.82 -0.491 1.836 9,417 9,549 Stress
14 100 8 1.942* 27 -1.01 -0.513 2.020 10,241 10,690 Stress
14 105 8 2.253* 31 -1.17 -0.491 2.196 11,095 12,189 Stress
14 110 8 2.553* 35 -1.36 -0.483 2.387 11,981 13,674 Stress
14 115 8 2.843* 39 -1.61 -0.489 2.593 12,898 15,147 Stress
14 120 8 3.124 43 -1.92 -0.508 2.814 13,846 16,608 Stress
14 125 8 3.600 49 -2.04 -0.438 3.003 14,825 18,776 Stress
18 50 10 1.128* 12 0.04 0.005 0.509 4,172 4,963 Strength
18 55 10 1.063* 12 -0.04 -0.145 0.692 4,865 4,963 Strength
18 60 10 1.228* 14 -0.06 -0.176 0.826 5,596 5,781 Strength
18 65 10 1.385* 16 -0.11 -0.219 0.976 6,364 6,597 Strength
18 70 10 1.536* 18 -0.18 -0.274 1.143 7,169 7,410 Strength
18 75 10 1.679* 20 -0.28 -0.342 1.327 8,013 8,221 Strength
18 80 10 1.815* 22 -0.44 -0.422 1.527 8,896 9,029 Stress
18 85 10 1.944* 24 -0.64 -0.515 1.744 9,818 9,835 Stress
18 90 10 2.386* 29 -0.71 -0.450 1.903 10,779 11,799 Stress
18 95 10 2.704* 33 -0.88 -0.462 2.112 11,780 13,352 Stress
18 100 10 3.012 37 -1.10 -0.490 2.339 12,820 14,894 Stress
18 105 10 3.310 41 -1.38 -0.535 2.583 13,900 16,427 Stress
18 110 10 3.803 47 -1.54 -0.492 2.800 15,020 18,708 Stress
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 95 (2023)
 Table SS
Adjacent Solid Slab
Slab Final
Depth Span
Thickness
𝑓𝑐𝑖′ No. of
Camber
fb @ L/2 ft @ L/2 Mu @ L/2 Mr @ L/2
Control
in ft ksi * Strands ksi ksi ft-kips ft-kips
in. in.++

Solid Slabs
12 20 4 1.586 6+2 0.088 -0.428 1.610 278 379 Stress
12 25 4 2.199 8+2 0.191 -0.479 1.870 378 475 Stress
12 30 4 3.141 11+2 0.415 -0.433 2.171 489 603 Stress
12 35 4 3.632 14+2 0.719 -0.473 2.551 613 689 Stress
16 25 4 1.501 7+2 0.100 -0.402 1.526 402 565 Stress
16 30 4 2.001 9+2 0.193 -0.447 1.757 523 693 Stress
16 35 4 2.440 12+2 0.388 -0.383 1.975 656 874 Stress
16 40 4 3.381 15+2 0.646 -0.378 2.249 803 1045 Stress
16 45 4 3.444 18+2 0.939 -0.456 2.603 997 1205 Stress
20 30 4 1.909 8 0.182 -0.233 1.106 554 788 Minimum
reinforcement
20 35 4 2.287 9 0.234 -0.400 1.350 696 869 Minimum
reinforcement
20 40 4 2.607 13 0.477 -0.200 1.469 855 1185 Minimum
reinforcement
20 45 4 3.962 15 0.631 -0.333 1.758 1043 1338 Stress

20 50 4 2.478 17 0.749 -0.499 2.082 1249 1486 Stress

Note: Due to shallow section depth, non-prestressed steel to control top tension cannot be placed in the tensile zone with
sufficient clearance for 16- and 12-in.-deep slabs. Two top strands must be used.
*A minimum concrete transfer strength of 3.0 ksi is recommended by PCI MNL-116 Section 5.3.17.
++Final camber is net deflection after all losses and noncomposite and composite dead loads are applied.

6 - 96 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 7
LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
Table of Contents

NOTATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7-3

7.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 7-5
7.0.1 Reliability Analysis.............................................................................................................................................................................. 7-5
7.0.2 Limit States ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 7-6
7.0.2.1 Strength Limit State ................................................................................................................................................................... 7-6
7.0.2.2 Extreme Event Limit State ...................................................................................................................................................... 7-6
7.0.2.3 Service Limit State ..................................................................................................................................................................... 7-6
7.0.2.4 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State ......................................................................................................................................... 7-6
7.0.3 Resistance Factors............................................................................................................................................................................... 7-6
7.0.4 Redundancy and Ductility................................................................................................................................................................ 7-6
7.0.5 Design Life or Service Life ............................................................................................................................................................... 7-7
7.1 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7-7
7.2 LOAD TYPES .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7-8
7.2.1 Permanent Loads ................................................................................................................................................................................. 7-8
7.2.1.1 Dead Loads .................................................................................................................................................................................... 7-8
7.2.1.2 Superimposed Dead Loads ..................................................................................................................................................... 7-8
7.2.1.3 Earth Pressures ........................................................................................................................................................................... 7-8
7.2.1.4 Superimposed Deformations ................................................................................................................................................ 7-8
7.2.2 Live Loads ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 7-8
7.2.2.1 Gravity Vehicular Live Load ................................................................................................................................................... 7-8
7.2.2.1.1 Number of Design Lanes ................................................................................................................................................ 7-8
7.2.2.1.2 Multiple Presence of Live Load ................................................................................................................................... 7-8
7.2.2.1.3 Design Vehicular Live Load―LRFD Specifications ............................................................................................. 7-9
7.2.2.1.4 Dynamic Load Allowance ............................................................................................................................................ 7-10
7.2.2.1.5 Fatigue Load ..................................................................................................................................................................... 7-10
7.2.2.2 Other Vehicular Forces ......................................................................................................................................................... 7-11
7.2.2.2.1 Longitudinal Braking Forces ..................................................................................................................................... 7-11
7.2.2.2.2 Centrifugal Forces .......................................................................................................................................................... 7-11
7.2.2.2.3 Vehicular Collision Forces .......................................................................................................................................... 7-11
7.2.2.3 Pedestrian Loads ..................................................................................................................................................................... 7-11
7.2.3 Water and Stream Loads ............................................................................................................................................................... 7-11
7.2.3.1 Stream Forces and Wave Loads ........................................................................................................................................ 7-11
7.2.3.2 Ice Forces .................................................................................................................................................................................... 7-11
7.2.4 Wind Loads .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 7-12
7.2.5 Earthquake Loads and Effects ..................................................................................................................................................... 7-12
7.2.6 Forces Due to Imposed Deformations ..................................................................................................................................... 7-12
7.3 LOAD COMBINATIONS AND DESIGN METHODS ......................................................................................................................... 7-12
7.4 SIMPLIFIED DISTRIBUTION METHODS .......................................................................................................................................... 7-17
7.4.1 Background ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 17

7-1 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 7
LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
Table of Contents

7.4.2 Approximate Distribution Formulas for Moments (Two Lanes Loaded) ................................................................ 7-19
7.4.2.1 I-Beams, Bulb-Tee Beams, or Single- or Double-Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning ......... 7-19
7.4.2.2 Open or Closed Precast Concrete Spread Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Deck........................................... 7-20
7.4.2.3 Adjacent Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Overlay or Transverse Post-Tensioning ..................................... 7-20
7.4.2.4 Channel Sections, or Box or Tee Sections Connected by “Hinges” at Interface ........................................... 7-21
7.4.3 Approximate Distribution Formulas for Shear (Two Lanes Loaded) ....................................................................... 7-21
7.4.3.1 I-Beams, Bulb-Tee Beams, or Single- or Double-Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning ......... 7-21
7.4.3.2 Open or Closed Precast Concrete Spread Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Deck........................................... 7-21
7.4.3.3 Adjacent Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Overlay or Transverse Post-Tensioning ..................................... 7-22
7.4.3.4 Channel Sections or Box or Tee Sections Connected by “Hinges” at Interface ............................................ 7-22
7.4.4 Correction Factors for Skews ...................................................................................................................................................... 7-22
7.4.4.1 Multipliers for Moments in Longitudinal Beams....................................................................................................... 7-22
7.4.4.2 Multipliers for Support Shear at Obtuse Corners of Exterior Beams ............................................................... 7-23
7.4.5 Transverse Connection of Adjacent Members ..................................................................................................................... 7-23
7.4.5.1 Monolithic Behavior ............................................................................................................................................................... 7-23
7.4.5.2 Minimum Post-Tensioning Requirement ..................................................................................................................... 7-23
7.4.5.3 Concrete Overlay Alternative ............................................................................................................................................. 7-23
7.5 REFINED ANALYSIS METHODS ........................................................................................................................................................... 7-24
7.5.1 Introduction and Background .................................................................................................................................................... 7-24
7.5.2 The Economic Perspective ........................................................................................................................................................... 7-24
7.5.2.1 Moment Reductions ............................................................................................................................................................... 7-24
7.5.2.2 Increasing Span Capability .................................................................................................................................................. 7-24
7.5.3 St. Venant Torsional Constant J .................................................................................................................................................. 7-24
7.5.4 Related Publications........................................................................................................................................................................ 7-25
7.5.5 Modeling Guidelines ........................................................................................................................................................................ 7-25
7.5.6 Finite Element Study for Moment Distribution Factors .................................................................................................. 7-25
7.6 FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................................................................................. 7-26
7.7 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 7-26

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
Notation

NOTATION
A = area of stringer or beam [LRFD]
Ao = area enclosed by centerlines of elements (walls) [LRFD]
BR = vehicular braking force [LRFD]
b = width of beam [LRFD]
C = stiffness parameter
CE = vehicular centrifugal force [LRFD]
CR = force effects due to creep [LRFD]
CT = vehicular collision force [LRFD]
CV = vessel collision force [LRFD]
c1 = constant related to skew factor
D = width of distribution per lane [LRFD]
DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments [LRFD]
DD = downdrag force [LRFD]
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities [LRFD]
d = depth of precast concrete beam
de = horizontal distance from the centerline of the exterior web of the exterior beam at deck [LRFD]
level and interior edge of curb or traffic barrier
EH = horizontal earth pressure load [LRFD]
EL = miscellaneous locked-in force effects resulting from the construction process, including [LRFD]
jacking apart of cantilevers in segmental construction
EQ = earthquake effects [LRFD]
ES = earth surcharge load [LRFD]
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill [LRFD]
FR = friction force [LRFD]
e = correction factor [LRFD]
e = eccentricity of a lane from the center of gravity of the pattern of beams [LRFD]
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the beam and deck [LRFD]
g = distribution factor
IC = ice load [LRFD]
IM = dynamic load allowance [LRFD]
I = moment of inertia [LRFD]
J = St. Venant torsional constant
K = a nondimensional constant
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter [LRFD]
L = span of beam
LL = vehicular live load [LRFD]
LS = live load surcharge [LRFD]

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Notation

m = multiple presence factor [LRFD]

Nb = number of beams [LRFD]
NL = number of design lanes [LRFD]
n = modular ratio between beam and deck material [LRFD]
PL = pedestrian live load [LRFD]
PS = secondary forces from post-tensioning [LRFD]
Q = total factored load [LRFD]
Qi = load effects
qi = specified loads
R = reaction on exterior beam in terms of lanes
Rn = nominal resistance
S = center-to-center beam spacing
SE = force effects due to settlement [LRFD]
SH = force effects due to shrinkage [LRFD]
s = length of a side element
TG = force effects due to temperature gradient [LRFD]
TU = force effects due to uniform temperature [LRFD]
t = thickness of a side element
ts = depth of concrete slab [LRFD]
V = distance between axles
W = edge-to-edge width of bridge [LRFD]
WS = wind load on structure [LRFD]
WA = water load and stream pressure [LRFD]
WL = wind load on live load [LRFD]
Xext = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of beams to the exterior [LRFD]
beam
x = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of beams to each beam [LRFD]
γi = load factors specified in Tables 7.3-1, 7.3-2, and 7.3-3
η = variable load modifier that depends on ductility, redundancy and operational [LRFD]
classification
θ = skew angle [LRFD]
μ = Poisson’s ratio, usually assumed equal to 0.20
ϕ = capacity reduction or resistance factor [LRFD]

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.0 Introduction/7.0.1 Reliability Analysis

Load, Load Factors, and Load Distribution

7.0 INTRODUCTION
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials’ AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications (LFRD Specifications) was first published in 1994 and gradually replaced the previous AASHTO
design document known as the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridge (Standard Specifications) (AASHTO,
2002). It became the required design document for bridges to be constructed with federal funding in 2007 after
the final version of the AASHTO Standard Specifications was published in 2002 (Mertz, 2008).
The design provisions in the LRFD Specifications employ the Load and Resistance Factor Methodology, which is a
reliability-based methodology in which the force effects caused by factored loads are not permitted to exceed the
factored resistance of the components (AASHTO, 2020). Section 3 of the LRFD Specifications describes the loads,
load combinations, and load factors to determine the force effects. Section 5 provides the procedures to calculate
the resistance and resistance factors of the concrete components. Load factors are statistically based multipliers
applied to the force effects to account primarily for the variation of loads, lack of accuracy in analysis, and the
probability of the simultaneous occurrence of different loads. They are related to the statistics of the resistance
through a calibration process called a reliability analysis.
Bridges must also be proportioned and detailed to ensure the development of significant and visible inelastic
deformations before failure; a concept frequently called “ductility” and defined in Section 7.0.4 of this chapter.
The LRFD Specifications also encourage that bridges have redundant features.

7.0.1 Reliability Analysis

The goal of the reliability analysis is to establish load factors, in combination with resistance factors, to provide a
consistent reliability index or level of safety associated with a probability of failure. The target reliability index for
the Strength Limit State in the LRFD Specifications is 3.5, which corresponds to a probability of failure of 2 in
10,000. This rate of failure was selected for the LRFD Specifications based on analysis of a sample of bridges
designed using the methodology of the Standard Specifications (Mertz, 2008).
The reliability analysis may be performed for the limit states of service, fatigue, strength, and extreme event,
where, according to the LRFD specifications, a limit state is defined as “a condition beyond which the bridge or
component ceases to satisfy the provisions for which it was designed.” Note that each limit state has more than
one load combination to address different design situations.
The overall result of these limit states is a matrix of load factors for each limit state. These are tabulated later in
this chapter. However, some limit states are only specific to either concrete bridges or steel bridges. Note that
limit states are often described as the “load side” of the equation, referring to Eq. 1.3.2.1-1of the LRFD
Specifications.
The first calibration report for the load factors in the LRFD Specifications was written in 1991 and approved with
the fourth draft of the specifications in 1993, although the report was not published until 1999 (Nowak, 1999).
The report recommended both load and resistance factors applicable for the strength limit state. The reliability
analysis, however, was performed based on the Standard Specifications (1989 edition). Subsequently, several
changes were made in the recommendations before the first edition of the LRFD Specifications was published. A
follow-up report from the Strategic Highway Research Program documented the effect of these changes (Kulicki
et al., 2007). A calibration report for the Service Limit State, published in 2014, resulted in revised live load
factors for design of prestressed concrete beams (Wassef et al., 2014). This topic is discussed in more detail in
Chapter 8.

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.0.2 Limit States/7.0.4 Redundancy and Ductility

7.0.2 Limit States

7.0.2.1 Strength Limit State
The five load combinations of the Strength Limit State are used to ensure that strength and stability are provided
to resist the specified load combinations that a bridge is expected to experience in its design life. Load factors for
the primary loads, such as dead loads and live loads are generally greater than 1.0.

7.0.2.2 Extreme Event Limit State

The two load combinations of the Extreme Event Limit State are used to ensure the structural survival of the
bridge during a severe and unusual event such as an earthquake, vehicle collision, or ship collision. Load factors
for this limit state generally have a value of 1.0.

7.0.2.3 Service Limit State

The four load combinations of the Service Limit State restrict stresses, deformations, and crack widths under
regular service conditions. For this limit state, the load factor is typically 1.0 except for Service III Limit State,
where a value of 0.8 may be used under certain conditions. The selection of the live load factor for Service III Limit
State is discussed further in Chapter 8.

7.0.2.4 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State

The two load combinations of the Fatigue and Fracture Limit State restrict stress ranges to prevent fatigue
fracture of members. Fatigue is generally less critical for prestressed concrete bridges than for steel bridges and
may be neglected in some cases. The background to the Fatigue and Fracture Limit State is provided by Mertz
(2011a; 2011b).

7.0.3 Resistance Factors

As explained in the LRFD Specifications, resistance factors are statistically based multipliers applied to the
nominal resistance. Resistance accounts primarily for variability of material properties, structural dimensions
and workmanship, as well as uncertainty in the prediction of resistance. They are also related to the statistics of
the loads through the calibration process. Resistance factors generally have a value not exceeding 1.0. Article
C5.5.4.2 of the LRFD Specifications explains that the resistance factor (0.75) used for compression-controlled
sections is lower than the resistance factor used for tensioned-controlled sections (0.9 or 1.0) because
compression-controlled sections have less ductility, are more sensitive to variations in concrete strength, and
generally occur in members that support larger loaded areas than members with tension-controlled sections.
Resistance factors are part of the “resistance side” of the equation.

7.0.4 Redundancy and Ductility

An important attribute of concrete bridges relates to their redundancy. Redundancy can be defined as the ability
of a concrete bridge at either its system level or the component level to develop alternate load paths at the
strength limit state or under extreme loads.
At its most basic level, redundancy can be described by the level of indeterminacy present in a structure. The level
of structural indeterminacy controls the behavior of a structure as it is gradually loaded to failure. As discussed by
Bayrak (2020; 2021a; 2021b), formation of multiple plastic hinges and internal redistribution of forces is needed
in typical concrete bridges ranging from the simplest to the most complex bridge types. The presence of multiple
load paths gives concrete bridges ample opportunity to transfer design loads to the foundations. At service load
levels, with limited cracking, concrete bridges behave in an elastic manner. That is to say, load sharing among
various structural components can be quantified by analyzing the stiffness of various structural components that
are contributing to the overall structural stiffness. At load levels well past service load levels, concrete cracks,
nonprestressed or prestressed reinforcement may yield, and internal redistribution of forces takes place. At these
extreme and often imaginary load levels or design scenarios, different load paths may be invoked by the concrete
superstructure or substructure, or by both the superstructure and substructure. Stiffer members will attract
more load and less-stiff or softening members will shed their loads to neighboring structural or nonstructural
members (e.g., bridge rails). This illustrates the load path redundancy that is inherent in typical concrete bridge
types and associated structural systems.

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7.0.4 Redundancy and Ductility/7.1 Scope

Internal redundancy is another layer of protection that typical concrete bridges possess. Reinforced and
prestressed concrete components designed and detailed to comply with the LRFD Specifications possess a
significant amount of internal stress redistribution capability (internal redundancy). For example, in a
substructure element, a large margin exists from the formation the first structural crack to the distribution of
structural cracks to facilitate the formation of a “fully plastic member” and the associated truss mechanism used
in its structural design. The presence of this large margin is the net result of the inherent internal redundancy
built into every member in a concrete bridge.
The LRFD Specifications define ductility as the property of a component or connection that allows inelastic
response. Ductility is essential to achieve structural redundancy and to provide adequate warning of potential
failure of a bridge member. The warning may be provided by excessive deflection or excessive cracking. In
concrete bridges, ductility is provided by the appropriate use of nonprestressed reinforcement and prestressing
strand. However, the amount of required ductility is somewhat subjective (Bayrak, 2021a).
In flexural members, ductility is partially attributed to the ductile behavior (yielding) of the nonprestressed and
prestressed steel reinforcement. There are, however, commercially available reinforcing materials that have less
ductility than steel reinforcement, although they have similar or greater tensile strengths than conventional steel
reinforcement. The use of these materials in structural members can still produce sufficient deflection or section
rotation to satisfy the definition of ductility in the LRFD Specifications. The use of lower resistance factors with
these materials is one approach that has been adopted to provide a greater reliability so that the strength of these
materials will not be exceeded in service (Abdeldjelil et al., 2019). The effect of new materials on bridge behavior
is further discussed by Bayrak (2021b).

7.0.5 Design Life or Service Life

Confusion exists among bridge owners and designers regarding the terms “design life” and “service life” as
evidenced by the fact that the two are often used interchangeably. As explained by Mertz and Wasserman (2017),
Article 1.2 of the LRFD Specifications defines the terms as follows:
• Design life—“Period of time on which the statistical derivation of transient loads is based” (75 years for
the LRFD Specifications)
• Service life—“The period of time that the bridge is expected to be in operation”
The definition of design life clearly delineates the intent of the specifications: Bridges designed in accordance with
the LRFD Specifications should be able to resist the transient loads identified therein, projected over a 75-year
period (the design life) with the uncertainty associated with its calibration. In other words, the probability of a
member “failing” because the applied loads exceed the member’s capacity at the strength limit state in a 75-year
period is 2 in 10,000, corresponding to the target reliability index β of 3.5 (Mertz and Wasserman, 2017).
In contrast, the definition of service life is clearly not related to the design life or the probabilities associated with
design life. Service life is simply an expected period of operation. Thus, the LRFD Specifications were not intended
to result in bridges with a 75-year service life (or any other period) with any certainty. Indeed, the probability of a
bridge designed in accordance with the LRFD Specifications reaching a certain service life is unknown (Mertz and
Wasserman, 2017).

7.1 SCOPE
One main task in bridge design is to collect information on the various permanent and transient loads that may
act on a bridge, as well as on how these forces are distributed to the various structural components. This chapter
presents the load and load distribution provisions of the LRFD Specifications. The in-depth discussions will be
limited to live load and its distribution to precast, prestressed concrete superstructure systems. Detailed
discussion of other load effects, such as seismic forces and soil pressures, are covered in other chapters of the
manual. Although LRFD Specifications form a consistent set of guidelines for bridge design, the engineer should be
aware that many state departments of transportation (DOTs) have additional requirements for loads, load
distribution, or load combinations. Such requirements are not discussed in this chapter.
This chapter is based on the provisions of the LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 9th Edition, 2020.

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7.2 Load Types/7.2.2.1.2 Multiple Presence of Live Load

7.2 LOAD TYPES

In the design of bridge structure components, the engineer should consider all loads that the component must
resist. These forces may vary depending on duration (permanent or transient), direction (vertical, transverse,
longitudinal, etc.), and deformation (thermal, shrinkage, and creep). Furthermore, the type of effect (bending,
shear, axial, etc.) will sometimes influence the magnitude of such forces. A brief description of these forces is
detailed in this section.

7.2.1 Permanent Loads

These loads are sustained by the bridge throughout its life. In general, permanent loads may be subdivided into
the following categories.

7.2.1.1 Dead Loads

One of the first tasks in superstructure design is to identify all elements contributing to loads on the beams before
composite deck concrete, if any, has cured. (Some concrete decks are designed to remain noncomposite.) These
noncomposite dead loads include the weight of the beams, deck slab, haunch, stay-in-place forms, and
diaphragms.

7.2.1.2 Superimposed Dead Loads

All permanent loads placed on the superstructure after deck curing is completed are usually designated
superimposed dead loads. These loads include the wearing surface, parapets, railings, sidewalk, utilities, and
signage. In the LRFD Specifications, the load factors for wearing surface and utilities are higher than those for
other dead loads to recognize the increased variability of these loads.

7.2.1.3 Earth Pressures

Earth pressures, which primarily affect substructure elements, are usually considered permanent loads. However,
they may occasionally affect the superstructure elements at locations where substructure and superstructure
interface (e.g., abutment backwall). Detailed equations are listed in the LRFD Specifications. Generally, these
pressures do not affect superstructure design.

7.2.1.4 Superimposed Deformations

Superimposed deformations are permanent loads that vary over a long time period. They include volume changes
from post-tensioning, and force effects due to creep and shrinkage.

7.2.2 Live Loads

7.2.2.1 Gravity Vehicular Live Load

7.2.2.1.1 Number of Design Lanes

Unless otherwise specified, the number of design lanes should be determined by dividing the integer part of the
roadway width in feet between barriers or curbs by 12.0. The loads are assumed to occupy 10.0 ft transversely
within a design lane.

7.2.2.1.2 Multiple Presence of Live Load

In view of the improbability of coincident maximum loading in all lanes, Article 3.6.1.1.2 of the LRFD
Specifications provides a multiple presence factor m, which applies when using the refined method (LRFD
Specifications Articles 4.4 and 4.6.3) or the lever rule for distribution of live load. When considering one loaded
lane, the multiple presence factor must be used. For three or more loaded lanes, the multiple presence factor is
optional. The maximum live load force effect is determined by considering each possible combination of number
of loaded lanes multiplied by the corresponding factor as follows:
One loaded lane m = 1.20
Two loaded lanes m = 1.00
Three loaded lanes m = 0.85
Four (or more) loaded lanes m = 0.65

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7.2.2.1.2 Multiple Presence of Live Load/7.2.2.1.3 Design Vehicular Live Load – LRFD Specifications

The multiple presence factors are not to be used with the approximate load assignment methods of Articles
4.6.2.2 and 4.6.2.3 of the LRFD Specifications because these factors are already incorporated in the distribution
factors for both single and multiple lanes loaded.

7.2.2.1.3 Design Vehicular Live Load―LRFD Specifications [LRFD Art. 3.6]

According to Article 3.6 of the LRFD Specifications, the vehicular live loading on bridges, designated as HL-93,
consists of a combination of the following:
• Design truck or design tandem, and
• Design lane load

The design truck is the HS20 vehicle previously used in the Standard Specifications, (Fig. 7.2.2.1.3-1). The design
tandem consists of a pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced 4.0 ft apart. In either case, the transverse spacing of wheels is
taken as 6.0 ft. The design lane load consists of a uniform load of 0.64 kip/ft in the longitudinal direction. It is
distributed transversely over a 10.0 ft width.
The force effect for the vehicular live load is the larger of the following:
• The effect of one design tandem combined with the design lane load,
or
• The effect of one design truck with the variable axle spacing combined with the design lane load,
and
• For continuous members, for negative moment between points of dead load contraflexure and reaction at
interior piers only: The combination of 90% of the effect of two design trucks (spaced a minimum of 50.0
ft between the lead axle of one and the rear axle of the other truck) with 90% of the effect of the design
lane load. The distance between the 32.0-kip axles of each truck is taken as 14.0 ft. The two design trucks
must be placed in adjacent spans to produce maximum force effects.
Figure 7.2.2.1.3-1
LRFD Design Vehicular Live Loads (HL-93) and Fatigue Load

8 kip 32 kip 32 kip 25 kip

V = Variable spacing—14 to 30 ft inclusive. (Use

spacing that produces maximum stresses.)

Uniform Load: 0.64 kip per linear foot of load lane

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7.2.2.1.3 Design Vehicular Live Load – LRFD Specifications/7.2.2.1.5 Fatigue Load

Figure 7.2.2.1.3-1 (cont.)

LRFD Design Vehicular Live Loads (HL-93) and Fatigue Load

8 kip 32 kip 32 kip

Axles that do not contribute to the force effect under consideration are neglected. Both the design lanes and the
position of the 10.0 ft loaded width in each lane is positioned to produce maximum force effects. The design truck
or tandem is positioned transversely so that the center of any wheel load is not closer than 2.0 ft from the edge of
the design lane when designing beams.
Unless otherwise specified, the lengths of design lanes, or parts thereof, that contribute to the force effect under
consideration are loaded with the design lane load. Only those portions of the span that contribute to maximizing
the force effect should be loaded. Influence lines can be used to determine those portions of the span that should
be loaded for maximum effect.

7.2.2.1.4 Dynamic Load Allowance

In Article 3.6.2 of the LRFD Specifications, the static effects of the design truck or tandem are multiplied by (1
+ IM), where IM is the dynamic load allowance as given for different bridge components below:
Deck joints: All Limit States 75%
(0.75)
All other components:
[LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]
Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%
(0.15)
All other Limit States 33%
(0.33)

This dynamic allowance is not applied to the design lane load or to pedestrian loads.
Previously in the Standard Specifications, dynamic load allowance was called “impact.”

7.2.2.1.5 Fatigue Load

In the LRFD Specifications, there is a provision for a single fatigue truck (Fig. 7.2.2.1.3-1), but with a constant
spacing of 30.0 ft between the 32.0-kip axles. The applicable dynamic load allowance is 15%. When the bridge is
analyzed using approximate methods as specified in Article 4.6.2 of the LRFD Specifications, the distribution factor
for one traffic lane is to be used and the force effect is to be divided by 1.20 (except if the lever rule is used).

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7.2.2.2 Other Vehicular Forces/7.2.3.2 Ice Forces

7.2.2.2 Other Vehicular Forces

7.2.2.2.1 Longitudinal Braking Forces [LFRD Art. 3.6.4]

Longitudinal braking forces result from vehicles accelerating or braking while traveling over a bridge. Forces are
transferred from the wheels to the deck surface.
The braking forces, BR, are taken as the greater of:
• 25% of the axle weights of the truck or tandem
• 5% of the truck plus lane load
• 5% of the tandem plus lane load
The braking force is placed in all lanes carrying traffic headed in the same direction. The multiple presence factor,
m, is applicable here. The BR forces are assumed to act horizontally at a height of 6.0 ft above the roadway surface
in either longitudinal direction to cause maximum force effects. However, because moment cannot be transferred
from this 6 ft level to the bridge deck through the vehicle’s tires, this provision has no practical impact on the
design of prestressed concrete bridge superstructures.

7.2.2.2.2 Centrifugal Forces [LFRD Art. 3.6.3]

The effect of centrifugal forces must be considered for bridge structures on horizontal curves. The ratio of these
forces to the truck (or tandem) axle loads is proportional to the square of the design speed and inversely
proportional to the curve radius. These forces are applied at 6.0 ft above the roadway surface. Usually, concrete
decks resist centrifugal forces within their own plane and transmit them to the substructure through end
diaphragms. Similar to the braking forces, centrifugal forces have little practical impact on the design of
prestressed concrete superstructures.

7.2.2.2.3 Vehicular Collision Forces [LFRD Art. 3.6.5]

Vehicular collision forces must be considered whenever piers or abutments are not adequately protected to
prevent vehicle or railway collisions and for the design of barriers.

7.2.2.3 Pedestrian Loads [LFRD Art. 3.6.1.6]

In Article 3.6.1.6 of the LRFD Specifications, a load of 0.075 ksf is applied to all sidewalks wider than 2.0 ft and
must be considered with the vehicular live load. For bridges carrying only pedestrian and/or bicycle traffic, use
the AASHTO LRFD Guide Specifications for the Design of Pedestrian Bridges (AASHTO, 2015) and the live load is set
at 0.090 ksf.

7.2.3 Water and Stream Loads

Water and stream loads primarily affect substructure elements and are due to water course–related
characteristics. Static water pressure is assumed perpendicular to the surface that is retaining the water, whereas
buoyancy is an uplift force acting on all submerged components.

7.2.3.1 Stream Forces and Wave Loads

Stream flow pressure affects the design of piers or supports located in water courses (Article 3.7.3, LRFD
Specifications). The average pressure of flowing water on a pier is proportional to the square of water velocity, to
the drag coefficient for specific pier geometry, and to the projected pier surface exposed to the design flood.
Buoyancy shall be considered for all elements below design water level (Article 3.7.2). Wave action shall be
considered for structures exposed to significant forces (Article 3.7.4).

7.2.3.2 Ice Forces

Floating ice sheets and ice floes on streams cause major dynamic (and static) forces to act on piers in cold-
weather climates. If clearance is low, the superstructure may also be affected, often with severe damage. Usually,
the dynamic force on a pier is a function of ice thickness, ice strength, pier width, and inclination of the nose to
vertical. Article 3.9 of the LRFD Specifications contains detailed equations and factors for calculation of stream
flow and floating ice loads on piers and supports.

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7.2.4 Wind Loads/7.3 Load Combinations And Design Methods

7.2.4 Wind Loads [LFRD Art. 3.8]

Wind is a dynamic load. However, in Article 3.8 of the LRFD Specifications, it is generally approximated as a
uniformly distributed static load on the exposed area of a bridge. This area is taken as the combined surfaces of
both superstructure and substructure as seen in elevation (orthogonal to the assumed wind direction). AASHTO
loads are based on 3-second-gust wind speed. The specifications also requires varying the wind load direction to
determine maximum force effects, and the consideration of a vertical upward force acting on the deck (especially
when checking overturning of the bridge).
The LRFD Specifications allows some simplifications. For typical girder and slab bridges having an individual span
length of not more than 150 ft and a maximum height of 33.0 ft above low ground or water level, the following wind
loading on live load (vehicles) may be used:
• 0.10 klf, transverse
• 0.04 klf, longitudinal
Both forces must be applied simultaneously.

7.2.5 Earthquake Loads and Effects

These temporary natural forces are assumed to act primarily in the horizontal direction and are dependent on the
geographic location of the bridge, the structure dead weight (mass), the ground motion (duration and
acceleration), the period of the structural system, and the type of soil. In some cases, a vertical component of
acceleration may have to be considered because of bridge type, bridge importance, owner’s requirements, or
other concerns. These factors enter into the seismic analysis, which is a simplification of the actual effects of an
earthquake. The bridge response assumes the form of an equivalent static load that is applied to the structure to
calculate forces and deformations of bridge elements.
For most pretensioned structures, where the superstructure is not integral with the substructure, earthquake
forces do not affect beam design. See Chapter 15 of this manual for additional information about seismic design of
prestressed beam bridges.

7.2.6 Forces Due to Imposed Deformations

These effects include temperature, creep, and differential settlement. The LRFD Specifications offer some general
guidelines. Normally, the difference between the base construction temperature and the temperature range limits
in a region is used to calculate thermal deformation effects for complex concrete box structures. Nearly all
engineers neglect the effects of temperature gradient in pretensioned multibeam bridges. This practice of
ignoring thermal gradient for pretensioned multibeam bridges has been used for many years with no sign of
adverse effects. For other types of bridges, the engineer should use judgment and experience in deciding whether
to consider the effects of temperature gradient. Where appropriate, the effects of differential settlements should
be considered.

7.3 LOAD COMBINATIONS AND DESIGN METHODS

Vehicle live loads may act on a bridge simultaneously with other live loads. The design engineer is responsible for
determining how to size and reinforce the structural components to safely resist the possible combinations of
loads that may act on a bridge. Therefore, the LRFD Specifications contains load combinations, subdivided into
various groups, which represent probable simultaneous loadings on the structure. In theory, all structural
elements should be designed to resist all groups of loads. In practice, many of the load combinations do not
control the design of a typical pretensioned girder. The method of design in the LRFD Specifications employs the
LRFD equation specifying that the factored resistance must equal or exceed the factored load for all limit states.
The nominal resistance of a member, Rn, is computed using procedures given in the specifications. This value is
then modified by a resistance factor, ɸ, appropriate for the specific conditions of design to obtain the provided
strength. The load effects, Qi, are usually calculated using conventional elastic analysis procedures. These are then
modified by the specified load factors, γi, to obtain the required strength. In a concise form, the LRFD equation can
be expressed as follows:

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.3 Load Combinations And Design Methods

ɸRn ≥ ΣγiQi (Eq. 7.3-1)

where Qi = load effects

The total factored load, Q, is given by:
Q = ηΣγiqi (Eq. 7.3-2)
where
η = variable load modifier which depends on ductility, redundancy and operational classification. Its
value is often set by state DOTs
qi = specified loads
γi = load factors specified in Tables 7.3-1, 7.3-2, 7.3-3, and 7.3-4

Table 7.3-1
Load Combinations and Load Factors from AASHTO LRFD Table 3.4.1-1
Load DC
Combination
Use One of These at a Time
DD
DW
EH
EV LL
ES IM
EL CE
PS BR
CR PL
Limit State SH LS WA WS WL FR TU TG SE EQ BL IC CT CV
STRENGTH-I γp 1.75 1.00 ― ― 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE ― ― ― ―
STRENGTH-II γp 1.35 1.00 ― ― 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE ― ― ― ―
STRENGTH-III γp ― 1.00 1.00 ― 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE ― ― ― ―
STRENGTH-IV γp ― 1.00 ― ― 1.00 0.50/1.20 ― ― ― ― ― ―
STRENGTH-V γp 1.35 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE ― ― ― ―
EXTREME 1.00 γEQ 1.00 ― ― 1.00 ― ― ― 1.00 ― ― ―
EVENT-I
EXTREME 1.00 0.50 1.00 ― ― 1.00 ― ― ― ― 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
EVENT-II
SERVICE-I 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE ― ― ― ―
SERVICE-II 1.00 1.30 1.00 ― ― 1.00 1.00/1.20 ― ― ― ― ― ―
SERVICE-III 1.00 γLL 1.00 ― ― 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE ― ― ― ―
SERVICE-IV 1.00 ― 1.00 1.00 ― 1.00 1.00/1.20 ― 1.0 ― ― ― ―
FATIGUE I―LL,
― 1.75 ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ―
IM & CE only
FATIGUE II―LL,
― 0.80 ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ―
IM & CE only
Notations used in this table are defined at the end of these tables.
For notes on γLL, γp, γEQ, γTG and γSE, refer to the LRFD Specifications.

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.3 Load Combinations And Design Methods

Table 7.3-2
[LRFD Table 3.4.1-2]
Load Factors for Permanent Loads, γp
Load Factor
Type of Load
Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
DC: Strength IV Only 1.50 0.90
DD: Downdrag Piles, α-
Tomlinson 1.40 0.25
Method
Piles, λ-Method 1.05 0.30
Drilled Shafts.
O’Neill and 1.25 0.35
Reese Method
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
• Active 1.50 0.90
• At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in Construction Stresses 1.00 1.00
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
• Overall Stability 1.00 N/A
• Retaining Walls and Abutments 1.35 1.00
• Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
• Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75
The above is excerpted from LRFD Table 3.4.1-2

Table 7.3-3
Load Factors for Permanent Loads due to Superimposed [LRFD Table 3.4.1-3]
Deformations, γp
Bridge Component PS CR, SH
Superstructures―Segmental 1.0 See γp for DC, Table 7.3-2
Concrete Substructures supporting Segmental
Superstructures (see LRFD Articles 3.12.4 and
3.12.5)
Concrete Superstructures―non-segmental 1.0 1.0
Substructures supporting non-segmental
Superstructures
• using Ig 0.5 0.5
• using Ieffective 1.0 1.0
Steel Substructures 1.0 1.0

Table 7.3-4
[LRFD Table 3.4.1-4]
Load Factors for Live Load for Service III Load Combination, γ LL
Component γLL
Prestressed concrete components designed using the refined
estimates of time-dependent losses as specified in Article 5.9.3.4 in 1.0
conjunction with taking advantage of the elastic gain
All other prestressed concrete components 0.8

The two values for γLL in Table 7.3-4 are based on a calibration study performed by Wassef et al. (2014). The
report confirms that the reliability factor for the Strength Limit State is 3.5 and that the design specifications will

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.3 Load Combinations And Design Methods

produce designs that are safe, reliable, and strong. At the same time, the report demonstrates that the continued
use of 0.8 as the Service III live load factor will produce bridge designs that are unlikely to crack under the
loadings that are represented by the weigh-in-motion data collected as part of their survey. The research also
shows that with refined estimates of losses per Article 5.9.3.4 of the LRFD Specifications, the reliability factor is
reduced when measured against cracking or against a tensile stress limit. However, the changes in the reliability
factor are small (from 1.41 to 1.10) based on an average annual daily traffic of 5,000 when comparing the
“existing bridge” database to the “redesigned” database with Service III Live Load Factor of 1.0. The numbers
seem to indicate a 3% greater chance that the tensile stress limit of 0.19√fc' will be exceeded when using the
Service III Live Load Factor of 0.8 compared to 1.0.
The calibration report does not incorporate several important design parameters as statistical variables. These
parameters include the treatment of the dynamic load allowance (impact factor), the distribution factors for
exterior girders, and the axle spacings of measured weigh-in-motion data that expresses the gross vehicle weight
as a random variable. The calibration report also documents that the vast majority of cracking in pretensioned
girders occurs in the end regions. Of the transportation agencies that reported cracking immediately after
prestress release, 94% of these cracks occur at the end regions. For cracking that was observed in service, 69% of
the cracking occurred near the ends of the beams. Furthermore, only 7% of the reported cracks were flexural
cracks. So, engineers and owners designing with the LRFD Specifications published in 2014 or later can expect the
1.0 Service III live load factor to result in more prestressing strands and larger prestressing forces compared to
designs carried out using LRFD Specifications issued between 2005 and 2014. Engineers and owners should
expect that the level of prestressing for AASHTO LRFD 2014 designs to be on par with designs using the Standard
Specifications and LRFD Specifications prior to 2005. The increase in number of strands and larger prestressing
forces may contribute to increased incidence of cracking in end regions of prestressed concrete beams.
Components (and connections) of a bridge structure must satisfy the applicable combinations of factored
maximum force effects as specified at each of the limit states. The following load designations are used:
• Permanent Loads
CR = force effects due to creep EH = horizontal earth pressure load
DD = downdrag ES = earth surcharge load
DC = dead load of structural components EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
and nonstructural attachments PS = secondary forces from post-tensioning
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and SH = force effects due to shrinkage
utilities
EL = accumulated locked-in force effects
resulting from the construction
process, including the secondary forces
from post-tensioning

• Transient Loads
BL = blast loading LL = vehicular live load
BR = vehicular braking force LS = live load surcharge
CE = vehicular centrifugal force PL = pedestrian live load
CT = vehicular collision force SE = settlement
CV = vessel collision force TG = temperature gradient
EQ = earthquake effects TU = uniform temperature
FR = friction force WA = water load and stream pressure
IC = ice load WL = wind on live load
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance WS = wind load on structure

As has always been the case, the owner or designer may determine that not all of the loads in a given load
combination apply to the situation being investigated. The various applicable load factors are in Tables 7.3-1, 7.3-
2, 7.3-3, and 7.3-4. The minimum load factors are especially important in the negative moment regions of
continuous beams.

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.3 Load Combinations And Design Methods

The factors must be selected to produce the total maximum factored force effect. For each load combination, both
positive and negative extremes must be investigated. In load combinations where one force effect decreases the
effect of another, the minimum value is applied to the load reducing the force effect. For permanent force effects,
the load factor (maximum or minimum) that produces the more critical combination is selected from Table 7.3-2
or 7.3-3.
The design of pretensioned superstructure beams using the LRFD Specifications usually consists of satisfying the
requirements of Service I, Service III, and Strength I load combinations. Use of the HL-93 live load, which is larger
than the live load used in the Standard Specifications, for working stress design of prestressed concrete members
would result in overly conservative designs. Also, because no significant cracking has been observed in existing
bridges that were designed for the relatively lower loads of the Standard Specifications, the Service III load
combination was introduced. Service III specifies a load factor of 0.80 to reduce the effect of live load at the
service limit state. This combination is only applicable when checking tensile stress limits in prestressed concrete
superstructure members. Service I is used when checking compressive and tensile stresses at the Service Limit
State. The load combination Strength I is used for design at the Strength Limit State. Other load combinations for
the Strength and Extreme Event Limit States are not considered here, but they may be required by specific
agencies or DOTs—such as Strength II combination for permit vehicles.
The various load combinations applicable to prestressed beams and substructures (Service IV) and shown in
Table 7.3-1 are described as follows:
STRENGTH I ― Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the bridge without wind.
STRENGTH II ― Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by permit vehicles without wind. If a
permit vehicle is traveling unescorted, or if control is not provided by the escorts, the
other lanes may be assumed to be occupied by the vehicular live load herein specified.
For bridges longer than the permit vehicle, addition of the lane load, preceding and
following the permit load in its lane, should be considered.
STRENGTH IV Load combination emphasizing dead load force effects in bridge superstructures. It
controls over Strength I for components with dead load to live load ratio exceeding 7.0.
SERVICE I ― Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge with 70 mph
wind. All loads are taken at their nominal values and extreme load conditions are
excluded. Compression in prestressed concrete components and tension in prestressed
bent caps is investigated using this load combination.
SERVICE III ― Load combination for longitudinal analysis relating to prestressed concrete
superstructures with the primary objective of crack control. Tensile stress in
prestressed concrete superstructure members is investigated using this load
combination.
SERVICE IV ― Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed concrete columns with the
primary objective of crack control. Tensile stress in prestressed concrete substructure
members is investigated using this load combination.
FATIGUE I ― Fatigue and fracture load combination related to infinite load-induced fatigue life.
FATIGUE II ― Fatigue and fracture load combination related to finite load-induced fatigue life.
EXTREME Load combination including earthquake.
EVENT I
EXTREME Load combination relating to ice load, collision by vessels and vehicles, floods, and
EVENT II certain hydraulic events.

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.4 Simplified Distribution Methods/7.4.1 Background

7.4 SIMPLIFIED DISTRIBUTION METHODS

The following sections focus on precast, prestressed concrete bridges using box-, I-, bulb-tee or multi-stem-beam
cross sections. The majority of the live load distribution formulas in the LRFD Specifications are based on an
NCHRP project (Zokaie, 1991). However, as with any new technology, revisions and clarifications are inevitable.

7.4.1 Background
Advanced computer technology and refined procedures of analysis—such as the finite element method—
constitute the basis for development of the approximate formulas given in the LRFD Specifications. First, a large
database of more than 800 actual bridges was randomly compiled from various states to achieve national
representation. Then, average bridges were selected for each slab and beam category. Finally, refined analyses
were implemented on selected bridges from each group.
Approximate formulas were developed to capture the variation of load distribution factors with each of the
dominant geometric and material parameters. It was assumed that the effect of each parameter could be modeled
by an exponential function of the form axb where x is the value of the given parameter (span, spacing, box depth,
etc.) and b is an exponent to be defined. The final distribution factor is given in the following general format,
which is based on a multiple regression analysis:
D.F. = A + B(x)b(y)c(z)d. . . . (Eq. 7.4.1-1)
The multiple exponential procedure is practical and conservative due to the following assumptions:
• Midspan diaphragms were disregarded, thereby increasing moments in interior beams and reducing
moments in exterior beams.
• The width of the concrete parapet (1 ft 6 in. or 1 ft 9 in.) was often neglected, thereby increasing the load
distribution factors for the first two beams.
Furthermore, to ensure conservative results, the constants in the formulas were adjusted so that the ratio of the
average value computed using the approximate method to the accurate distribution factor should be in most cases
larger than 1.0.
Article 4.6.2.2 of the LRFD Specifications presents approximate live load distribution factors that may be used
when a refined method is not used. Different structure types are identified descriptively and graphically in LRFD
Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 to assist the designer in using the correct distribution factor for the structure being designed.
There are 12 structure types included in the table, eight of which use precast concrete.
Longitudinal joints connecting adjacent members are shown for five of the types of structures. If adjacent beams
are “sufficiently connected to act as a unit,” they may be considered to act monolithically. Those types without
composite structural concrete topping may require transverse post-tensioning (See Section 7.4.5 of this chapter).
The following general conditions must be satisfied for the approximate distribution factor equations to be used:
• The width of deck is constant.
• The number of beams is not less than three, four, or five, depending on the case.
• Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness.
• Unless otherwise specified, the roadway part of the overhang de does not exceed 3.0 ft.
• There are limits on girder spacings.
• There are limits on span lengths.
• Curvature in plan is less than the specified limit.
• The cross section is consistent with one of the cross-sections shown in Figure 7.4.1-1.
• For beams, other than box beams, used in multi-beam decks with shear keys:
- Deep, rigid end diaphragms are required.
- If the stem spacing of stemmed beams is less than 4.0 ft or more than 10.0 ft, a refined analysis
must be used.

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.4.1 Background

Figure 7.4.1-1
[Partial LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]
Common Deck Superstructures
SUPPORTING
COMPONENTS TYPE OF DECK TYPICAL CROSS SECTION
Closed steel or precast Cast-in-place
concrete boxes concrete slab

Open steel or precast Cast-in-place

concrete boxes concrete slab, precast
concrete deck slab

Precast solid, voided or Cast-in-place

cellular concrete boxes concrete overlay
with shear keys

Precast solid, voided or Integral concrete

cellular concrete boxes
with shear keys and
with or without
transverse post-
tensioning
Precast concrete Cast-in-place
channel sections with concrete overlay
shear keys

Precast concrete Integral concrete

double tee section with
shear keys and with or
without transverse
post-tensioning
Precast concrete tee Integral concrete
section with shear keys
and with or without
transverse post-
tensioning
Precast concrete I or Cast-in-place
bulb-tee sections concrete, precast
concrete

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.4.1 Background/7.4.2.1 I-Beams, Bult-Tee Beams, or Single- or Double- Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning

All formulas in the tables in the LRFD Specifications provide the live load distribution per lane. Where roadway
width is larger than 20 ft, the formulas for “Two or More Design Lanes Loaded” must be used for the following
limit states: Strength I, Service I, and Service III. For the Strength II Limit State, the same distribution factor may
be used. However, results can be overly conservative if the permit load is heavy. To circumvent this situation,
where it controls the design, the engineer can use a refined method as discussed in Section 7.5 of this chapter.
Finally, when checking for fatigue, the formulas for “One Design Lane Loaded” must be used. In the following
sections, two loaded lanes will be assumed.
Specific limitations for each equation are given in the tables in the LRFD Specifications. These must also be
satisfied before the equations can be used. Where bridges meet the specified conditions, permanent
superimposed loads such as parapets and wearing surface may be distributed equally between all beams in the
bridge.
The live load distribution factors specified herein may also be used for permit and rating vehicles whose overall
width is comparable to the width of the design truck.

[LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]

7.4.2 Approximate Distribution Formulas for Moments [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
(Two Lanes Loaded) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2d-1]
The following notation is used in the distribution factor equations from Article 4.6.2.2 and Tables 4.6.2.2.2b-1 and
4.6.2.2.2d-1 of the LRFD Specifications:
A = area of stringer, or beam, in.2
b = width of beam, in.
C = stiffness parameter = K(W/L)
d = depth of precast concrete beam, in.
de = horizontal distance between the centerline of the exterior web of the exterior beam at the deck level
and interior edge of curb or traffic barrier, ft
D = width of distribution per lane, ft
e = correction factor
g = distribution factor
J = St. Venant torsional constant, in.4
K = a non-dimensional constant
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter, in.4
L = span of beam, ft
Nb = number of beams
NL = number of design lanes
S = spacing of beams or webs, ft
ts = depth of concrete slab, in.
W = edge-to-edge width of bridge, ft
θ = skew angle, deg
μ = Poisson’s ratio, usually assumed equal to 0.20

The longitudinal stiffness parameter, Kg, is taken as:

Kg = n(I + Aeg2) [LRFD Eq. 4.6.2.2.1-1]
where
n = modular ratio between beam and deck materials, generally ≥ 1
I = moment of inertia of beam, in.4
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the beam and deck, in.

7.4.2.1 I-Beams, Bulb-Tee Beams, or Single- or Double-Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning
The applicable live load distribution factor equation for interior beams [Fig. 7.4.1-1, Types (i), (j), and (k)] is
presented in Eq. (7.4.2.1-1]:

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.4.2.1 I-Beams, Bult-Tee Beams, or Single- or Double- Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning/7.4.2.3 Adjacent Box Beams with
Cast-In-Place Overlay or Transverse Post-Tensioning
𝑆 0.6 𝑆 0.2 𝐾𝑔 0.1
𝑔 = 0.075 + ( ) ( ) ( 3
) (Eq. 7.4.2.1-1)
9.5 𝐿 12.0𝐿𝑡𝑠
The only practical conditions affecting applicability of this equation are that Nb must be equal to or larger than 4,
and 10,000 ≤ g ≤ 7,000,000. The latter limit may be exceeded in the case of I-beams that are at least 96 in. deep.
With the owner’s concurrence, simplifications to Eq. 7.4.2.1-1 may be used as shown in Table 7.4.2.1-1.
Table 7.4.2.1-1 [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-3]
Simplified Values for LRFD Articles 4.6.2.2.2 and 4.6.2.2.3
Equation Simplified Value
Table Reference
Parameter a e k f, g, i, j
0.1
𝐾𝑔
( ) 4.6.2.2.2b-1 1.02 1.05 1.09 ―
12.0𝐿𝑡𝑠 3
0.25
𝐾𝑔
( ) 4.6.2.2.2e-1 1.03 1.07 1.15 ―
12.0𝐿𝑡𝑠 3
0.3
12.0𝐿𝑡𝑠 3
( ) 4.6.2.2.3c-1 0.97 0.93 0.85 ―
𝐾𝑔
𝐼 4.6.2.2.2b-1, 𝑑
― ― ― 0.54 ( ) + 0.16
𝐽 4.6.2.2.3a-1 𝑏

The equation for exterior beams without midspan diaphragms is:

g = eginterior (Eq. 7.4.2.1-2)
where e = 0.77 + (de/9.1) ≥ 1.0 (Eq. 7.4.2.1-2a)

7.4.2.2 Open or Closed Precast Concrete Spread Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Deck
The live load flexural moment for interior beams [Fig. 7.4.1-1, Types (b) and (c)] may be determined by applying
the following lane fraction:
𝑆 0.6 𝑆𝑑 0.125
𝑔=( ) ( ) (Eq. 7.4.2.2-1)
6.3 12.0𝐿2
where d = depth of precast concrete beam
This formula is subject to two practical limitations: Nb ≥ 3, and 6.0 ≤ S ≤ 18.0 ft. The other geometric conditions
are usually met.
The corresponding formula for exterior beams is:
g = eginterior (Eq. 7.4.2.2-2)
where e = 0.97 + (de/28.5) (Eq. 7.4.2.2-2a)

7.4.2.3 Adjacent Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Overlay or Transverse Post-Tensioning

The applicable distribution factor equation for interior beams [Fig. 7.4.1-1, Types (f) and (g)], is given by:
𝑏 0.6 𝑏 0.2 𝐼 0.06
𝑔 = 𝑘( ) ( ) ( ) (Eq. 7.4.2.3-1)
305 12.0𝐿 𝐽
where k = 2.5(Nb)−0.2 ≥ 1.5 (Eq. 7.4.2.3-1a)
In a preliminary design situation one may assume (I/J)0.06
= 1.0. These equations are limited to box beam widths
not exceeding 5.0 ft and to span lengths, L, less than 120 ft.

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.4.2.3 Adjacent Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Overlay or Transverse Post-Tensioning/7.4.3.2 Open or Closed Precast Concrete Spread
Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Deck
The bending moment for exterior beams is determined by applying the following lane fraction:
g = eginterior (Eq. 7.4.2.3-2)
where e = 1.04 + (de/25), de ≤ 2.0 (Eq. 7.4.2.3-2a)

7.4.2.4 Channel Sections, or Box or Tee Sections Connected by “Hinges” at Interface

For interior beams, [Fig. 7.4.1-1, Types (g), (h), (i) and (j)], the applicable formula for the distribution factor,
regardless of the number of loaded lanes, is:
g = S/D (Eq. 7.4.2.4-1)
where
D = 11.5 − NL + 1.4NL(1 − 0.2C)2 when C ≤ 5 (Eq. 7.4.2.4-1a)
D = 11.5 − NL when C > 5 (Eq. 7.4.2.4-1b)
where
C = K(W/L) ≤ K (Eq. 7.4.2.4-1c)
where K = [(1 + μ)(I/J)]0.5 (Eq. 7.4.2.4-1d)
LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1 suggests values of K for preliminary design.

The specified procedure for exterior beams is simply the lever rule in conjunction with the multiple presence
factor, m (see Section 7.2.2.1.2). However, this presents some interpretation problems regarding how many lanes
should be loaded (say, 2, 3, or 4 lanes if roadway width is 48 ft or greater). Until this question is resolved, it is
prudent to at least assign the same live load distribution factor for exterior beams as for interior beams, which is
the approach used in the Standard Specifications. Furthermore, Article 2.5.2.7 in the LRFD Specifications requires
that, in general, the load-carrying capacity of an exterior beam be not less than the one for an interior beam.

7.4.3 Approximate Distribution Formulas for Shear (Two Lanes Loaded)

The live load shear for interior and exterior beams is determined by applying the lane fractions specified for the
categories below. The shear distribution factors are normally higher than the moment factors for the same cross
section and span.

7.4.3.1 I-Beams, Bulb-Tee Beams, or Single- or Double-Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning
The applicable live load distribution factor equation for interior beams, [Fig. 7.4.1-1, Types (i), (j) and (k)], is:
𝑆 𝑆 2.0
𝑔 = 0.2 + ( ) − ( ) (Eq. 7.4.3.1-1)
12 35
The only practical limitation on its applicability is Nb ≥ 4.
The corresponding equation for exterior beams without midspan diaphragm is:
g = eginterior (Eq. 7.4.3.1-2)
where e = 0.6 + (de/10) (Eq. 7.4.3.1-2a)

7.4.3.2 Open or Closed Precast Concrete Spread Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Deck
The live load shear for interior beams [Fig. 7.4.1-1, Types (b) and (c)], may be determined by applying the
following lane fraction:
𝑆 0.8 𝑑 0.1
𝑔=( ) ( ) (Eq. 7.4.3.2-1)
7.4 12.0𝐿
The formula is subject to two practical limits: Nb ≥ 3, and 6.0 ≤ S ≤ 18.0 ft. The other conditions are generally
satisfied.

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LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.4.3.2 Open or Closed Precast Concrete Spread Box Beams w/ Cast-In-Place Deck/7.4.4.1 Multipliers for Moments in Longitudinal Beams

The related equation for exterior beams is:

g = eginterior (Eq. 7.4.3.2-2)
where e = 0.8 + (de/10) (Eq. 7.4.3.2-2a)

7.4.3.3 Adjacent Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Overlay or Transverse Post-Tensioning

The applicable distribution factor equation for interior beams [Fig. 7.4.1-1, Types (f) and (g)], is:

𝑏 0.4 𝑏 0.1 𝐼 0.05 𝑏

𝑔=( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
156 12.0𝐿 𝐽 48
(Eq. 7.4.3.3-1)
𝑏
where ( ) ≥ 1.0
48
These equations are limited to box widths not exceeding 5.0 ft, to span lengths, L, less than 120 ft, and to I or J ≤
610,000 in4. The latter value may be exceeded if depth exceeds 66 in.
The shear for exterior beams is determined by applying the following lane fraction:
48 (Eq. 7.4.3.3-2)
𝑔 = 𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 ( )
𝑏
where
0.5
𝑏
𝑑𝑒 + − 2.0
𝑒 = 1+[ 12 ] ≥ 1.0
40
(Eq. 7.4.3.3-2a)
48
( ) ≤ 1.0
𝑏

7.4.3.4 Channel Sections or Box or Tee Sections Connected by “Hinges” at Interface

For interior or exterior beams [Fig. 7.4.1-1, Types (h), (i) and (j)], the lever rule in conjunction with the multiple
presence factor, m, is specified.

7.4.4 Correction Factors for Skews

Skewed beam layout is generally dictated by complex highway intersections, by the lack of space in urban areas,
or by both. When the skew angle of a bridge is small (for example, less than 20 degrees), it is often considered safe
to ignore the effects of skew and to analyze the bridge as a zero-skew bridge whose span is equal to the skew
span. This approach is generally conservative for moments in the beams, and slightly unsafe (<5%) for slab-on-
beam decks for longitudinal shears.
Table 4.6.2.2.2e-1 of the LRFD Specifications lists reduction multipliers for moments in longitudinal beams. Table
4.6.2.2.3c-1 also lists correction factors (> 1.0) applicable to the distribution factors for support shears at the
obtuse corner of exterior beams. The commentary in the LRFD Specifications reminds the designer to check the
possibility of uplift at the acute corners of large skews. Reliable multipliers and correction factors are missing for
some bridge cross sections.

7.4.4.1 Multipliers for Moments in Longitudinal Beams

Bending moments in interior and exterior beams on skewed supports may be reduced using the following
multipliers from AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2e-1:
a) I-Beam, Bulb-Tee, Single or Double Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning [Fig. 7.4.1-1, Types (i), (j)
and (k)]:
Use: 1 − c1(tanθ)1.5 (Eq. 7.4.4.1-1)
0.25 0.5
𝐾𝑔 𝑆
where 𝑐1 = 0.25 ( ) ( ) (Eq. 7.4.4.1-1a)
12.0𝐿𝑡𝑠3 𝐿

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 7
LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.4.4.1 Multipliers for Moments in Longitudinal Beams/7.4.5.3 Concrete Overlay Alternative

Set c1 = 0 when θ < 30°

Set θ = 60° when θ > 60°
b) Spread Box Beams, Adjacent Box Beams with Concrete Overlays or Transverse Post-Tensioning, and
Double Tees in Multi-Beam Decks [Fig. 7.4.1-1, Types (b), (c), (f) and (g)]:
Use: 1.05 − 0.25tanθ ≤ 1.0 (Eq. 7.4.4.1-2)
Set θ = 60° if θ > 60°

7.4.4.2 Multipliers for Support Shear at Obtuse Corners of Exterior Beams

Shears in exterior beams on the obtuse corner of the bridge may be reduced using the following multipliers from
AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3c-1:

a) I-Beam, Bulb-Tee, Single or Double Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning [Fig. 7.4.1-1, Types (i), (j)
and (k)]:
0.3
12.0𝐿𝑡𝑠3
Use: 1.0 + 0.20 ( ) tan θ (Eq. 7.4.4.2-1)
𝐾𝑔
This formula is valid for θ < 60°.
b) Spread Box Beams [Fig 7.4.1-1, Types (b) and (c)]:
𝐿𝑑 0.5 tan θ
Use: 1.0 + {( ) ( )} (Eq. 7.4.4.2-2)
12.0 6𝑆
Two practical limits apply, θ < 60° and Nb ≥ 3.
c) Adjacent Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Overlay or Transverse Post-Tensioning [Fig. 7.4.1-1, Types (f) and
(g)]:
12.0𝐿 (tan θ)0.5
Use: 1.0 + { } (Eq. 7.4.4.2-3)
90 𝑑

7.4.5 Transverse Connection of Adjacent Members

The following discussion describes provisions of the LRFD Specifications related to the transverse connections
between adjacent members.

7.4.5.1 Monolithic Behavior

As noted earlier, the LRFD Specifications indicates that adjacent beams connected by longitudinal joints may be
considered to act monolithically if they are “sufficiently connected to act as a unit.” The LRFD Specifications also
notes that transverse post-tensioning provides the best connection between adjacent beams to achieve
monolithic behavior but that a reinforced structural concrete overlay may also be used.

7.4.5.2 Minimum Post-Tensioning Requirement

Commentary Article C4.6.2.2.1 of the LRFD Specifications recommends a minimum transverse post-tensioning
stress of 0.250 ksi to make the beams act as a unit. This post-tensioning is required for service considerations to
achieve appropriate durability (Arockiasamy, et al., 1991). The 0.250 ksi stress is not needed over the entire
contact surface between beams (for example, it is not needed on the full depth of the box-beam webs), but it
should be provided where a direct transverse load path is available such as over the entire cross section of
transverse diaphragms and grouted keyways creating the top surface (see AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.1.1-1, cross
sections (g), (i), and (j)].

7.4.5.3 Concrete Overlay Alternative

Article 5.12.2.3.3f of the LRFD Specifications gives requirements for a structural concrete topping that can also be
used to achieve monolithic action, according to AASHTO LRFD Commentary Article C4.6.2.2.1.

7 - 23 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 7
LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.5 Refined Analysis Methods/7.5.3 St. Venant Torsional Constant

7.5 REFINED ANALYSIS METHODS

7.5.1 Introduction and Background
Article 4.6.3 of the LRFD Specifications allows the use of refined methods of analysis for lateral load distribution in
lieu of the tabulated simplified equations. Although the simplified equations in Section 7.4 of this manual are
based on a statistical approach, they are often conservative.

7.5.2 The Economic Perspective

The refined methods most often used to study the behavior of bridges are the grillage analysis and the finite
element methods. Finite element analysis (FEA) requires the fewest simplifying assumptions to account for the
greatest number of variables that govern the structural response of the bridge deck. However, input preparation
time, and derivation of overall forces for the composite beam are usually quite tedious. Data preparation for the
grillage method is simpler and does not require integration of stresses.

7.5.2.1 Moment Reductions

Analyses by Aswad and Chen (1994) show that using FEA may result in a reduction of the lateral load distribution
factor for moments by at least 18% for interior I-beams when compared with the simplified AASHTO LRFD
approach. The analysis for exterior I-beams and spread box beams shows a smaller but significant reduction.

7.5.2.2 Increasing Span Capability

Detailed prestress designs by Aswad (1994) show that the percentage reduction in strands and required concrete
compressive strength at transfer for interior beams is roughly one-half of the reduction in the distribution factor.
For instance, a 22% reduction of midspan moment will result in about 11% fewer strands and lower required
concrete compressive strength at transfer, or it may allow a 4% to 5% increase in span length without having to
use a deeper section. Clearly, there is a significant incentive for both the owner and the industry to use refined
methods in many future projects. The use of refined methods is especially significant for beams with higher span-
to-depth ratios.

7.5.3 St. Venant Torsional Constant J

An important step in the FEA method is the computation of the torsional constant, J, for the basic precast concrete
beam. The torsional constant of a thin-walled, hollow box section is given by the familiar formula from standard
textbooks (Hambly, 1976):
J = 4A02/Σ(s/t) (Eq. 7.5.3-1)
where
A0 = the area enclosed by centerlines of elements (walls)
s = the length of a side element
t = the thickness of that element

Article C4.6.2.2.1 in the LRFD Specifications provides an approximate equation for stocky open sections such as
prestressed concrete I-beams and T-beams. This commentary states the approximate equation has been shown to
substantially underestimate the torsional stiffness of some concrete I-beams. For this reason, the engineer should
use rational methods such as those given in the reports by Eby (1973), Yoo (2000), and Brice and Pickings (2021;
2021b). The use of formulas for open, thin sections is not appropriate.
Table 7.5.3.-1 lists St. Venant torsional constants for AASHTO I-beams computed by Brice and Pickings (2021a;
2021b) using rational methods. Brice and Pickings (2021b) also provide an extensive catalog of contemporary
girder sections.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 7
LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.5.3 St. Venant Torsional Constant/7.5.6 Finite Element Study for Moment Distribution Factors

Table 7.5.3-1
Torsional Constant J for AASHTO I-Beams
Shape J value,
in.4
Type I 4592
Type II 7621
Type III 16734
Type IV 32334
Type V 37925
Type VI 39461

Torsion is further discussed by Yoo (2000), Brice and Pickings (2021a; 2021b), and PCI Guide Document for the
Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI Committee on Bridges, 2020).

7.5.4 Related Publications

The following reports from Lehigh University are recommended:
• For I-beams: Reports by Wegmuller and Kostem (1973) and Zellin et al. (1976)
• For spread box beams: Reports by Lin and VanHorn (1968), Guilford and VanHorn (1968), VanHorn (1969),
Motarjemi and VanHorn (1969), and Chen and VanHorn (1970).

7.5.5 Modeling Guidelines

The following guidelines are suggested for refined analysis methods:
• A minimum of nine nodes per beam span is preferred.
• Aspect ratio of finite elements and grid panels should not exceed 5.0. (Note: This ratio should be reduced to
approximately 2.0 for better accuracy.)
• Nodal loads should be statically equivalent to the actual point load being applied.
• St. Venant torsional constant, J, is to be determined rationally.
• For FEA , an element should have membrane capability with sufficient discretization. Therefore, a shell
element is ideal for modeling the cast-in-place slab.
• For FEA, relative vertical distances should be maintained between various elements.
• For grillage analysis, composite properties should be used.
• For grillage analysis, only one-half of the effective flange width of the flexural section, before transformation,
should be used in computing J.

7.5.6 Finite Element Study for Moment Distribution Factors

A parametric study for distribution factors was conducted by Chen and Aswad (1996) using FEA and the ADINA
(1991) software. The number of beam elements per span was 16. There were two 4-noded shell elements
between adjacent beam lines.
The study covered 10 different I-beam superstructures with spans, L, varying between 90 and 140 ft, and
spacings, S, between 8 and 10 ft. The number of beam lines was 5, 6, or 7, and the total slab width (out-to-out) was
either 48 or 60 ft. The midspan diaphragm was separated from the cast-in-place deck slab by a 6-in.-deep gap.
The investigation also covered six various superstructures with a spacing, S, of either 8 ft 3 in. or 10 ft 6 in. and
spans L varying between 60 and 100 ft. There were either four or five beam lines. The total slab width was either
39 ft 6 in. or 41 ft 0 in., which corresponds to three design lanes.
The following bullet points summarize the findings of the study:
• Refined methods of analysis may reduce the midspan moment by 18% to 23% in the case of interior I-beams,
and by 4% to 12% for exterior I-beams when compared with the AASHTO LRFD simplified method described
in Section 7.4 of this manual.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 7
LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.5.6 Finite Element Study for Moment Distribution Factors/7.7 References

• The same FEA may reduce the midspan moment by 6% to 12% for spread box beams. However, the reduction
may reach 30% for exterior beams when midspan diaphragms are used. This is so because the LRFD
Specifications requires an exterior beam analysis that assumes an infinitely rigid diaphragm, which results in
conservative midspan moments.
• The approximate equations for computing distribution factors are generally quite conservative when the
span-to-depth ratios approach the upper limits of the span capability.
Based on this study, it is recommended that FEA or grillage analysis be used for the design of bridges with high
span-to-depth ratios because the methods allow a significant reduction in the required concrete compressive
strength at release or, alternatively, an increase in the span capability.

7.6 FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS

As the concrete bridge design and construction practice evolves to include new materials, their inclusion in design
specifications presents an intriguing challenge. For example, carbon-fiber strands and stainless steel exhibit
different stress-strain behaviors at the materials level. The use of these materials in bridge design, coupled with
appropriate strength reduction factors, is a necessity in applications where longer service lives are sought by
eliminating the potential for corrosion of the reinforcement. Another example is the use of ultra-high-
performance concrete (UHPC) in structural design. This material has a higher compressive strength, tensile
strength, and tensile ductility than conventional concrete. Whereas the tensile strength of conventional concrete
is typically, and conservatively, ignored in design, giving credit to the tensile strength of UHPC in structural design
presents an exciting opportunity.
Coupled with emerging materials is the desire to switch from member-level behavior considerations to system-
level structural behavior for the selection of appropriate strength reduction factors. At present, the LRFD
Specifications is calibrated at the member level. There are also active national research efforts that can be
classified as trials for system-level calibration. System-level calibrations are expected to provide the backbone for
building in uniform structural safety margins for concrete bridge designs that employ conventional construction
materials as well as those that invoke the use of emerging materials.

7.7 REFERENCES
1. AASHTO. 2002. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
https://store.transportation.org/Item/CollectionDetail?ID=15 (Fee).
2. AASHTO. 2015. LRFD Guide Specifications for the Design of Pedestrian Bridges, 2nd Edition with 2015 Interim
Revisions. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. 36 pp.
https://store.transportation.org/Item/PublicationDetail?ID=1552 (Fee).
3. AASHTO. 2020. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 9th Edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
https://store.transportation.org/item/collectiondetail/202 (Fee).
4. Abdeldjelil B., M. Dawood, P. Poudel, et al. 2019. Design of Concrete Bridge Beams Prestressed with CFRP
Systems, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. 75 pp. plus appendices.
https://dx.doi.org/10.17226/25582.
5. Arockiasamy, M., A. P. Badve, B. V. Rao, and D. V. Reddy. 1991. “Fatigue Strength of Joints in a Precast
Prestressed Concrete Double Tee Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V.
36, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 84-97.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01011991.84.97.
6. Aswad, A. and Y. Chen. 1994. “Impact of LRFD Specification on Load Distribution of Prestressed Concrete
Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 39, No. 5 (September-October),
pp. 78-89.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011994.78.89.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 7
LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.7 References

7. Aswad, G. 1994. Comparison of Refined and Simplified Analysis Methods for P/S Concrete I-Beam Bridge Decks.
University of Colorado at Denver, Denver, CO, M.Sc. Thesis.
8. Bayrak, O. 2020. “Perspectives on Structural Behavior and Redundancy: Structural, Load Path, and Internal
Redundancies.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Summer, pp. 11-13.
http://aspirebridge.com/magazine/2020Summer/Prespective-
PerspectivesOnStructuralBehaviorAndRedundancy.pdf.
9. Bayrak, O. 2021a. “Redundancy and Ductility for Bridge Design.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. Winter, pp. 14-18.
http://aspirebridge.com/magazine/2021Winter/Perspective-RedundancyAndDutility.pdf.
10. Bayrak, O. 2021b. “Perspective on Structural Behavior and Redundancy: Concrete Bridge Behavior and New
Materials.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Spring, pp. 16-19.
http://aspirebridge.com/magazine/2021Spring/Perspective-
PerspectivesOnStructuralBehaviorAndRedundancy.pdf.
11. Brice, R. and Pickings. R. 2021a. “Saint-Venant Torsion Constant of Modern Precast Concrete Bridge Girders.”
PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 66, No. 3 (May/June), pp. 23-31.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij66.3-01.
12. Brice, R. and Pickings. R. 2021b. “Appendix: Section Properties of Standard Precast Concrete Girders.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 66, No. 3 (May/June), pp. 66-72,
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij66.3-04.
13. Chen, Y. and A. Aswad. 1996. “Stretching Span Capability of Prestressed Concrete Bridges under AASHTO-
LRFD.” ASCE Journal of Bridge Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. Vol. 1, No. 3
(August), pp. 112-120.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0702(1996)1:3(112).
14. Chen, Y. L. and D. A. VanHorn. 1970. Structural Behavior of a Prestressed Concrete Box-Beam Bridge—Hazleton
Bridge. Report No. 315A.1. Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA.
https://preserve.lib.lehigh.edu/islandora/object/preserve:root. (Enter the document title and select the
“Title” field in Advanced Search to access the document.)
15. Eby, C. C., J. M. Kulicki, and C. N. Kostem. 1973. The Evaluation of St. Venant Torsional Constants for Prestressed
Concrete I-Beam. Report No. 400.12. Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA.
https://preserve.lib.lehigh.edu/islandora/object/preserve:root. (Enter the document title and select the
“Title” field in Advanced Search to access the document.)
16. Guilford, A. A. and D. A. VanHorn. 1968. Lateral Distribution of Vehicular Loads in a Prestressed Concrete Box-
Beam Bridge —White Haven Bridge. Report No. 315.7. Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, PA.
https://preserve.lib.lehigh.edu/islandora/object/preserve:root. (Enter the document title and select the
“Title” field in Advanced Search to access the document.)
17. Hambly, E.C. 1976. Bridge Deck Behavior, J. Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
18. Kulicki, J. M., W. G. Wassef, D. R. Mertz, et al. 2015. Bridges for Service Life Beyond 100 Years: Service Limit
State Design, SHRP 2 Report S2-R19B-RW-1. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. 509 pp.
https://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/shrp2/shrp2prepubr19b.pdf.
19. Kulicki, J. M., Z. Prucz, C. M. Clancy, et al. 2007. Updating the Calibration Report for AASHTO LRFD Code, NCHRP
Project No. 20-7/186. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
https://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/archive/notesdocs/20-07(186)_fr.pdf.
20. Lin, C. S. and D. A. VanHorn. 1968. The Effect of Midspan Diaphragms on Load Distribution in a Prestressed
Concrete Box-Beam Bridge–Philadelphia Bridge. Report No. 315.6. Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh
University, Bethlehem, PA.
https://preserve.lib.lehigh.edu/islandora/object/preserve:root. (Enter the document title and select the
“Title” field in Advanced Search to access the document.)

7 - 27 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 7
LOADS, LOAD FACTORS, AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
7.7 References

21. Mertz, D. 2008. “Safety and the LRFD Specifications.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago,
IL. Spring, p. 64.
http://aspirebridge.com/magazine/2008Spring/AASHTO_spr08.pdf.
22. Mertz, D. 2011a. “The Fatigue Limit States, Part 1.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago,
IL. Summer, p. 60.
http://aspirebridge.com/magazine/2011Summer/AASHTO_Sum11_Web.pdf.
23. Mertz, D. 2011b. “The Fatigue Limit States, Part 2.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago,
IL. Fall, p. 56.
http://aspirebridge.com/magazine/2011Fall/56_AASHTO.pdf.
24. Mertz, M. and E. P. Wasserman. 2017. “Defining the Service Life of Bridges.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Winter, pp. 10-11.
http://aspirebridge.com/magazine/2017Winter/Perspective-DefiningTheServiceLifeOfBridges.pdf.
25. Motarjemi, D. and D. A. VanHorn. 1969. Theoretical Analysis of Load Distribution in Prestressed Concrete Box-
Beam Bridges. Report No. 315.9. Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA.
https://preserve.lib.lehigh.edu/islandora/object/preserve:root. (Enter “Motarjemi” and select the “Creator”
field in Advanced Search to access the document.)
26. Nowak A. S. 1999. Calibration of LRFD Bridge Design Code, NCHRP Report 368, Transportation Research
Board, Washington, DC.
https://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_368.pdf.
27. PCI Committee on Bridges. 2020.Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam
Bridges, (CB-03-20). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. 284 pp.
https://www.pci.org/ItemDetail?iProductCode=CB-03-20&Category=FREE.
28. VanHorn, D. A. 1969. Structural Behavior Characteristics of Prestressed Concrete Box-Beam Bridges. Report
315.8. Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA.
https://preserve.lib.lehigh.edu/islandora/object/preserve:root. (Enter the document title and select the
“Title” field in Advanced Search to the access document.)
29. Wassef, W. G., J. M. Kulicki, H. A. Nassif, D. R. Mertz, and A. S. Nowak. 2014. Calibration of LRFD Concrete Bridge
Design Specifications for Serviceability. Web-Only Document 201, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, DC.
https://dx.doi.org/10.17226/22407.
30. Wegmuller, A. W. and C. N. Kostem. 1973. Finite Element Analysis of Plates and Eccentrically Stiffened Plates.
Report No. 378A.3. Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA.
https://preserve.lib.lehigh.edu/islandora/object/preserve:root. (Enter the document title and select the
“Title” field in Advanced Search to access the document.)
31. Yoo, C. H. 2000. “Torsional and Other Properties of Prestressed Concrete Sections.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 45, No. 3 (May/June), pp. 66-72.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05012000.66.72.
32. Zellin, M. A., C. N. Kostem, D. A. VanHorn, and J. M. Kulicki. 1976. Live Load Distribution Factors for Prestressed
Concrete I-Beam Bridges. Report No. 387.2B. Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA.
https://preserve.lib.lehigh.edu/islandora/object/preserve:root. (Enter document title and select “Title” field
in Advanced Search to access document.)
33. Zokaie, T., T. A. Osterkamp, and R. A. Imbsen. 1991. Distribution of Wheel Loads on Highway Bridges. NCHRP
Project Report 12-26/1. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
https://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/docs/NCHRP12-26_FR.pdf.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 8
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
Table of Contents

NOTATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8-9

8.0 AASHTO LRFD SPECIFICATION REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 8-21
8.1 PRINCIPLES AND ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSING ................................................................................................................ 8-21
8.1.1 History ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8-21
8.1.2 Prestressing Steel ............................................................................................................................................................................. 8-21
8.1.3 Behavior of Flexural Members Using Prestressing Versus Conventional Reinforcement ............................... 8-22
8.1.4 Concrete to Steel Bond ................................................................................................................................................................... 8-25
8.2 FLEXURE ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8-25
8.2.1 Service Limit States ......................................................................................................................................................................... 8-26
8.2.1.1 Theory .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 8-26
8.2.1.1.1 Stage 1 Loading: Tensioning of Prestressing Strand ...................................................................................... 8-27
8.2.1.1.2 Stage 2 Loading: Concrete Placement ................................................................................................................... 8-27
8.2.1.1.3 Stage 3 Loading: Release of Strands ....................................................................................................................... 8-28
8.2.1.1.4 Stage 4 Loading: Member Installation .................................................................................................................. 8-28
8.2.1.1.5 Stage 5 Loading: Full-Service Load......................................................................................................................... 8-28
8.2.1.1.5.1 Concrete Tensile Stresses .................................................................................................................................. 8-28
8.2.1.1.5.2 Tensile Stresses—Service III Limit State Load Combination ............................................................ 8-29
8.2.1.2 Concrete Stress Limits ........................................................................................................................................................... 8-29
8.2.1.3 Design Procedure .................................................................................................................................................................... 8-29
8.2.1.4 Composite Section Properties ............................................................................................................................................ 8-30
8.2.1.4.1 Theory ................................................................................................................................................................................. 8-30
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure........................................................................................................................................................................... 8-31
8.2.1.5 Harped Strand Considerations .......................................................................................................................................... 8-31
8.2.1.6 Debonded Strand Considerations .................................................................................................................................... 8-31
8.2.1.7 Minimum Strand Cover and Spacing ............................................................................................................................... 8-33
8.2.1.8 Design Example ........................................................................................................................................................................ 8-34
8.2.1.8.1 Determine the Number of Strands .......................................................................................................................... 8-35
8.2.1.8.2 Check Service Level Stresses ..................................................................................................................................... 8-36
8.2.1.8.2.1 Changes in Design Method ................................................................................................................................ 8-39
8.2.1.8.3 Control of Service Load Stresses Near Beam Ends .......................................................................................... 8-39
8.2.1.8.3.1 Strand Debonding ................................................................................................................................................. 8-39
8.2.1.8.3.2 Harped Strands ...................................................................................................................................................... 8-40
8.2.1.8.3.3 Other Methods to Control Stresses................................................................................................................ 8-40
8.2.1.8.4 Check for Fatigue ............................................................................................................................................................ 8-40
8.2.2 Load Factors for Service III Limit State Load Combination ........................................................................................... 8-40
8.2.2.1 Background ................................................................................................................................................................................ 8-40
8.2.2.1.1 The 0.80 Live Load Factor .......................................................................................................................................... 8-40
8.2.2.1.2 Prestress Loss Calculations ........................................................................................................................................ 8-41
8.2.2.1.3 The 0.8 and 1.0 Live Load Factors .......................................................................................................................... 8-42

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8.2.2.2 Definitions .................................................................................................................................................................................. 8-43

8.2.2.3 Prestress Losses and Gains ................................................................................................................................................. 8-44
8.2.2.4 Gross Section Properties or Steel Transformed Section Properties ................................................................. 8-45
8.2.2.5 Elastic Gains and Application of Service III Live Load Factor ............................................................................. 8-47
8.2.2.6 Recommendations .................................................................................................................................................................. 8-47
8.2.3 Strength Limit State ......................................................................................................................................................................... 8-48
8.2.3.1 Theory .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 8-48
8.2.3.2 Nominal Flexural Resistance .............................................................................................................................................. 8-49
8.2.3.2.1 Required Parameters.................................................................................................................................................... 8-49
8.2.3.2.2 Rectangular Sections .................................................................................................................................................... 8-50
8.2.3.2.3 Flanged Sections ............................................................................................................................................................. 8-50
8.2.3.3 Maximum Reinforcement Limit ........................................................................................................................................ 8-50
8.2.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Limit ......................................................................................................................................... 8-50
8.2.3.5 Flexural Strength Design Example................................................................................................................................... 8-51
8.2.3.5.1 Option 1—Conventional Approach ........................................................................................................................ 8-51
8.2.3.5.2 Option 2—Strain Compatibility Approach .......................................................................................................... 8-52
8.3 STRAND TRANSFER AND DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS .............................................................................................................. 8-54
8.3.1 Strand Transfer Length .................................................................................................................................................................. 8-55
8.3.1.1 Impact on Design ..................................................................................................................................................................... 8-55
8.3.1.2 Specifications ............................................................................................................................................................................ 8-55
8.3.1.3 Factors Affecting Transfer Length ................................................................................................................................... 8-56
8.3.1.4 Research Results ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8-56
8.3.1.5 Recommendations .................................................................................................................................................................. 8-56
8.3.1.6 End Zone Reinforcement ..................................................................................................................................................... 8-56
8.3.2 Strand Development Length ........................................................................................................................................................ 8-57
8.3.2.1 Impact on Design ..................................................................................................................................................................... 8-57
8.3.2.2 LRFD Specifications ................................................................................................................................................................ 8-57
8.3.2.3 Factors Affecting Development Length ......................................................................................................................... 8-57
8.3.2.4 Bond Studies .............................................................................................................................................................................. 8-57
8.3.2.5 Recommendations .................................................................................................................................................................. 8-57
8.4 SHEAR ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8-58
8.4.1 LRFD Specifications ......................................................................................................................................................................... 8-58
8.4.1.1 Shear Design Provisions ....................................................................................................................................................... 8-59
8.4.1.1.1 Nominal Shear Resistance .......................................................................................................................................... 8-59
8.4.1.1.2 Concrete Contribution, Vc .......................................................................................................................................... 8-59
8.4.1.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs ................................................................................................................... 8-59
8.4.1.1.4 MCFT Model: Values of β and θ ................................................................................................................................ 8-60
8.4.1.2 Design Procedure .................................................................................................................................................................... 8-61
8.4.1.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement .................................................................................................................. 8-62
8.5 HORIZONTAL INTERFACE SHEAR ..................................................................................................................................................... 8-62

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8.5.1 Theory ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8-62

8.5.2 LRFD Specifications ......................................................................................................................................................................... 8-63
8.6 LOSS OF PRESTRESS ................................................................................................................................................................................ 8-64
8.6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 8-64
8.6.2 Definition .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 8-65
8.6.3 Significance of Losses for Design ............................................................................................................................................... 8-65
8.6.4 Effects of Estimation of Losses ................................................................................................................................................... 8-65
8.6.4.1 Effects at Transfer ................................................................................................................................................................... 8-66
8.6.4.2 Effect on Production Costs .................................................................................................................................................. 8-66
8.6.4.3 Effect on Camber ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8-66
8.6.4.4 Effects of Underestimating Losses ................................................................................................................................... 8-66
8.6.5 Methods for Estimating Losses .................................................................................................................................................. 8-66
8.6.6 Elastic Shortening Loss at Transfer .......................................................................................................................................... 8-66
8.6.6.1 Calculation of Elastic Shortening Loss ........................................................................................................................... 8-66
8.6.6.2 Theory and Background ....................................................................................................................................................... 8-67
8.6.6.3 Elastic Gains ............................................................................................................................................................................... 8-68
8.6.6.4 Elastic Shortening Example ................................................................................................................................................ 8-68
8.6.7 Time-Dependent Losses ................................................................................................................................................................ 8-68
8.6.7.1 Approximate Estimate Method ......................................................................................................................................... 8-69
8.6.7.2 Refined Estimates .................................................................................................................................................................... 8-69
8.6.7.2.1 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement ............................................................ 8-70
8.6.7.2.1.1 Shrinkage of Beam Concrete ............................................................................................................................ 8-70
8.6.7.2.1.2 Creep of Concrete .................................................................................................................................................. 8-73
8.6.7.2.1.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ............................................................................................................... 8-73
8.6.7.2.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time ........................................................ 8-73
8.6.7.2.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ......................................................................................................................................... 8-73
8.6.7.2.2.2 Creep of Concrete .................................................................................................................................................. 8-74
8.6.7.2.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ............................................................................................................... 8-74
8.6.7.2.2.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete .............................................................................................................................. 8-75
8.6.7.3 Recommended Treatment of Deck Shrinkage ............................................................................................................ 8-75
8.6.7.4 Prestress Loss Examples ...................................................................................................................................................... 8-76
8.7 CAMBER AND DEFLECTION ................................................................................................................................................................. 8-76
8.7.1 Multiplier Method............................................................................................................................................................................. 8-79
8.7.2 Example ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8-79
8.8 DECK SLAB DESIGN .................................................................................................................................................................................. 8-80
8.8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 8-80
8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Concrete Panels .................................................................................................. 8-80
8.8.2.1 Determining Prestress Force.............................................................................................................................................. 8-81
8.8.2.2 Service Load Stresses and Flexural Strength .............................................................................................................. 8-81
8.8.2.3 LRFD Specifications ................................................................................................................................................................ 8-83

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8.8.2.3.1 LRFD Specifications Refined Analysis ................................................................................................................... 8-83

8.8.2.3.2 LRFD Specifications Strip Method .......................................................................................................................... 8-83
8.8.2.3.2.1 Minimum Thickness............................................................................................................................................. 8-83
8.8.2.3.2.2 Minimum Concrete Cover .................................................................................................................................. 8-84
8.8.2.3.2.3 Live Load ................................................................................................................................................................... 8-84
8.8.2.3.2.4 Location of Critical Sections ............................................................................................................................. 8-84
8.8.2.3.2.5 Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................ 8-84
8.8.2.3.2.6 Reinforcement Requirements ......................................................................................................................... 8-85
8.8.2.3.2.7 Shear Design ............................................................................................................................................................ 8-85
8.8.2.3.2.8 Crack Control .......................................................................................................................................................... 8-85
8.8.3 Other Precast Concrete Bridge Deck Systems ..................................................................................................................... 8-86
8.8.3.1 Continuous Precast Concrete SIP Panel System, NUDECK .................................................................................... 8-86
8.8.3.1.1 Description of NUDECK ............................................................................................................................................... 8-86
8.8.3.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels ................................................................................................................................ 8-89
8.8.4 Empirical Design Method .............................................................................................................................................................. 8-90
8.9 TRANSVERSE DESIGN OF ADJACENT BOX BEAM BRIDGES .................................................................................................. 8-91
8.9.1 Background ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 8-91
8.9.1.1 Current Practice ....................................................................................................................................................................... 8-91
8.9.1.2 Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code Procedure ................................................................................................. 8-91
8.9.2 Empirical Design ............................................................................................................................................................................... 8-92
8.9.2.1 Tie System .................................................................................................................................................................................. 8-92
8.9.2.2 Production .................................................................................................................................................................................. 8-93
8.9.2.3 Installation ................................................................................................................................................................................. 8-94
8.9.3 Suggested Design and Construction Procedure .................................................................................................................. 8-95
8.9.3.1 Transverse Diaphragms ....................................................................................................................................................... 8-97
8.9.3.2 Longitudinal Joints between Beams ............................................................................................................................... 8-98
8.9.3.3 Tendons ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 8-98
8.9.3.4 Modeling and Loads for Analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 8-98
8.9.3.5 Post-Tensioning Design Charts ......................................................................................................................................... 8-98
8.9.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning Details for Skewed Bridges ....................................................................................................... 8-99
8.10 LATERAL STABILITY OF SLENDER MEMBERS ......................................................................................................................... 8-99
8.10.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 8-99
8.10.1.1 Hanging Beams ....................................................................................................................................................................8-100
8.10.1.2 Beams Supported from Beneath ..................................................................................................................................8-102
8.10.2 Suggested Factors of Safety .....................................................................................................................................................8-104
8.10.2.1 Conditions Affecting Factors of Safety ......................................................................................................................8-104
8.10.2.2 Effects of Creep, Impact, and Superelevation .........................................................................................................8-104
8.10.2.3 Effects of Beam Overhang during Transportation ...............................................................................................8-104
8.10.2.4 Increasing the Factor of Safety .....................................................................................................................................8-105
8.10.3 Measuring Roll Stiffness of Vehicles ....................................................................................................................................8-106

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8.10.4 Bearing Pads ................................................................................................................................................................................. 8-106

8.10.5 Wind Loads .................................................................................................................................................................................... 8-106
8.10.6 Temporary King-Post Bracing ............................................................................................................................................... 8-106
8.10.7 Lateral Stability Examples ...................................................................................................................................................... 8-107
8.10.7.1 Hanging Beam Example .................................................................................................................................................. 8-107
8.10.7.2 Seated Beam Example ...................................................................................................................................................... 8-109
8.11 BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCES DUE TO VEHICULAR LIVE LOADS ....................................................... 8-111
8.11.1 Design Truck Loading ............................................................................................................................................................... 8-111
8.11.2 Design Lane Loading, 0.640 kips/ft .................................................................................................................................... 8-112
8.11.3 Fatigue Truck Loading .............................................................................................................................................................. 8-112
8.12 STRUT-AND-TIE MODELING OF DISTURBED REGIONS..................................................................................................... 8-113
8.12.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 8-113
8.12.2 Strut-and-Tie Models ................................................................................................................................................................ 8-114
8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout ................................................................................................................................................... 8-115
8.12.2.2 Nodal Zone and Member Dimensions ....................................................................................................................... 8-118
8.12.2.3 Strength of Members ........................................................................................................................................................ 8-119
8.12.3 LRFD Specifications Provisions for Strut-and-Tie Models ....................................................................................... 8-119
8.12.3.1 Factored Resistance .......................................................................................................................................................... 8-119
8.12.3.2 Ties ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 8-119
8.12.3.2.1 Tie Anchorage ............................................................................................................................................................ 8-119
8.12.3.3 Proportioning Node Regions ........................................................................................................................................ 8-120
8.12.3.3.1 Effective Cross-Sectional Area of the Node Face ........................................................................................ 8-120
8.12.3.3.2 Limiting Compressive Stress at the Node Face ........................................................................................... 8-120
8.12.3.4 Crack Control Reinforcement ....................................................................................................................................... 8-121
8.12.4 Steps for Developing Strut-and-Tie Models .................................................................................................................... 8-121
8.12.4.1 Design Criteria .................................................................................................................................................................... 8-121
8.12.4.2 Summary of Steps .............................................................................................................................................................. 8-122
8.12.4.3 Other Strut-and-Tie Model Training and Resources .......................................................................................... 8-122
8.12.5 Pier Cap Example ........................................................................................................................................................................ 8-122
8.12.5.1 Flow of Forces and Truss Geometry .......................................................................................................................... 8-123
8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss ............................................................................................................................................... 8-123
8.12.5.3 Reinforcement for Ties .................................................................................................................................................... 8-124
8.12.5.4 Nodal Zone Strength Checks ......................................................................................................................................... 8-124
8.12.5.5 Minimum Reinforcement for Crack Control .......................................................................................................... 8-126
8.13 DETAILED METHODS OF TIME-DEPENDENT ANALYSIS .................................................................................................. 8-127
8.13.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 8-127
8.13.1.1 Properties of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 8-128
8.13.1.1.1 Stress-Strain-Time Relationship ........................................................................................................................ 8-128
8.13.1.2 Effective Modulus .............................................................................................................................................................. 8-130
8.13.1.3 Age-Adjusted Effective Modulus ................................................................................................................................. 8-131
8.13.1.4 Properties of Prestressing Steel Strand ................................................................................................................... 8-132

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8.13.1.5 Reduced Relaxation under Variable Strain .............................................................................................................8-132

8.13.2 Analysis of Composite Cross Sections ................................................................................................................................8-133
8.13.2.1 Initial Strains ........................................................................................................................................................................8-133
8.13.2.2 Method for Time-Dependent Cross-Section Analysis .........................................................................................8-133
8.13.2.2.1 Steps for Analysis ......................................................................................................................................................8-134
8.13.2.2.2 Example Calculations ...............................................................................................................................................8-135
8.13.3 Analysis of Composite Simple-Span Members................................................................................................................8-136
8.13.3.1 Relaxation of Strands Before Transfer ......................................................................................................................8-137
8.13.3.2 Transfer of Prestress Force ............................................................................................................................................8-137
8.13.3.2.1 Example Calculation (at Transfer) .....................................................................................................................8-137
8.13.3.3 Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation After Transfer ..................................................................................................8-140
8.13.3.3.1 Example Calculation (After Transfer) ..............................................................................................................8-140
8.13.3.4 Placement of Cast-in-Place Deck..................................................................................................................................8-142
8.13.3.5 Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation .................................................................................................................................8-142
8.13.3.6 Application of Superimposed Dead Load .................................................................................................................8-142
8.13.3.7 Long-Term Behavior .........................................................................................................................................................8-142
8.13.4 Continuous Bridges .....................................................................................................................................................................8-142
8.13.4.1 Effectiveness of Continuity .............................................................................................................................................8-143
8.13.4.2 Applying Time-Dependent Effects ..............................................................................................................................8-143
8.13.4.3 Methods of Analysis ...........................................................................................................................................................8-144
8.13.4.3.1 General Method ..........................................................................................................................................................8-144
8.13.4.3.2 Approximate Method ...............................................................................................................................................8-144
8.13.4.3.2.1 Restraint Moment Due to Creep ................................................................................................................8-145
8.13.4.3.2.2 Restraint Moment Due to Differential Shrinkage ...............................................................................8-145
8.14 CITED REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................................8-146
8.15 ASTM REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................................................................8-152
NOTATION............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8A-1
8A.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 8A-5
8A.2 SHRINKAGE OF DECK CONCRETE .................................................................................................................................................. 8A-5
8A.2.1 Initial Strain Analysis................................................................................................................................................................... 8A-5
8A.2.2 Change in Force on Concrete Section ................................................................................................................................... 8A-7
8A.2.3 Change in Force in Prestressing Strand .............................................................................................................................. 8A-8
8A.2.4 AASHTO LRFD Equations........................................................................................................................................................ 8A-10
8A.3 STRESS IN BEAM CONCRETE DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF DECK CONCRETE ................................................................ 8A-11
8A.3.1 Internal Forces ............................................................................................................................................................................ 8A-11
8A.3.2 Section Geometry and Strains ............................................................................................................................................... 8A-11
8A.3.3 Stress Computed from Net Composite Concrete Section .......................................................................................... 8A-12
8A.3.4. Stress Computed from Transformed Section ................................................................................................................ 8A-12
8A.3.4.1 Case 1: Change in Moment ............................................................................................................................................ 8A-12
8A.3.4.2 Case 2: Change in Axial Force ...................................................................................................................................... 8A-13

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8A.3.4.3 Total Change in Internal Forces .................................................................................................................................. 8A-14

8A.4 PRESTRESS GAIN DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF DECK CONCRETE IN COMPOSITE SECTION ................................... 8A-15
8A.5 TREATMENT OF DECK SHRINKAGE FOR TRANSFORMED SECTION ANALYSIS .................................................... 8A-16
8A.6 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 8A-17

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Notation

NOTATION
A = area of cross section of the precast concrete beam
Ac = area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member
Ac = area of core of spirally reinforced compression member measured to the outside
diameter of the spiral
Ac = area of beam cross section
Acn = effective cross-sectional area of the node face [LRFD]
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear transfer [LRFD]
Ag = area of gross beam cross section [LRFD]
Agc = area of gross composite cross section
Ak = area of cross section of element k
An = area of net beam cross section
Anc = area of net composite section
Ao = area enclosed by centerlines of the elements of the beam [LRFD]
Aps = area of prestressing strand [LRFD]
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement [LRFD]
As = total area of vertical reinforcement located within a distance (h/4) from the end of [LRFD]
the beam
A's = area of compression reinforcement [LRFD]
Ast = area of longitudinal nonprestressed steel reinforcement in tie [LRFD]
Atc = area of steel transformed composite section
Atr = area of steel transformed beam cross section at transfer
Av = area of transverse reinforcement within a distance s [LRFD]
Avf = area of shear-friction reinforcement [LRFD]
Avh = area of web reinforcement required for horizontal shear
Av-min = minimum area of web reinforcement
A1 = area under bearing device [LRFD]
A2 = notional area [LRFD]
a = depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block [LRFD]
a = distance to pickup points from each end of the beam
b = effective flange width
b = width of top flange of beam
b = width of the compression face of a member for rectangular sections [LRFD]
bb = width of bottom flange of beam
bv = effective web width [LRFD]
bv = width of interface [LRFD]

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Notation

bw = web width [LRFD]

C = compressive force or stress
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis [LRFD]
c = cohesion factor [LRFD]
DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments [LRFD]
DW = load of wearing surfaces and utilities [LRFD]
db = nominal reinforcing bar, wire, and prestressing strand diameter [LRFD]
de = effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile [LRFD]
force in the tension reinforcement
dext = depth of the extreme steel layer from extreme compression fiber
df = time-dependent losses between deck placement and final time
di = depth of steel layer from extreme compression fiber
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing [LRFD]
tendons
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of nonprestressed tensile [LRFD]
reinforcement
dʹs = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of nonprestressed [LRFD]
compression reinforcement
dv = effective shear depth
E = concrete modulus of elasticity
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete [LRFD]
E*c = age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of concrete for a gradually applied
load at the time of transfer of prestressing
E*cb = age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of the beam
Ecb(t3) = age-adjusted modulus of elasticity for beam concrete at time t3
E*cd = age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of the deck
Ecd(t3) = age-adjusted modulus of elasticity for deck concrete at time t3
Eci = modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at transfer
E*ck = age-adjusted, effective modulus of element k
Ec(tj) = modulus of elasticity at time tj (j = 0, 1, 2, …)
Ec(t, tj) = modulus of elasticity at a certain time
E*c(t, t0) = effective modulus of elasticity at a certain time
Ec(t0) = initial modulus of elasticity
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons [LRFD]
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars [LRFD]
e = eccentricity of prestressing strands
ebunk = eccentricity of beam off-center of truck/trailer
ec = eccentricity of the strand at midspan

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Notation

ec = eccentricity of the prestressing strands for the net composite section

ed = eccentricity of the centroid of deck relative to the center of gravity of the steel [LRFD]
transformed composite section
eg = eccentricity of the prestressing strands for the gross beam cross section
egc = eccentricity of the prestressing strands for the gross composite cross section
ei = initial lateral eccentricity of the center of gravity with respect to the roll axis
ei tol = initial midspan eccentricity
elift = eccentricity of lifting hook placement
em = average eccentricity at midspan [LRFD]
en = eccentricity of the prestressing strands for the net beam cross section
enc = eccentricity of net composite cross section
epc = eccentricity of the prestressing strands with respect to the centroid of the
composite section
epg = eccentricity of strands with respect to the centroid of the beam
esweep = sweep dimension
etr = eccentricity of strands with respect to the centroid of the steel transformed beam
cross section at transfer
Fb = tensile stress limit in the precompressed tension zone at service loads
Fcj = force in concrete for the jth component
Fpi = total force in strands before release
FS = factor of safety against cracking
FS′ = factor of safety against rollover failure
f = concrete stress
fb = concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength at 28 days [LRFD]
fcgp = concrete stress at the center of gravity of pretensioning tendons due to [LRFD]
pretensioning force at transfer and the self weight of the member at the section of
maximum positive moment
𝑓𝑐𝑖 = concrete stress after transfer
𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = specified compressive strength of concrete at time of initial loading or [LRFD]
pretensioning (transfer)
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after [LRFD]
allowance for all prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress
is caused by externally applied loads
fe = effective prestress remaining in bar after losses
fj = initial prestressing stress in Grade 60 steel bar before any losses [LRFD]
fpc = compressive stress in concrete after all prestress losses have occurred either at the [LRFD]
centroid of the cross section resisting live load or at the junction of the web and
flange when the centroid lies in the flange. In a composite section, fpc is the
resultant compressive stress at the centroid of the composite section, or at the

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Notation

junction of the web and flange when the centroid lies within the flange, due to both
prestress and to the bending moments resisted by the precast concrete member
acting alone.
fpbt = stress in prestressing steel immediately before transfer
fpe = effective stress in the prestressing steel after losses [LRFD]
fpi = initial stress in the prestressing strand immediately before transfer
fpj = stress in the prestressing strand immediately before transfer [LRFD]
fpo = stress in the prestressing steel when the stress in the surrounding concrete is zero [LRFD]
fps = stress in the prestressing steel
fps = average stress in prestressing steel at the time for which the nominal resistance of [LRFD]
member is required
fpt = stress in the prestressing steel after transfer
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel [LRFD]
𝑓𝑝𝑥 = design stress in the pretensioned strand at nominal flexural strength at section of
member under consideration
fpy = yield strength of prestressing steel [LRFD]
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD]
fr(t, t0) = relaxation stress at a certain time
fs = tensile stress limit in steel under service loads
fse = effective final pretension stress
fish = effective initial pretension stress
ftg = concrete stress at the top fiber of the beam
f(tj) = stress at time tj
f(t0) = tensile stress at the beginning of the interval
fy = specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars [LRFD]
𝑓𝑦′ = specified minimum yield strength of compression reinforcement [LRFD]
fyh = specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement [LRFD]
G = width of gap between panels
H = average annual ambient relative humidity [LRFD]
H = length of a single segment
h = overall depth of a member [LRFD]
ha = height of the back face of the node
hcg = height of center of gravity of beam above road
hd = deck thickness
hf = compression flange depth [LRFD]
hr = height of roll center above road
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast concrete beam, [LRFD]

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Notation

I = major axis moment of inertia of beam

Ieff = effective cracked section lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia
Ig = gross lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia
Ik = moment of inertia of element k
IM = dynamic load allowance [LRFD]
id = time-dependent losses between transfer and deck replacement
In = moment of inertia of net beam cross section
Itr = moment of inertia of transformed beam cross section
Iy = moment of inertia of beam about weak axis
jd = distance between the tension and compression resultant stresses in the section
K = factor used for calculating time-dependent losses
K = factor used in calculation of average stress in pretensioning steel for strength limit [LRFD]
state; factor is related to type of strand
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = transformed section coefficient
Kr = factor used for calculating relaxation loss in strand that occurs before transfer
Kθ = sum of rotational spring constants of supports
k = factor for type of prestressing steel [LRFD]
kc = product of applicable correction factors for creep = kla kh ks
kcp = correction factor for curing period
kla = correction factor for loading age
kh = correction factor for relative humidity
ks = correction factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the component
ksh = product of applicable correction factors for shrinkage = kcp kh ks
kst = correction factor for concrete strength
L = overall beam length or design span
L = span length [LRFD]
LL = vehicular live load [LRFD]
Lg = girder length
Lr = intrinsic relaxation of the strand
Ls = span length
ℓ = overall length of beam
ℓd = development length
ℓt = transfer length
ℓx = distance from free end of pretensioned strand to section of member under
consideration
M = bending moment
Mbarrier = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight

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Notation

Mbeam = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight

Mc = moment in concrete beam section
Mcr = cracking moment [LRFD]
Mcr(t) = restraint moment due to creep at time t
Mdeck = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights
Mdnc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section
Mel = fictitious elastic restraint moment at the supports
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight
Mg = self weight bending moment of beam at harp point
Mgmsp = self weight bending moment at midspan
Mk = element moment
ML = stiffness factor for interior span
MLL = unfactored bending moment due to lane load per beam
MLL+IM = unfactored bending moment due to live load and impact
Mn = nominal flexural resistance [LRFD]
Mn/dc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section
Moverlay = unfactored bending moment due to overlay
MR = stiffness factor for end span
Mr = factored flexural resistance of section in bending [LRFD]
Msh = shrinkage moment
Msr(t) = restraint moment due to differential shrinkage at time t
Mu = factored bending moment at section [LRFD]
Mx = bending moment at a distance x from the support
M0 = theoretical total moment in sections
M0k = theoretical moment in section of element k
m = confinement modification factor [LRFD]
m = stress ratio
N = number of segments between nodes (must be an even number)
Nc = internal element force in concrete
Nk = element normal force
Ns = internal element force in steel
Nu = applied factored axial force, taken as positive if tensile [LRFD]
N0 = theoretical total normal force in sections
N0k = theoretical normal force in section of element k, taken as positive when tensile
n = modular ratio between slab and beam materials [LRFD]
nk = modular ratio of element k

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Notation

np = modular ratio of prestressing steel to concrete

ns = modular ratio of steel element
Pc = permanent net compression force [LRFD]
Pn = nominal axial resistance of strut or tie [LRFD]
Pr = factored axial resistance of strut or tie [LRFD]
Pse = effective pretension force after allowing for all losses
Psi = effective pretension force after allowing for the initial losses
Q = first moment of inertia of the area above the fiber being considered
R = radius of curvature
Rn = strength design factor
Ru = flexural resistance factor
r = radius of gyration of the gross cross section
r = radius of stability
S = spacing of beams [LRFD]
S = slab span [LRFD]
S = span between the inside faces of the beam webs [LRFD]
Sb = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast
concrete beam
Sbc = composite section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the precast concrete beam
Sbtc = section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section
Sbtf = section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the transformed noncomposite
section
Sg = section modulus of gross beam cross section
Sgc = section modulus of gross composite cross section
SN = value of the integral
Sn = section modulus of net beam cross section
Snc = section modulus of net composite cross section
St = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete
beam
Stc = section modulus of the steel transformed composite cross section
Std = section modulus of steel transformed beam cross section at time of deck placement
Str = section modulus of steel transformed beam cross section at transfer
S(t, t0) = shrinkage coefficient at a certain age
Su = ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete adjusted for member size and
relative humidity
s = length of a side element [LRFD]
s = spacing of rows of ties [LRFD]

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Notation

sx = lesser of either dv or the maximum distance between layers of longitudinal crack- [LRFD]
control reinforcement
T = tensile force or stress in the prestressing strand
Tc = tensile force in the concrete
t = time, age of concrete at the time of determination of creep effects, days
t = age of concrete at time of determination of shrinkage effects, days
t = time after loading, days
t = thickness of web
t = thickness of a beam element
tf = thickness of flange
ts = cast-in-place concrete slab thickness
ts = depth of concrete slab [LRFD]
t0 = age of concrete when curing ends
t0 = age of concrete when load is initially applied, days
V = vertical shear force at the section in question
Vc = nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the concrete [LRFD]
Vn = nominal shear resistance of the section considered [LRFD]
Vp = component of the effective prestressing force, in the direction of the applied shear, [LRFD]
taken as positive if resisting the applied shear
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement [LRFD]
Vu = factored shear force at the section [LRFD]
V/S = volume to surface ratio [LRFD]
v = concrete efficiency factor [LRFD]
vh = factored vertical shear stress at the section in question
vu = average factored shear stress [LRFD]
W = total weight of beam
w = uniformly distributed load [LRFD]
w = width of clear roadway [LRFD]
w = weight per unit length of beam
wc = unit weight of concrete [LRFD]
x = distance from the support to the section under question
y = height of center of gravity of beam above roll axis (beam supported from below)
yb = distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite beam
ybc = distance from centroid to the bottom of beam of the composite section
ybs = distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom fiber of the beam
ycg = distance from the centroid of the section to the x axis
yk = distance of the centroid of element k from edge

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Notation

yr = height of roll axis above center of gravity of beam (hanging beam)

ys = height above soffit of centroid of prestressing force
yt = distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite beam
ytc = distance from centroid to the top of deck of the composite section
ytr = distance from centroid to the bottom fiber of the transformed beam
z = lateral deflection of center of gravity of beam
zmax = distance from centerline of vehicle to center of dual tires
zo = theoretical lateral deflection of center of gravity of beam with the full dead weight
applied laterally
𝑧𝑜′ = theoretical lateral deflection of center of gravity of beam with the full dead weight
applied laterally, computed using Ieff for tilt angle under consideration
α = superelevation angle or tilt angle of support in radians
α = factor used in calculating elastic shortening loss
α1 = stress block factor [LRFD]
β = factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension (a value [LRFD]
indicating concrete contribution)
β1 = ratio of the depth of the equivalent uniformly stressed compression zone assumed [LRFD]
in the strength limit state to the depth of the actual compression zone
γLL = live load factor for Service III load combination [LRFD]
γ1 = flexural cracking variability factor [LRFD]
γ2 = prestress variability factor [LRFD]
γ3 = ratio of specified minimum yield strength to ultimate tensile strength [LRFD]
Δ = deflection
Δ = camber measured with respect to the beam ends
Δfcdp = change in concrete stress at center of gravity of prestressing steel due to dead [LRFD]
loads except the dead load acting at the time the prestressing force is applied
ΔfpCD = loss in prestressing steel stress due to creep between deck casting and final time
ΔfpCR = loss in prestressing steel stress due to creep between transfer and deck casting [LRFD]
ΔfpES = loss in prestressing steel stress due to elastic shortening [LRFD]
ΔfpR = loss in prestressing steel stress due to relaxation of steel [LRFD]
ΔfpR1 = loss in prestressing steel stress due to relaxation of steel between transfer and [LRFD]
deck casting
ΔfpR2 = loss in prestressing steel stress due to relaxation of steel between deck casting and [LRFD]
final time
ΔfpSD = loss in prestressing steel stress due to beam shrinkage between deck casting and
final time
ΔfpSR = loss in prestressing steel stress due to beam shrinkage between transfer and deck [LRFD]
casting
ΔfpSS = gain in prestressing steel stress due to shrinkage of deck concrete [LRFD]

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Notation

ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress [LRFD]

Δfs = total loss of prestressing
ΔMcn = change in moment in the net cross section
ΔPps = change in prestress force due to shrinkage from ti to td
ΔPcn = change in force on the net concrete section due to shrinkage from ti to td
ΔPds = restraining force due to deck shrinkage
Δε𝑐𝑛 = change in total strain in the concrete at the centroid of the prestressing steel
Δεps = change in strain in the prestressing strand
δ = duct diameter correction factor [LRFD]
δc = time-dependent multiplier
ε = concrete strain
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain
εc = strain in concrete beam
εcl = compression-controlled strain limit in the extreme tension steel [LRFD]
εcr = time-dependent creep strain
εf = immediate strain due to the applied stress f
εfc = elastic strain in concrete
εfk = element strain
εfs = elastic strain in steel
εk = strain in element k
εp = strain in prestressing steel
εpy = yield strain of the prestressing strand
εs = strain in nonprestressed steel
εs = longitudinal strain in the web reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the
member
εsh = free shrinkage strain
εshb(t, t2) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t
εshb(t3, t2) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t3
εshd(t, t3) = shrinkage strain of the deck from time t3 to time t
εshu = ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete, adjusted for member size and
relative humidity
εsi = strain in tendons corresponding to initial effective pretension stress
εt = net tensile strain in the extreme tension steel at nominal resistance [LRFD]
εtl = tension-controlled strain limit in the extreme tension steel [LRFD]
ε0c = initial strain in concrete
ĸ = multiplier for development length
λ = concrete density modification factor [LRFD]

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Notation

λ = parameter used to determine friction coefficient μ [LRFD]

λduct = shear strength reduction factor due to the presence of post-tensioning duct [LRFD]
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses [LRFD]
θ = roll angle of major axis of beam with respect to vertical
θi = initial roll angle of a rigid beam
θL = left end rotation of beam due to simple-span loads
θmax = tilt angle at which cracking begins, based on tension at the top corner equal to the
modulus of rupture
θ′max = tilt angle at maximum factor of safety against failure
θR = right end rotation of beam due to simple-span loads
θs = angle between strut and adjoining tie [LRFD]
μ = coefficient of friction [LRFD]
ϕ = resistance factor [LRFD]
ϕ = curvature
ϕc = curvature at midspan
ϕcr = curvature due to creep
ϕduct = diameter of post-tensioning duct [LRFD]
ϕfk = element curvature
ϕk = curvature of element k
ϕ0 = curvature at support
χ = aging coefficient
χ(t, t0) = aging coefficient at certain time
ψ = factor that reflects the fact that the actual relaxation is less than the intrinsic
relaxation
Ψ(t, t0) = creep coefficient of the concrete member at a certain age
Ψ(t, tj) = creep coefficient at time tj (j = 0, 1, 2, …)
Ψ(td, ti) = creep coefficient at time td for loads applied at time ti [LRFD]
Ψ(tf, td) = creep coefficient at time tf for loads applied at time td [LRFD]
Ψb(t, t3) = creep coefficient at time t for beam concrete loaded at time t3
Ψd(t, t3) = creep coefficient at time t for deck concrete loaded at time t3
Ψu = ultimate creep coefficient for concrete at time of release of prestressing
Ψ′u = ultimate creep coefficient for concrete at time of application of superimposed dead
loads

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8.0 AASHTO LRFD Specification References/8.1.2 Prestressing Steel

Design Theory and Procedure

8.0 AASHTO LRFD SPECIFICATION REFERENCES
Unless otherwise noted, the references to the LRFD Specifications in this chapter are from the ninth edition of the
American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials’ AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
(2020). However, the designer should consider new technologies and materials that may be available and check
with the bridge owner whether they may be allowed on the project.

8.1 PRINCIPLES AND ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSING

8.1.1 History
The principles of prestressing have been used for centuries. For example, wooden barrels have always been made
by tightening metal straps around barrel staves. In the making of early wheels, the wooden spokes and rim were
first held together by a hot metal tire that, upon cooling, became tensioned, inducing radial compression on the
rim and spokes. Other forms of mechanical, chemical, and thermal prestressing have been attempted or used with
varying degrees of success.
The use of prestressing for concrete bridge members has been employed with great success for over 7 decades.
Concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak in tension. Therefore, prestressing is used to control tensile
stresses and to precompress the concrete. This is analogous to providing the concrete with a “storage” capacity to
resist loads that would otherwise produce tension and cracking in the concrete.
The prestressing of precast concrete bridge members is accomplished by stretching high-strength steel strands,
then casting concrete around them. As the concrete hardens, it bonds to the strands. When the clamps holding the
tensioned strands are released, the force in the strands is applied to (or resisted by) the concrete, which puts the
concrete into compression. This technique of prestressing through the placing of concrete around prestretched
strands is called pretensioning. The high-strength steel strands used for pretensioning typically have an ultimate
strength, fpu, of 270 ksi and a yield strength, fpy, of 243 ksi.

8.1.2 Prestressing Steel

High-strength steel is necessary for achieving prestressed concrete. Strands are typically tensioned initially to
0.75fpu =202.5 ksi. Although this stress is high, it is still safely less than the yield strength (fpy =243 ksi). Any loss
of stress from this level will be elastic, related to strains by the modulus of elasticity. With time, creep and
shrinkage cause shortening of the member, and, since the strands are bonded to the concrete, they shorten with
the concrete. The shortening of the strands relieves some of the prestrain in the strands, so the prestressing force
is also reduced.
To illustrate why high-strength steel is necessary, consider a concrete member pretensioned with high-strength
strand versus Grade 60 steel reinforcement (see Fig. 8.1.2-1). Assume that the shortening of the member
produces a corresponding loss of prestress of 40 ksi. The stress remaining in the strand after losses, which is
called the “effective prestress,” would therefore be 202.5 − 40 = 162.5 ksi. While the 40 ksi loss is significant,
more than 80% of the initial prestress remains. Compare this example with the same member being prestressed
using Grade 60 reinforcement (fy = 60 ksi). In this case, the initial stress can only be about 50 ksi to remain safely
below the yield strength and within the elastic range. Because the member and the prestress force are the same as
they were for high-strength steel strand, the losses would also be the same (40 ksi). However, in the case of Grade
60 reinforcement, the final conditions are much different, with the effective prestress dropping to 10 ksi, which
leaves only 20% of the prestress remaining. So much of the prestress is lost using Grade 60 reinforcement for
prestressing that the prestressing becomes ineffective and unreliable. The high level of prestrain in the strand
due to the initial prestress is what makes high-strength strand an effective method of prestressing. The large
prestrain reduces the significance of losses.

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8.1.2 Prestressing Steel/8.1.3 Behavior of Flexural Members Using Prestressing Versus Conventional Reinforcement

Another outstanding benefit of high-strength (Grade 270) strand is its relative cost. While strand may cost nearly
twice as much as nonprestressed Grade 60 reinforcement per pound, it provides over four times the strength of
Grade 60 reinforcement. Furthermore, prestressing provides a significant enhancement in the behavior of
reinforced concrete members. Thus, the combination of high-quality, plant-cast concrete with prestressing using
high-strength steel results in the most economical bridge for most situations.
Figure 8.1.2-1
Use of High-Strength versus Nonprestressed Steel for Prestressing Concrete

8.1.3 Behavior of Flexural Members Using Prestressing Versus Conventional

Reinforcement
Figures 8.1.3-1, 8.1.3-2, and 8.1.3-3 illustrate the behavior of flexural members. Figure 8.1.3-1 shows the
conditions in a reinforced concrete member that has nonprestressed reinforcement and no prestressing. Under
service load conditions, concrete on the tension side of the neutral axis is assumed to be cracked. Only concrete on
the compression side is effective in resisting loads. In contrast, a prestressed concrete member is normally
designed to remain uncracked under service loads (see Fig. 8.1.3-2). Since the full cross section is effective, the
prestressed member is much stiffer than a conventionally reinforced concrete member, resulting in reduced
deflection (see Fig. 8.1.3-3). In the prestressed member, no unsightly cracks are expected and reinforcement is
better protected against corrosion. Also, fatigue of strand due to repeated truck loading is generally not a design
issue when the concrete surrounding the strands is not allowed to crack.

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8.1.3 Behavior of Flexural Members Using Prestressing Versus Conventional Reinforcement

Figure 8.1.3-1
Behavior of Conventionally Reinforced Concrete Members

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8.1.3 Behavior of Flexural Members Using Prestressing Versus Conventional Reinforcement

Figure 8.1.3-2
Behavior of Prestressed Concrete Members

At ultimate load conditions (termed “the nominal resistance” in the LRFD Specifications), conventionally
reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete behave similarly. However, because nonprestressed steel bars have
a lower strength, they require a larger steel quantity to achieve the same strength as a prestressed member. This
greater quantity of steel increases the member material costs for a conventionally reinforced member. It should
be noted, however, that the ultimate elongation at rupture of strand is lower than that of Grade 60 reinforcement
(about 4% to 6% versus about 10% to 15%). This lower strain capacity or material ductility may lead one to
expect that prestressed concrete members may lack sufficient ductility or the capacity to deflect adequately
before failure. However, prestressed concrete members have been shown both analytically and experimentally to
have more than adequate deflection capability prior to failure. It is not unusual in laboratory experiments to
observe 10 to 15 in. of deflection in a 40-ft-long prestressed concrete member before it fails. This deflection easily
exceeds minimum ductility requirements.

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8.1.3 Behavior of Flexural Members Using Prestressing Versus Conventional Reinforcement/8.2 Flexure

Figure 8.1.3-3
Typical Load-Deflection Behavior of Conventionally
Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Beams

Another major advantage of prestressing is the improvement in the member’s ability to resist shear forces. As a
result of the concrete being precompressed, prestressed concrete members have a higher concrete shear
resistance, Vc, than conventionally reinforced concrete. This is why thin-webbed I-beam and box beam bridges
have been used successfully without shear problems. In addition, harped strand, when used, provides a vertical
force component that balances part of the gravity load shear force.
In summary, the use of prestressed concrete members results in longer span lengths and more efficient cross
sections.

8.1.4 Concrete to Steel Bond

Because of the high strength of prestressing strand and the absence of deformations like those found on the
surface of reinforcing bars, anchorage of strand in concrete must be carefully assessed. For example, while a
Grade 60 No. 4 bar has a typical development length of 12 to 15 in, the development length of a ½-in.-diameter
strand is about 72 to 100 in. Development length can be a limiting design factor in short members such as precast
concrete stay-in-place (SIP) deck panels. It may also be significant for piles that are subjected to moment near the
top end. However, strand development length does not significantly affect the design or performance of most
precast concrete bridge beams.

8.2 FLEXURE
The design of prestressed concrete members in flexure normally starts with determination of the required
prestressing level to satisfy conditions at the service limit states. The designer considers all load stages that may
be critical during the life of the structure from the time prestressing is first applied, and then performs a
resistance check of the entire member at the strength limit states. The service limit states control the design of
most prestressed concrete bridges. Except for situations where strand development length is inadequate, some

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8.2 Flexure/8.2.1.1 Theory

adjacent box beam applications, and design for some state-specific loads , the strength limit states seldom require
the addition of reinforcement or other design changes. As a result, the flexural resistance of prestressed concrete
bridges may be significantly larger than that required, which gives prestressed concrete bridges a reserve
strength that is typically greater than the reserve strengths of reinforced concrete bridges and most structural
steel bridges. Furthermore, prestressed concrete members are essentially “proof tested” during fabrication. When
prestressing forces are transferred in the plant, the prestress level is the highest a member will ever experience
while the concrete strength is at its lowest.

8.2.1 Service Limit States

Various service limit state load combinations are considered in design. A load factor of 1.0 is used to reflect the
nominal or most likely loading on the structure. As explained in Chapter 7 and Section 8.2.2 of this chapter, there
are exceptions to this unity factor. The basic assumptions for flexural design are as follows:
a. Plane sections remain plane and strains vary linearly over the entire member depth regardless of load level.
Therefore, composite members consisting of precast concrete beams and cast-in-place (CIP) decks must be
adequately connected so that this assumption is valid and all elements respond to superimposed loads as one
unit.
b. Before cracking, stress is linearly proportional to strain—that is, f = εE where f = concrete stress, ε =
concrete strain, and E = concrete modulus of elasticity.
c. After cracking, tension in the concrete is neglected.
d. Spans made continuous for live load through placement of reinforcing bars in the deck slab, or by other means
not involving prestressing, are assumed to be treated as prestressed members in the positive moment zone
between supports and as conventionally reinforced members in the negative moment zones over the supports.
Therefore, no tensile stress limit is imposed on the top-fiber stresses in the negative moment zone. However,
crack width, fatigue, and ultimate strength should be checked.

8.2.1.1 Theory
The various stages of loading for a prestressed concrete beam bridge are shown in Figures 8.2.1.1-1 and 8.2.1.1-
2.
Figure 8.2.1.1-1
Loading Stages of a Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Beam

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8.2.1.1 Theory/8.2.1.1.2 Stage 2 Loading: Concrete Placement

Figure 8.2.1.1-1 (cont.)

Loading Stages of a Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Beam

Stage 3: Release of strands causing shortening and camber of member

Figure 8.2.1.1-2
Loading Stages, Stress Diagrams, and Corresponding
Stress Limits from the LRFD Specifications

≤ 0.24𝜆√𝑓𝑐𝑖′

≤ 0.65 𝑓𝑐𝑖′

≤ 0.6𝑓𝑐′

≤ 0.19𝜆√𝑓𝑐′

8.2.1.1.1 Stage 1 Loading: Tensioning of Prestressing Strand

Stage 1 loading involves tensioning the strand in the prestressing bed. The tensile stress in the strand is higher at
this stage than at any other stage during the service life of the member. Seating losses in the bed, relaxation losses,
and any increase in strand temperature will reduce the stress in the strand. However, if the strand temperature
drops, or harped strand is deflected after tensioning, the stress in the strand will increase. Because producers take
these factors into account as part of manufacturing and quality control processes, designers do not need to be
concerned with controlling strand stresses before transfer.

8.2.1.1.2 Stage 2 Loading: Concrete Placement

Concrete is placed in the forms at Stage 2 and cured until it reaches the initial strength required by design.

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8.2.1.1.3 Stage 3 Loading: Release of Strands/8.2.1.1.5.1 Concrete Tensile Stresses

8.2.1.1.3 Stage 3 Loading: Release of Strands

The prestressing force in the strands is transferred from the bed to the precast concrete member in Stage 3. This
process is accomplished by flame cutting or by a gradual transfer of the jacking force at the stressing abutment
(see Chapter 3, Sect. 3.3.2.8, for details). As the prestressing force is gradually transferred, the concrete member
begins to shorten and camber. When the prestressing force is fully transferred, the member resists its own weight
and the prestressing force. The stress distribution is shown in Figure 8.2.1.1-2. For a further description of the
tensile stress limitation at the top of the beam for Location 1 at release, see Section 8.2.1.2.
Regions near the ends of the member do not receive the benefit of bending stresses due to member weight.
Therefore, these regions may be more critical at transfer than the midspan section. It should be noted that the
very end of the member has zero stress. A finite distance from the end, called the transfer length, is required for
the prestress to be fully transferred to the concrete through bond between the concrete and steel. Thus, for
straight strands that are bonded throughout member length, the critical section for transfer stresses is at the end
of the transfer length at Location 1 shown in Figure 8.2.1.1-1
There are several methods to relieve excessive stresses at Location 1. They include the following:
a. Harping, where some of the strands are deflected upward from one or two points in the member to
decrease the end eccentricity.
b. Debonding, where the strands are kept straight but are wrapped in plastic over a predetermined distance
to eliminate concrete bond and thus reduce the prestressing force; or
c. A combination of harping and debonding.
d. Top straight strands that are only bonded near the beam ends.
The amount of harping, debonding, or top strands is a design parameter intended to reduce the concrete
compressive or tensile stress near the ends of a member.
Concrete tensile stresses in the top fibers at Location 1 in Stage 3 are also a critical design parameter. These
stresses are often controlled by providing straight top strands. It is advisable to use strand whenever possible (as
opposed to bars) because strand tends to be more readily available and less expensive. Top strand may be
stressed to a nominal 10 to 15 ksi tension, unless higher prestress is needed to control bottom concrete
compression. The nominal amount of tension in the strands provides taut straight lines, which may be useful in
providing firm and accurate anchors for attachment of nonprestressed reinforcement.

8.2.1.1.4 Stage 4 Loading: Member Installation

Stage 4 represents conditions several weeks to several months after prestress transfer. Camber growth and
prestress losses are design factors at this stage. If a CIP composite deck is placed, its top surface must follow the
required roadway profile. Field adjustments to the haunch (fillet) thickness above the beam top flanges are
usually needed to provide the required grade. Reliable estimates of deflection and camber are needed to prevent
fillet thickness from being excessive, to avoid intrusion of the top flange of the beam into the deck, or to avoid
adjustments of beam seats or roadway approaches. Stresses at this stage are generally not critical.

8.2.1.1.5 Stage 5 Loading: Full-Service Load

Stage 5 is assumed to occur after an extended period of time during which all prestress losses have occurred and
service loads are at their maximum. In contrast to Stage 3, Stage 5 is the condition described as “service load after
losses,” or “maximum service load, minimum prestress.” The tensile stress in the bottom fibers of the midspan
section (Location 2) generally controls the design. The magnitude of this stress depends on the live load factor
used in design as discussed in Section 8.2.2.

8.2.1.1.5.1 Concrete Tensile Stresses

Depending on the severity of exposure and local practices, the concrete tensile stress limit varies from zero to
0.19λ√𝑓𝑐′ (ksi), where λ is the concrete density modification factor taken as 1.0 for normal weight concrete.
Generally, it is not advisable to exceed a tensile stress of 0.19λ√𝑓𝑐′ (ksi) because cracking might occur under
service loads. Some engineers have proposed that prestressed concrete members be allowed to crack, similar to
conventionally reinforced concrete design. However, until crack control, fatigue, and deflection control issues are
well researched and design criteria established, the stress should be maintained below cracking in the positive
moment zone at service limit states.

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.1.1.5.2 Tensile Stresses – Service III Limit State Load Combination/8.2.1.3 Design Procedure

8.2.1.1.5.2 Tensile Stresses—Service III Limit State Load Combination

The selection of the live load factor for use with the Service III Limit State load combination is either 0.8 or 1.0,
depending on the method used to calculate the prestress losses and gains. Refer to Section 8.2.2 for further
discussion.

8.2.1.2 Concrete Stress Limits

LRFD Article 5.9.2.3 specifies the following stress limits for concrete at transfer:
1. Compression for pretensioned or post-tensioned members, 0.65𝑓𝑐𝑖′
2. Tension:
a. In areas without bonded reinforcement, 0.0948λ√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≤ 0.2 ksi
b. In areas with bonded reinforcement (reinforcing bars or prestressing steel) sufficient to resist
the tensile force in the concrete computed assuming an uncracked section, where reinforcement
is proportioned using a stress of 0.5fy, not to exceed 30 ksi, 0.24 λ√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ , ksi
The following are stress limits for concrete at service limit state (for more information about load combinations,
see Section 7.3.2 of this manual):
1. Compressive stresses using the Service I Limit State load combination: [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3.2a]
a. Due to effective prestress and permanent (dead) load (beam self weight, deck slab weight,
diaphragm weight, wearing surface and barrier weights), 0.45𝑓𝑐′ , ksi
b. Due to effective prestress and permanent and transient loads (all dead loads and live loads) and
during shipping and handling, 0.60ɸw𝑓𝑐′ , ksi
2. Tensile stresses investigated for both longitudinal traffic loading using the Service III Limit State load
combination and traffic loadings in transverse analysis of box beam bridges using the Service I Limit State
load combination: [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3.2b]
a. For components with bonded prestressing tendons or reinforcement subjected to not worse than
moderate corrosion conditions, 0.19 λ√𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 0.6 ksi.
b. For components with bonded prestressing tendons or reinforcement subjected to severe
corrosive conditions, 0.0948λ√𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 0.3 ksi.
c. For components with unbonded prestressing, no tension is allowed.
3. Principal tensile stresses when using the Service III Limit State load combination: [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3.3]
a. For webs of superstructure elements, both before and after all losses and redistribution of forces,
0.110λ√𝑓𝑐′ , ksi
The reduction factor ϕw should be taken equal to 1.0 when the web and flange slenderness ratio, calculated
according to LRFD Article 5.6.4.7.1 for hollow rectangular cross sections, is not greater than 15. For most beams,
ϕw = 1.
Principal tensile stress limits apply to post-tensioned superstructures with internal and/or external tendons, as
well as to pretensioned beams with a compressive strength of concrete for use in design greater than 𝑓𝑐′ = 10 ksi.
Experience has shown that the cracking in the webs of conventional pretensioned beams with a compressive
strength of concrete for use in design equal to or less than 10.0 ksi has not been a problem. Because the maximum
principal tensile stress may not occur at the neutral axis, several locations along the height of the web should be
checked. For precast concrete sections made composite with a CIP deck, the principal tensile stress near both the
noncomposite and composite neutral axes should be checked.

8.2.1.3 Design Procedure

Generally, the tensile stresses at midspan due to full dead and live loads plus effective prestress (after losses)
control the design. The following steps are used when a design is manually developed:
1. Compute the extreme fiber tensile stress at midspan due to beam self weight plus any other
noncomposite loads (such as the deck, SIP deck forms, haunches, diaphragms, etc.) applied to the beam
section only. Use the Service III Limit State load combination of the LRFD Specifications, with a live load
factor of 1.0 or 0.8, depending on the method used to calculate prestress losses and gains.

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.1.3 Design Procedure/8.2.1.4.1 Theory

2. Compute the net stress, fb, due to loads in Steps 1 minus the tensile stress limit. This net stress is the
stress that needs to be offset by prestressing:
𝑃𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑐
+
𝐴 𝑆𝑏
where
Pse = effective prestressing force after allowing for all losses
ec = eccentricity of the strand at midspan
A = area of cross section of precast concrete beam
Sb = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam
Using the net stress calculated above, solve the equation for Pse. The estimated number of strands =
Pse/[(area of one strand)(fpe)], where fpe is the effective prestress after all losses, which may be
approximated as 25% total loss for Grade 270 strand.
3. Perform a detailed calculation of prestress losses using the appropriate live load factor and, if necessary
repeat Step2.
4. Check stresses at the ends (transfer length) and midspan at transfer and at service. Check stresses at the
harp point at transfer when harping is used. Under typical load conditions, stresses at harp points do not
govern at the service limit state and are therefore not checked. Determine the amount of harping and/or
debonding required to control stresses at the end of the beam after transfer. This amount may be
determined by computing the required strand eccentricity, e, for the selected effective prestress, Pse,
when harping is used, or by computing the required effective prestress, Pse, for the given eccentricity, e,
when debonding is used.
5. Check the strength limit state.
6. If necessary, revise the number of strands and repeat Steps 3 and 4.

8.2.1.4 Composite Section Properties

8.2.1.4.1 Theory
Certain bridge superstructures such as I-beams and spread box beams require CIP concrete deck slabs to provide
a continuous riding surface. Sometimes, a CIP topping is provided for adjacent precast concrete members such as
solid slabs, voided slab beams, and box beams. When the CIP topping is adequately bonded or connected to the
precast concrete member, it provides a “composite section” that is capable of resisting superimposed loads
introduced after the deck concrete has cured.
Satisfactory composite action is achieved through verification that the interface shear is adequately resisted
through bond between the precast and the CIP concrete, and the addition of shear connectors where needed.
Composite (horizontal) shear design is considered in Section 8.5.
Once the composite deck has hardened, the member and deck is considered to act as a unit. The assumption that
plane sections remain plane after bending is considered to be valid for the entire depth of the composite member,
at all loading stages through ultimate capacity.
All loads placed on the bridge after the deck concrete has hardened are applied to the composite member. The
deck concrete usually has a lower compressive strength than the precast concrete; therefore, its modulus of
elasticity is also usually lower. The analysis for service limit state is simplified by transforming the deck concrete
into equivalent beam concrete to obtain a section with uniform material properties. This is done by reducing the
width of the CIP concrete using the modular ratio, n, of the CIP concrete to the precast concrete. It is generally
acceptable to use the modular ratio for the 28-day strength. In reality, the two concretes begin to interact with
one another when the deck concrete initially sets.
Designers are advised to specify sufficient field-curing procedures for the deck concrete. The concrete surface
should be covered with wet blankets as soon as the concrete is able to accept them, and the blankets should
remain in place for a period of at least 7 days. This field-curing process is important to avoid premature shrinkage
cracks in the CIP deck, especially over the piers in multi-span bridges with continuously cast decks. Time-
dependent analysis that accounts for differential creep and shrinkage of the two concretes may alter the stresses
obtained from the elastic analysis given in Section 8.2.1.4.2. However, analysis that includes these time-dependent
effects is complex and requires the use of specialized time-step creep modeling computer programs.

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure/8.2.1.6 Debonded Strand Considerations

8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
1. Compute modular ratio, n, between slab and beam concrete:
𝐸𝑐 (slab)
𝑛=
𝐸𝑐 (beam)
where Ec is modulus of elasticity of concrete.
2. Compute effective flange width:
For composite prestressed concrete where the slab or flanges are assumed to act [LRFD Art.
integrally with the precast concrete beam, the effective flange width may be 4.6.2.6.1]
calculated as follows:
• For interior beams, effective flange width may be taken as one-half the distance to the adjacent beam on
each side of the component.
• For exterior beams, effective flange width may be taken as one-half the distance to the adjacent beam
plus the full overhang width.
• For closed precast concrete boxes, the distance between the outside of webs at their tops is used in lieu of
the web thickness, and the spacing is taken as the spacing between the centerlines of boxes.
3. Compute transformed section properties:
Transformed flange width = (𝑛)(effective flange width)
If the haunch is considered in the composite section properties, its width should be transformed before it is used
in calculations. Note that the haunch thickness should not be included unless the design drawings show a
minimum thickness specified after adjustment for camber and deflection.

8.2.1.5 Harped Strand Considerations

When concrete stresses exceed stress limits, strand harping becomes an attractive option to reduce prestress
eccentricity. The designer should be familiar with the practices and limitations of local precast concrete
producers when considering whether or not the calculated force and harp angle can be tolerated. The following
are some options to consider if the hold-down force exceeds that which the fabricators can accommodate:
• Split the strands into two or more groups with separate hold downs.
• Change the slope of harp by moving harp points closer to centerline of the beam, or by lowering harp
elevation at beam ends, or both. Refer to Chapter 3 for additional discussion on uplift force and harp angle.
• Decrease the number of harped strands.
• Use debonding instead of harping, or combine debonding with harping to reduce harping requirements. Refer
to Chapter 3, Section 3.3.2.2, for additional details.

8.2.1.6 Debonded Strand Considerations

An alternative to strand harping is to reduce the total prestress force by debonding some strands at the ends of
members. After prestress is transferred to the concrete member, the debonded length of the strand has zero
stress. Strand debonding may be more economical than harping for some precast concrete producers. However,
designers should take into account the effects of the reduction of precompression as well as the loss of the vertical
component of prestress, which contributes to shear resistance near the member ends.
To ensure adequate performance, LRFD Article 5.9.4.3.3 provides the following design provisions for use with
debonded prestressing strands:
1. The number of debonded strands in any horizontal row shall not exceed 45% of the strands in that row.
2. The number of debonded strands that are terminated at any section shall be limited to no more than 6
strands. Where a total of 10 or fewer strands are debonded, the number of debonded strands shall be limited
to 4 strands at any given section.
3. Longitudinal spacing of debonding termination locations shall be at least 60 strand diameters apart.
4. Debonded strands shall be symmetrically distributed about the centerline of the member.

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.1.6 Debonded Strand Considerations

5. Bonded and debonded strand locations shall be alternated both horizontally and vertically.
6. The calculated strand development length at the end of a debonded strand shall be determined using LRFD
Eq. (5.9.4.3.2-1) with a value of κ = 2.0, where ĸ = multiplier for development length.
7. For simple-span precast, prestressed concrete beams, debonding length from the beam end should be limited
to 20% of the span length or one-half the span length minus the development length, whichever is less.
8. For simple-span precast concrete beams made continuous, the interaction between debonding and restraint
moments from time-dependent effects shall be considered.
9. For single-web flanged sections:
a. Bond all strands within the horizontal limits of the web when the total number of debonded strands
exceeds 25%.
b. Bond all strands within the horizontal limits of the web when the bottom flange–to–web width ratio,
bf/bw, exceeds 4.
c. Bond the outermost strands in all rows located within the full-width section of the flange.
d. Position debonded strands furthest from the vertical centerline.
10. For multi-web sections having bottom flanges:
a. Uniformly distribute debonded strands between webs.
b. Bond strands within 1.0 times the web width projection.
c. Bond the outermost strands located within the section.
11. For all other sections:
a. Debond strands uniformly across the width of the section.
b. Bond the outermost strands located within the section, stem, or web.
Although Item 5 states that bonded strands and debonded strands shall be alternated, it may not always be
possible. The intent is to avoid having adjacent debonded strands. The debonding rules presented here and their
effects are further discussed by Bayrak (2019; 2020).
Research on prestressing strands with debonding limits up to 60% overall and 80% per row has shown
satisfactory results (Shahrooz, et al., 2017). However, the 45% limitation was chosen based on concern over long-
term behavior of prestressing strands with higher debonding percentages. Bonding the outermost strands is
necessary to minimize cracking near the surface caused by the Hoyer effect, and tying of nonprestressed
reinforcement to the debonding material is not desirable. Figure 8.2.1.6-1 shows the requirements in the LRFD
Specifications regarding the locations where strands must be bonded.

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.1.6 Debonded Strand Considerations/8.2.1.7 Minimum Strand Cover and Spacing

Figure 8.2.1.6-1 [LRFD Fig. C5.9.4.3.3-1 and C5.9.4.3.3-1-2]

Locations where Strands Are Required to Be Bonded

Strand debonding over the full length of the beam is also used to allow the casting of members with different
numbers of strands in the same bed, and to prevent concrete bond to strands that are used to limit temporary
handling and shipping stresses. Debonding is also used to prevent bonding of temporary post-tensioning strands
or strands bonded only in the end regions that are detensioned after they are no longer needed. The debonded
strands do not count in the computations and prescriptive LRFD articles noted previously, except under the web
when checking for web crushing in accordance with LRFD Eq. (5.7.3.3-2).

8.2.1.7 Minimum Strand Cover and Spacing

The LRFD Specifications is unclear regarding concrete cover over prestressing strand in precast concrete beams.
For precast concrete soffit form panels (SIP deck panels), the minimum cover is 0.80 in., and for members subject
to severe to moderate exposure, the minimum is 2.0 in. regardless of whether the member is precast or cast in
place. It is recommended here to use the 1.50-in. minimum cover previously specified in the AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges for bridge beams.
Figure 8.2.1.7-1 shows four possible strand patterns to accomplish various strand spacing and cover
requirements. Dimensions are to centerlines of strands. Pattern (d) would require a thicker bottom flange with
adjusted void depth if 1.5-in. clear cover is required over the second row to the void.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has approved use of ½-in.-diameter strand at a spacing of 1.75 in.,
and 0.6-in.-diameter strand at 2.00 in. on center. As a result, box beams, for example, may have two layers of ½-
in.-diameter strands in the bottom flange using one of the alternative patterns shown in Figure 8.2.1.7-1. If the
desired vertical strand spacing is 2 in., the bottom flange thickness may have to be increased to satisfy the
minimum cover requirements.

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8.2.1.7 Minimum Strand Cover and Spacing/8.2.1.8 Design Example

Figure 8.2.1.7-1
Alternative ½-in.-Diameter Strand Patterns for a Typical AASHTO Box Beam

8.2.1.8 Design Example

The following information is given for the bulb-tee Design Example 9.1a with 0.5-in.-diameter strands:
• Design span, L = 120.0 ft
• Self weight of the beam = 0.799 kips/ft
• Concrete strength at transfer, 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 5.800 ksi (This is an assumed value that must be checked later in the
design process.)
• Specified compressive strength to be used in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 6.500 ksi
• Prestressing strands: ½-in.-diameter, low-relaxation, 270 ksi steel
• Stress in the strand just after transfer, fsi = 192 ksi (This is an assumed value that must be calculated later
in the design process.)
• Strand stress after all losses, fpe =  ksi (This is an assumed value of 25% total loss that must be
calculated later in the design process.)
• Area of bulb-tee cross section, A = 767 in.2
• Section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast concrete section, Sb = 14,915 in.3
• Section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast concrete section, St = 15,421 in.3
• Distance from the centroid of the cross section to extreme bottom fiber, yb = 36.6 in.

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.1.8 Design Example/8.2.1.8.1 Determine the Number of Strands

Figure 8.2.1.8-1
Cross Section of the Bulb Tee

8.2.1.8.1 Determine the Number of Strands

Determine the amount of prestressing force required to limit the tensile stress in the bottom fiber at the midspan
section under Service III loads to a value not greater than 0.19λ√𝑓𝑐′ and 600 ksi. Then. determine the number
of strands.
First, calculate the bottom tensile stress due to applied dead and live loads using load combination Service III:
𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + (0.8)(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 = + + 𝑓𝑏𝑑𝑠
𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑐
where
fb = concrete tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam, ksi
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight = 1,438.2 ft-kips
Ms = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights = 1,659.6 ft-kips
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight = 180 ft-kips
Mws = unfactored bending moment due to future wearing surface = 360 ft-kips
MLT = unfactored bending moment due to truck load = 1815.5 ft-kips
MLL = unfactored bending moment due to lane loa = 836.5 ft-kips
𝑓𝑏𝑑𝑠 = tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam attributable to shrinkage of deck concrete = 0.267 ksi
(See Section 9.1a.5.1)
A live load factor of 0.8 is used in this example but a value of 1.0 may also be appropriate. The use of a live load
factor of 0.8 or 1.0 is discussed in Section 8.2.2.
Using values of bending moments from Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2 in Chapter 9, the bottom tensile stress at
midspan is:
(1,438.2 + 1,659.6) (180 + 360) + (0.8)(1,815.5 + 836.5)
𝑓𝑏 = (12) + (12) + (0.267) = 4.338 ksi(tension)
14,915 20,244

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8.2.1.8.1 Determine the Number of Strands/8.2.1.8.2 Check Service Level Stresses

The required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam is the difference between the bottom tensile
stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress limit:
fpb = (4.338 − 0.484) = 3.854 ksi
The calculations for the required number of strands are computed here at the midspan section. The design may
need to be checked at other locations where tensile stresses are higher (for example, exterior span members
made continuous with interior spans).
Assume the distance between the center of gravity of the bottom strands and the bottom fiber of the beam:
ybs = 0.05h = 0.05(72) = 3.60 in.; use ybs = 4.0 in.
Therefore, strand eccentricity at midspan ec = (yb − ybs) = (36.6 − 4.0) = 32.6 in.
If Ppe is the total prestressing force after all losses, the stress at the bottom fiber due to prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 (32.6)
𝑓𝑝𝑏 = + or 3.854 = +
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 767 14,915
Solving for Ppe, the required Ppe = 1.104 kips.
Since the prestressing force per strand is equal to 0.153 (152) = 23.26 kips, the required number of strands is
44.2 (use 48 strands), as shown in Figure 8.2.1.8.1-1.
Figure 8.2.1.8.1-1
Assumed Strand Pattern at Midspan

8.2.1.8.2 Check Service Level Stresses

The next step in the design example is to calculate the steel transformed section properties and prestress losses.
These new properties are then used to check the following service level stresses:
1. Concrete stresses after transfer of the prestressing force:
• Compressive and tensile stresses at the end of the transfer length
• Compressive and tensile stresses at the harp points or end of the debonding lengths, if used
• Compressive stresses at midspan
2. Concrete stresses at midspan under service load levels
• Compressive stress in the top of the beam due to permanent loads, Service I

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8.2.1.8.2 Check Service Level Stresses

• Compressive stress in the top of the beam due to permanent and transient loads, Service I
• Compressive stress in the top of the deck due to permanent loads, Service I
• Compressive stresses in the top of the deck due to permanent and transient loads, Service I
• Tensile stress in the bottom of the beam due to Service III
3. Concrete stress under Fatigue Limit State
• Compressive stress due to prestress and permanent loads, Fatigue I
4. Stress in the prestressing strands after all losses and gains, Service III

Service level stresses may be calculated using the following equations when steel transformed sections are used
as in Design Example 9.1a
1 𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 1 𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑘 (Eq. 8.2.1.8.2-1a)
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = 𝑓𝑝𝑗 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( − )+ − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( − )+
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝑛 𝑆𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑑𝑡
1 𝑒𝑛𝑐
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 ( − )
𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝑆𝑛𝑐𝑡
(𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 + 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 ) 1 𝑒𝑑
+ + ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( + )
𝑆𝑡𝑐𝑡 𝐴𝑡𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑐𝑡
1 𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 1 𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑘 (Eq. 8.2.1.8.2-1b)
𝑓𝑏 = 𝑓𝑝𝑗 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + )− − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( + )−
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑏 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑏 𝐴𝑛 𝑆𝑛 𝑏 𝑆𝑡𝑑𝑏
1 𝑒𝑛𝑐
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 ( + )
𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝑆𝑛𝑐𝑏
(𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 + 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 ) 1 𝑒𝑑
− + ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( − )
𝑆𝑡𝑐𝑏 𝐴𝑡𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑐𝑏
where
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = stress top of beam
𝑓𝑏 = stress bottom of beam
𝑓𝑝𝑗 = stress in prestressing strand immediately before transfer
𝐴𝑝𝑠 = area of prestressing strand
𝐴𝑡𝑟 , 𝑒𝑡𝑟 , 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑡 , 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑏 = area, strand eccentricity, and section modulus (top or bottom) for steel transformed
beam cross section at transfer
Mbeam = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight
ΔfpSR = loss in prestressing steel stress from beam shrinkage between transfer and deck
casting
ΔfpCR = loss in prestressing steel stress from beam creep between transfer and deck casting
ΔfpR1 = loss in prestressing steel stress from strand relaxation between transfer and deck
casting
𝐴𝑛 , 𝑒𝑛 , 𝑆𝑛𝑡 , 𝑆𝑛𝑏 = area, strand eccentricity, and section modulus (top or bottom) of net beam cross
section
Mdeck = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights
𝑆𝑡𝑑 = section modulus (top or bottom) of steel transformed beam cross section at time of
deck placement
ΔfpSD = loss in prestressing steel stress due to beam shrinkage between deck casting and final
time
ΔfpCD = loss in prestressing steel stress due to beam creep between deck casting and final
time

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8.2.1.8.2 Check Service Level Stresses

ΔfpR2 = loss in prestressing steel stress from strand relaxation between deck casting and final
time
ΔfpSS = gain in prestressing steel stress due to shrinkage of deck concrete
𝐴𝑛𝑐 , 𝑒𝑛𝑐 , 𝑆𝑛𝑐𝑡 , 𝑆𝑛𝑐𝑏 = area, strand eccentricity, and section modulus (top or bottom) of net composite cross
section (Net composite is net section for composite deck plus beam, deck transformed
with deck/beam modular ratio.)
Mbarrier = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight
Moverlay = unfactored bending moment due to overlay
γLL = live load factor, 0.8 or 1.0
𝑆𝑡𝑐 = section modulus (top or bottom) of the steel transformed composite cross section
MLL+IM = unfactored bending moment due to live load and impact
∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 = restraining force due to deck shrinkage
𝐴𝑡𝑐 = area of steel transformed composite section
𝑒𝑑 = eccentricity of the centroid of deck relative to center of gravity of steel transformed
composite section
Equations (8.2.1.8.2-1a and b) use net section properties for computing beam concrete stresses due to prestress
losses. Equilibrium requires that the change in force in the prestressing strand due to losses is equal to the change
in force on the net concrete section. As an acceptable simplification, net properties can be approximated with
gross beam and gross composite deck/beam properties. For a more conservative result, the stress in the beam
due to shrinkage of deck concrete is based on gross section properties as discussed in Section 8.6.7.3. In making
these simplifications, Eq. (8.2.1.8.2-1a and b) becomes:
1 𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 1 𝑒𝑔 𝑀𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑘 (Eq. 8.2.1.8.2-2a)
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = 𝑓𝑝𝑗 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( − )+ − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( − )+
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑔𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑑𝑡
1 𝑒𝑔𝑐
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 ( − )
𝐴𝑔𝑐 𝑆𝑔𝑐𝑡
(𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 + 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 ) 1 𝑒𝑑
− + ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( + )
𝑆𝑡𝑐𝑡 𝐴𝑔𝑐 𝑆𝑔𝑐𝑡

1 𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 1 𝑒𝑔 𝑀𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑘 (Eq. 8.2.1.8.2-2b)

𝑓𝑏 = 𝑓𝑝𝑗 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + )− − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( + )−
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑏 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑏 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑔𝑏 𝑆𝑡𝑑𝑏
1 𝑒𝑔𝑐
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 ( + )
𝐴𝑔𝑐 𝑆𝑔𝑐
(𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 + 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 ) 1 𝑒𝑑
− + ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( − )
𝑆𝑡𝑐𝑏 𝐴𝑔𝑐 𝑆𝑔𝑐𝑏

where
𝐴𝑔 , 𝑒𝑔 , 𝑆𝑔𝑡 , 𝑆𝑔𝑏 = area, strand eccentricity, and section modulus (top or bottom) for gross beam cross
section
𝐴𝑔𝑐 , 𝑒𝑔𝑐 , 𝑆𝑔𝑐𝑡 , 𝑆𝑔𝑐𝑏 = area, strand eccentricity, and section modulus (top or bottom) for gross composite
cross section (Gross composite is gross section for composite deck and beam, with
deck transformed with deck/beam modular ratio.)

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8.2.1.8.2 Check Service Level Stresses/8.2.1.8.3.1 Strand Debonding

In Eq. (8.2.1.8.2-2a and b):

1 𝑒𝑡𝑟
The term 𝑓𝑝𝑗 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( ∓ ) is the stress caused by the prestressing force at transfer.
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟
𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚
The term is the stress caused by the beam self weight.
𝑆𝑡𝑟

1 𝑒𝑔
The term 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( ∓ ) is the stress change caused by the prestress losses between
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑔
transfer and deck placement.
𝑀𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑘
The term is the stress caused by deck self weight.
𝑆𝑡𝑑

1 𝑒𝑔𝑐
The term 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 ( ∓ ) is the stress change caused by prestress losses
𝐴𝑔𝑐 𝑆𝑔𝑐
between deck placement and final time.
(𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 +𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦 +𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 )
The term is the stress caused by the weight of barriers, wearing surface, and live load.
𝑆𝑡𝑐

1 𝑒𝑑
The term ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( ± ) is the stress caused by deck shrinkage.
𝐴𝑔𝑐 𝑆𝑔𝑐

When calculating service stresses due to only permanent loads, the live load factor, γLL, is taken as zero.
Applications of Eq. 8.2.1.8.2-2a and b are illustrated in Section 9.1a.8.2 in Chapter 9.

8.2.1.8.2.1 Changes in Design Method

The 1st and 2nd editions of the PCI Bridge Design Manual included design examples using an effective prestressing
force, which was calculated as the prestressing force before transfer minus the calculated prestress losses. The
effective prestressing force was then used with the gross section properties at final time to calculate service level
stresses. This method was an approximation to simplify the design process and sufficiently conservative for
design.
The 3rd edition of this manual introduced the use of steel transformed section properties rather than gross section
properties into the calculation of service level stresses. The use of an effective prestressing force was retained.
When steel transformed section properties are used, the predicted stresses are lower than those predicted when
gross section properties are used. The difference is generally less than 10%. However, this method produces a
more economical beam design and can be beneficial when load rating an existing structure designed by previous
specifications. Nevertheless, the design method is still an approximate method.
Design examples in Chapter 9 of this edition of the manual introduce a more rational method by calculating
concrete stresses in a series of increments, as described in Section 8.2.1.8.2, above rather than using an effective
prestressing force. As shown in Eq (8.2.1.8.2-2), steel transformed section properties are used except for
prestress losses. Prestress losses are applied to the net section in two stages: before and after deck placement.
However, to avoid the calculation of net section properties, gross section properties are used in Eq. (8.2.1.8.2-2).
The differences between net section properties and gross section properties are small. See Section 8.6.7.2 for
further discussion about the use of gross, net, or transformed section properties.

8.2.1.8.3 Control of Service Load Stresses Near Beam Ends

The LRDF Specifications requires that service load stress limits be satisfied at all sections along the beam. In
practice, this usually means checking the stresses at about the tenth points of the span. If the concrete stress
limits at the ends of the beam are exceeded, debonding and/or harping some strands may be used to control the
concrete stresses.

8.2.1.8.3.1 Strand Debonding

Strand debonding or shielding consists of wrapping strands with a material to prevent them from bonding to the
concrete. The number of debonded strands, length of debonding, and strand arrangement within a section should
be carefully determined. The LRFD Specifications provides guidelines that should be followed. In theory, all
strands could be debonded over the same length; however, in actual design, it is advisable to debond the strands
in several groups over different lengths.

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8.2.1.8.3.2 Harped Strands/8.2.2.1.1 The 0.80 Live Load Factor

8.2.1.8.3.2 Harped Strands

Strand harping is a way to reduce the eccentricity of the prestressing force toward the end of the beam. Details
are provided in Chapter 3 of this manual.
Strand harping offers two advantages over strand debonding:
• The average prestress is higher with strand harping.
• The vertical prestress component due to harping produces a shear force that “balances” part of the
shear due to gravity load.
However, there are two disadvantages associated with strand harping:
• Hold-down devices and the labor involved in harping may make it a more expensive solution.
• Only a limited number of strands can be harped.
The maximum number of strands to be harped is dictated by their location. Only strands that can be raised into
the webs may be harped. It is common practice to harp the strands at 0.30L to 0.45L from the member end, where
L is the span length. Also, harping should use the maximum possible slope, which corresponds to minimum cover
required of the top layer of harped strands. Also note that prestressing bed capacity may control the maximum
hold-down force of harped strands. In Design Example 9.1a, twelve ½-in.-diameter strands are harped over a
distance of approximately 0.4L.

8.2.1.8.3.3 Other Methods to Control Stresses

It is possible to combine harping strands with a minor amount of debonding. Finally, it is possible to control the
transfer stresses by means of temporary pretensioned, straight top strands. This option involves shielding the
strands for most of the member length, except perhaps 5 to 10 ft at each end of the member. The shielding will
allow this temporary prestress to be eliminated in most of the member length after it is no longer needed. When
enough gravity load is introduced, when the concrete strength is increased, or when time-dependent losses take
effect, the tension in these strands can be transferred by detensioning them through a preformed pocket.
Temporary strands may be used to control stresses during transportation. It may also be necessary to remove
these temporary strands after beam erection.
Experience and research indicate that the use of fully tensioned top strands can significantly reduce or eliminate
the need for debonding strands, or for draping as a means to control concrete stresses at release. The addition of
fully tensioned top strands significantly reduces tension in the end regions of pretensioned members.
Furthermore, design calculations show that the addition of fully tensioned top strands has little effect on the
bottom fiber tension of pretensioned members during release or at service loads. Experience in a large number of
built projects suggests that 5% to 10% of the total strand count, fully tensioned near the tops of pretensioned
bridge beams has been used successfully to mitigate cracking near end regions of pretensioned bridge beams
(Jayaseelan and Russell, 2018; Russell, 2018).

8.2.1.8.4 Check for Fatigue

LRFD Article 5.5.3.1 exempts fully prestressed components that satisfy the required tensile stress limits of the
Service III Limit State from the general fatigue check for reinforcement. Fatigue of concrete in compression is very
unlikely to occur in actual practice. However, the LRFD Specifications addresses this issue by setting a maximum
concrete compressive stress limit due to full live load combined with one-half of permanent loads plus effective
prestress.

8.2.2 Load Factors for Service III Limit State Load Combination
8.2.2.1 Background
The live load factor for use with the Service III Limit State load combination is either 0.8 or 1.0, depending on the
method used to calculate the prestress losses and gains. The following sections explain how the two values were
determined and offer an interpretation.

8.2.2.1.1 The 0.80 Live Load Factor

Before publication of the first edition of the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 1994), trial designs indicated that
prestressed concrete beams designed according to the proposed LRFD Specifications required more prestressing

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8.2.2.1.1 The 0.80 Live Load Factor/8.2.2.1.2 Prestress Loss Calculations

strands than were required for similar beams designed by the AASHTO Standard Specifications. To provide
consistency between the two design methods, the Service III Limit State load combination with a live load factor
of 0.8 was introduced. This adjustment was an acknowledgment of the satisfactory service performance of the
very large number of bridges designed according to the Standard Specifications. With the 0.8 live load factor,
designs using the two specifications gave approximately the same number of strands, except when the designs
were for long spans where the LRFD Specifications required more strands than the Standard Specifications.
The load factor of 0.8, as originally conceived, acknowledged what had been known before adoption of the LRFD
Specifications, namely:
• for nearly all bridge designs with pretensioned beams, the service load check for tensile stress limits
controlled the design for the number, location, and size of prestressing strands, and
• the number of strands required by the service load check ensured, in almost every design case, that the
flexural strength requirements of the LRFD Specifications were satisfied.
Thus, before the adoption of the LRFD Specifications, and even with the adoption of the Service III load factor of
0.8, the safety, strength, and reliability of prestressed concrete bridges were not affected. Furthermore, the
adoption of the Service III load factor of 0.8 for the specific purpose of tension stresses at bottom fibers of
prestressed concrete (pretensioned and post-tensioned) beams acknowledges that the industry had a
considerable history of pretensioned concrete beam bridges that did not experience any problems with service
level tension near their mid regions. Therefore, the change from the Standard Specifications to the LRFD
Specifications recognized that the strength and structural reliability of a prestressed concrete bridge are not
affected by the Service III Limit State with a load factor of 0.8, plus the Service III load factor of 0.8 helped to
preserve satisfactory and reliable performance.

8.2.2.1.2 Prestress Loss Calculations

Figure 8.2.2.1.2-1 illustrates the evolution of the prestress loss calculations and Service III load factors for
prestressed concrete members. The last edition of the Standard Specifications (AASHTO, 2002) included simple
equations for the calculation of prestress losses caused by elastic shortening, concrete shrinkage, concrete creep,
and prestressing steel relaxation. As an alternative to the equations, the specifications also provided a table of
total losses. Beam designs were generally based on gross section properties.
Starting with the first edition (AASHTO,1994), the early versions of the LRFD Specifications included the following
two methods for calculating time-dependent prestress losses for prestressed nonsegmental members:
• Approximate lump-sum estimate of time-dependent losses
• Refined estimates of time-dependent losses

The first method provided a simplified expression for losses. The second method provided separate equations for
losses caused by concrete shrinkage, concrete creep, and steel relaxation. The second method was similar to the
method used in the Standard Specifications. Beam designs were still generally based on gross section properties.

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8.2.2.1.2 Prestress Loss Calculations/8.2.2.1.3 The 0.8 and 1.0 Live Load Factors

Figure 8.2.2.1.2-1
Evolution of Prestress Loss Calculations and Service III Load Factors

In the 2005 Interim Revisions of the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2005), the provisions for the calculation of
prestress losses were rewritten based on NCHRP Report 496 (Tadros et al., 2003). The revisions included the
following two methods for the calculation of losses for pretensioned beams:
• Approximate estimate of time-dependent losses ( Now LRFD Art. 5.9.3.3 of the 9th Edition)
• Refined estimates of time-dependent losses ( Now LRFD Art. 5.9.3.4 of the 9th Edition)

The approximate and refined estimate methods introduced the concept of gains in the stress in the prestressing
strand due to deck weight, superimposed dead load, live load, and deck shrinkage into the calculations. Before
this change, AASHTO equations for prestress losses were based on the assumption that gross section properties
were used in the concrete stress calculations and the effects of gains were embedded in the formulation. When
using steel transformed section properties, the gains are implicitly included.
The 2005 Interim Revisions limited creep of beam concrete between time of deck placement and final time to a
value greater than or equal to zero, thus not allowing gains. The fourth edition of the LRFD Specifications
(AASHTO, 2007) removed this restriction, thereby allowing a gain as part of the loss calculations.

8.2.2.1.3 The 0.8 and 1.0 Live Load Factors

Based on a calibration study, NCHRP Web-Only Document 201 (Wassef, et al., 2014) recommended the following
for the live load factors for Service III limit state load combination, γLL:
Load Factors for Live Load for Service III Load Combination, γ LL

Component γLL

Prestressed concrete components designed using a refined time step method to determine the 0.8
time-dependent prestressing losses in conjunction with the gross section properties and without
taking advantage of the elastic gain
All other prestressed concrete components 1.0

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8.2.2.1.3 The 0.8 and 1.0 Live Load Factors/8.2.2.2 Definitions

According to NCHRP Web-Only Document 201, the proposed increase in the load factor from 0.8 to1.0 for live
load for Service III was based on comparing sections designed using provisions from the pre-2005 LRFD
Specifications and provisions from the post-2005 LRFD Specifications. The Refined Estimates of Time-Dependent
Losses with no exceptions in combination with gross section properties was used in the calibration.
According to Commentary C3.4.1 in the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2016), the calibration of the service limit
states for concrete components in NCHRP Web-Only Document 201 (Wassef, et al., 2014) concluded that typical
components designed using the Refined Estimates of Time-Dependent Losses method incorporated in the
specifications in 2005, which includes the use of transformed sections and elastic gains, have a lower reliability
index against flexural cracking at the Service III Limit State in prestressed concrete components than components
designed using the prestress loss calculation method specified prior to 2005, which was based on gross sections
and did not included elastic gains. For components designed using the currently specified method for
instantaneous prestress losses and gains and the currently specified Refined Estimates of Time-Dependent Losses
method, a live load factor increase from 0.8 to 1.0 was required to maintain the level of reliability against flexural
cracking of prestressed concrete components at the Service III Limit State. In the process of implementing the
proposed change into the 2016 Interim Revisions to the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2016), the wording about
the live load factors for Service III Limit State load combination, γLL, was revised to that shown in Table 3.4.1-4.
Table 3.4.1-4
AASHTO Load Factors for Live Load for Service III Load Combination, γ LL
Component γLL
Prestressed concrete components designed using the refined estimates of time-dependent losses 1.0
as specified in [LRFD] Article 5.9.5.4 in conjunction with taking advantage of elastic gain
All other prestressed concrete components 0.8
Thus, the live load factor became related to the method used to calculate long-term prestress losses and the
effective prestressing force. Elastic gains, however, were not defined.
Note that Article 5.9.5.4 was referenced in Table 3.4.1-4 in the 2016 Interim Revisions to the LRFD Specifications.
Chapter 5 was reorganized in the eighth edition of the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2017) and Article 5.9.5.4
became Article 5.9.3.4; however, Table 3.4.1-4 was not revised in the eighth edition to reflect the new article
number. A crosswalk between the equations in the seventh and eighth editions of the LRFD Specifications is
available as Appendix E5 of the eighth and ninth editions of the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2017; 2020).

8.2.2.2 Definitions
Gains and losses—Changes in the stress in the prestressing strands. These are caused by time-dependent effects
such as concrete creep, concrete shrinkage, and strand relaxation, and external load effects such as self weight,
elastic shortening, superimposed dead loads, and live loads.
Elastic gain—A gain in the stress in the prestressing strands associated with load effects, including member self
weight; other permanent dead loads such as decks and barrier rails; live loads; temperature loads; and gains
associated with concrete creep, concrete shrinkage, continuity post-tensioning, and other permanent sources of
tension increases in the strands. The current LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2020) refers to elastic gains in
Commentary C5.9.3.2.3a and in Table 3.4.1-4 with Commentary C3.4.1, as noted previously.
In the time-step method, gains in the stress in the prestressing strands caused by nonrecoverable effects such as
moment redistribution due to creep in segmental structures are also termed “elastic gains” but do not include
transient gains. Thermal effects and thermal gradient impacts are treated as superimposed loads and not
considered with the loss calculations. This method is just like the treatment of live loading.
Implicit gain—A change in strand stress that is included in a beam concrete stress computation by strain
compatibility using transformed section properties.
Explicit gain—A change in strand stress that is estimated using the product of the change in concrete stress at
the level of the prestressing strand and the modular ratio of prestressing strand and beam concrete. The product
of the area of prestressing strand and the explicit gain is treated as an externally applied force to the gross
concrete section when computing beam concrete stress.

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8.2.2.2 Definitions/8.2.2.3 Prestress Losses and Gains

Transient gain—A gain in the stress in the prestressing strands due to short-term loads such as, but not limited
to, live loads, daily temperature variations, or seasonal temperature variations. Transient gains are specific types
of elastic gains.
Permanent gain—A gain in the stress in the prestressing strands associated with permanent load effects.
Sources of these stress gains include the application of member self weight, other permanent dead loads such as
decks and barrier rails, and gains associated with concrete creep, concrete shrinkage, continuity post-tensioning,
and other permanent sources of increases in tensile stress in the strands.
Gross section—A cross section defined by the outline of the concrete section only. The presence of
reinforcement, ducts, and small holes (debonding) are not considered. See Figure 8.2.2.2-1a for the gross section
of a precast, pretensioned concrete beam.
Net section—Concrete gross section with areas deducted at the locations of reinforcement and other
nonconcrete elements. See Figure 8.2.2.2-1b.
Steel transformed section—A cross section in which the prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement are
transformed into an equivalent area of concrete. See Figure 8.2.2.2-1c.
Figure 8.2.2.2-1
Beam Cross Sections

(a) Gross Section (b) Net Section (c) Steel Transformed

Section

8.2.2.3 Prestress Losses and Gains

The current LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2020) includes the following three methods for determining time-
dependent prestress losses:
• Approximate Estimate of Time-Dependent Losses (LRFD Article 5.9.3.3)—This is the simplest and least-
refined method. It requires a single step to estimate the time-dependent losses. The losses were derived
as approximations of the terms in the refined method for a wide range of standard pretensioned concrete
I-beams and inverted-tee beams. Some engineers have stated this method should also have a live load
factor, γLL, of 1.0 rather than 0.8 since the method was calibrated from the same data used in LRFD Article
5.9.3.4. Design Example 9.1d illustrates this method in combination with gross section properties.
• Refined Estimates of Time-Dependent Losses (LRFD Article 5.9.3.4)—This method is more detailed than
the approximate estimate method and requires a two-step set of calculations for pretensioned beams.
The first step is for the time beginning at release of the strands until the time just before deck placement.
The second step is for the time beginning with deck placement and thereafter until final time. This
method is used in most of the design examples in Chapter 9 for precast, pretensioned concrete beams.
This method can also be used to estimate prestress losses at other intermediate time steps such as at
time of hauling and erection, which are needed for stability analysis.

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8.2.2.3 Prestress Losses and Gains/8.2.2.4 Gross Section Properties or Steel Transformed Section Properties

• Losses in Multi-Stage Prestressing (LRFD Article 5.9.3.5)—This analysis method, called “the time-step
method,” is highly refined and is based on tracking the changes in the material properties with time. Details
of the method are discussed in Section 8.13. The loss calculations are based on the time of the application
of loads and the material properties at the time of load application. Stress analysis is often simplified by
using nontransformed properties, which ignore the interaction between concrete and reinforcement, Use
of this method is required in the design of segmental construction and post-tensioned spliced precast
concrete beams, but details are not specifically provided in the LRFD Specifications. This loss method is
generally used for any prestressed concrete structure. It can be used for design of bridges that combine
pretensioned, precast concrete with post-tensioned concrete that is either cast-in-place and/or precast.
Refer to Section 8.13 for additional guidance on the time-step analysis method and Chapter 14 of this
manual for additional guidance on precast concrete segmental bridges This method for calculating losses
should not be confused with the “Refined Estimates of Time-Dependent Losses” method, which is a specific
method defined in LRFD Article 5.9.3.4.
In addition to the three methods described in the preceding bullet points, the first paragraph of Article 5.4.2.3.1 in
the ninth edition of the LRFD Specifications states, “Values of creep and shrinkage, specified herein and in Article
5.9.3.3 and 5.9.3.4, shall be used to determine the effects of creep and shrinkage on the loss of prestressing force
in bridges other than segmentally constructed ones.”
LRFD Article 5.4.2.3.1 further states the following:
“Where mix-specific data are not available, estimates of shrinkage and creep may be made using the
provisions of any of the following:
• Articles 5.4.2.3.2 and 5.4.2.3.3
• The FIP Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010 (CEB 2010)
• CEB/FIP Model Code for Concrete Structures 1990 (CEB 1990), or
• ACI 209.”
A revision to the above list has been approved for publication in the forthcoming 10th edition of the LRFD
Specifications. For segmentally constructed bridges, the 10th edition will only allow the use of the second and third
bulleted items. One of these two alternatives is generally used along with gross section properties in the time-step
analysis method. The prestress loss methods introduced in the 2005 Interim Revisions to the LRFD Specifications
(AASHTO, 2005) did not affect the time-step method. Therefore, the increase in the Service III live load factor
from 0.8 to 1.0, as determined by the calibrations study (Wassef, et al., 2014), should not be applied to sections
designed using the time-step method.
Calculations using the approximate estimate method or the refined estimates for time-dependent losses method
introduce the calculation of elastic gains in the stress in the prestressing strand. The gains occur when permanent
loads such as deck and barriers are added to the bridge, when live loads are applied to the bridge, and as the deck
concrete shrinks. For prestressed concrete members with bonded tendons, the elastic gain in the strand stress is
calculated by multiplying the resulting stress gain in the concrete at the center of gravity of the prestressing force
by the modular ratio of the strand and concrete. Note that the load application that produces an increase in the
strand stress also causes a decrease in the compressive stress in the concrete at the bottom of the beam at
midspan in simply supported beams. In LRFD Article 5.9.3.4, the gains are assumed to increase the effective stress
in only the prestressing strands and, thus, may not represent the state of the stress in the concrete.

8.2.2.4 Gross Section Properties or Steel Transformed Section Properties

The equations for prestress losses in pretensioned applications developed in the NCHRP 496 project (Tadros, et
al., 2003) are based on steel transformed and concrete net section properties. The equations adopted for LRFD
Articles 5.9.3.3 and 5.9.3.4 use gross section properties. When these equations are used in conjunction with elastic
gains, they closely approximate results obtained using steel transformed and net section properties. LRFD Article
5.9.1.3 states that “For both pretensioned or post-tensioned members after bonding of tendons, section
properties may be based on either the gross or transformed section.” As illustrated separately in both Tables
8.2.2.4-1 and 8.2.2.4-2, the two approaches result in similar values for prestress losses. One difference between
the two approaches relates to the calculation of elastic gains in the prestressing strand. When steel transformed
section properties are used, the gains are implicit (included) in the calculations; however, the gains must be

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 8
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.2.4 Gross Section Properties or Steel Transformed Section Properties

calculated explicitly (separately) when using gross section properties. Implicit and explicit calculations are
discussed further in Section 8.6.6.2.
Table 8.2.2.4-1
Comparison of Service III Tensile Stresses Losses Using Different Loss Methods and Inclusion of Elastic Gains
from the 3rd Edition of the BDM
Force in
Service III
Total Prestressing
Design Prestress Service III Tensile
Cross Elastic Time- Strand Used
Example Loss Live Load Stress in
Section Gains Dependent to Calculate
Number Method Factor Bottom of
Losses, ksi Beam
Beam*
Stress, kips
Refined Included,
Steel
(LRFD implicit to
9.1a trans- 0.8 25.0 1,304 0.154
Article transformed
formed
5.9.3.4) section
Refined
Included,
(LRFD
9.1b Gross calculated 0.8 24.1 1.232 –0.034
Article
explicitly
5.9.3.4)
Approximate Included,
Steel
(LRFD implicit to
9.1c trans- 0.8 25.5 1,300 0.165
Article transformed
formed
5.9.3.3) section
Note: Design examples in the table were included in the third edition of this manual and are archived on the
PCI website. They were based on the 2010 and the 2011 Interim Revisions to the fifth edition of the LRFD
Specifications. When Chapter 5 of the LRFD Specifications was reorganized in the eighth edition of the LRFD
Specifications (AASHTO, 2017), the LRFD equation numbers were changed. A crosswalk between the equations
in the seventh and eighth editions of the LRFD Specifications is available as Appendix E5 in the eighth and ninth
editions of the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2017; 2020).
*A negative sign indicates a tensile stress.

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.2.4 Gross Section Properties or Steel Transformed Section Properties/8.2.2.6 Recommendations

Table 8.2.2.4-2
Comparison of Service III Tensile Stresses Losses Using Different Loss Methods and Inclusion of Elastic Gains
from the 4th Edition of the BDM
Force in
Service III
Total Prestressing
Design Prestress Service III Tensile
Cross Elastic Time- Strand Used
Example Loss Live Load Stress in
Section Gains Dependent to Calculate
Number Method Factor Bottom of
Losses, ksi Beam
Beam*
Stress, kips
Refined Included,
Steel
(LRFD implicit to
9.1a trans- 1.0 24.5 1,307 -0.436
Article transformed
formed
5.9.3.4) section
Refined
Included,
(LRFD
9.1b Gross calculated 1.0 23.6 1,314 -0.391
Article
explicitly
5.9.3.4)
9.1c Not included in the Fourth Edition
Approximate
(LRFD Not
9.1d Gross 0.8 25.5 1,300 -0.486
Article included
5.9.3.3)
Note: Design examples are located in Chapter 9 of this manual.
*A negative sign indicates a tensile stress.

8.2.2.5 Elastic Gains and Application of Service III Live Load Factor
The Service III stresses at the bottom of the beam, summarized in Table 8.2.2.4-2 for Design Examples 9.1a, 9.1b,
and 9.1d indicate that when the refined estimate of time-dependent Losses method is used for steel transformed
sections with elastic gains (𝛾𝐿𝐿 = 1.0), gross sections with elastic gains (𝛾𝐿𝐿 = 1.0), and gross sections neglecting
elastic gains (𝛾𝐿𝐿 = 0.8), the estimates have a uniform level of reliability with respect to crack control.
However, Design Example 9.1d shows that it is less conservative to use the approximate estimate of time-
Dependent Losses method with elastic gains, due to the application of the 0.8 Service III live load factor allowed in
LRFD Table 3.4.1-4. The application of 0.8 in this situation was a deliberate decision by AASHTO and was intended
to accommodate the evaluation of existing structures designed using post-2005 loss methods and the 0.8 Service
III live load factor. This decision is not consistent with the intent of the calibration study in NCHRP Web-Only
Report 201 (Wassef, et al., 2014).

8.2.2.6 Recommendations
Based on the information provided in previous sections, PCI and the American Segmental Bridge Institute have
developed Table 8.2.2.6-1 to clarify the application of the Service III live load factor.

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.2.6 Recommendations/8.2.3.1 Theory

Table 8.2.2.6-1
Live Load Factors for Service III Limit State Load Combination, γLL
γLL

Prestressed Concrete Components Designed Using Steel Trans-

Gross Section formed Section

Pretensioned members
Approximate method [LRFD Art. 5.9.3.3] with elastic gains 0.8* 0.8*
Approximate method [LRFD Art. 5.9.3.3] without elastic
0.8 †
gains
Refined method [LRFD Art. 5.9.3.4] with elastic gains 1.0 1.0
Refined method [LRFD Art. 5.9.3.4]without elastic gains 0.8 †
Pretensioned, post-tensioned, and combined pretensioned and post-tensioned members
Time-step analysis method [LRFD Art. 5.9.3.5] 0.8 ‡
* To achieve a higher reliability against concrete flexural cracking at Service III Limit State, some states have
adopted a policy for new designs of precast, pretensioned concrete beams of using the approximate method
defined in LRFD Article 5.9.3.3, a Service III live load factor of 1.0, and including elastic gains
†Not standard practice for this method. Elastic gains cannot be removed from transformed section calculations.
‡Industry standard practice for this method does not use steel transformed sections.

8.2.3 Strength Limit State

8.2.3.1 Theory
Approximate formulas for pretensioning steel stress at nominal flexural resistance are given in Article 5.6.3.1. of
the LRFD Specifications (see Section 8.2.3.2 in this manual). Use of these formulas simplifies the process of
calculating the nominal flexural resistance, Mn, by eliminating consideration of nonlinear material properties of
both concrete and prestressing steel at ultimate conditions termed the nominal resistance in the LRFD
Specifications. However, because of their simplified nature, these formulas should be used with caution, especially
beyond the limits for which they were developed. As will be shown in Section 8.2.3.5, the general strain
compatibility approach can be used to avoid difficulties in applying the approximate formulas or inaccuracies
associated with their use.
In addition to the standard assumptions used in flexural strength analysis (for example, equivalent rectangular
stress block with ultimate concrete strain of 0.003), the approximate formulas for calculation of strand stress at
ultimate flexure [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.1] are based on the following simplified assumptions:
• The compression zone is either rectangular or T-shaped.
• The compression zone is within only one type of concrete; for composite members, it is assumed to be
within the deck concrete.
• Only fully tensioned strands near the tension face of the member may be used. The formulas cannot
accurately account for strands near the compression face of the member, or strands uniformly
distributed in the cross section.
• Effective pretensioning stress is equal to or greater than 50% of the ultimate strength of the strands.
• The formulas are only intended as an interpolation function between the yield and ultimate strengths of
the steel. Therefore, the area of tension steel should be small enough so that at nominal flexural strength,
the calculated stress in the steel is higher than the yield strength.
The example in Section 8.2.3.5.1 illustrate how to apply the approximate procedures, and the example in Section
8.2.3.5.2 describes the more general strain compatibility procedure.

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.3.2 Nominal Flexural Resistance/8.2.3.2.1 Required Parameters

8.2.3.2 Nominal Flexural Resistance

8.2.3.2.1 Required Parameters

The average stress in fully bonded prestressing steel is:
𝑐
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 (1 − 𝑘 ) [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.1.1-1]
𝑑𝑝
Assuming rectangular section behavior, the neutral axis depth, c, is computed as:
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′
𝑐=
𝑓𝑝𝑢 [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.1.1-4]
𝛼1 𝑓𝑐′ β1 𝑏 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝
where
c = distance between the neutral axis and the compressive face
Aps = area of prestressing steel
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel
As = area of nonprestressed steel tension reinforcement
fy = yield strength of tension reinforcement
𝐴′𝑠 = area of compression reinforcement
𝑓𝑦′ = yield strength of compression reinforcement
α1 = stress block factor [LRFD Art. 5.6.2.2]
= 0.85 for design compressive strengths of concrete not exceeding 10.0 ksi.
For strengths exceeding 10.0 ksi, α1 shall be reduced at a rate of 0.02 for each 1.0 ksi of
strength in excess of 10.0 ksi but not less than 0.75.
β1 = ratio of depth of equivalent compression zone to depth to the
[LRFD Art. 5.6.2.2]
neutral axis
b = width of compression flange
k = factor related to type of strand
𝑓𝑝𝑦
= 2 (1.04 − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.1.1-2]
𝑓𝑝𝑢
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strand
fpy = yield strength of prestressing steel
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing strand

The depth of the compression block may be computed by a = β1c. If the depth of the compression flange is less
than c, as computed by LRFD Eq. (5.6.3.1.1-4), flanged section behavior must be used with c, which is calculated
by:
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′ − 𝛼1 𝑓𝑐′ (𝑏 − 𝑏𝑤 )ℎ𝑓
𝑐=
𝑓𝑝𝑢 [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.1.1-3]
𝛼1 𝑓𝑐′ β1 𝑏𝑤 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝
where bw = width of web.

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8.2.3.2.2 Rectangular Sections/8.2.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Limit

8.2.3.2.2 Rectangular Sections

According to LRFD Article 5.6.3.2.3, the nominal flexural capacity of a rectangular section is computed using the
following equation:
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 (𝑑𝑝 − ) + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 (𝑑𝑠 − ) − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′ (𝑑𝑠′ − ) (Eq. 8.2.3.2.2-1)
2 2 2
Section 8.8.2.2 shows the calculation of fps where the critical section is within the strand development length.

8.2.3.2.3 Flanged Sections

The nominal flexural capacity of a flanged section is computed using the following equation:
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 ℎ𝑓
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 (𝑑𝑝 − ) + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 (𝑑𝑠 − ) − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′ (𝑑𝑠′ − ) + α1 𝑓𝑐′ (𝑏 − 𝑏𝑤 )ℎ𝑓 ( − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.2.2-1]
2 2 2 2 2
where
fps = average stress in prestressing steel
a = depth of the equivalent stress block = β1c
hf = depth of compression flange
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement
ds = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of nonprestressed tensile
reinforcement
𝐴′𝑠 = area of compression reinforcement
𝑑𝑠′ = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of nonprestressed compression
reinforcement
Factored flexural resistance:
𝑀𝑟 = ϕ𝑀𝑛 [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.2.1-1]
where ϕ = resistance factor = 1.0 for tension-controlled prestressed concrete sections (See LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2 for
values of ϕ for sections other than tension-controlled prestressed concrete.)

8.2.3.3 Maximum Reinforcement Limit

The current provisions of the LRFD Specifications eliminate any maximum-reinforcement limit and unify the
design of prestressed and nonprestressed tension- and compression-controlled members. When the net tensile
strain of the extreme tension steel is less than εtl, the factored resistance of prestressed and nonprestressed
sections is reduced through a reduced resistance factor as the tension reinforcement quantity increases.
This reduction compensates for decreasing ductility with increasing overstrength. Only the addition of
compression reinforcement in conjunction with additional tension reinforcement can result in an increase in the
factored flexural resistance of the section.

8.2.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Limit [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3]

At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement should be adequate to develop a
factored flexural resistance, Mr, at least equal to the lesser of the following:
• The cracking moment strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and
• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3-1]
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = γ3 [(𝛾1 𝑓𝑟 + γ2 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 )𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 − 𝑀𝑑𝑛𝑐 ( − 1)]
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
where

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Limit/8.2.3.5.1 Option 1 – Conventional Approach

Mcr = cracking moment

fr = modulus of rupture = 0.24λ√𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
λ = concrete density modification factor taken as 1.0 for normal weight concrete
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally
applied loads
Mdnc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section where
the tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed noncomposite section
where the tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads
γ1 = flexural cracking variability factor
= 1.2 for precast concrete segmental structures
= 1.6 for all other concrete structures
γ2 = prestress variability factor
= 1.1 for bonded tendons
= 1.0 for unbonded tendons
γ3 = ratio of specified minimum yield strength to ultimate tensile strength
= 1.0 for prestressing steel
The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at all sections.

8.2.3.5 Flexural Strength Design Example

Consider the information given for the design example in Section 8.2.1.8. Use 𝑓𝑐′ = 4.0ksi, and 48 strands as shown
in Figure 8.2.1.8.1-1.

8.2.3.5.1 Option 1—Conventional Approach

Does the midspan section have adequate flexural strength to resist a factored moment Mu = 9,278 ft-kips?
Using LRFD Eq. (5.6.3.1.1-3), the neutral axis depth c = 6.20 in.
where
Aps = 7.344 in.2
fpu = 270 ksi
α1 = 0.85
β1 = 0.85
𝑓𝑐′ = 4.0 ksi
b = 108 in.
hf = 7.50 in.
bw = 6.0 in.
k = 2(1.04 − 0.9) = 0.28
dp = 73.08 in.

a = 0.85(6.2) = 5.27 in.

The net tensile strain at the centroid of the tension reinforcement, εs, is calculated as follows:
0.003 0.003
( ) 𝑑𝑝 − 0.003 = ( ) (73.08) − 0.003 = 0.032
𝑐 6.2

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8.2.3.5.1 Option 1 – Conventional Approach/8.2.3.5.2 Option 2 – Strain Compatibility Approach

where
𝑑𝑝 = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the extreme tension steel element
= 80.0 − 6.92 = 73.08 in.
εs is greater than the tension-controlled strain limit of 0.005; therefore, ϕ = 1.0
Compute the average stress in the prestressing steel at the nominal resistance, fps.:
𝑐 6.2
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 [1 − 𝑘 ( )] = 270 [1 − 0.28 ( )] = 263.6 ksi
𝑑𝑝 73.08
Compute the nominal flexural resistance:
𝑎
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 (𝑑𝑝 − )
2
The above equation is a simplified form of LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.2.2-1 because no compression reinforcement or
nonprestressed reinforcement is considered and the section behaves as a rectangular section.
5.27
𝑀𝑛 = 7.344(263.6) (73.08 − )
2
𝑀𝑛 = 136,370 in.-kips = 11,364 ft-kips
𝑀𝑟 = ϕ𝑀𝑛 = 1.0(11,364) = 11,364 ft-kips > Mu = 9,278 ft-kips OK

8.2.3.5.2 Option 2—Strain Compatibility Approach

The strain compatibility approach is based on the following three well-accepted fundamental assumptions:
• Plane sections remain plane after bending.
• Compatibility of strains (that is, there is a full bond between steel and concrete at the section being
considered).
• Equilibrium of forces within a section.
In addition, the standard assumption of concrete stresses at ultimate flexure being represented by a rectangular
stress block is adopted, with the intensity = 𝛼1 fc′ and depth a = β1c where c is neutral axis depth and α1 and β
are coefficients defined in LRFD Article 5.6.2.2. (For a “full” strain compatibility analysis using a stress-strain
relationship for the concrete as well as the reinforcement, see Seguirant, et al. [2005].) The steel stress-strain
relationship may be defined using any representative formula or graph. For 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands, the
stress, fsi, in a given layer, I, of reinforcement whose strain, εsi, is calculated as follows:

27,613
𝑓𝑠𝑖 = ε𝑠𝑖 [887 + 1 ] ≤ 270 ksi (Eq. 8.2.3.5.2-1)
([1 + (112.4εsi ]7.36 )7.36
The “power formula” shown in Eq. (8.2.3,5.2-1) is based on a lower-bound curve fitting of actual stress-strain
relationships and on satisfaction of the minimum ASTM limits (Devalapura and Tadros, 1992A; 1992B).
Alternatively, the graph given in Figure 2.11-1 in Chapter 2, which is reproduced from the PCI Design Handbook,
may be used.
For nonprestressed reinforcement, an elastic-plastic stress-strain relationship is assumed.
𝑓𝑠𝑖 = 𝐸𝑠 ε𝑠𝑖 ≤ 𝑓𝑦 (Eq. 8.2.3.5.2-2)
To maintain equilibrium, the sum of the tension and compression forces must equal zero. The sum of the
moments of these forces about any horizontal axis is equal to the moment acting on the section for the assumed
conditions. The process is iterative due to the nonlinearity of the stress-strain relationship of the prestressing
steel. The following six steps, adapted from Skogman, et al. (1988), demonstrate the application of this approach.
Step 1: Assume a neutral axis depth, c, and substitute it for c in Eq. (8.2.3.5.2-3) to obtain the corresponding strain
in each steel layer i. A layer I is defined here as a group of bars or tendons that have the same stress-strain
properties (prestressing strand or nonprestressed reinforcement) and the same effective prestress, and which

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.3.5.2 Option 2 – Strain Compatibility Approach

can be assumed to have a combined area with a single centroid. The strain in each layer of steel can be estimated
using Eq. (8.2.3.5.2-3).
𝑑𝑖 𝑓𝑠𝑒
ε𝑠𝑖 = 0.003 ( − 1) + ( ) (Eq. 8.2.3.5.2-3)
𝑐 𝐸𝑠 i
where
di = depth of steel layer, i, from extreme compression fiber
fse = effective prestress
For partially tensioned tendons or for nontensioned reinforcing bars, it may be assumed
that fse = (fpi − 25 ksi), where fpi is initial tension (assumed to be zero for nontensioned
reinforcing bars).
Step 2: Use Eq. (8.2.3.5.2-1) and Eq. (8.2.3.5.2-2) to estimate the stress in each steel layer.
Step 3: Use equilibrium of forces to check assumed neutral axis depth:
Σ𝐴𝑠𝑖 𝑓𝑠𝑖 + Σ𝐹𝑐𝑗 = 0 (Eq. 8.2.3.5.2-4)
where
i = steel layer
j = concrete components within the compression block
Each concrete component would have a force:
𝐹𝑐𝑗 = α1 𝑓𝑐𝑗′ 𝐴𝑐𝑗 (Eq. 8.2.3.5.2-5)
For example, the cross section shown in Figure 8.2.3.5.2-1 has the following three steel layers:
• Group of deck reinforcing bars
• Top flange group of strands
• Bottom flange group of strands
It also has the following three concrete components:
• CIP deck
• Overhanging portions of the top beam flange
• Portion of the beam web within the compression block depth
The flange overhanging portions may be subdivided into rectangular and triangular components, although the
additional calculations will not significantly affect the accuracy in this case.
For composite beam sections in which the neutral axis is located in the concrete beam, the LRFD Specifications
Article 5.6.3.2.6 states that the nominal flexural resistance, Mn, may be determined based on the concrete
compressive strength of the deck concrete. Therefore, the variables used in Eq. (8.2.3.5.2-5) are based on the deck
concrete over the depth of the compression block, a. In other words, 𝑓𝑐2 ′
is taken to be equal to 𝑓𝑐1
′
(Seguirant, et
al., 2005).

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.3.5.2 Option 2 – Strain Compatibility Approach/8.3 Strand Transfer and Development Lengths

Figure 8.2.3.5.2-1
Flexural Strength Relationships for Strain Compatibility Analysis

Step 4: Revise c and repeat Steps 1, 2, and 3 until Eq. (8.2.3.5.2-4) is satisfied.
Step 5: Calculate the nominal flexural resistance by summing moments of all forces about any horizontal axis. If
the top fiber is used, the calculation is as follows:

𝑀𝑛 = ∑ 𝐴𝑠𝑖 𝑓𝑠𝑖 𝑑𝑖 + ∑ 𝐹𝑐𝑗 𝑑𝑗 (Eq. 8.2.3.5.2-6)

𝑖 𝑗

Step 6: Calculate the factored flexural resistance, Mr = ɸn where ϕ is determined in accordance with LRFD
Article 5.5.4.2.
Some designers compound the errors resulting from the approximate procedures by lumping all pretensioning
steel in a section into a single location for the purpose of establishing the effective depth. This approach is
incorrect. Only the reinforcement near the tension face of the member should be considered in determining the
steel stress using LRFD Eq. (5.6.3.1.1-1).

8.3 STRAND TRANSFER AND DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS

The transfer length, ℓt, is the length of strand over which the prestress force in pretensioned members is
transferred to the concrete by bond and friction. The development length, ℓd, is the length of strand required to
develop the stress in the strand corresponding to the nominal flexural resistance of the member. The transfer
length is included as part of the development length. These two parameters are used differently in design as
discussed in this section.
Figure 8.3-1 illustrates the relationship between the transfer and development lengths and the strand stress.

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8.3 Strand Transfer and Development Lengths/8.3.1.2 Specifications

Figure 8.3-1
Strand Transfer and Development Lengths

Much research has been conducted on methods of predicting ℓt and ℓd. Predictive formulas have been developed,
but there is no clear consensus about them among researchers. It should be emphasized that the impact of
variability of the transfer length on the design of bridge beams is very small, and is limited to the 2 to 3 ft at the
end of a member. The impact of variability of the development length on the design of bridge beams is also small.
An overestimation of ℓd will not significantly increase the cost of beams. However, ℓd may become a significant
design parameter for some prestressed concrete members such as deck panels, which have very short spans, and
piles; these members may have their largest bending moment at the pile to cap interface.

8.3.1 Strand Transfer Length

8.3.1.1 Impact on Design
Transfer length is the bonded length of strand required to transfer the prestress force in the strand to the
surrounding concrete in a pretensioned member. At any section that falls within the transfer length, the prestress
force should be reduced in proportion to its distance from the end of the member. Specifically, within the transfer
length, the stress in the strand is assumed to vary linearly from zero at the end of member, or the point where the
strand is bonded if debonding is used, to the full effective prestress force at the end of the transfer length.
Overestimation of transfer length is generally conservative for shear design, but it may be unconservative when
evaluating flexural stress limits in the end regions. Shear strength is reduced within the transfer length due to the
reduced precompression in the concrete. On the other hand, the reduced prestress force in the transfer length
zone protects the end of the beam from excessive tensile stresses. Such excessive stresses may require that the
end of the beam be reinforced with additional bonded steel reinforcement near the top fibers.

8.3.1.2 Specifications
LRFD Article 5.9.4.3.1 requires a transfer length of 60 times the diameter of the strand for the purposes of
estimation of development length and calculation of stresses after transfer.

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8.3.1.3 Factors Affecting Transfer Length/8.3.16 End Zone Reinforcement

8.3.1.3 Factors Affecting Transfer Length

The transfer length for prestressing strand is affected by many parameters. Some of the most important are as
follows:
• Type of prestressing strand
• Strand diameter
• Strand stress level
• Surface condition of strand (clean, oiled, rusted, epoxy coated, etc.)
• Concrete strength
• Type of loading (static, repeated, or impact)
• Method of strand detensioning (gradual or sudden)
• Confining reinforcement around strand
• Consolidation and consistency of concrete around strand
• Concrete cover around the strand
• Strand spacing
• Time-dependent effects
• Vertical location in concrete (top versus bottom locations)

8.3.1.4 Research Results

In 1996, the FHWA approved the use of ½-in.-diameter strands at a center-to-center spacing of 1.75 in., and 0.6-
in.-diameter strands at a spacing of 2 in. These spacings are less than the four strand diameters previously
required in the AASHTO Standard Specifications. This decision was based on studies that demonstrate that the
transfer length for the more closely spaced strands remains conservatively estimated using the relationship found
in the Standard Specifications. With a 20% increase in diameter from 0.5 to 0.6 in., the prestress force per strand
is increased by 40%. Using 0.6-in.-diameter strands at a 2-in. spacing, it is possible to increase the amount of
pretensioning force by up to 40% and still preserve the same prestress eccentricity. This increase dramatically
improves the load-carrying capacity of a given cross section. For more information on bond research, see Section
8.3.2.4.

8.3.1.5 Recommendations
The current recommendations of the LRFD Specifications to use a transfer length equal to 60 strand diameters are
adequate for design of typical structures. For unusually short-span products or for strands with marginal surface
conditions, this transfer length may not be adequate. For high-strength concrete, the provisions may overestimate
the transfer length (Ramirez and Russell, 2008).

8.3.1.6 End Zone Reinforcement

LRFD Article 5.9.4.4.1 requires that an area of nonprestressed reinforcing steel be provided near the ends of
pretensioned members to resist 4% of the prestressing force. The stress in the reinforcement resisting this force
is limited to 20.0 ksi. This reinforcement is usually provided as stirrups and must be placed within a distance
equal to h/4 from the beam end, where h is the overall depth of the pretensioned element.
The requirement, which is a simplification of the equation proposed by Marshall and Mattock (1962), seems to be
reasonable for modest levels of prestressing. However, in recent years, larger prestressing forces have been used
with high-strength concrete. This combination is especially true for sections such as the NU bulb-tee beams (a
family of metric-dimensioned beams developed at the University of Nebraska), where up to 58 strands can be
placed in the bottom flange. When this large quantity of strands is used with relatively shallow beams, such as the
43.3-in.-deep NU-1100, the specifications require that as much as 3.6 in.2 of reinforcement be placed within a
distance of 9.0 in. from the end of the beam. It is very difficult to satisfy this requirement and provide adequate
clearance to place and consolidate the concrete. Alternative details have been proposed by Tadros, et al. (2010).
Designers should be aware that the most critical time for potential girder end zone cracking is at prestress
transfer. Areas of end zone reinforcement that are smaller than the required areas and that have been
consistently used in actual production without objectionable cracking at member end may be acceptable.

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8.3.1.2 Strand Development Length/8.3.2.5 Recommendations

8.3.2 Strand Development Length

8.3.2.1 Impact on Design
Strand development length is the length required for bond to develop the strand tension at the nominal flexural
resistance. As shown in Section 8.2.3, this tension is generally lower than the specified ultimate strength of the
strand. For bridge beams, the development length is insignificant unless the bridge beams are shorter than about
24 ft in length, or unless the beams are subjected to large bending moments near their ends. The development
length becomes significant in deck panels used as SIP forms.

8.3.2.2 LRFD Specifications

The equation for development length in the LRFD Specifications is similar to that used previously in the Standard
Specifications. However, based on work by Cousins, et al. (1986), which indicated that the existing equation was
unconservative, the FHWA imposed a 1.6 multiplier on the earlier AASHTO equation. As a result, the LRFD
Specifications includes a ĸ factor in LRFD Eq. (5.9.4.3.2-1):
2
ℓ𝑑 ≥ ĸ (𝑓𝑝𝑠 − 𝑓𝑝𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑏 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.4.3.2-1]
3
where ĸ = 1.6 for bonded strands in precast, prestressed concrete beams.
When a portion of the strand is debonded or “shielded” and where tension exists in the precompressed tensile
zone under service loads, the development length must be determined using LRFD Eq. (5.9.4.3.2-1) with a value of
ĸ = 2.0.

8.3.2.3 Factors Affecting Development Length

The development length of the strand depends on several factors in addition to the factors already stated for the
transfer length. These factors include the following:
• The difference between the stress in the prestressing steel at the ultimate member strength and the effective
prestress after all losses
• Use of bonded or debonded prestressing steel
• Depth of member
• Flexure-shear interaction

8.3.2.4 Bond Studies

Numerous studies have been conducted on both ½-in.-diameter and 0.6-in.-diameter strands, often with
conflicting conclusions. Buckner (1994; 1995) summarized research on ½-in.-diameter strand and proposed
modification of the ℓd formula to take into account the effect of strand stress at the nominal flexural resistance. He
suggested that the development length of a strand with a stress at the nominal resistance close to the ultimate
strength of the steel should be almost twice as long as the development length for a strand with a stress at
nominal resistance equal to the yield point of the steel.
Shahawy (2001) suggested that for members with depths greater than 24 in., LRFD Eq. (5.9.4.3.2-1) (with ĸ = 1.6)
yields conservative results. For members with depths less than 24 in., the ĸ multiplier in LRFD Eq. (5.9.4.3.2-1) is
not warranted. Shahawy also concluded that flexure-shear interaction significantly affects the development length
of prestressing strands and should be incorporated into the design equations. For high-strength concrete, LRFD
Eq. (5.9.4.3.2-1) may overestimate the development length (Ramirez and Russell, 2008).

8.3.2.5 Recommendations
It is recommended that the LRFD Eq. (5.9.4.3.2-1) be used unless an improved formula emerges. Even though the
factor of 2 applied to debonded strands may be too conservative, use of that factor is not expected to have
significant impact on bridge beam design.

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8.4 Shear/8.4.1 LRFD Specifications

8.4 SHEAR
This section covers the design and analysis of precast and prestressed concrete bridge members for vertical
shear. Design and analysis for combined torsion and shear are not included. The applicable sections in the LRFD
Specifications are covered in detail.
Generally, the design of vertical web reinforcement is one of the last steps performed in the design of a
prestressed concrete bridge beam. The precast concrete member’s cross section, beam spacing, span geometry,
and flexural reinforcement have already been established. Whereas conditions at both service and factored load
are evaluated for flexural design, shear design is only evaluated for factored loads (strength limit state).
Shear design is essentially based on the truss analogy, which has been used for concrete design since the early
20th century. In the truss analogy, a concrete member resists loads by a truss composed of concrete “struts” and
steel “ ties.” Struts are compression elements, and ties are tension elements. While this model is an effective tool
for estimating the ultimate shear capacity of concrete members, it may be overly conservative in calculating the
cracking shear capacity when compared with test results.
Therefore, the LRFD Specifications provide a sectional shear design method for prestressed concrete members.
This method attempts to provide more realistic estimates of shear capacity of a concrete member by adding a
concrete contribution to the basic truss analogy. Thus, the nominal shear strength, Vn, is considered to be a
combination of the concrete contribution, Vc, and web reinforcement contribution, Vs. In members with harped
strand, the vertical component of the prestressing force, Vp, is also considered to resist the factored shear force.
Therefore, the nominal shear resistance can be expressed as follows:
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑝
The factored shear force at the section under investigation must be less than or equal to the nominal shear
resistance reduced by a resistance factor ϕ:
𝑉𝑢 ≤ ϕ𝑉𝑛 = 𝜙(𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑝 )
To ensure ductile behavior, the designer must properly detail the web reinforcement to provide adequate
development and to satisfy maximum and minimum limits on the quantity and spacing of the reinforcement. In
addition, the concrete web must be suitably proportioned to avoid web crushing.

8.4.1 LRFD Specifications

There are two general methods of shear design for prestressed concrete members presented in the main articles
of the LRFD Specifications. The most general method is the strut-and-tie method. This method can be applied to
any design situation, including members with irregular cross sections or discontinuities. It is also used to design a
member for all load effects, not just shear. This method is discussed in Section 8.12.
The method used for typical shear design is the sectional design method. The current LRFD Specifications provides
only the modified compression field theory (MCFT), developed by Collins and Mitchell (1980) and others, as the
method used for typical shear design. Earlier editions of the LRFD Specifications provided provisions to use the
simplified procedure developed by Hawkins, et al. (2005). The MCFT method is based on the variable angle truss
model in which the inclination of the diagonal compression field is allowed to vary continuously. The varying
inclination is especially significant for prestressed concrete members, where the inclination is typically 22 to 36
degrees due to the effect of the prestressing force.
The concrete contribution, Vc, within the MCFT method is attributed to tension being carried across the
compression diagonals. This contribution has been determined experimentally and has been related to the strain
in the tension side of the member. In general, the higher the strain is in the tension side at ultimate, the wider the
shear cracks will be, and, in turn, the smaller the concrete contribution will be.
Chapter 5 of the LRFD Specifications is equally applicable for both nonprestressed concrete and prestressed
concrete design. “Flexural regions” as defined in LRFD Article 5.7.1.1 are discussed in in Section 8.4.1.1 of this
chapter. Design of regions near discontinuities are covered in Section 8.12.

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8.4.1 LRFD Specifications/8.4.1.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs

An alternative general procedure to that in LRFD Article 5.7.3 is to use the tables provided in Appendix B5 of the
LRFD Specifications to determine β and θ instead of calculating β and θ from the equations shown in Section
8.4.1.1.4, later in this chapter. This alternative procedure was used before the development of the equations for β
and θ in 2008. The equations are equivalent to those used in the Canadian design code CSA A23.3-04 (Bentz and
Collins, 2006).

8.4.1.1 Shear Design Provisions

LRFD Article 5.7.3 introduces the sectional design model. LRFD Articles 5.7.3.1 and 5.7.3.2 describe the applicable
geometry required to use this technique to design web reinforcement.

8.4.1.1.1 Nominal Shear Resistance

The nominal resistance is taken as the lesser of the following:
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑝 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-1]
and
𝑉𝑛 ≤ 0.25𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑉𝑝 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-2]
where
bv = effective web width
dv = effective shear depth
LRFD Eq. (5.7.3.3-2) represents an upper limit of Vn to ensure that the concrete in the web will not crush before
the transverse reinforcement yields.

8.4.1.1.2 Concrete Contribution, Vc

The LRFD Specifications defines the concrete contribution as the nominal shear resistance provided by the tensile
stresses in the concrete. This resistance is computed using the following equation:
𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316βλ√𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-3]
where λ = concrete density modification factor, taken as 1.0 for normal weight concrete.
1
The units used in the LRFD Specifications are kips and inches. The factor 0.0316 is equal to , which converts
√1,000
the expression from psi to ksi units for the concrete compressive strength, 𝑓𝑐′ .

8.4.1.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs

The contribution of the web reinforcement is given by the general equation:
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑣 (cot θ + cot α)sin α
𝑉𝑠 = λ𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-4]
𝑠
where
θ = inclination of the diagonal compressive stresses measured from the horizontal beam axis
α = angle of the web reinforcement relative to the horizontal beam axis
λduct = shear strength reduction factor accounting for the reduction in the shear resistance provided by
transverse reinforcement due to the presence of one or more grouted post-tensioning ducts. It is taken as 1.0
for ungrouted post-tensioning ducts and with a reduced width of web, bw, to account for the presence of the
ungrouted duct:
ϕ𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 2
λ𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 1 − δ ( ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-5]
𝑏𝑤
where
ϕduct = diameter of post-tensioning duct present within in the depth, dv
δ = duct diameter correction factor, taken as 2.0 for grouted ducts

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8.4.1.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs/8.4.1.1.4 MCFT Model: Value of β and θ

For cases of vertical web reinforcement, the expression for Vs simplifies to the following:
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑣 cot θ
𝑉𝑠 = [LRFD Eq. C5.7.3.3-1]
𝑠
Transverse shear reinforcement shall be provided when:
𝑉𝑢 > 0.5ϕ(𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑝 ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.3-1]
When the reaction introduces compression into the end of the member, LRFD Article 5.7.3.2 specifies that the
critical section for shear is dv from the internal face of the support, and the reinforcement required at the critical
section shall be extended to the support.

8.4.1.1.4 MCFT Model: Values of β and θ

To determine the nominal shear resistance, the designer must determine β and θ from LRFD Article 5.7.3.4.2. For
reinforced, nonprestressed concrete sections, the values of β and θ may be taken as 2 and 45 degrees, respectively
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.4.1]. However, for prestressed concrete, the designer can take advantage of the precompression
and use lower angles of θ, which optimizes the web reinforcement.
For sections containing at least the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement specified in LRFD Article
5.7.2.5:
4.8 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.4.2-1]
β=
1 + 750ε𝑠
In other situations:
4.8 51 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.4.2-2]
β=( )( )
1 + 750ε𝑠 39 + 𝑠𝑥𝑒
where
|𝑀𝑢 | [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.4.2-4]
( + 0.5𝑁𝑢 + |𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 | − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑜 )
𝑑𝑣
𝜀𝑠 =
𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠
and
1.38 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.4.2-7]
𝑠𝑥𝑒 = 𝑠𝑥
𝑎𝑔 + 0.63
where
sx = the lesser of either dv or the maximum distance between layers of longitudinal crack control
reinforcement
ag = maximum aggregate size, in.
The LRFD Specifications indicates that the area of prestressing steel, Aps, must account for the lack of development
near the ends of prestressed beams. Any nonprestressed reinforcement or strand in the compression zone of the
member, which is taken as one-half of the overall depth (h/2), should be neglected when computing As and Aps for
use in this calculation. Excluding this reinforcement from the calculation is very important when evaluating
members with harped strand because near the end of typical beams, harped strands are near the top of the beam.
Because of this, it is recommended that the straight and harped strands be considered separately in the analysis.
It is the physical location of each strand—not the centroid of the group—that is important.
The variable fpo represents the modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by the locked-in difference
in strain between the prestressing tendons and the surrounding concrete. For usual levels of prestressing, the
LRFD Specifications suggests that a value of 0.7fpu is appropriate for both pretensioned and post-tensioned
members. However, for pretensioned members, LRFD Commentary C5.7.3.4.2 indicates that fpo can be taken as the
stress in the strands when the concrete is cast around them; this is the jacking stress, fpi, which equals 0.75fpu.
Therefore, it is recommended that for usual pretensioned beams with low-relaxation strands, the value of fpo

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8.4.1.1.4 MCFT Model: Value of β and θ/8.4.1.2 Design Procedure

should be taken as 0.75fpu. Within the transfer length, fpo should be increased linearly from zero at the end of the
strand to its full value at the end of the transfer length.
If the longitudinal strain in the tensile reinforcement, εs, is negative, εs should be taken as zero or recomputed
with the denominator of the equation replaced by (𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 + 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑡 ), where 𝐴𝑐𝑡 represents the area of
concrete on the flexural tension side of the member as shown in Figure 8.4.1.1.4-1.
Figure 8.4.1.1.4-1
Illustration of Shear Parameters

In both cases, the value of the angle of inclination, θ, may be taken as:
θ = 29 + 3500ε𝑠 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.4.2-3]
Additional requirements of LRFD Article 5.7.3.4.2 should be reviewed.

8.4.1.2 Design Procedure

To design the member for shear, the designer first determines the factored shear due to applied loads at the
section under investigation. The critical section is located at the effective shear depth, dv, from the face of the
support. The effective shear depth, dV, is taken as the distance between the resultants of the tensile and
compressive forces due to flexure, and it need not be taken less than the greater of 0.9de or 0.72h. When strands
are straight and compression stays in the top flange, dv is easily calculated as de − (a/2). When determining de,
only the steel on the flexural tension side, as shown in Figure 8.4.1.1.4-1, should be considered. However,
determination of dv can get complicated with harped strands as dv depends on the location of the critical section,
which in turn is a function of dv.
For T-beam analysis, the resultant of the compression force is not at a/2. Computer programs may be used to
perform these calculations, but some simplifications are warranted for manual calculations. For example, the
critical section can initially be assumed to be at 0.72h, and the value of dv can be determined at that location. If
this value of dv is greater than 0.72h or 0.9de, the designer may elect to choose a new location using the value dv
just determined. When calculating dv, the depth of the compression block, a, at midspan is convenient to use and
does not introduce significant error into the calculations.
The shear contribution from harped strand, Vp, is then computed. For straight strands, Vp is zero.
Next, the concrete contribution, Vc, is estimated using the method described in Section 8.4.1.1.2.
After Vc has been computed, Vs is calculated using LRFD Eq. (5.7.3.3-4). For pretensioned members with vertical
stirrups, the quantity of shear reinforcement, Av/s, is determined from LRFD Eq. (C5.7.3.3-1) with the value of
cot θ from the MCFT model.

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8.4.1.2 Design Procedure/8.5.1 Theory

After determining the amount of shear reinforcement needed, the designer should check the maximum spacing
allowed by the specifications as given in LRFD Article 5.7.2.6. Also, the amount of shear reinforcement should be
checked to ensure that it is equal to or larger than the minimum value required by the specifications, which is:
𝑏𝑣 𝑠
𝐴𝑣 = 0.0316λ√𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.5-1]
𝑓𝑦

8.4.1.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement

The longitudinal (flexural) reinforcement must also be able to resist additional force due to shear—that is, the
horizontal component of the diagonal compression field. The tensile capacity of the reinforcement on the flexural
tension side of the member, taking into account any lack of full development of that reinforcement, must be
greater than or equal to the tensile force T, which is calculated as follows:

|𝑀𝑢 | 𝑁𝑢 𝑉𝑢 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.5-1]

+ 0.5 + (| − 𝑉𝑝 | − 0.5𝑉𝑠 ) cot θ
𝑑𝑣 ϕ 𝑓 ϕ𝑐 ϕ𝑣
The tensile capacity of the reinforcement is determined by using the appropriate values for 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 + 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 with the
requirement that 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 > 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 . The calculation of fps is shown in Section.8.8.2.2.
Vs is given by LRFD Eq. (5.7.3.3-4), except that Vs may not be greater than Vu/ϕv.
Satisfying LRFD (Eq. 5.7.3.5-1) is very important for prestressed concrete beams, especially near noncontinuous
supports, where many prestressing strands are harped or partially debonded. Harped strands are not effective in
contributing to this longitudinal reinforcement requirement because they are often above midheight of the
member. Debonded strands do not contribute to the required longitudinal reinforcement along the length where
the strands are debonded, and they only contribute partially within the transfer length after the strands are
bonded.
The LRFD Specifications requires that the longitudinal reinforcement be checked at each section. At the face of the
bearing, which usually lies within the transfer length of the strands, the effective prestressing force in the strands
is not fully developed. Thus, the term fps should be calculated as a portion of the effective prestress force based on
linear variation starting from zero at the end of the beam to full effective prestress at the transfer length. The
designer should not be confused by the term fps, which generally refers to the prestress force at strength limit
state, because the strands at this section do not have enough development length to provide such level of
prestress. If the strands are well anchored at the end of the member by embedment in a diaphragm or by use of a
mechanical device, the stress in the strands, fps, can be considered to equal the stress in the strands at strength
limit state.

8.5 HORIZONTAL INTERFACE SHEAR

8.5.1 Theory
For beams designed for composite action between the concrete deck and the precast concrete beam, the interface
between the two elements must be able to resist the horizontal shearing forces at the interface between the two
elements. The basic strength equation for the design of the interface between the deck and beam is:
Vri ≥ Vui [LRFD Eq. 5.7.4.3-2]
where
Vri = factored interface shear resistance
Vui = factored interface shear force due to total load
Design is carried out at various locations along the span, similar to vertical shear design.
Theoretical calculation of the shearing force acting on the interface at a given section is not simple because the
section does not behave as a linear elastic material near ultimate capacity. If it did, the shear stress, horizontal or
vertical, at any fiber in a cross section would be calculated from the following familiar equation:

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8.5.1 Theory/8.5.2 LRFD Specifications

𝑉𝑄
𝑣ℎ = (Eq. 8.5.1-1)
𝐼𝑏
where
V = vertical shear force at the section
I = moment of inertia
b = section width at the fiber being considered
Q = first moment of the area above (or below) the fiber being considered
However, at ultimate conditions, the material is no longer elastic and the concrete may be cracked at the section
being considered. Further, the composite cross section consists of two different types of concrete with different
properties. Therefore, application of Eq. (8.5.1-1) to design at ultimate conditions, without modification, would
yield questionable results.
Loov and Patnaik (1994) determined that Eq. (8.5.1-1) may yield adequate results if both the cracked section’s
moment of inertia and the area moment of a transformed composite section are used. The section would be
transformed using the slab-to-beam modular ratio used in flexural design by the allowable stress method.
However, this approach is still too complicated. It confuses the calculations at two limit states: service and
ultimate.
Kamel (1996) used equilibrium of forces to show that
vh = V/[(jd)bv] (Eq. 8.5.1-2)
where
V = factored vertical shear force at the section in question
d = effective depth of the member
jd = distance between the tension and compression resultant stresses in the section (This is the
same distance as dv used in the LRFD Specifications for shear design.)
bv = section width at the interface between the precast and the CIP concrete (It is important to
understand that bv is not the web width.)
Another important issue is which loads should be used to calculate Vui at a section. The LRFD Specifications
mandates that all loads, including all noncomposite and composite loads, be applied. In the first edition of the
LRFD Specifications, a case was made for excluding the self weight of the precast concrete member and the weight
of the deck since those loads are present before composite action takes effect. The cohesion and frictions factors
were updated to reflect the substantial body of experimental data. (See LRFD Art. 5.7.4.4.)
To determine the nominal interface shear resistance, the LRFD Specifications uses a modification of the well-
established shear friction theory.
The requirements of the LRFD Specifications are stated in terms of horizontal (interface) shear.

8.5.2 LRFD Specifications

LRFD Article 5.7.4.5 provides guidance for computing interface shear due to factored loads for beam/slab bridges.
The factored vertical shear force is Vu. The factored interface shear force per unit length in kips/ft, Vui, is given by
the following equation:
12𝑉𝑢
𝑉𝑢𝑖 =
𝑑𝑣

where
Vui = factored horizontal shear force per unit length of beam, kips/ft
Vu = factored vertical shear force at specified section due to all loads, kips
dv = the distance between the centroid of the tension steel and the midthickness of the slab, in.

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8.5.2 LRFD Specifications/8.6.1 Introduction

Factored load is less than or equal to the factored resistance, or:

𝑉𝑢𝑖 ≤ ϕ𝑉𝑛𝑖
where
Vni = nominal interface shear resistance
= 𝑐𝐴𝑐𝑣 + μ[𝐴𝑣𝑓 𝑓𝑦 + 𝑃𝑐 ] [LRFD Eq. 5.7.4.3-3]
where
c = cohesion factor
= 0.28 ksi for a cast-in-place concrete slab on clean concrete [LRFD Art. 5.7.4.4]
girder surfaces, free of laitance with surface roughened to an
amplitude of 0.25 in.
Acv = interface area of concrete engaged in shear transfer
μ = friction factor
= 1.0 for a cast-in-place concrete slab on [LRFD Art. 5.7.4.4]
clean concrete girder surfaces, free of
laitance with surface roughened to an
amplitude of 0.25 in.
Avf = area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane where the shear plane under
consideration must be consistent with the units used
fy = yield strength of shear reinforcement

Pc = permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane (may be conservatively
neglected)
The values for c and μ apply when the top surface is intentionally roughened to an amplitude of ¼ in. Typically,
any compressive force across the interface is neglected (that is, Pc = 0). However, when the compressive force, Pc,
is included, the minimum dead load factor for the applicable strength limit state should be used.
Nominal shear resistance must also satisfy the following:
𝑉𝑛𝑖 ≤ 𝐾1 𝑓𝑐′ 𝐴𝑐𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.4.3-4]
and
𝑉𝑛𝑖 ≤ 𝐾2 𝐴𝑐𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.4.3-5]
where
K1 = 0.3 for CIP slab-to-precast girder interface [LRFD Art. 5.7.4.4]
K2 = 1.8 ksi for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art. 5.7.4.4]
The minimum reinforcement required of Avf may be waived where vui is less than 0.210 ksi, the beam-slab
interface has a roughened surface to an amplitude of 0.25 in., and the shear reinforcement crosses the interface
with adequate anchorage in the slab.

8.6 LOSS OF PRESTRESS

8.6.1 Introduction
Concrete is a material that exhibits time-dependent behavior. Under the effects of sustained stress, “creep” causes
concrete to experience ongoing strains. Even when no loads are present, concrete specimens will undergo
“shrinkage” strains. Prestressing steel, when strained at levels normal in prestressed concrete bridge members,

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exhibits a gradual loss of stress under constant strain, which is referred to as “relaxation.” Chapter 2 and Section
8.13 provide equations, representative material constants, and more information related to predicting creep,
shrinkage, and relaxation.
Under the combined effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete and the relaxation of prestressing steel,
prestressed concrete members gradually deform with time. These time-dependent changes manifest themselves
in the shortening of the member, some loss of prestress, and, therefore, a change in camber or deflection.
Several techniques are available to the designer to account for these effects. Approximate methods suitable for
conventional designs are given in this section. More detailed methods suitable for unusual or complex designs are
presented in Section 8.13.

8.6.2 Definition
Loss of prestress is defined as the difference between the initial stress in the strands (just after seating of strands
in the anchorage) and the effective prestress in the member (at a time when concrete stresses are to be
calculated). This definition of loss of prestress includes both instantaneous (elastic) losses and losses that are
time dependent.
Total prestress loss is calculated as follows:
∆𝑓𝑝𝑇 = ∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 + ∆𝑓𝑝𝐿𝑇 LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.1-1]
where
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete and relaxation of steel after transfer
It should be emphasized that this definition of loss of prestress differs from previous methods of estimating
prestress losses in that this method considers elastic changes in the steel stress due to the application of external
loads. Traditionally, calculated prestress losses in pretensioned members included only the elastic shortening loss
at release of prestress and inelastic long-term losses. In reality, when a member is loaded externally, the resulting
moment and/or axial load change the strain in both the concrete and bonded reinforcement. For simple-span
flexural members, applied loads normally result in tensile stresses in the bottom concrete fibers and additional
tensile stresses in the prestressed reinforcement. The effects of dead loads and deck shrinkage are permanent and
could be considered to offset some of the prestress losses. The effects of live load are transient and only exist
whenever the load is present. Proper accounting of these gains in tension in the prestressed reinforcement is
necessary to compare the tension in the reinforcement under service conditions with the stress limits specified in
the LRFD Specifications (see Design Examples 9.1a, 9.1b and 9.1d in Chapter 9 of this manual).
In post-tensioning applications, friction between the tendon and the duct, as well as anchorage seating losses
during the post-tensioning operation, must be considered in design. Post-tensioning applications are discussed in
Chapter 11 of this manual.

8.6.3 Significance of Losses for Design

For design, loss of prestress plays a significant role in two important stages in the life of a prestressed concrete
bridge beam. First, a reasonable estimate of the prestress level is needed immediately following transfer of
prestress. This estimate is necessary to avoid overstressing the concrete beam when the prestress force is the
highest and concrete strength is lowest. The second stage that requires an estimate of effective prestress is under
long-term service conditions. This estimate is required to ensure that calculated stresses in the concrete are
below the limits prescribed by the project specifications. Other design criteria, including such critical matters as
nominal flexural resistance and nominal shear resistance, are relatively insensitive to the designer’s estimate of
loss of prestress. It is primarily the service limit state stresses in the bottom flange of a concrete beam that the
designer is attempting to control through estimates of loss of prestress.

8.6.4 Effects of Estimation of Losses

It is important to recognize the variables that affect the loss of prestress in a beam. Some of the important
variables affecting time-dependent behavior, and therefore loss of prestress, are the concrete’s modulus of

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elasticity and its creep and shrinkage properties. These variables can be somewhat unpredictable for a given
concrete mixture and cannot be fully controlled by the designer. Therefore, the estimation of loss of prestress
should not be overemphasized at the expense of other more important issues during the design process

8.6.4.1 Effects at Transfer

An exception to the previous statement should be made with regard to estimation of loss of prestress at the time
of transfer. It is important that losses at transfer not be grossly overestimated. If gross overestimation were to
happen, the prestressing force would be much larger than expected and significant cracking couldoccur. Sudden
failure of the member at prestress transfer, while not likely, could possibly occur. Fortunately, estimates of losses
at this time are subject to fewer unknown variables, allowing a more accurate estimate to be made in almost all
cases.

8.6.4.2 Effect on Production Costs

In the case of overestimation of loss of prestress, the beam is likely to be constructed with more strands than
necessary. The increase in strand cost is usually not significant. However, if additional strands are provided, it
may be necessary to increase the concrete strength at transfer to accommodate the larger prestressing force
Addressing that issue could involve a longer curing time or a more expensive concrete mixture. An increase in
beam costs may result, particularly if the increase in strength at transfer requires an additional day to complete
the casting cycle.

8.6.4.3 Effect on Camber

Another issue associated with overestimation of loss of prestress, and the addition of strands, is unexpected
camber. Excessive camber of a bridge member can cause problems during construction and can result in the need
to adjust bridge grades. Finally, if a designer significantly overestimates loss of prestress for a member near the
limits of its span range, it may be necessary to specify a larger beam. Foundation and substructure costs may also
increase.
From this discussion, it should be apparent that it is not beneficial to overestimate loss of prestress. The designer,
therefore, is cautioned against overestimation.

8.6.4.4 Effects of Underestimating Losses

Conversely, underestimation of loss of prestress can theoretically result in excessive tensile stresses in the
concrete member under service limit state conditions. No known instances of problems resulting from this
condition have been reported. The nominal flexural resistance requirements of bridge design specifications serve
to impose a lower limit on the number of strands in a member, which indirectly prevents a low estimate for loss of
prestress from having a significant adverse impact on a member.
Underestimating losses may also result in lower than anticipated camber or even an unsightly sag in the final
structure, but again, these issues are unlikely to occur in practice.

8.6.5 Methods for Estimating Losses

Multiple methods are available to predict loss of prestress, as discussed in Section 8.2.2.3 earlier in this chapter;
these methods are listed here in order of increasing complexity:
1. Approximate estimate of time-dependent losses for pretensioned concrete beams
2. Refined estimates of time-dependent losses for pretensioned beams
3. Time-step analysis for both pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete beams.
The LRFD Specifications provides detailed guidance for the first two methods. The time-step analysis procedure is
described in Section 8.13 of this manual.

8.6.6 Elastic Shortening Loss at Transfer

Elastic shortening is the immediate shortening of the member under the application of prestressing force. Elastic
shortening at the transfer of pretensioning occurs instantaneously and is not a time-dependent effect.

8.6.6.1 Calculation of Elastic Shortening Loss

Elastic shortening is calculated using LRFD Eq. (5.9.3.2.3a-1).

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𝐸𝑝
∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.2.3a-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
where
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands
Eci = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete at transfer
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing strands due to prestressing force
at transfer and the self weight of the member at sections of maximum moment

8.6.6.2 Theory and Background

Elastic shortening is the term used to describe the change in stress associated with the application of the
prestressing force to the concrete member. When the prestressing force is transferred to the member, the
member shortens, and in the case of bonded pretensioned strands, the stress in the prestressing strands
decreases as the strain in the strand decreases. Thus, the shortening is a prestress loss and is called “elastic
shortening” because the change in member length happens instantaneously and therefore elastically.
The calculation of the change in stress in the strands is simply one of strain compatibility. For a pretensioned
concrete member, the strands are tensioned and anchored before concrete is placed in the forms. This is referred
to as “pretensioning.” When the concrete attains a desired minimum strength, called the “transfer strength,” the
force from the anchored strands is released. The strands now bonded to the concrete member must shorten as
the concrete shortens. The strands compress the concrete at transfer, the concrete member shortens, and the
strands lose a fraction of their initial tension.
A strain compatibility calculation is one approach used to describe the calculation of stresses in the concrete due
to the application of the prestressing force and to describe the prestress loss.
An equation is written to describe the stress in the concrete after transfer (that is, after elastic shortening occurs)
as a function of the stress in the strands before transfer. A key concept to understand is that the losses, and
resulting stresses in concrete, can be calculated based on strand stresses before transfer by using transformed
section properties. This method of calculating concrete stresses and losses is theoretically accurate. The use of
transformed sections and the effects of prestressing force and external moment is summarized in LRFD
Commentary C5.9.3.2.3a, which states, “When calculating concrete stresses using transformed section properties,
the effects of losses and gains due to elastic deformations are implicitly accounted for and ΔfpES should not be
included in the prestressing force applied to the transformed section at transfer.”
Equations (8.6.6.2-1) and (8.6.6.2-2) are used to calculate the concrete stress fci and stress in the strands after
transfer, fpt. These calculations automatically account for the elastic shortening loss—that is, elastic shortening is
implicitly captured by this calculation method.
𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝑦𝑡𝑟 𝑀𝑔 𝑦𝑡𝑟 (Eq. 8.6.6.2-1)
𝑓𝑐𝑖 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝐼𝑡𝑟 𝐼𝑡𝑟
and
2
𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑀𝑔 𝑒𝑡𝑟 (Eq. 8.6.6.2-2)
𝑓𝑝𝑡 = 𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 − 𝑛𝑝 {( + )− }
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝐼𝑡𝑟 𝐼𝑡𝑟
The stress in the strands after transfer is found by taking the stress in the strands before transfer, fpbt, subtracting
the elastic shortening value associated with the prestressing force, and adding in a gain in stress in the strands
due to the action of member self weight. The added “elastic gain” simply implies that the effect of self weight is to
counteract a portion of the compressive effects of the prestressing force. It is the sum of these stresses that causes
compression in the concrete and a corresponding loss of strain and stress in the prestressing strands. This elastic
shortening calculation includes elastic gains because the gain in stress in the strands due to member self weight
partly offsets the loss of stress due to shortening.
If the equation for fci is rewritten specifically to find the stress in the concrete at the center of gravity of the
prestressing steel, with etr substituted for ytr, the stress in concrete at the level of prestressing steel, fcgp, is
determined:

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2
𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝑀𝑔 𝑒𝑡𝑟 (Eq. 8.6.6.2-3)
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝐼𝑡𝑟 𝐼𝑡𝑟
Substituting fcgp for fpt in Eq. (8.6.6.2-2) results in the following equation:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 = 𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 − 𝑛𝑝 𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 (Eq. 8.6.6.2-4)
where 𝑛𝑝 𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 is the prestress loss due to elastic shortening. This is the basis for the elastic shortening equation
LRFD Eq. (5.9.3.2.3a):
𝐸𝑝 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.2.3a]
∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
The LRFD Specifications does not specifically state the method by which fcgp can be calculated. Various methods
have been used over time.
To determine the elastic shortening loss and hence the resulting stress in the strands and concrete after the loss,
the elastic shortening loss must be known. That presents a dilemma, which can be resolved using the transformed
section method. Alternatively, gross section properties can be used, along with the force in the strands after
elastic shortening has occurred. Many engineers will assume a value of the elastic shortening loss—for example,
10% of the jacking stress—and then calculate the corresponding elastic shortening loss, and repeat this cycle
until the solution converges. This approach is known as an explicit calculation. The transformed section approach
eliminates the need for iteration by basing the calculations for concrete stresses on the stress in the strands
before release. This approach is known as an implicit calculation.
An alternate approach is that shown in LRFD Eq. (C5.9.3.2.3b-1):
2
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 (𝐼𝑔 + 𝑒𝑚 𝐴𝑔 ) − 𝑒𝑚 𝑀𝑔 𝐴𝑔
∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = [LRFD Eq. C5.9.3.2.3b-1]
𝐴 𝐼 𝐸
2 𝐴 ) + 𝑔 𝑔 𝑐𝑖
𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝐼𝑔 + 𝑒𝑚 𝑔 𝐸𝑝
In this approach, the stress in the strands before release is used, but with gross (not transformed) section
properties. This is an approximate method, but it provides results that closely agree with results from the
transformed section method without the need for the more detailed transformed section property calculations
(though these calculations are easily made with spreadsheets and other software).

8.6.6.3 Elastic Gains

It is important to differentiate elastic gains from prestress losses. Elastic gains are simply part of the elastic
response of a beam to applied loads and/or redistribution loads. Elastic gains are implicit in the calculation of
stresses when using transformed sections, but they should be tracked separately so that the stress in the
prestressing steel at service loads can be checked against the limit state requirements in the LRFD Specifications
(see LRFD Art. 5.9.3). If gross section properties are used in the analysis, elastic gains must be calculated explicitly
(separately) and added back into the prestress. Elastic gains are permanent for dead loads and deck shrinkage
and transient for live loads (Brice, 2023).

8.6.6.4 Elastic Shortening Example

Complete elastic-shortening examples are given in the design examples in Chapter 9 (for example, Design
Example 9.1a.6.1).

8.6.7 Time-Dependent Losses

The LRFD Specifications provides two methods for estimating time-dependent losses in precast, pretensioned
concrete girders: an approximate estimate of time-dependent losses [LRFD Art. 5.9.3.3] and refined estimates of
time-dependent losses [LRFD Art. 5.9.3.4]. The first method is intended for standard precast, pretensioned
concrete members subject to normal loading and environmental conditions. The second method provides more
accurate values of creep-, shrinkage-, and relaxation-related losses for precast, pretensioned concrete members
with CIP concrete decks or precast concrete decks. Both methods are described in the following sections.

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8.6.7.1 Approximate Estimate Method/8.6.7.2 Refined Estimates

8.6.7.1 Approximate Estimate Method

The approximate method is derived from the refined method, as described in Section 8.6.7.2, and is only intended
for standard I-beam and inverted-tee sections with composite decks. It assumes members with volume to surface
area V/S ratios of approximately 3.5. in. and a level of prestressing that results in tensile stress near the
maximum limit under full service loads.
The approximate method is applicable when the following conditions apply:
• Loading and environmental conditions are normal.
• Members are made from normal weight concrete.
• Concrete is either steam or moist cured.
• Prestressing uses bars or strands with low-relaxation properties.
• Average exposure conditions and temperatures characterize the bridge site.
Using the notation of the LRFD Specifications, the total time-dependent loss of prestress, ΔfpLT, is given by:
𝑓𝑝𝑖 𝐴𝑝𝑠 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.3-1]
∆𝑓𝑝𝐿𝑇 = 10.0 γ γ + 12γℎ γ𝑠𝑡 + ∆𝑓𝑝𝑅
𝐴𝑔 ℎ 𝑠𝑡
where
fpi = prestressing steel stress immediately prior to transfer
Aps = total area for prestressing reinforcement
Ag = area of cross section of the precast concrete beam
γh = correction factor for relative humidity of the ambient air
γst = correction factor for specified concrete strength at time of prestress transfer to the concrete
member
ΔfpR = an estimate of relaxation loss, taken as 2.4 ksi for low-relaxation strand and in accordance with
the manufacturer’s recommendation for other types of strand
The correction factor for relative humidity (normalized to 1.0 for H = 70%) is calculated as follows:
γℎ = 1.7 − 0.01𝐻 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.3-2]
where H = the average annual ambient relative humidity.
The correction factor for specified concrete strength (normalized to 1.0 for 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 4 ksi) is:
5
γ𝑠𝑡 = [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.3-3]
(1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ )

8.6.7.2 Refined Estimates

Using the notation of the LRFD Specifications, total time-dependent loss of prestress, ΔfpLT, is given by:
∆𝑓𝑝𝐿𝑇 = (∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + ∆𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + ∆𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 + (∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + ∆𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + ∆𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.1-1]

where
ΔfpSR = loss of pretensioning steel stress due to shrinkage of beam concrete between transfer and
deck placement
ΔfpCR = loss of pretensioning steel stress due to creep of beam concrete between transfer and deck
placement
ΔfpR1 = loss of pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of
transfer and deck placement
ΔfpSD = loss of pretensioning steel stress due to shrinkage of beam concrete between the time of
deck placement and final time

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ΔfpCD = loss of pretensioning steel stress due to creep of beam concrete between deck placement
and final time
ΔfpR2 = loss of pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of prestressing strands in composite
section between time of deck placement and final time
ΔfpSS = prestress gain due to shrinkage of the deck in the composite section
id = time-dependent losses between transfer and deck replacement
df = time-dependent losses between deck placement and final time
Although LRFD Eq. (5.9.3.4.1-1) accurately represents the provisions in the LRFD Specifications, PCI recommends
that the term ΔfpSS be deleted from the equation, and that deck shrinkage be treated as an applied load. (See
discussion in Section 8.6.7.3 of this chapter, and Design Examples 9.1a, 9.1b, and 9.1d in Chapter 9.)

8.6.7.2.1 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

The total time-dependent loss between time of transfer and deck placement is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of concrete, creep of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing strands.

8.6.7.2.1.1 Shrinkage of Beam Concrete

As mentioned in Section 8.2.2.1.2, the 2005 Interim Revisions of the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2005)
introduced a new method to calculate prestress losses, based on NCHRP Report 496 (Tadros, et al., 2003). This
method is based on fundamental principles of mechanics and the age adjusted effective modulus of elasticity
approach for the time-dependent concrete material properties. This section presents the derivation of the
equations to calculate the prestress loss due to shrinkage of the beam concrete between transfer of prestress, ti, to
the time the deck is placed, td. All other equations for the calculation of prestress losses are based on similar
derivations.
Figure 8.6.7.2.1.1-1 presents the cross section of a generic beam, with net cross-section properties (area, An, and
moment of inertia, In) and an area of prestressing steel, Aps, at an eccentricity, e, measured between the centroids
of the concrete section and the prestressing strands. Over the period from transfer of prestress to deck placement,
the unrestrained shrinkage of the concrete is εbid. Because the concrete shortens, the prestressing strand shortens
as well, reducing the tension in the strand. Since there is no external new force applied to the beam for this
particular case, the tensile force lost in the prestressing strand results in an equal amount of compressive force
being lost in the net concrete section of the beam. This is shown in Figure 8.6.7.2.1.1-1 and in the following
equation:
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 = Δ𝑃𝑐𝑛 (Eq. 8.6.7.2.1.1-1)
where
ΔPps = change in prestress force due to shrinkage from ti to td
ΔPcn = change in force on the net concrete section due to shrinkage from ti to td

Figure 8.6.7.2.1.1-1
Strains due to Shrinkage from Initial Time to Deck Placement

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8.6.7.2.1.1 Shrinkage of Beam Concrete

A moment, ΔMcn, develops in the net cross section. Summing moments about the centroid of the net concrete
section:
Δ𝑀𝑐𝑛 − Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒 = 0 (Eq. 8.6.7.2.1.1-2)
where e = eccentricity of prestressing strands.
Over the time step, the total strain in the net concrete section is the sum of the elastic strains caused by ΔPcn and
ΔMcn, the creep strains associated with these slowly developing forces, and the shrinkage strain. The change in
total strain, Δ𝜀𝑐𝑛 , in the concrete at the centroid of the prestressing steel over the time period can be calculated as
follows:
Δ𝑃𝑐𝑛 Δ𝑀𝑐𝑛 𝑒
Δ𝜀𝑐𝑛 = ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 − (1 + 𝜒Ψ(𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )) − (1 + 𝜒Ψ(𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )) (Eq. 8.6.7.2.1.1-3)
𝐴𝑛 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑛 𝐸𝑐

where
An = area of net beam cross section
χ = aging coefficient: a reduction factor that accounts for the gradual development of
shrinkage and the corresponding creep
Ψ(td, ti) = creep coefficient at time td for loads applied at time ti
In = moment of inertia of net beam cross section

If the equivalent terms from Eq. (8.6.7.2.1.1-1) and (8.6.7.2.1.1-2) are substituted into Eq, 8.6.7.2.1.1-3 and the
equation is simplified, it becomes:
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 1 𝑒 2 (Eq. 8.6.7.2.1.1-4)
Δε𝑐𝑛 = ε𝑏𝑖𝑑− ( + ) (1 + 𝜒Ψ(𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 ))
𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑛 𝐼𝑛
The change in strain in the prestressing strand, Δεps, is calculated as:
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8.6.7.2.1.1-5)
Δε𝑝𝑠 =
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝
Since the concrete and steel are assumed to be perfectly bonded, they must have the same strains. Therefore, the
following equations can be written:
Δε𝑝𝑠 = Δε𝑐𝑛 (Eq. 8.6.7.2.1.1-6)
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 1 𝑒 2 (Eq. 8.6.7.2.1.1-7)
= ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 − ( + ) (1 + 𝜒Ψ(𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 ))
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑛 𝐼𝑛

Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑛 𝑒 2 (Eq. 8.6.7.2.1.1-8)

[1 + (1 + ) (1 + 𝜒Ψ(𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 ))] = 𝜀𝑏𝑖𝑑 𝐸𝑝
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑛 𝐼𝑛
A new term, called the “transformed section coefficient,” Kid, is defined as follows:
1 (Eq. 8.6.7.2.1.1-9)
𝐾𝑖𝑑 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴 𝑒2
[1 + (1 + 𝑛 ) (1 + 𝜒Ψ(𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 ))]
𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑛 𝐼𝑛
Note that in the LRFD equation, the aging coefficient, 𝜒, was selected to be 0.7, the term Ѱ(tf, ti) was substituted
for Ѱ(td, ti), and gross section properties were substituted for net section properties.
With this substitution, the final expression for the change in the prestress force due to shrinkage of the concrete
from ti to td is:

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8.6.7.2.1.1 Shrinkage of Beam Concrete

Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3a-1]

Δ𝑓𝑆𝑅 = = ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 𝐸𝑝 𝐾𝑖𝑑
𝐴𝑝𝑠

All other components of long-term prestress loss are formulated in essentially the same fashion. In the final
version of the loss method as presented in the LRFD Specifications, the gross cross-section properties, rather than
the net properties, were used for simplicity in estimating the losses. The difference between the two properties is
just the area of the strands, which is a relatively small quantity.
Thus, this derivation makes it clear that the change in force due to prestress loss is applied to the net cross-
sectional area. In the calculation of stresses at various times in the life of the beam, the time-dependent prestress
loss forces should be applied to the net section, with the gross section being an acceptable simplification. The only
forces that should be applied to the transformed section are those from externally applied loads. The effects of the
internal redistribution of force (that is, prestress losses) should be applied to the net or gross section.
The third edition of this manual used transformed steel section properties in the design examples. Some states
have used steel transformed sections as a way of improving previous load ratings for older structures.
As explained, the prestress loss due to shrinkage of beam concrete between time of transfer and deck placement
is calculated by:
∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 = 𝜀𝑏𝑖𝑑 𝐸𝑝 𝐾𝑖𝑑 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3a-1]
where
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain of beam for the period between time of transfer and time of deck
placement
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kid = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for the period between time of transfer and time
of deck placement
The concrete shrinkage strain εbid is taken as:
𝜀𝑏𝑖𝑑 = 𝑘𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑠 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
where
The factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio, V/S, of the beam:
𝑘𝑠 = 1.45 − 0.13(𝑉 ⁄𝑆) [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-2]
The minimum value of ks is 1.0.
The humidity factor for shrinkage:
𝑘ℎ𝑠 = 2.00 − 0.014𝐻 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-2]
where H = average annual ambient relative humidity in percent
The factor for the effect of concrete strength:
5 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-4]
𝑘𝑓 =
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′

where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = specified compressive strength of concrete at time of transfer, ksi

The time development factor at deck placement:
𝑡 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-5]
𝑘𝑡𝑑 =
100 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′
12 ( ′ )+𝑡
𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 20

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8.6.7.2.1.1 Shrinkage of Beam Concrete/8.6.7.2.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

where
t = maturity of concrete (days) = 𝑡𝑑 − 𝑡𝑖
ti = concrete age at transfer, usually taken as 1 day
td = concrete age at deck placement, days
1 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2a-2]
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = 2
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 (𝑒𝑝𝑔 )
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔

where
epg = eccentricity of prestressing strand with respect to centroid of beam, in.
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = beam creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced at transfer
For the time between transfer and final time:
Ψb (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = 1.9𝑘𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑐 𝑘𝑡𝑑 𝑡𝑖−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
𝑘ℎ𝑐 = 1.56 − 0.008𝐻 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-3]

8.6.7.2.1.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is calculated as
follows:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = 𝑓 Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 )𝐾 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖 𝑖𝑑
where
Ψ𝑏 ( 𝑡 𝑑 , 𝑡 𝑖 ) = beam creep coefficient at time of deck placement due to loading introduced at transfer

= 1.9𝑘𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑐 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 𝑡𝑖−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

8.6.7.2.1.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck placement is
determined as follows:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑡
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2c-1]
𝐾𝐿 𝑓𝑝𝑦
where
fpt = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer, to be taken not less than 0.55fy
KL = 30 for low-relaxation strands and 7 for other prestressing steel, unless more accurate
manufacturer’s data are available
According to LRFD Article 5.9.3.4.2c, the relaxation loss may also be assumed equal to 1.2 ksi for low-relaxation
strands.

8.6.7.2.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time

The total time-dependent loss between deck placement and final time is the summation of prestress losses due to
shrinkage of beam concrete, creep of beam concrete, relaxation of prestressing strands, shrinkage of deck
concrete and creep of deck concrete.

8.6.7.2.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of deck placement and final time is calculated by:

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8.6.7.2.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/8.6.7.2.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 = ε𝑏𝑑𝑓 𝐸𝑝 𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2a-1]

where
εbdf = concrete shrinkage strain of beam for period between time of deck placement and final time
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kdf = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for period between time of deck placement and
final time
The total beam concrete shrinkage strain between transfer and final time is taken as:
𝜀𝑏𝑖𝑓 = 𝑘𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑠 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
The beam concrete shrinkage strain between deck placement and final time is:
𝜀𝑏𝑑𝑓 = ε𝑏𝑖𝑓 − ε𝑏𝑖𝑑
The beam concrete transformed section coefficient between deck placement and final time is:
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = 2
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐 (𝑒𝑝𝑐 ) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐

where
Ac = area of the composite section
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section
epc = eccentricity of strands with respect to the centroid of the composite section

8.6.7.2.2.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between time of deck placement and final time is determined as:
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 [Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) − Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )]𝐾𝑑𝑓 + Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐸𝑐
where
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = beam creep coefficient at final time due to loading at deck placement
= 1.9𝑘𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑐 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓 𝑡𝑑−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
ktdf = 𝑡
100 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-5]
12 ( ′ )+𝑡
𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 20
Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to long-term losses between
transfer and deck placement, combined with deck weight and superimposed loads, ksi
2
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 (𝑒𝑝𝑔 ) 𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑔 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑝𝑐
= −(Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 ) (1 + )−( + )
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑐

The gross section properties are used in the equation to calculate Δfcd for the long-term losses because the
transformed section effect is already included in the transformed section factor, Kid, when the losses between
initial time and deck placement are calculated.

8.6.7.2.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands in the composite section between the time of deck
placement and the final time is taken as:

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8.6.7.2.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands/8.6.7.3 Recommended Treatment of Deck Shrinkage

∆𝑓𝑝𝑅2 = ∆𝑓𝑝𝑅1 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3c-1]

8.6.7.2.2.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

As the deck concrete shortens from drying shrinkage, an axial force and moment are introduced into the beam.
This causes an increase in the tensile force in the strand, which is called the prestress gain due to deck shrinkage.
According to the LRFD Specifications, the prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete is calculated by:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = ∆𝑓 𝐾 [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )] [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3d-1]
𝐸𝑐 𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
where Δfcdf = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to shrinkage of deck concrete, ksi.
ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑑 1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝑒𝑑
Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 = ( − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3d-2]
1 + 0.7Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
εddf = shrinkage strain of deck concrete between placement and final time
= 𝑘𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑠 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
Ad = area of deck concrete, in.2
Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = creep coefficient of deck concrete at final time due to loading introduced shortly after deck
placement
= 1.9𝑘𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑐 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 𝑡𝑖−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
Ecd = modulus of elasticity of deck concrete, ksi
ed = eccentricity of deck with respect to the gross composite section, in.
The change in concrete stress at the centroid of the prestressing strands, Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 , is defined as the change in stress
due to shrinkage of deck concrete. However, LRFD Eq. (5.9.3.4.3d-2) uses the age-adjusted elastic modulus for
𝐸𝑐𝑑
deck concrete, ,which accounts for creep of the deck concrete due to forces developed in the deck as a
1+0.7Ψ(𝑡𝑓 ,𝑡𝑖 )
result of the restraining effect of the beam.
The prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete was developed using an age-adjusted modulus of elasticity
for the beam concrete. This is seen through the term [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )] in LRFD Eq. (5.9.3.4.3d-1). The prestress
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝
gain can be rewritten as Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝐾𝑑𝑓 + Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝐾𝑑𝑓 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ). The first term is the elastic gain due to
𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐
elongation of the prestressing strand in response to the deck shrinkage deformation. The beam concrete
undergoes a corresponding change in strain due to deck shrinkage that causes additional creep. The second term
is the change in prestress due to the additional beam concrete creep (Brice, 2023).
Shrinkage and creep of the deck concrete are assumed to start at 1 day.

8.6.7.3 Recommended Treatment of Deck Shrinkage

PCI recommends that the prestress gain caused by deck shrinkage, Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 , not be included in the calculation of
total prestress losses. The prestress gain due to deck shrinkage modeled in Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 accounts for both elastic and
beam concrete creep–induced elongation of the strand. When transformed section analysis is used, the elastic
gain is incorrectly accounted for twice; once in the calculation of ΔfpSS and once in the transformed section stress
analysis. Excluding ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 corrects this issue. Deck shrinkage causes tension in the beam, which induces creep
strains in the beam concrete. These creep strains elongate the strand resulting in an increase in the effective
prestress but also a corresponding amount of tension in the surrounding concrete. The fully calculated deck
shrinkage strains may not develop in the presence of deck cracking and deck reinforcement. This notion was
introduced in Example 9.1a of the third edition of this manual and is discussed in Section 8.6.7.3 of that edition.
For this reason, it is conservative to neglect the prestress gain due to creep in the beam concrete that is induced
by deck shrinkage (Brice, 2023). When adopting PCI’s recommendation, each designer should consult owner’s
policies for the selection of γLL = 0.8 or 1.0.

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8.6.7.3 Recommended Treatment of Deck Shrinkage/8.7 Camber and Deflection

The effect of deck shrinkage should be analyzed by considering it as an external force applied to the composite
section using the Service III load combination. This force is applied at the center of the deck with an eccentricity
from the center of the deck to the center of gravity of the composite section. As noted earlier, the third edition of
this manual states, “It is likely, however, that the full calculated force from deck shrinkage will not occur because
of the presence of deck cracking and deck reinforcement. PCI recommends that in lieu of a more refined analysis,
50% of the deck shrinkage be applied” (PCI, 2014). This reduction is incorporated into the design calculations by
reducing the magnitude of the shrinkage strain of deck concrete, 𝜀𝑑𝑑𝑓 , by 50%. Nontransformed (gross or net)
section properties may be used instead of the transformed section properties in the deck concrete to provide a
more conservative result. If the designer explicitly includes elastic gains with nontransformed section analysis,
the elastic gain due to deck shrinkage needs to be calculated since ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 is not included in the effective prestress
and, by superposition, added to the state of stress in the beam (Brice, 2023). A short version of Brice’s paper was
published in the 2023 Summer issue of ASPIRE. For the reader’s convenience, a full version of that paper is
included as an appendix at the end of this chapter.

8.6.7.4 Prestress Loss Examples

Complete design examples illustrating the application of the prestress-loss and recommended deck-shrinkage
methodologies are provided in Chapter 9 of this manual (see Section 9.1a.6).

8.7 CAMBER AND DEFLECTION

Generally, there are three sets of beam deformations of interest to the designer:
• Vertical deflections (typically at midspan)
• End rotations
• Axial shortening
Of these, midspan deflection, or camber, is usually of greatest interest. Unexpected camber at the time of erection
may require adjustment of bridge grades to prevent intrusion of the beam top flange into the deck. Additionally,
estimates of the final midspan deflections under the action of permanent dead load and live load may be required
to ensure serviceability of the bridge.
End rotations are of importance when continuity is introduced at the time of casting the deck. When these
rotations are fully or partially restrained by adjacent spans, secondary time-dependent stresses are introduced in
the structure. These stresses must be considered in the design of connections and detailing of the end regions of
beams. Girder end rotations can also be restrained when diaphragms are cast prior to placement of the deck
concrete.
Finally, axial shortening of precast, prestressed concrete bridge members must be considered when designing
bearings and expansion devices. This information is also helpful in assessing the impact of superstructure
restraint against shortening in jointless bridge systems.
This section discusses the computations of camber and deflection, including the changes that occur in these
quantities with time. The methods that are available to estimate long-term cambers and other deflections of
precast, prestressed concrete members fall into the following three categories, which are listed in order of
increasing complexity and accuracy:
• Multiplier methods
• Improved multiplier methods, based on estimates of loss of prestress
• Detailed analytical methods
Camber in a prestressed beam occurs immediately upon the transfer of the prestressing force. The magnitude of
the initial camber is dependent on the length, weight, and moment of inertia of the member; the modulus of
elasticity of the concrete; and the arrangement and amount of prestressing. Table 8.7-1 gives values for several
prestressing arrangements (PCI, 2010). The modulus of elasticity of the concrete usually cannot be predicted with
precision at the time the member is designed. The standard prediction formulas are based on values assumed by
the designer for concrete unit weight and strength at the time of prestress transfer. These assumed values do not
include actual material properties, nor do they account for such important factors as types of aggregates and the
ratio of coarse to fine aggregates. For these reasons, initial camber predictions using assumed material properties

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.7 Camber and Deflection

must be regarded as estimates and the designer is cautioned against placing a high degree of confidence in
calculated initial cambers (Tadros, et al., 2011).
After transfer, camber generally increases with time. Creep of the concrete is primarily responsible for this
camber growth. Simultaneously, the gradual loss of prestress due to creep, shrinkage, and strand relaxation has
the effect of reducing the initial rate of growth of camber. The magnitude and rates of both creep and shrinkage,
and, therefore, changes in camber are affected by environmental conditions such as ambient relative humidity
and temperature.
From the preceding discussion, it should be obvious that the task of predicting both initial camber and the growth
of camber with time is difficult because many variables that affect this behavior are random and, therefore,
beyond the designer’s control. Estimates of these effects should be recognized as being approximations only. For
this reason, measured cambers in excess of initial camber predictions should not be considered a reason to reject
a manufactured prestressed concrete beam.

This space intentionally left blank

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 Table 8.7-1
Camber (Deflection) and Rotation Coefficients for Prestress Force and Loads
Equivalent
Prestress Pattern Moment or Equivalent Loading Camber End Rotation
Load
Left End Right End
M = Pe 𝑀ℓ2 𝑀ℓ 𝑀ℓ
+ + −
16𝐸𝐼 3EI 6𝐸𝐼

𝑀ℓ2 𝑀ℓ 𝑀ℓ
M = Pe + + −
16𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼

𝑀ℓ2 𝑀ℓ 𝑀ℓ
M = Pe + + −
8EI 2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼

4𝑃𝑒 ′ 𝑁ℓ3 𝑁ℓ2 𝑁ℓ2

𝑁 = + + −

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ℓ 48𝐸𝐼 16𝐸𝐼 16𝐸𝐼

𝑃𝑒 ′ ( ( (
𝑏 3 − 4𝑏 2 )𝑁ℓ3 𝑏 1 − 𝑏)𝑁ℓ2 𝑏 1 − 𝑏)𝑁ℓ2
𝑁 = + + −
𝑏ℓ 24𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼

8𝑃𝑒 ′ 5𝑤ℓ4 𝑤ℓ3 𝑤ℓ3

𝑤 = + + −
ℓ2 384𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼

𝑀ℓ2 ( 𝑀ℓ [( 𝑀ℓ [(
M = Peʹ + 1 − 2𝑏12 − 2𝑏22 ) + 1 − 2𝑏1 )2 − 𝑏22 ] − 1 − 2𝑏1 )2 − 𝑏22 ]
8𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER
8

(2023)
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.7 Camber and Deflection
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 8
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.7.1 Multiplier Method/8.7.2 Example

8.7.1 Multiplier Method

Perhaps the most used method for predicting time-dependent camber of precast, prestressed concrete members
involves the set of multipliers given in Table 8.7.1-1 (Martin, 1977). This method is fairly straight forward. First,
elastic deflections caused by the effects of prestressing, beam self weight, and other dead loads are calculated
using conventional elastic analysis techniques. These are multiplied by the appropriate factors selected from
Table 8.7.1-1 to determine the deflections that occur as a result of time-dependent behavior.

Table 8.7.1-1
Suggested Multipliers to be Used as a Guide in
Estimating Long-Term Cambers and Deflections for Typical Members
Without With
Composite Composite
Topping Topping
At erection:
(1) Deflection (↓) component—apply to the elastic deflection 1.85 1.85
due to the member weight at transfer of prestress
(2) Camber (↑) component—apply to the elastic camber due 1.80 1.80
to prestress at the time of transfer of prestress
Final:
(3) Deflection (↓) component—apply to the elastic deflection 2.70 2.40
due to the member weight at transfer of prestress
(4) Camber (↑) component—apply to the elastic camber due 2.45 2.20
to prestress at the time of transfer of prestress
(5) Deflection (↓) component—apply to elastic deflection due 3.00 3.00
to superimposed dead load only
(6) Deflection (↓) component—apply to elastic deflection — 2.30
caused by the composite topping

This method gives reasonable estimates for cambers at the time of erection. The method does not, however,
properly account for the significant effects of a large CIP deck. The presence of a deck, once cured, drastically
changes the stiffness of a typical bridge member. This has the effect of restraining the beam creep strains that are
the result of prestressing, member self weight, and the dead load of the deck itself. Also, differential creep and
shrinkage between the precast concrete beam and the CIP concrete can produce changes in member deformation.
The multipliers for long-term deflection suggested by this method, therefore, should not be used for bridge beams
with structurally composite CIP decks.
In addition, it is not recommended that prestressing levels be increased to reduce or eliminate long-term
downward deflection that might be predicted if the multipliers in Table 8.7.1-1 are used.

8.7.2 Example
Calculate initial and erection cambers, as well as the immediate camber after construction of the deck, for the
beam presented in Design Example 9.1a of Chapter 9. Use the multiplier method.
Use the following information from Design Example 9.1a to calculate initial and erection camber:
Initial camber due to prestress:
∆𝑝 = 3.66 in. ↑
Deflection at transfer due to self weight:
∆𝑔 = 1.46 in. ↓
So, net camber at transfer = 3.66 − 1.46 = 2.20 in. ↑

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8.7.2 Example/8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Concrete Panels

Deflection at erection due to self weight:

∆𝑔 = 1.42 in. ↓
Applying the multipliers at erection from Table 8.7.1-1 to the initial values computed above, erection camber =
(1.80)(3.66) − (1.85)(1.46) = 3.89 in. 
Deflection due to deck and haunch weights:
∆𝑠 = 1.57 in. ↓
Net camber immediately after application of deck weights:
Camber = 3.89 − 1.57 = 2.32 in. 

8.8 DECK SLAB DESIGN

8.8.1 Introduction
This section considers concrete slabs that act compositely with precast concrete beams and where the slab span
and main reinforcement are transverse to traffic. CIP concrete is sometimes used as a topping on longitudinal,
“full-deck” members such as adjacent box beams, double tees, and deck bulb tees. However, this type of deck slab
generally does not require flexural design and is not covered in this section. Most deck slabs in new bridge
construction use CIP concrete with or without precast concrete SIP deck panels. The CIP topping provides
flexibility to adjust for roadway profile and for differences in beam elevations. The use of precast concrete SIP
panels is gaining popularity because they are cost-effective and offer jobsite construction time and safety benefits.
This section focuses on the design of CIP decks using precast concrete SIP panels according to the “traditional
design” method of the LRFD Specifications. In addition, a subsection summarizes the “empirical design” method of
full-depth CIP slabs. This method is becoming more popular due to the relatively small amount of reinforcement it
requires. However, at this time, the LRFD Specifications does not permit use of the empirical design method for
design of precast concrete SIP deck panel systems. Also in this section, two precast concrete deck systems are
introduced. The first system is an improved SIP panel that allows for accelerated construction speed and better
structural performance compared with the conventional SIP panel system. The second is a full-depth precast,
prestressed concrete panel that is best suited for rapid replacement of decks on high-traffic bridges.

8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Concrete Panels

A precast concrete SIP deck panel system typically consists of thin precast, concentrically prestressed concrete
panels that span between supporting beams, and a CIP concrete topping that acts compositely with the SIP panels
to form the fully composite deck. Precast concrete panels as thin as 2.5 in. have successfully been used. Because
most panels are thin, strict quality control practices are recommended to avoid panel cracking or camber (PCI
Bridge Producers Committee, 1988). The prestress force should be released as gradually as possible. The strands
should be maintained concentric with the concrete cross section. Research by Kumar and Ramirez (1996) showed
that prestressed SIP deck panels with a 0.05- to 0.075-in.-amplitude, broom-finished surface do not require
horizontal shear connectors to achieve full composite action with the CIP topping, as long as the nominal
horizontal shear stress is less than 0.116 ksi.
Positive moment sections between the supporting beams are designed as prestressed concrete composite
sections with the prestressing strands as the main reinforcement. Negative moment sections over beam lines are
designed as conventionally reinforced sections with the reinforcing bars in the topping slab as the main
reinforcement as shown in Figure 8.8.2-1.

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8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Concrete Panels/8.8.2.2 Service Load Stresses and Flexural Strength

Figure 8.8.2-1
Cross Section of Cast-in-Place (CIP) Deck with Precast Concrete Stay-in-Place (SIP) Panels

8.8.2.1 Determining Prestress Force

The first step in design is to estimate the required amount of prestress force. This estimate is governed by the
tensile stress limits in the precast concrete SIP panel due to service loads at the maximum positive moment
section. The weight of the precast concrete SIP deck panel and the CIP topping act on the noncomposite section
(that is, the precast concrete SIP deck panel alone). The superimposed dead loads (wearing surface, barriers, etc.)
and live loads act on the precast concrete SIP panel-CIP topping composite section. After the required prestress
force is determined, the unfactored load stresses and the ultimate flexural capacity at various construction stages
are checked.

8.8.2.2 Service Load Stresses and Flexural Strength

Service load stresses should be checked in the panel and in the completed deck at multiple stages. The first stage
is at the time of prestress transfer or release. The strands are normally concentric within the precast concrete SIP
deck panel. Therefore, prestress introduces uniformly distributed compressive stresses. However, accidental
misplacement of the strands may be conservatively assumed to produce 0.25-in. prestress eccentricity.
The second loading stage occurs at the time of topping placement. Loads at this stage act only on the SIP panel.
Service load stresses and ultimate capacity of the precast concrete SIP panel should be checked due to the weight
of the precast concrete panel and the CIP topping in addition to a construction load, estimated as 50 psf unless a
more accurate figure is available. The construction load represents people, material, and equipment used to place,
finish, and cure the topping, but it does not include concentrated loads representing finishing machine reactions.
Special brackets directly supported on beam seats are used to resist finishing machine loads. Other loads at this
stage act only on the SIP panel.
The third loading stage occurs after the CIP topping cures and the superimposed loads are introduced. At this
stage, the stresses are calculated using a composite section analysis, with the CIP concrete transformed to the
panel concrete; this calculation is similar to that done in composite I-beam analysis. The ultimate strength of the
composite section at the maximum positive moment section is checked against factored dead and live loads. One
of the most important issues in determining the flexural strength of the positive moment section is the strand
development length. Since the strands are terminated at panel ends over beam lines, the maximum positive
moment sections may be closer to the end of the panel than the development length of the strands. Thus, only
partial strand development can be expected. In this situation, the average stress in prestressing steel at the time
for which the nominal resistance of the member is required is reduced due to the lack of full development. The
average stress in the prestressing steel for fully developed strand is:
𝑐 [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.1.1-1]
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 (1 − 𝑘 )
𝑑𝑝
in which
𝑓𝑝𝑦 [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.1.1-2]
𝑘 = 2 (1.04 − )
𝑓𝑝𝑢
where
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = average stress in prestressing steel at the time for which the nominal resistance of the member
is required for fully developed strand, ksi

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8.8.2.2 Service Load Stresses and Flexural Strength

𝑓𝑝𝑢 = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel, ksi

𝑐 = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis, in.
𝑑𝑝 = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing force, in.
𝑓𝑝𝑦 = yield strength of prestressing steel, ksi
When the design section is located at a distance further than the prestress transfer length, 60𝑑𝑏 , from the edge of
the panel and less than the full development length, ℓd, the reduced average stress in the prestressing steel is:
ℓ𝑝𝑥 − 60𝑑𝑏 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.4.3.2-2]
𝑓𝑝𝑥 = 𝑓𝑝𝑒 + (𝑓 − 𝑓𝑝𝑒 )
ℓ𝑑 − 60𝑑𝑏 𝑝𝑠
in which
2
ℓ𝑑 = κ (𝑓𝑝𝑠 − 𝑓𝑝𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑏 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.4.3.2-1]
3

where
𝑓𝑝𝑥 = design stress in the pretensioned strand at nominal flexural strength at section of member under
consideration, ksi

𝑓𝑝𝑒 = effective stress in prestressing steel after losses, ksi

ℓ𝑝𝑥 = distance from free end of pretensioned strand to section of member under consideration, in.
𝑑𝑏 = nominal strand diameter, in.
ℓ𝑑 = strand development length, in.
κ = 1.0 for pretensioned panels, piling, and other pretensioned members with a depth less than or
equal to 24.0 in.
The variation in the design stress, 𝑓𝑝𝑥 , over the development length is illustrated in Figure 8.8.2.2-1.
Figure 8.8.2.2-1 [LRFD Fig. C5.9.4.3.2-1]
Idealized Relationship between Strand Stress
and Distance from Free End of Strand

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8.8.2.2 Service Load Stresses and Flexural Strength/8.8.2.3.2.1 Minimum Thickness

Nonprestressed reinforcement provided in the CIP topping is determined on the basis of flexural strength. The
critical sections over interior beams are designed for superimposed dead and live loads. In addition, the region
near the exterior beams should be designed for crash loading combined with dead and live loads. Design Example
9.10 in Chapter 9 of this manual provides complete details of the design of overhangs for this type of loading. In
negative moment zones, proper distribution of the flexural reinforcement is required to control top fiber cracking.

8.8.2.3 LRFD Specifications

Section 9 of the LRFD Specifications is devoted to deck systems. Three levels of analysis are permitted in the LRFD
Specifications:
• Refined analysis
• Approximate analysis, generally known as the “strip method
• Empirical method
As noted earlier, the LRFD Specifications does not permit the empirical method to be used in the design of SIP
panel deck systems.

8.8.2.3.1 LRFD Specifications Refined Analysis

LRFD Articles 4.4 and 4.6.3.2 allow the use of refined methods of analysis. These methods should satisfy the
requirements of equilibrium and compatibility and use stress-strain relationships for the proposed materials.
Refined analysis methods include, but are not limited to, the following:
• Grillage analogy method
• Finite strip method
• Finite element method
However, some conditions that accurately model the behavior of the deck slabs as observed in actual bridges
should be considered. These conditions are as follows:
• Flexural and torsional deformation of the deck in skewed bridges
• In-plane shear deformation, which affects the effective width of composite bridge decks
• Locations of flexural discontinuity through which shear is transmitted, which should be modeled as
hinges
• Wheel loads, which should be modeled as patch loads over the tire contact area, given by the LRFD
specifications, extended by half of the deck depth on all four sides
A structurally continuous railing, barrier, or median acting compositely with the supporting components can be
considered to be structurally active only at service and fatigue limit states.

8.8.2.3.2 LRFD Specifications Strip Method

In the strip method, the deck slab is divided into strips perpendicular to the supporting beams. To calculate the
bending moments and shear forces, the strips are treated as a continuous member and the supporting beams are
assumed to be infinitely rigid. The width of the strip is determined so as to account for the effects of flexure in the
secondary direction and the effects of torsion to obtain flexural force effects approximating those that would be
provided by refined methods of analysis. However, the strip method model was developed based on nonskewed
bridges; therefore, more accurate analysis may be warranted for end zones of skewed bridges.

8.8.2.3.2.1 Minimum Thickness

LRFD Article 9.7.1.1 states that the depth of the concrete deck, excluding any provision for grinding, grooving, and
sacrificial surface, should not be less than 7.0 in. LRFD Article 2.5.2.4 states that concrete decks without an initial
overlay should have an additional thickness of ½ in. to allow for correction of the deck profile by grinding, and to
compensate for thickness loss due to abrasion. For concrete deck overhangs that support a deck-mounted post
system or concrete parapets or barriers, a minimum depth of 8.0 in. is required unless a lesser thickness can be
proven satisfactory during the crash testing procedure [LRFD Art. 13.7.3.1.2]. LRFD Article 9.7.4.3.1 states that
the thickness of the precast concrete SIP deck panel should neither exceed 55% of the total slab depth nor be less

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8.8.2.3.2.1 Minimum Thickness/8.8.2.3.2.5 Design Criteria

than 3.5-in. thick. However, as noted earlier, SIP panels 3.0-in. thick or even as thin as 2.5 in. have been used with
satisfactory performance.

8.8.2.3.2.2 Minimum Concrete Cover

LRFD Article 5.10.1 provides minimum concrete cover requirements. The minimum cover values are stated for
concrete mixtures with water-cement ratios from 0.40 to 0.50. For concrete mixtures with different water-cement
ratios, a modification factor is provided. The LRFD Specifications allows the minimum cover requirement to be
adjusted based on the reinforcing material, such as when epoxy-coated bars or corrosion-resistant materials are
used. However, special provisions for development length and lap splices provided in LRFD Article 5.10.8 must be
satisfied.

8.8.2.3.2.3 Live Load

The standard live load used in the LRFD Specifications is the HL-93, which consists of the combination of a design
truck or tandem, and a design lane load [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2]. However, LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.3 states that for deck
slabs where the strips are in the transverse direction of the bridge and their span does not exceed 15 ft, only the
wheels of the 32.0-kip axle of the design truck, spaced at 6.0 ft, need be considered. If the transverse strip span
exceeds 15 ft, both the 32-kip axle and the design lane load should be used in conjunction with the strip widths
for slab-type bridges. One or more design lanes may be assumed to be loaded simultaneously. Within each design
lane, the truck axle can be positioned so that the center of a wheel is not closer than 2.0 ft to the edge of the design
lane or closer than 1.0 ft to the face of the curb or rail for the deck overhang. The location of the design lanes can
be shifted laterally relative to the longitudinal axis of the deck to produce the maximum force effects. LRFD Article
4.6.2.1.3 gives the width of the strip in inches as:
Width = 26.0 + 6.6S (for positive moment calculations)
Width = 48.0 + 3.0S (for negative moment calculations)
where S = span of the slab between beam centerlines, ft.
For overhangs, the negative moment strip width is:
Width = 45.0 + 10.0X
where X = distance from the wheel load to point of support, ft.
These equations are based on three-dimensional finite element analyses of a large number of one- and two-span
bridges covering the practical range of number of beams, beam stiffness, beam spacing, span length, and slab
thickness. Because a three-dimensional analysis was used to develop the strip-width equations, the effects of
flexure in the secondary direction and torsion are already accounted for. The maximum positive and negative
bending moments calculated using the strip method are considered to apply to all regions along the bridge length.
Dynamic allowance of 33% and a multiple presence factor as specified in LRFD Articles 3.6.2 and 3.6.1.1.2 should
be included in design. Table A4-1 in Appendix A4 of the LRFD Specifications gives the maximum design bending
moment values for different beam arrangements, where the multiple presence factors and the dynamic load
allowance are included in the tabulated values. Appendix A4 is applicable only to bridge decks supported on at
least three parallel beams and having a width measured between the centerlines of the exterior beams of not less
than 14 ft.

8.8.2.3.2.4 Location of Critical Sections

For precast concrete I-beam bridges, the location of the design section for negative moments and shear forces
may be taken as one-third of the flange width, but not more than 15 in. from the support centerline [LRFD Art.
4.6.2.1.6].

8.8.2.3.2.5 Design Criteria

LRFD Article 9.7.4.1 states that prestressed concrete SIP panels should remain in the elastic range under
construction loads. Construction loads include the weight of the SIP panel, the weight of the CIP topping, and an
additional 0.050 ksf. Flexural stresses due to unfactored construction loads should not exceed 75% of the steel
yield strength or 65% of the 28-day compressive strength for concrete in compression, or the modulus of rupture
for concrete in tension. LRFD Article 9.7.4.1 also states that elastic deflection caused by the weights of the panel,
the plastic concrete, and reinforcement should not exceed:

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8.8.2.3.2.5 Design Criteria/8.8.2.3.2.8 Crack Control

• span length/180 with an upper limit of 0.50 in. for span lengths of 10 ft or less, or
• span length/240 with an upper limit of 0.75 in. for span lengths greater than 10 ft.
At service loads, the stresses in the composite section have to be checked under Service I Limit State for
prestressed concrete in compression and under Service III Limit State for prestressed concrete in tension.
Finally, the Strength I Limit State is used to check the nominal flexural resistance of the composite section.
Calculate stress in prestressing steel according to the available development length, ℓx, as follows:
2
ℓ𝑥 = ĸ (𝑓𝑝𝑠 − 𝑓𝑝𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑏
3
where
db = nominal strand diameter
fpe = effective stress in prestressing steel after losses
ℓx = available development length at midspan of the SIP panel ≤ ℓ𝑑
ĸ = 1.0 for precast, prestressed concrete slabs

8.8.2.3.2.6 Reinforcement Requirements

Minimum reinforcement should be provided so that the factored flexural resistance is not less than the cracking
moment as specified in LRFD Article 5.6.3.3. Alternatively, the minimum reinforcement requirement may be
satisfied by providing at least one-third more reinforcement than required by analysis.
The LRFD Specifications does not give guidance for the required amount of distribution reinforcement for the
concrete SIP panel system that provides for the lateral distribution of concentrated live loads. However, LRFD
Article 9.7.3.2 specifies that the minimum amount of reinforcement in the longitudinal direction for slabs that
have four layers of reinforcement is 220⁄√𝑆 ≤ 67% of the primary reinforcement, where S = span between the
inside faces of the beam webs, ft.
Applying this provision yields an amount of longitudinal reinforcement that is greater than that required by the
empirical design method.

8.8.2.3.2.7 Shear Design

To check two-way shear, assume that the contact area of one or two tires is a single, rectangular area, 20-in. wide
by 10-in. long, as specified in LRFD Article 3.6.1.2.5. The two-way shear capacity is given in LRFD Article
5.12.8.6.3. One-way shear should be checked as specified in LRFD Article 5.12.8.6.2.

8.8.2.3.2.8 Crack Control

For crack control in the negative moment areas, provisions of LRFD Article 5.6.7 should be applied. Because
positive moment regions for precast concrete SIP deck panel systems are prestressed, they are designed to be
uncracked under service load conditions.
To control possible cracking due to shrinkage and temperature changes, a minimum amount of reinforcement, As,
in each direction, should be provided:
1.30𝑏ℎ [LRFD Eq. 5.10.6-1]
𝐴𝑠 ≥
2(𝑏 + ℎ)𝑓𝑦
and
0.11 in.2 ≤ As ≤ 0.60 in.2 [LRFD Eq. 5.10.6-2]
Where
b = least width of component section, in.
h = least thickness of component section, in.

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8.8.2.3.2.8 Crack Control/8.8.3.1.1. Description of NUDECK

This reinforcement should be equally distributed on both faces and should not be spaced farther apart than three
times the slab thickness or 18.0 in. It is reasonable to waive this requirement in precast, prestressed concrete
panels in the direction that is prestressed.

8.8.3 Other Precast Concrete Bridge Deck Systems

Rapid replacement of bridge decks is becoming increasingly important in high-traffic areas due to public
intolerance of extended bridge closures. Several precast deck systems have been developed in the past two
decades. This section covers two bridge deck systems developed at the University of Nebraska for rapid
replacement of bridge decks (Tadros, 1998). The first system is a continuous precast concrete SIP panel system,
called NUDECK (Badie, et al., 1998; Fallaha, et al, 2004). It is intended for applications similar to the conventional
SIP panel previously discussed. The second system is a full-depth precast concrete panel system intended for very
rapid construction (Yamane, et al., 1998). The following sections briefly introduce these two systems.

8.8.3.1 Continuous Precast Concrete SIP Panel System, NUDECK

Although conventional SIP precast concrete panels have proven cost-effective and have been widely used in
several states, they have drawbacks, which include the following:
• The need for forming overhangs with wood forming
• The possible occurrence of reflective cracking over joints between SIP panels
• The lack of development of the pretensioning strands in the SIP panel caused by strand discontinuity at
beam lines and relatively small beam spacing
The continuous stay-in-place (CSIP) panel system NUDECK has the following advantages:
• The CSIP panel covers the entire width of the bridge, eliminating the necessity of forming the overhang.
• The CSIP panel is continuous longitudinally and transversely, which results in minimized reflective
cracks, full development of the pretensioning reinforcement, and better live load distribution.
Cost studies conducted by contractors and consulting engineers (Tadros, 1998) estimated that the NUDECK
system would be cost competitive with CIP systems. The slight increase in panel cost for the CSIP would be offset
by savings in the field as fewer pieces would need to be installed and overhang forming would be eliminated.
However, the uniqueness of the system, panel-forming challenges, and panel weight are potential disadvantages
of this system.

8.8.3.1.1 Description of NUDECK

Figure 8.8.3.1.1-1 shows a cross section of a bridge and a plan view of the precast concrete panel. The NUDECK
system consists of a 4.5-in.-thick precast concrete panel and a 3.5- to 4.5-in.-thick CIP reinforced topping.
Depending on the transportation and lifting equipment available in the field, the length of the panel in the
direction of traffic can vary from 8 to 12 ft. At each beam position, there is a full-length gap to accommodate shear
connectors. The width of the gap between panels, G, depends on the shear connector detail used in the precast
concrete beam. As an example, for a beam spacing of 12 ft and an overhang of 4 ft subjected to HS25 truck loading,
an 8-ft-wide panel would require twelve ½-in.-diameter strands and a 28-day concrete compressive strength of
8.0 ksi. The strands are located in two layers and uniformly spaced at 16 in. A minimum clear concrete cover of 1
in. is used for both the top and bottom layers of strands.
To maintain the gap over the beam, and to transmit the pretensioning force from one section to another across
the gap, 24 short pieces of No. 7 reinforcing bars are used in two layers. These bars transmit the prestress
compression force across the gap. Shear keys and reinforced pockets are provided to maintain continuity in the
longitudinal direction between the adjacent precast concrete panels (Fig. 8.8.3.1.1-2 and 8.8.3.1.1-3). The panel
is reinforced longitudinally with No. 4 bars spaced at 2 ft at the location of the pockets. To provide for full tension
development of the No. 4 bars, they are spliced using an innovative confinement technique (Fig. 8.8.3.1.1-4). A
shallow (5-in.-deep) pocket is needed to fully develop the No. 4 bar. The panels are erected using shims and
leveling bolts. The longitudinal gaps are then filled with fine aggregate concrete. When the concrete attains a
strength of 4.0 ksi, the finishing machine can then be installed and the CIP topping cast in one continuous
operation. Full-scale flexural laboratory testing (Badie, et al., 1998) has shown this system has almost twice the
load capacity of an equivalent conventional SIP panel system.

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8.8.3.1.1. Description of NUDECK

Figure 8.8.3.1.1-1
The NUDECK System

(b) Plan View Showing Reinforcement

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8.8.3.1.1. Description of NUDECK

Figure 8.8.3.1.1-2
Cross Section of the NUDECK Panel

Figure 8.8.3.1.1-3
Details of Reinforced Pockets in the NUDECK System

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8.8.3.1.1. Description of NUDECK/8.8.3.2 Full Depth Precast Concrete Panels

Figure 8.8.3.1.1-4
Panel-to-Panel Connection (at 2 ft 0 in. Centers)

8.8.3.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels

An overview of this system is shown in Figure 8.8.3.2-1. It consists mainly of precast, transversely pretensioned
concrete panels, welded threaded studs, grout-filled shear keys, leveling bolts, and longitudinal post-tensioning
tendons.
Figure 8.8.3.2-1
Overview of Full-Depth Panel System

The overall geometry is determined by the arrangement of pretensioning strands for positive moments and to
provide an adequate compressive zone for negative moments. One layer of welded wire reinforcement is
provided in the upper portion of the slab. Pretensioning strands are arranged in two layers, and eccentricity is
minimized because the panel is subjected to both negative and positive moments. Two important functions of the
transverse joints between panels are to transfer live loads and to prevent water intrusion. For these two
requirements, a shear key with a rapid-setting, nonshrink grout is used. Longitudinal post-tensioning is applied
after the transverse shear keys are grouted but before the deck is made composite with the underlying beams.

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8.8.3.2 Full Depth Precast Concrete Panels/8.8.4 Empirical Design Method

The full-depth precast, pretensioned concrete system has the following benefits:
• It has an equivalent slab thickness of 5.9 in., which makes it significantly lighter than other systems.
• The system is prestressed in both directions, resulting in superior performance compared with
conventionally reinforced decks.
• The system does not need a CIP topping, which reduces the time of construction.
• The panel includes ½ in. of extra cover to be used for grinding the deck to a smooth surface.
• The panels can be rapidly produced and constructed, and they can be rapidly removed.
• The grouted, post-tensioned transverse joints between panels prevent cracking and possible leakage
throughout the service life of the deck.
• Deflection under service load is smaller than in nonprestressed systems.
Full-scale fatigue and ultimate strength testing has demonstrated superior performance of this system. No cracks
or joint leakage were observed after 2 million cycles of loading (Yamane, et al., 1998). The strength of the system
was governed by punching shear of the slab at about five times the maximum wheel load of an HS25 truck.
Disadvantages of this system include the following:
• The deck surface must be ground to attain a smooth riding surface.
• Longitudinal post-tensioning significantly increases the number of construction steps required.
• Given the panel weight, cranes must be available for panel erection.

8.8.4 Empirical Design Method

The empirical design procedure presented in LRFD Article 9.7.2 is attractive in that it requires less reinforcement
than would be calculated by analytical methods, including finite element analysis and strip analysis. Less steel
reinforcement should result in less deck deterioration due to reinforcement corrosion. The method is based on
full-scale testing. The empirical design method may be used only if certain specified conditions are met. If the
specified amount of reinforcement is provided, the deck is considered to satisfy all design requirements without
need for design calculations. The conditions are as follows:
• The supporting components are steel beams and/or concrete beams.
• The deck is fully cast in place and water cured.
• The deck is of uniform depth, except for haunches at beam flanges and other local thickening.
• The ratio of effective length between the inside faces of the beam webs to the design depth does not
exceed 18.0 and is not less than 6.0.
• The core depth of the slab between the extreme faces of the top and bottom reinforcement is not less
than 4.0 in.
• The effective length between the inside faces of the beam webs does not exceed 13.5 ft.
• The minimum depth of the slab is not less than 7.0 in., excluding a sacrificial wearing surface where
applicable.
• There is an overhang beyond the centerline of the outside beam that is at least five times the depth of the
slab. This condition is satisfied if the overhang is at least three times the depth of the slab, and a
structurally continuous concrete barrier is made composite with the overhang.
• The specified 28-day strength of the deck concrete is at least 4.0 ksi.
• The deck is made composite with the supporting structural components.
• The required reinforcement consists of four layers.
• The minimum amount of reinforcement is 0.27 in.2/ft for each bottom layer and 0.18 in.2/ft for each top
layer.
• The maximum spacing of bars is 18 in.

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8.8.4 Empirical Design Method/8.9.1.2 Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code Procedure

The provisions of the empirical design method are not applied to overhangs. The overhang should be designed for
all of the following cases:
• Wheel loads for decks with discontinuous railings and barriers using the equivalent strip method
• Equivalent line loads for decks with continuous barriers [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3.4]
• Collision loads using a failure mechanism
Note that negative overhang moments require reinforcement that must be extended into the adjacent span.

8.9 TRANSVERSE DESIGN OF ADJACENT BOX BEAM BRIDGES

8.9.1 Background
Adjacent box beam bridges are constructed by placing precast, prestressed concrete box beams next to each other
so that a deck slab is not required to complete the structure. The small longitudinal joint between beams—the
shear key or keyway—is normally filled with grout. Often, a composite concrete topping or a nonstructural
asphalt concrete overlay is used to provide the riding surface. Typically, longitudinal keyways are dimensioned
for standard products shown in Appendix B of this manual. Transverse connections are made between beams to
mitigate differential deflection and improve the distribution of live loads.
The design of the transverse connections between adjacent box beams has been identified as an important issue
by bridge owners and designers. Without an adequate transverse connection, beams will not deflect equally
under live loads. Differential movement between beams may lead to longitudinal cracking of the grouted keyways
and reflective cracking in the overlay, if one is present. Surveys of adjacent box beam bridges have revealed that
cracks of these types are a recurring problem in some areas (Russell, 2009). In rural locations where deicing
chemicals are not used, such cracks may be tolerated. However, in most locations, these cracks should be
prevented because water and deicing chemicals penetrate the cracks and cause concrete staining and eventually
structural deterioration of the box beams from corrosion of reinforcement and subsequent spalling of the
concrete cover.
In addition, a transverse connection between box beams is necessary to provide more-effective load transfer
between beams. Without adequate transverse connection, live load cannot be distributed across the bridge. Each
beam in that case would have to be designed to resist the full effect of a set of wheel loads. Cracking of the shear
keys is caused by temperature movements due to the high temperature gradient that exists in the top 4 in. of the
girder. NCHRP Report 1026 (Miller, et al., 2023) describes the use of full-depth shear keys where the top 4 in. are
not filled with grout to address the cracking problem.

8.9.1.1 Current Practice

When a transverse connection is provided between adjacent box beams, it is typically made using threaded rods,
post-tensioning bars or strands, or welded connections. The bars and strands may be either bonded or unbonded.
A 5- or 6-in.-thick reinforced concrete composite slab may also be used to provide a transverse connection
between adjacent members. When a structural concrete topping is not used, a nonstructural overlay such as a 2.0-
in.-thick asphalt concrete wearing surface is often applied as a final riding surface. However, for some secondary
roads, a topping is not used because the surface of the precast concrete beam is more than adequate to use for a
riding surface.
The number and location of transverse ties, the erection details, and the procedures for installing transverse
connections vary from state to state. Several types of connections have been found to provide good performance;
however, in other cases, similar details and procedures may perform very differently. The selection of a system
for connecting adjacent box beam bridges depends on initial cost, long-term maintenance costs, experience of the
owner, capabilities of local contractors, and availability of materials.

8.9.1.2 Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code Procedure

The Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code provides a procedure for the design of adjacent box beam bridges
(CSA, 2019). The Canadian code assumes that the load is transferred from one beam to another primarily through
transverse shear; transverse flexural rigidity is neglected (Bakht, et al., 1983). Charts are provided to determine

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8.9.1.2 Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code Procedure/8.9.2.1 Tie System

the transverse shear force to be resisted. The procedure requires that a reinforced concrete structural slab with a
minimum thickness of 5.9 in. be placed on the bridge to provide the shear transfer between beams. Therefore, the
procedure does not rely upon the grouted keyway to transfer shear between boxes.

8.9.2 Empirical Design

Several users of adjacent beams have developed empirical design guidelines for transverse connection of adjacent
slabs and box beams, with varying degree of success. One procedure, developed by the State of Oregon and
refined over many years of practice, has demonstrated satisfactory field performance in controlling longitudinal
cracking and moisture leakage between beams. This procedure is described in detail in the following sections.
Other states use other procedures (Russell, 2009).

8.9.2.1 Tie System

Transverse ties should be capable of providing a total transverse force equal to or greater than the weight of each
beam. The ties are provided in the form of one or two rods at mid-depth of the member at locations along the
span (see Table 8.9.2.1-1). The spacing and number of tie rods provided in the table have been found to produce
satisfactory field performance.

Table 8.9.2.1-1
Number and Spacing of Tie Rods
Span, ft Number of rods and spacing
≤  One rod at midspan
> 20, but ≤ 40 One rod at each third point
> 40, but ≤ 70 Two rods at each third point
> 70, but ≤ 100 Two rods at ≤ 24 ft spacing, with first rod set at 8 ft from end

The rod length is determined by the width of beams being connected. In this case a ⅞-in.-diameter, 8-ft 2-in.-long
smooth rod with 2½-in. threaded length is used for each location. The rod material is ASTM A449 high-strength
steel. Each rod is tensioned to 39.25 kips, using a torque wrench and a direct tension indicator (DTI) washer,
conforming to ASTM F959. A heavy hexagonal nut, conforming to ASTM A194, and a 5- by 5- by 1-in. ASTM A36
bearing plate complete the tensioning and anchorage assembly (Fig. 8.9.2.1-1). On the nontensioning end of the
rod, the DTI washer is replaced with a hardened steel ASTM F436 flat circular washer. All hardware should be
hot-dip galvanized after fabrication.
Figure 8.9.2.1-1
End Details for Hardware Used for Tie Rods

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8.9.2.2 Production

8.9.2.2 Production
Each member is produced with shear keys on the side faces that abut adjacent beams. Figure 8.9.2.2-1 presents a
shear key shown with a well-defined and bulbous shape and an adequate opening at the top to provide access for
installation of grout. The face of the key is sandblasted at the precasting plant to remove loose materials and to
provide a good bonding surface. Other states may use differently shaped keyways.
Figure 8.9.2.2-1
Shear Key Detail

Figure 8.9.2.2-2
Joint Detail

It is advisable to provide a recess along the bottom edge of the beam (Fig. 8.9.2.2-2) to prevent spalling due to a
stress concentration that could result from possible formed surface bulges or protrusions. All beams must have
diaphragms at their ends and at tie rod locations. Diaphragm dimensions and locations are determined with
consideration of the skew angle. A 3-in.-diameter hole is formed at each tie rod location.

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8.9.2.Installation

8.9.2.3 Installation
Erection of precast concrete units begins at either exterior beam or at the center of the bridge, depending on the
width of the bridge and the desired crane placement. After placing the first two adjacent units, the tie rods are
installed and the nuts are tightened until the ridges on the load indicator washers collapse (see Fig. 8.9.2.3-1).
Before the nuts are installed on the tie rod, the threads are lubricated with a suitable wax or tension control fluid
to allow the required tension on the rods to be developed. The sequence continues by placing a beam and
installing the required number of tie rods each time a beam is set. Handholes are provided in the concrete beams
at each end of the bolts to provide access to the nonturned nut located on the far side of the previous unit set.
After all the units in a span are set, the grout may be installed in the shear keys (Fig. 8.9.2.3-2). The grout should
be nonshrink, nonferrous, non-epoxy grout with a minimum design strength of 5.0 ksi. The surface of the keys
should be kept damp for 24 hours before the grout is installed. If the space between beams is wide enough to
allow the grout to run through, a strip of foam rod stock is installed at the bottom of the shear key to seal it. To
provide a positive seal, the grout is tooled down from the top of the deck to provide a recess for the installation of
caulking or a poured joint filler. This area must again be cleaned to remove any loose grout before the sealant is
installed. Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) is an alternative to nonshrink grout.
Figure 8.9.2.3-1
Tie Rod Recess Detail

In some jurisdictions, transverse rods are not used because they become problematic, particularly for skewed
bridges, as shown in Figure 8.9.2.3-1. This issue is compounded further by camber variations in longer spans. A
half-depth CIP slab with one layer of reinforcement eliminates the need for transverse rods, improves longevity,
and facilitates continuity at intermediate supports.

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8.9.2.Installation/8.9.3 Suggested Design and Construction Procedure

Figure 8.9.2.3-2
Keyway Grout Detail

Nonshrink grout typically used.

Ultra-high-performance
concrete is an alternative to
nonshrink grout.

The installation procedure described here is used in Oregon; as noted previously, other states use different
installation procedures (Russell, 2009). As an alternative to connecting pairs of beams at a time, all beams can be
erected first and then connected together at one time. The transverse post-tensioning can then be applied to all
beams at the same time. Some states prefer to grout the longitudinal joint before post-tensioning. Some states
prefer to use full-depth grouting rather than partial-depth grouting. The selected procedures depend on local
practices.

8.9.3 Suggested Design and Construction Procedure

El-Remaily, et al. (1996) developed a design procedure that assumes that post-tensioned transverse diaphragms
serve as the primary mechanism for the distribution of wheel loads across the bridge. Five diaphragms are
provided in each span: one at each end and one at each quarter point. Figure 8.9.3-1 shows a typical detail at a
diaphragm. The amount of post-tensioning required at each diaphragm depends on the bridge geometry and
loading. Charts have been developed (Hanna, et al., 2009) for the determination of the required amount of
transverse post-tensioning (Fig. 8.9.3-2, 8.9.3-3 and 8.9.3-4). These charts, along with a proposed design
equation, are described in Section 8.9.3.5.

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8.9.3 Suggested Design and Construction Procedure

Figure 8.9.3-1
Transverse Post-Tensioning Arrangement

Figure 8.9.3-2
Required Effective Post-Tensioning Force as a Function of Bridge Width and Box-Beam Depth

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8.9.3 Suggested Design and Construction Procedure/8.9.3.1 Transverse Diaphragms

Figure 8.9.3-3
Required Effective Post-Tensioning Force for Selected Span-to-Depth Ratios
for 27- and 42-in.-Deep Box Beams

Figure 8.9.3-4
Required Effective Post-Tensioning Force as a Function of Skew Angle and Box Beam Depth

8.9.3.1 Transverse Diaphragms

The transverse diaphragms are made continuous across the entire width of the bridge by providing grout pockets
in the faces of the joints at each diaphragm location. These vertical pockets, which are filled with grout before
post-tensioning, extend nearly the full depth of the beam (Fig. 8.9.3-1). The grout must be installed and cured
before post-tensioning so that it will be compressed. This precompression of the grout is necessary to avoid
cracking in the diaphragm. The 1-in.-deep by 8-in.-wide grout pocket is formed into the side of each box beam by

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8.9.3.1 Transverse Diaphragms/8.9.3.5 Post-Tensioning Design Charts

attaching a blockout to the interior of the steel side form. Installation of the blockout is a simple and inexpensive
modification to the box beam form.
For spans of up to 100 ft, the use of five post-tensioned diaphragms limits differential deflection between adjacent
box beams to 0.02 in., which is an acceptable amount. The use of three diaphragms, one at each end and one at
midspan, reduces the required quantity of post-tensioning, but the differential deflection between beams
increases to an unacceptable level (greater than 0.02 in.). As a guideline, for spans up to 60 ft, three diaphragms,
one at each end and one at midspan, may be used. For spans longer than 60 ft, five diaphragms, located at the
ends, midspan, and quarter points, may be used. These guidelines, which are based on analytical studies, differ
from the recommendations in Section 8.9.2, which are based on Oregon’s practices. State practices on diaphragm
arrangements and the amount of transverse post-tensioning vary widely (Russell, 2009).
Diaphragms are post-tensioned because it is difficult to provide continuous, conventionally reinforced
diaphragms across the width of the bridge. Conventionally reinforced diaphragms would also be subject to
cracking, which would reduce their effectiveness and possibly allow water to penetrate. Post-tensioned
diaphragms are precompressed and should not crack.

8.9.3.2 Longitudinal Joints between Beams

The transverse connection between adjacent box beams is made at the diaphragms; therefore, longitudinal shear
keys are not required for the structural performance of the bridge. However, the gap between beams should be
sealed with grout or an appropriate nonstructural sealant to prevent water leakage between beams. Longitudinal
shear keys that are grouted tend to seal the gap between beams much more effectively than those sealed with
other materials.

8.9.3.3 Tendons
In most cases, a pair of post-tensioning tendons is placed in each diaphragm. Each tendon may consist of a single
post-tensioning bar or strand. The use of post-tensioning bars may be preferable to the use of strands for several
reasons: bars are easier to install than strand; a single bar achieves a higher force than a single strand would
achieve; bars provide greater stiffness across the joint; and bars generally have a lower anchorage seating loss,
which is especially significant for short tendons. Strands may be used if power seating of the anchorage is used to
minimize the seating loss. The tendons are placed symmetrically about the midheight of the section to provide
equal resistance to the positive and negative moments that are caused by live load and temperature gradients.
The vertical distance between tendons should be as large as possible to maximize the flexural resistance of the
diaphragm.
Tendons may be bonded by grouting after post-tensioning, or they may be left unbonded. Bonded tendons
provide higher capacity at ultimate conditions and are protected from corrosion by the grout, but grouting is an
additional operation that must be performed in the field. Unbonded tendons are easier to install and can be more
easily removed if a damaged box beam must be replaced. However, the unbonded tendon must be protected in
some way from corrosion, and the force in the tendon at ultimate load is lower than for bonded tendons. Whether
tendons are bonded or unbonded, the tendon anchorages must be protected from corrosion by encasing the
anchorage in grout or by using galvanized hardware and sealing anchorages with grease caps.

8.9.3.4 Modeling and Loads for Analysis

The bridge is modeled using grid analysis to determine member forces. A series of beam elements is used to
represent the beams. These elements are connected by a series of crossing beam elements, representing the
diaphragms. The joints between elements allow the transmission of shear, bending moment, and torsion.
Barrier rails and live loads are the main sources of transverse bending moments generated in the diaphragms.
The live loads are positioned to produce the maximum positive and negative moments in the diaphragms. To
obtain the maximum transverse positive moment in the diaphragm at midspan, the live load is placed over the
center of the deck. For maximum transverse negative moment at the same location, the live load is placed as close
to the barrier rail as possible or as required by the project specifications.

8.9.3.5 Post-Tensioning Design Charts

Figures 8.9.3-2, 8.9.3-3, and 8.9.3-4 present design charts that Hanna, et al. (2009) developed using the
procedure described in the previous sections. These charts provide the required transverse post-tensioning

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8.9.3.5 Post-Tensioning Design Charts/8.10.1 Introduction

forces for the standard box beam depths of 27, 33, 39, and 42 in. To prepare the charts, Hanna, et al. considered
bridges with widths of 28, 36, 44, 52, 60, 76, and 84 ft. For each combination of section depth and bridge width,
the researchers considered two span-to-depth ratios appropriate for the beam size. These charts may be used for
both 3- and 4-ft-wide beams and for bridges with zero skew. Use of the charts should satisfy both service and
strength limit states. Similar charts can be generated for other box beam depths and for bridges with skews.
Hanna, et al. (2009) found that the required transverse post-tensioning force was almost linearly proportional to
the span length. The forces shown in the design charts were obtained by dividing the required effective post-
tensioning force for the midspan diaphragm by the spacing between diaphragms, and then taking the average of
the three span lengths analyzed. When developing the charts, Hanna, et al. assumed that bonded post-tensioning
is used. If unbonded post-tensioning is used, the required post-tensioning force increases by about 30%.
The required post-tensioning force for the diaphragms at the quarter points was similar to that for the midspan
diaphragm. It is therefore recommended that the same force be used at all diaphragms within the span. The end
diaphragms, however, are subjected to very small bending moments because they are continually supported at
the piers or abutments. The same prestressing force may be provided for the end diaphragms, or a minimum
prestress force of 0.250 ksi on the area of the diaphragm may be provided.
Although Hanna, et al. (2009) developed the charts for bridges with no skew, the charts can be used for bridges
with skews up to 15 degrees. For bridges with high skews (greater than 15 degrees), grid analysis can be
conducted. Grid analysis is relatively simple to do with commercially available computer programs.
As an alternative to grid analysis, Eq. (8.9.3.5-1) can be applied to bridges with high skews to calculate the
required post-tensioning force, P, for intermediate diaphragms per unit length of the bridge. Hanna, et al. (2009)
developed the equation using data from their grid analyses.
0.9𝑊 0.2𝑊 Eq. (8.9.3.5-1)
𝑃=( − 1.0) 𝐾𝐿 𝐾𝑆 ≤ ( + 8.0) 𝐾𝐿 𝐾𝑆
𝐷 𝐷
where
iD = box depth, ft
W = bridge width, ft
KL = correction factor for span-to-depth ratio greater than 30
= 𝐿
1.0 + 0.003 ( − 30)
𝐷
KS = correction factor for skew angle, θ, greater than 0 degrees
= 1.0 + 0.002θ

8.9.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning Details for Skewed Bridges

Diaphragms in skewed bridges can either be skewed or perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
Diaphragms that are skewed are normally limited to skew angles of 20 degrees or less. Use of skewed diaphragms
allows for placement of grout between beams all at one time, then post-tensioning in one operation. For multi-
stage or phased construction, it is possible to use staggered post-tensioning with skewed or perpendicular
diaphragms. Refer to Sections 3.6.3.4 and 3.6.3.5 in Chapter 3 for an illustration, and Section 8.9.2 for details used
in Oregon.

8.10 LATERAL STABILITY OF SLENDER MEMBERS

8.10.1 Introduction
Prestressed concrete members are generally stiff enough to prevent lateral buckling. However, during handling
and transportation, support conditions may result in lateral displacements of the beam, thus producing lateral
bending about the weak axis. In the ninth edition of the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2020), Articles 5.5.4.3 and

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8.10.1 Introduction/8.10.1.1 Hanging Beams

5.9.4.5, and their associated commentary, were amended to emphasize the importance of considering stability
during design as a matter of ensuring safety and constructability.
The LRFD Specifications leaves it to the designer to choose a methodology for stability design. However, the LRFD
Specifications suggests following industry recommendations published by PCI in Recommended Practice for
Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (CB-02-16). The task of predicting lateral stability
is difficult because many random variables that affect this behavior are beyond the designer’s control. Estimates
of these effects should be recognized as being approximations only. For this reason, measured cambers and
eccentricities in excess of predictions should not be considered a reason to reject a manufactured prestressed
concrete beam without further investigation. For more guidance, refer to the “Sweep in Precast, Prestressed
Concrete Bridge Girders” article series in ASPIRE:
• Part I on potential causes (Russell, 2019A)
• Part II on lifting, transportation, and erection (Russell, 2019B)
• Part III on long-term stresses, strength, and other performance criteria (Russell, 2020)
A Reader Response and an Editor’s Response to the articles were also published (ASPIRE, 2021).
The discussion in this section summarizes some of the key aspects of design for lateral stability, as well as a
limited design example that demonstrates the application of lateral stability calculations for a beam. PCI CB-02-16
with errata dated March 2020 provides detailed industry recommendations on this topic. The following resources
are also recommended:
• User Manual for Calculating the Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders, v1.0 (CB-
04-20H) (PCI, 2020)—This product includes a link to an Excel tool for design computations.
• PCI eLearning modules in the Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders series
(https://oasis.pci.org/Public/Catalog/Home.aspx?Criteria=126&Option=379&tab=2):
o Course T520 Girder Stability—Introductory Material and Hanging Girders
o Course T523 Girder Stability during Transport
o Course T525 Stability of Girders in the Field
o Course T527 Girder Stability—Calculations and Sensitivity Analysis
• Brice (2018)—This ASPIRE article discusses the importance of evaluating stresses and stability during
handling, shipping, and construction as part of the initial design.
• Brice, et al. (2009)—This PCI Journal paper provides a design procedure and example problem that
illustrates how lateral stability can be incorporated as an integral part of beam design.
When considering lateral stability, there are two important cases: a beam hanging from lifting devices and a beam
seated on flexible supports. For hanging beams, the tendency to roll is governed primarily by the properties of the
beam. For seated beams, the tendency to roll is significantly influenced by the conditions of the supports and the
roadway geometry (cross-slope). PCI CB-04-20 provides detailed explanations of these two cases.

8.10.1.1 Hanging Beams

The equilibrium conditions for a hanging beam are shown in Figures 8.10.1.1-1 and 8.10.1.1-2. When a beam
hangs from lifting points, it may roll about an axis through the lifting points. The safety and stability of long beams
subject to roll are dependent on the following:
ei = the initial lateral eccentricity of the center of gravity with respect to the roll axis
yr = the height of the roll axis above the center of gravity of the beam
z = lateral deflection of center of gravity of beam taken as 𝑧𝑜 𝛳
𝑧𝑜 = the theoretical lateral deflection of the center of gravity of the beam, computed
with the full weight applied as a lateral load, measured to the center of gravity
of the deflected arc of the beam
θmax = tilt angle at which cracking begins, based on tension at the top corner equal to
the modulus of rupture

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8.10.1.1 Hanging Beams

Figure 8.10.1.1-1
Perspective of a Hanging Beam Free to Roll and Deflect Laterally

Figure 8.10.1.1-2
Equilibrium of a Hanging Beam in Tilted Position

For a beam with overall length, Lg, and equal overhangs of length, a, at each end:
𝑊 1 6 (Eq. 8.10.1.1-1)
𝑧𝑜 = 2
[ (𝐿𝑠 )5 − 𝑎2 (𝐿𝑠 )3 + 3𝑎4 (𝐿𝑠 ) + (𝑎5 )]
12𝐸𝐼𝑦 (𝐿𝑔 ) 10 5
where
Ls = 𝐿𝑔 − 2𝑎
Iy = moment of inertia of beam about weak axis

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8.10.1.1 Hanging Beams/8.10.1.2 Beams Supported from Beneath

The factor of safety against cracking, FS, is given by:

𝑦𝑟 θ𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝑆 = (Eq. 8.10.1.1-2)
𝑧𝑜 θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑒𝑖
It is recommended that ei be based on a minimum value of ¼ in. plus one-half the PCI tolerance for sweep. The PCI
sweep tolerance is ⅛ in. per 10 ft of member length.
When cracking occurs, the lateral stiffness decreases and zo increases. Thus, failure may occur shortly after
cracking as the tilt angle increases rapidly due to the loss of stiffness. In this case, the factor of safety against
failure is:
𝑦𝑟 θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝑆 ′ =
𝑧𝑜 θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1 + 2.5θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) + 𝑒𝑖

𝑒𝑖
where the critical tilt angle, θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √
2.5𝑧𝑜

In this case, FS' must be greater than 1.5 for the beam to be considered stable. See Section 8.10.2 for suggested
factors of safety.

8.10.1.2 Beams Supported from Beneath

When a beam is supported on flexible supports such as bearing pads or truck and trailer, there is a tendency for
the beam to roll about the roll center below the beam (Fig. 8.10.1.2-1). Because the roll axis is beneath the center
of gravity of the beam, the support must be capable of providing resistance to rotation. This resistance is
expressed as an elastic rotational spring constant, Kθ.
The rotational spring constant of an elastic support is found by applying a moment and measuring the rotation.
The value of Kθ is equal to the moment divided by the rotation angle with units of moment per radian.
Figure 8.10.1.2-1
Geometric Condition and Free Body Diagram of Rotated Beam on Transport Vehicle

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8.10.1.2 Beams Supported from Beneath

The equilibrium tilt angle, θ, of the major axis of the beam is given by:
𝐾θ α + 𝑊𝑒𝑖
θ= (Eq. 8.10.1.2-1)
𝐾θ − 𝑊(𝑦𝑟 + 𝑧𝑜 )
where
α= superelevation angle or tilt angle of supports in radians
yr = height of center of gravity of beam above roll axis (beam supported from beneath)
= ℎ𝑐𝑔 − ℎ𝑟
where
hcg = height of center of gravity of beam above road
hr = height of roll center above road
When Kθ is very large (that is, the support is very stiff), θ approaches α.
The factor of safety against cracking, FS, is:
𝐾θ (θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − α)
𝐹𝑆 = ≥ 1.0 (Eq. 8.10.1.2-2)
𝑊[(𝑧𝑜 + 𝑦𝑟 )θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑒𝑖 ]
where θmax = the tilt angle at which cracking begins, based on tension in the top corner equal to the modulus of
rupture.
For shipping, sweep may be larger (due to creep) and tolerances on location of the support may be larger.
Therefore, it is recommended that ei for shipping be based on 1 in. plus the PCI tolerance for sweep.
Prestressed concrete I-beams possess significant post-cracking strength. After cracking, the beams resist lateral
bending by a lateral shift in the centroid of the internal compressive force.
Mast (1993) provided the following simplified relationship for the strength and effective stiffness of long
prestressed concrete I-beams of ordinary proportions:
• For tilt angles that produce top flange tensile stresses less than the modulus of rupture, 0.24λ√fc′ , use the
gross moment of inertia, Ig, about the weak axis.
• For tilt angles that produce top flange tensile stresses in excess of 0.24λ√fc′ , use an effective stiffness:
𝐼𝑔
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (Eq. 8.10.1.2-3)
(1 + 2.5θ)
• Assume the maximum θ at failure, θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 , to be 0.4 radians (or 23 degrees).
The maximum tilt angle at failure, θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 , may be limited by rollover of the transport rig, and not by the strength of
the beam.
The resisting moment arm is limited by the geometry of the hauling rig (Fig. 8.10.1.2-2). Assuming a height of roll
center, hr (normally about 24 in.), and a transverse distance from centerline of the beam to the center of dual tires,
zmax (normally about 36 in.), the maximum resisting moment arm may be found using the usual small-angle
approximations:
𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ℎ𝑟 α
θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 = +𝛼 (Eq. 8.10.1.2-4)
𝑟
To find the factor of safety, FS’, against rollover (overturning) failure, modify Eq. (8.10.1.2-2) by substituting
𝑧𝑜 (1 + 2.5θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) for 𝑧𝑜 and θ′max for θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 :

𝐾𝜃 (θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝛼)
𝐹𝑆 ′ = ≥ 1.5 (Eq. 8.10.1.2-5)
𝑊[(𝑧𝑜 (1 + 2.5θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) + 𝑦𝑟 )θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑒𝑖 ]

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8.10.1.2 Beams Supported from Beneath/8.10.2.3 Effects of Beam Overhang during Transportation

Figure 8.10.1.2-2
Geometric Condition and Free Body Diagram of Transport Vehicle at Rollover

8.10.2 Suggested Factors of Safety

The necessary factor of safety cannot be determined from scientific laws; it must be determined from experience.
The use of 1.0 as a minimum factor of safety against cracking and 1.5 as a minimum factor of safety of against
failure is suggested. This recommendation applies to both hanging and seated beams.

8.10.2.1 Conditions Affecting Factors of Safety

For supported beams, the major unknowns related to factors of safety are the roll stiffness of the supporting
vehicles and the transverse slope of the roadway. It should be noted that transverse slopes occur for reasons
other than superelevation. On soft ground (such as on a shoulder or at the construction site), one side of the
hauling rig may sink into the ground, creating a large transverse slope.
These major unknowns primarily affect the factor of safety against cracking. It is believed that many beams have
been successfully shipped with a theoretical factor of safety against cracking of less than unity. But until the
factors of safety used in the past can be better documented, a minimum factor of safety against cracking of 1.0 is
recommended. The factor of safety against failure is essentially the factor of safety against overturning of the
hauling rig. A factor of safety against overturning of 1.5 is believed to be adequate.

8.10.2.2 Effects of Creep, Impact, and Superelevation

The recommended minimum factors of safety apply to calculations that do not account for creep and impact.
Impact is normally of significance during hauling, but stability is primarily a problem when traveling along
sections of high superelevation at low speeds. Therefore, the effects of impact and superelevation should be
accounted for separately. Laszlo and Imper (1987) also made this recommendation.

8.10.2.3 Effects of Beam Overhang during Transportation

Figure 8.10.2.3-1 shows the effect of beam overhang on the factor of safety for a 136-ft-long beam on a 6% slope
with the truck having a total roll stiffness, Kθ,,of 40,500 in.-kips per radian. The factors of safety for supported
beams are much less sensitive to overhang distance than other factors. For seated beams, the stability of the beam
is more a function of the stiffness of the support than a function of the stiffness of the beam. However, the factor of
safety against cracking is determined by the top fiber stresses in the beam. Past practice has been to support the
beam on the truck at the lifting points. Figure 8.10.2.3-1 indicates that some deviation in the locations of support
points on the truck and trailer is permissible for this example.

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8.10.2.3 Effects of Beam Overhang during Transportation/8.10.2.3 Increasing the Factor of Safety

Unequal overhangs are sometimes necessary during shipping. When the overhangs are of approximately the same
length, stability calculations that use the average overhang length produce sufficiently accurate results. The stress
at the support should be checked using the actual overhang length.
Figure 8.10.2.3-1
Effect of Overhangs for Beam on Truck and Trailer

8.10.2.4 Increasing the Factor of Safety

For safe handling of long members, resistance can be improved by several methods, which are listed here in order
of effectiveness and relative ease of accomplishment, with the easiest and most effective listed first:
1. Move the lifting points inward (see Fig. 8.10.2.4-1). Decreasing the distance between lifting points by
just a small amount can significantly increase the safety factor. Stresses must be checked; temporary
post-tensioning can be introduced to control stresses if long overhangs are needed during transport.
2. Increase the distance between the center of mass and the lifting point, yr, by use of a rigid lifting yoke.
3. Provide temporary lateral bracing, in the form of a stiffening truss, composed of structural steel shapes.
4. Change the shape of the cross section of the member.
5. Increase the stiffness of the member by increasing the concrete modulus of elasticity, Ec, and the tensile
strength.
Figure 8.10.2.4-1
Reduction of Lateral Deflection, 𝒛𝒐 , with Overhang Length

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8.10.3 Measuring Roll Stiffness of Vehicles/8.10.6 Temporary King-Post Bracing

8.10.3 Measuring Roll Stiffness of Vehicles

The roll stiffness (rotational spring stiffness) of transport vehicles is a very important parameter in evaluating the
safety of slender beams during transportation. Information on the roll stiffness of transport vehicles is normally
not available; however, roll stiffness may be determined by placing a weight on the vehicle at various
eccentricities to the vehicle longitudinal centerline. The weight should be of the same order of magnitude as the
beam; a convenient weight is the beam itself. One end of the beam may be secured, and the other end placed on
the vehicle at eccentricities of, say, 10 and 20 in. either side of the centerline.
Rotations may be determined by measuring the vertical movement at either end of the bolster or cross member
used for chaining the beam. The roll stiffness is the average of the values obtained by dividing the eccentric
moment by the rotation in radians. Because the bolster tilts under eccentric loads, it is necessary to use a narrow
bearing strip of hard material between the beam and the cross member to know the eccentricity of the load on the
trailer.
A limited number of measurements indicates that the rotational spring constant, Kθ, may be expected to be in the
range of 3,000 to 6,000 in.-kips per radian per dual-tire axle. The higher values apply to rigs without leaf springs,
in which the spring is primarily in the tires. For example, a steel trailer with four dual axles plus a single tire axle
might be expected to have a roll stiffness of 4.5 × (3,000 to 6,000) = 13,500 to 27,000 in.-kips per radian. The
total Kθ is the sum of the rotational spring constants for the tractor and the trailer.
The values provided in the previous paragraph are based on very limited data and must be used with caution until
more data are available. Also, these values apply to axles for which the load is balanced mechanically. Axles with
air suspension may contribute little, if any, to roll stiffness. For critical shipments, measuring the roll stiffness of
the vehicles that will be used is strongly recommended. Rigs with independent axle systems may give inconsistent
results.

8.10.4 Bearing Pads

Elastomeric bearing pads also provide a resilient support for prestressed concrete beams. The rotational spring
constant, Kθ, is determined by the dimensions and properties of the pad. When the load is outside the kern of the
bearing pad, the rotational spring constant becomes highly nonlinear. Because the objective is generally to keep
the load within the kern, test data are lacking for situations in which the load is outside the kern. In addition,
there may be stability problems with thick, plain (unreinforced) pads; laminated pads provide more stability.

8.10.5 Wind Loads

Wind forces on beams produce applied moments that must be added to other moments. An additional initial
eccentricity results from the deflection caused by the wind load. Additionally, the wind load itself causes an
overturning moment about the bottom of the bearing pads, which, divided by the beam weight, produces a
moment arm. The total moment arm at zero-tilt angle θ is the sum of assumed initial eccentricity, ei, plus the two
wind effects. Consideration of wind loads emphasizes the importance of bracing the ends of bridge beams against
rollover as soon as they are erected.

8.10.6 Temporary King-Post Bracing

Long prestressed concrete I-beams may be braced during transportation using a king-post truss system. This
system uses external prestressing strands that are partially tensioned against bearing plates at each end of the
beam. One or two steel king posts are mounted against each side of the beam at opposing points, and these posts
harp (push) the strands out to a large eccentricity at or near the midpoint of the beam. This provides a truss-like
frame around the beam.
However, such bracing is of very little benefit. The steel area of the prestressing strands is too small to make a
significant contribution to the lateral stiffness of the beam. Temporary prestressing of the top flange, as
recommended by Laszlo and Imper (1987), is a more effective way to improve the factor of safety against
cracking. Horizontal stiffening trusses fabricated with structural steel chords are also effective.

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8.10.7 Lateral Stability Examples/8.10.7.1 Hanging Beam Example

8.10.7 Lateral Stability Examples

The calculations in this section are based on the example given by Laszlo and Imper (1987). Refer to Laszlo and
Imper (1987) and Mast (1993) for additional details. However, the calculations have been updated according to
PCI CB-02-16. , Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders, with
errata dated March 2020.
The following information is provided:
AASHTO-PCI BT-72 bridge beam
Depth, h = 72 in.
Top flange width, b = 42 in.
Bottom flange width, bb = 26 in.
Unit weight of concrete beam, wc = 155 ksf
Beam cross-sectional area, Ac =767 in.2
Strong axis, I = 545,894 in.4
Distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam, yb = 36.6 in.
Weak axis, Iy = 37,634 in.4
Overall length, Lg = 136 ft
Pickup (lift) points, a = 9 ft from each end
Harp points at 0.4Lg
Initial prestress force, Pi = 1,232 kips (after initial losses)
Location of Pi, ybs = 5 in. above soffit at harp points where strands are bundled

8.10.7.1 Hanging Beam Example

Find the factors of safety against cracking and against failure when the beam hangs from lifting loops.
1. Check stresses at harp points and required concrete strength:
w = 0.155 (767/144) = 0.826 kip/ft
W = wLg = 0.826(136) = 112.3 kips
Mg at harp point at 0.4Lg = 15,926 in.-kips
The corresponding concrete stresses:
ft = 0.114 ksi and fb = 3.149 ksi
𝑓𝑐𝑖′ required = fb/0.65 = 4.845 ksi. Use 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 4.85 ksi. 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ is used because lifting occurs shortly after transfer
of prestress.
2. Calculate modulus of elasticity at release of prestress:
In the absence of local data, assume 𝐾1 = 1.0
𝐸𝑐𝑖 = 120,000𝐾1 𝑤𝑐2.0 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 0.33 = 4,854 ksi
3. Compute initial eccentricity, ei:
For beams hanging from lifting loops, calculate the initial midspan eccentricity, ei tol, using a sweep
dimension, esweep, of one-half the PCI sweep tolerance and a lifting loop placement tolerance, elift, of ¼ in.
Or, calculate ei based on observations of the tilt angles of actual beams.

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8.10.7.1 Hanging Beam Example

𝐿𝑔 1
𝑒𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑝 = 0.5 ( in. ) = 0.85 in.
10 ft 8
𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 0.25 in.
To evaluate ei due to sweep, the distance between the roll axis and the center of gravity of the arc of the
curved beam must be found (see Fig. 8.10.7.1-1). The curved shape is assumed to be a parabola, and the
formulas are derived from the properties of a parabola.
𝐿𝑠 = 𝐿𝑔 − 2𝑎 = 136 − (2)(9) = 118 ft
2
𝐿𝑠 1 118 2 1
Offset factor = ( ) − =( ) − = 0.419
𝐿𝑔 3 136 3
𝑒𝑖 = 𝑒𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑝 (offset factor) + 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 0.85(0.419) + 0.25 = 0.607
Figure 8.10.7.1-1
Offset of Beam Centroid to the Roll Axis with Supports of the Beam Moved in from the Ends

4. Estimate camber and correct the value of yr for camber.

Camber may be estimated from the midspan radius of curvature, R:
𝐸𝐼𝑥
𝑅= (Eq. 8.10.7.1-1)
𝑀
where
𝑀 = 𝑃𝑖 𝑒 − 𝑀𝑔𝑚𝑠𝑝
where
𝑀𝑔𝑚𝑠𝑝 = self weight bending moment at midspan
𝑊 𝐿𝑔 112.28 136
= [ − 𝑎] = [ − 9] (12) = 16,842 in. kips
2 4 2 4
𝑀 = (1,232)(31.6) − 16,842 = 22,089 in.-kips
4,854(545,894)
𝑅= = 119,959 in.
22,089
The camber, Δ, measured with respect to the beam ends, is computed, using the full length of the beam
and neglecting the overhang deflections, as follows:
2
(𝐿𝑔 ) [136(12)]2
∆= = = 2.78 in (Eq. 8.10.7.1-2)
8𝑅 8(119,959)
The height of the center of gravity of the cambered arc below the roll axis is computed as follows:
𝑦𝑟 = 𝑦𝑡 − ∆(Offset factor) = (72 − 36.6) − 2.78(0.419) = 34.24 in.
Camber has only a small effect on yr. One may simply subtract an estimate (say, between 1 and 2
in.) from yr.

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8.10.7.1 Hanging Beam Example/8.10.7.2 Seated Beam Example

5. Compute 𝑧𝑜 from Eq. (8.10.1.1-1):

𝑊 1 6
𝑧𝑜 = 2
[ (𝐿𝑠 )5 − 𝑎2 (𝐿𝑠 )3 + 3𝑎4 (𝐿𝑠 ) + (𝑎5 )]
12𝐸𝐼𝑦 (𝐿𝑔 ) 10 5
112.3 1
= 2
[ (118 ∗ 12)5 − (9 ∗ 12)2 (118 ∗ 12)3 + 3(118 ∗ 12)4 (118 ∗ 12)
12(4,854)(37,634)(136 ∗ 12) 10
6
+ (95 )] = 10.93 in.
5
6. Compute the tilt angle, θmax, at cracking:

𝑓𝑟 = 0.24λ√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 0.528 ksi (tension), 𝑓𝑡 = 0.114 ksi (compression) from Step 1.

(𝑓𝑟 + 𝑓𝑡 )(𝐼𝑦 ) (0.528 + 0.114)37,634
𝑀𝑙𝑎𝑡 = = = 1,858 kip − in.
𝑏 26
( )
2 2
𝑀𝑙𝑎𝑡 1,858
θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 0.1167
𝑀𝑔 15,926
For the calculation of θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the critical location is at the harp location, where the compressive stress from
dead load is less than at midspan.
7. Compute factor of safety against cracking, FSc:
𝑦𝑟 θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 34.24(0.1167)
𝐹𝑆𝑐 = = = 2.12
𝑧𝑜 θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑒𝑖 10.93(0.1167) + 0.607
Minimum FSc = 1.0 OK
8. Compute the critical angle at failure, θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 :

𝑒𝑖 0.607
θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ = √ = 0.14904
2.5𝑧𝑜 2.5(10.93)

9. Compute factor of safety against failure, FS′:

𝑦𝑟 θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 34.24(0.14904)
𝐹𝑆 ′ = ′ ′
= = 1.80
𝑧𝑜 θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1 + 2.5θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) + 𝑒𝑖 10.93(0.14904)(1 + 2.5(0.14904)) + 0.607
Minimum FS′ = 1.5 OK

8.10.7.2 Seated Beam Example

Find the factors of safety against cracking and rollover during transportation for the same beam described in
Section 8.10.7.
The following information is provided:
𝑓𝑐′ = concrete strength at 28 days = 5.5 ksi
Add two strands in top flange, per Laszlo and Imper (1987).
P = prestress force = 1,251.5 kips
ys = the distance between the center of gravity of the strand to soffit = 7.91 in.
α = superelevation angle = 0.06 radians (different from the 0.08 radians used in Laszlo and Imper [1987])
Tractor and steer trailer each with four dual-tire axles and one single axle, stiff suspension
hr = height of roll center above road = 24 in.
hcg = height of center of gravity of beam above road = 108 in.
zmax = 36 in. See Fig. 8.10.1.2-2.

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8.10.7.2 Seated Beam Example

1. Estimate Kθ 
Assume:
Kθ = 4,500 in.-kips per radian per dual axle
Kθ = 4.5(4,500) = 20,250 in.-kips per radian each for tractor and for trailer
Use two times this constant for total Kθ for hauling rig:
Kθ = 40,500 in.-kips per radian
2. Find tilt angle, θ, from Eq. (8.10.1.2-1):
𝐾θ α + 𝑊𝑒𝑖
θ =
𝐾θ − 𝑊(𝑦𝑟 + 𝑧0 )
𝑦𝑟 = ℎ𝑐𝑔 − ℎ𝑟 = 108 − 24 = 84 in.
Increase yr by 2% to allow for camber. Then, yr = 85.68 in.; round off to 86 in.
For shipping, assume PCI sweep tolerances plus 1 in. off-center of truck/trailer, ebunk. Use offset factor
of 0.419 as computed in Step 3 of the previous example.
𝐿𝑔 1
𝑒𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑝 = ∗ in. = 1.70 in.
10 ft 8
𝑒𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑘 = 1.0 in.
ei = 1.70(0.419) +1 = 1.71 in.
Adjust 𝑧𝑜 from Step 5 of the previous example by the cube root of the ratio of concrete strengths to
account for the change in modulus of elasticity due to the later age of the concrete:
4.85 0.33
𝑧𝑜 = 10.93 ( ) = 10.49 in.
5.5
(40,500)(0.06) + 112.3(1.71)
θ = = 0.0883
40,500 − 112.28(86 + 10.49)
3. Check stresses at harp points:
𝑃 𝑃𝑒 𝑀𝑔
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 0.336 ksi
𝐴 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡
fb = 2.971 ksi (Compression)
4. Add lateral bending stress to fb and find required concrete strength because the bottom flange has the
greatest compressive stress:
Mlat = θ(Mg) = 0.0883(15,926) = 1,406 in.-kips
fb = 2.971 + 1,406(13)/37,634 = 3.457 ksi
𝑓𝑏
𝑓𝑐′ = = 5.759 ksi
0.6
5. Find the tilt angle, θmax, at cracking:
𝑓𝑟 = 0.24λ√5.759 = 0.576 ksi (tenson)
ft = 0.336 ksi (compression) from Step 3
(𝑓𝑟 + 𝑓𝑡 )(𝐼𝑦 )
𝑀𝑙𝑎𝑡 = = 1,634 in. −kips
𝑏
2

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8.10.7.2 Seated Beam Example/8.11.1 Design Truck Loading

𝑀𝑙𝑎𝑡 1,634
θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 0.1026
𝑀𝑔 15,926
6. Compute factor of safety against cracking, FS, from Eq. (8.10.1.2-2):
𝐾𝜃 (θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − α) 40,500(0.1026 − 0.06)
𝐹S = = = 1.32 > 1.0 OK
𝑊[(𝑧𝑜 + 𝑦𝑟 )𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑒𝑖 ] 112.3[(10.49 + 86)(0.1026) + 1.71]
7. Find tilt angle, θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 , at maximum resisting moment arm:
𝑊(𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ℎ𝑟 α) 112.3[36 − 24(0.06)]
θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 = +α= + 0.06 = 0.1558
𝐾θ 40,500
8. Compute factor of safety against rollover, FS’, from Eq. (8.10.1.2-5):
𝐾θ (θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 − α)
𝐹𝑆 ′ =
𝑊((𝑧0 (1 + 2.5 θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) + 𝑦𝑟 )θ′𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑒𝑖 )
40,500(0.1558 − 0.06)
=
112.3 ((10.49 (1 + 2.5(0.1558)) + 86)(0.1558) + 1.71)
= 1.99 > 1.5 OK
Additional stability considerations for inclined lifting cables, wind, and centrifugal force, along with example
calculations, are available in PCI’s Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete
Bridge Girders (CB-02-16), with errata dated March 2020,

8.11 BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCES DUE TO VEHICULAR LIVE

LOADS
In designing longitudinal members of bridges, the maximum bending moment and shear force at each section
along the span are computed for live loads. The load position must be determined to give the maximum values of
shears and moments. The LRFD Specifications uses the HL-93 loading, which is a superposition of the design truck
or the design tandem, and the design lane loading of 0.640 kips/ft. Design for the fatigue limit state in the LRFD
Specifications requires that a special fatigue truck be used. This section gives formulas, which may be combined to
determine the maximum bending moments and shear forces due to the HL-93 loading cases.
Readers are referred to the LRFD Specifications for details about the effects of the superposition of the design
tandem and the design lane loading as this superposition may govern the design of shorter spans.

8.11.1 Design Truck Loading

Tables 8.11.1-1 and 8.11.1-2 present formulas that may be used to calculate the maximum bending moment and
maximum shear force per lane at any point on a span for the design truck. Certain limitations apply, as noted in
the tables. The computed values should be multiplied by a factor of ½ to obtain forces per line of wheels. The
formulas are valid only for simple spans, and dynamic load allowance (impact) is not included (see AASHTO’s
Manual for Bridge Evaluation [2011]).
Table 8.11.1-1
Maximum Bending Moment per Lane for HL-93 Design Truck Load
Formula for Maximum Bending Minimum
Load Type x/L
Moment, kip-ft x, ft L, ft
72(𝑥)[( 𝐿 − 𝑥) − 9.33]
HL-93 0–0.333 0 28
𝐿
design
truck 72(𝑥)[( 𝐿 − 𝑥) − 4.67]
0.333–0.500 − 112 14 28
𝐿
Note: x = distance from left support to the section being considered, ft; L = span length, ft.

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8.11.1 Design Truck Loading/8.11.3 Fatigue Truck Loading

Table 8.11.1-2
Maximum Shear Force per Lane for HL-93 Design Truck Load
Load Formula for Maximum Shear Minimum Maximum
x/L
Type Force, kips x, ft L, ft L, ft
72[( 𝐿 − 𝑥) − 4.67]
HL-93 0–0.500 14 28 42
𝐿
design
truck 72[( 𝐿 − 𝑥) − 9.33]
0–0.500 0 42 —
𝐿
Note: x = distance from left support to the section being considered, ft; L = span length, ft.
Table 8.11.1-1
Maximum Bending Moment per Lane for HL-93 Design Truck Load
Formula for Maximum Bending Minimum
Load Type x/L
Moment, kip-ft x, ft L, ft
72(𝑥)[( 𝐿 − 𝑥) − 9.33]
HL-93 0–0.333 0 28
𝐿
design
truck 72(𝑥)[( 𝐿 − 𝑥) − 4.67]
0.333–0.500 − 112 14 28
𝐿
Note: x = distance from left support to the section being considered, ft; L = span
length, ft.
Table 8.11.1-2
Maximum Shear Force per Lane for HL-93 Design Truck Load
Load Formula for Maximum Shear Minimum Maximum
x/L
Type Force, kips x, ft L, ft L, ft
72[( 𝐿 − 𝑥) − 4.67]
HL-93 0–0.500 14 28 42
𝐿
design
truck 72[( 𝐿 − 𝑥) − 9.33]
0–0.500 0 42 —
𝐿
Note: x = distance from left support to the section being considered, ft; L = span length, ft.

8.11.2 Design Lane Loading, 0.640 kips/ft

The following formulas may be used to calculate the maximum bending moment and the maximum shear force
per lane at any point on a span for the design lane load of 0.640 kips/ft. The formulas are valid only for simple
spans, and dynamic load allowance is not included.

Maximum bending moment =

2
, ft-kips
0.64(𝑥)(𝐿−𝑥)

0.64
Maximum shear force = (L-x)2 , kips
2L
where
x = distance from left support to the section being considered, ft
L = span length, ft

8.11.3 Fatigue Truck Loading

When using the LRFD Specifications for design, consideration of the fatigue limit state may be required (see LRFD
Art. 5.5.3.1). A special fatigue truck load is defined in LRFD Article 3.6.1.4.1. This loading consists of a single

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8.11.3 Fatigue Truck Loading/8.12.1 Introduction

design truck that has the same axle weights used in all other limit states, but with a constant spacing of 30.0 ft
between the 32.0-kip axles. Table 8.11.3-1 presents equations that may be used to calculate the maximum
bending moment per lane at any point on the span for the fatigue truck loading. These values should be multiplied
by a factor of ½ to obtain values per line of wheels. These formulas are valid only for simple spans, and dynamic
load allowance is not included.
Table 8.11.3-1
Maximum Bending Moment per Lane for HL-93 Fatigue Truck Loading
Formula for Maximum Bending Minimum
Load Type x/L
Moment, kip-ft x, ft L, ft
72(𝑥)[( 𝐿 − 𝑥) − 18.22]
0–0.241 0 44
Fatigue 𝐿
truck 72(𝑥)[( 𝐿 − 𝑥) − 11.78]
0.241–0.500 − 112 14 28
𝐿
Note: x = distance from left support to the section being considered, ft; L = span
length, ft.

8.12 STRUT-AND-TIE MODELING OF DISTURBED REGIONS

8.12.1 Introduction
Traditionally, models used in the analysis and design of concrete structures have been based on elastic theory and
the basic assumption that plane sections remain plane, regardless of the loading. However, it is well known that
disturbances occur in regions near discontinuities, such as at concentrated loads and abrupt changes in member
dimensions. Such regions are referred to as “disturbed regions.”
Methods used to analyze and design disturbed regions must include procedures that reflect the actual flow of
stresses in such regions. In considering stress distribution before cracking, it is customary to apply elastic
methods of analysis, especially when predicting where significant cracking will occur. Because significant stress
redistribution may take place after concrete cracks, elastic methods may not adequately predict stresses
subsequent to cracking.
A rational method for dealing with disturbed regions subsequent to cracking is to use strut-and-tie models. These
models can provide reasonable representation of the flow of forces in disturbed regions of cracked concrete
systems.
In a typical calculation for shear reinforcement using the sectional models of the LRFD Specifications [LRFD Art.
5.7.3], the sectional dimensions, prestressing steel, and material strengths have been chosen, and the shear design
involves selection of adequate shear reinforcement and, if necessary, additional longitudinal reinforcement.
Figure 8.12.1-1 shows that the following three types of regions need to be considered in general shear design of
a beam:
• Disturbed regions that can be appropriately treated as a system of struts and ties. This approach is
discussed in this section.
• Regions of fanning compressive stresses characterized by radiating compressive stresses near supports
and regions where the shear changes sign but remains uniform. In such regions, the value of angle of
inclination of diagonal compressive stresses, θ, varies.
• Regions of uniform compressive stress fields where the value of θ is relatively constant.
The second and third types of regions are discussed in Section 8.4 using the sectional models of the LRFD
Specifications.

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8.12.1 Introduction/8.12.2 Strut-and-Tie Models

Figure 8.12.1-1
Disturbed Regions and Regions of Uniform Shear Distributions

8.12.2 Strut-and-Tie Models

The LRFD Specifications encourages the use of strut-and-tie models in design where appropriate. It has been
determined through sophisticated analysis and laboratory testing that cracked reinforced concrete carries load
mainly by development of a truss system represented by compressive stresses in the concrete and tensile stresses
in the reinforcement. Furthermore, when significant cracking occurs, the originally curved principal stress
trajectories in concrete tend toward straight lines, and it is appropriate to regard the resulting compressive forces
as being carried by straight struts. Figures 8.12.2-1 and 8.12.2-2 provide examples of strut-and-tie modeling of a
simply supported deep beam and a continuous deep beam, respectively.
Figure 8.12.2-1
Strut-and-Tie Model for a Single-Span Deep Beam

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8.12.2 Strut-and-Tie Models/8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout

Figure 8.12.2-2
Strut-and-Tie Model for a Two-Span Continuous Deep Beam

Important considerations in strut-and-tie modeling include the geometry of the truss system, the nodal zones and
member dimensions, and the strengths of the compression and tension members.

8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout

The significance of using appropriate geometry in defining a truss should be obvious given the necessity of having
an equilibrated system of struts and ties. At first glance, the use of a strut-and-tie truss system to resist loads
seems like an easy solution that any engineer should be readily able to accomplish. However, because the real
structure is a continuum, there are an infinite variety of trusses that could be designed inside a concrete member.
The best or most efficient truss layout will be the one that most closely fits the applied load and reaction
conditions while resisting forces through the shortest load paths.
Identification of the existing boundary conditions is the first step in selecting a truss layout for the strut-and-tie
system. Figure 8.12.2.1-1 shows two different sets of design loading conditions for a hammerhead pier cap. The
conditions depend on the locations of the design lanes and loading on the roadway above. In Figure 8.12.2.1-1a,
the two 12-ft design lanes are placed symmetrically about the pier centerline, and the beam reactions on the pier
cap, representing the top boundary condition, are all identical. In Figure 8.12.2.1-1b, the two design lanes are
shifted to the left side of the roadway and the reactions vary across the top of the pier cap, giving a second top
boundary condition.
Regardless of the truss layout that might be selected within the pier cap, the forces in the pier column can be
directly calculated with pure axial compression in the first case (Fig. 8.12.2.1-1a) and with compression plus
bending in the second case (Fig. 8.12.2.1-1b). In the first case, the boundary condition at the top of the column is
simply an axial force acting at the center of the column. However, the boundary condition in the second case must
be calculated and includes a compression block and possibly a tension component (Fig. 8.12.2.1-1b). The forces
shown in the column of Figure 8.12.2.1-1b are assumed to exist at a distance d from the bottom of the pier cap—
away from the disturbed region and in the portion of the column assumed to have sectional model behavior.

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8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout

Figure 8.12.2.1-1
Pier Cap under (a) Symmetric and (b) Unsymmetric Lane Loads

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8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout

In the first case (Fig. 8.12.2.1-1a), the truss layout in the pier cap only needs to meet the condition of developing
a compression thrust at the bottom of the cap. In the second case (Fig. 8.12.2.1-1b), the truss must develop both
the compression and the tension force in the pier column. Clearly, two different truss layouts could be designed
depending on which set of loads and boundary conditions is being considered. Note that the unsymmetric truss
(Fig. 8.12.2.1-2b) would be mirrored if the trucks were placed on the other side of the roadway.
Figure 8.12.2.1-2
Truss Layouts for the Different Load Cases

(a) Symmetric Truss

(b) Unsymmetric Truss

In the development of a truss layout for strut-and-tie design, the following are all essential:
• All possible load combinations and positions must be identified.
• Boundary forces, including internal forces from portions of the structure having sectional type behavior,
must be calculated for each controlling load condition.
• Appropriate strut-and-tie models must be laid out and designed for each set of boundary conditions.

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8.12.2.2 Nodal Zone and Member Dimensions

8.12.2.2 Nodal Zone and Member Dimensions

The nodal zones are regions where the struts and ties of the truss join. While the truss diagrams in Figure
8.12.2.1-2a and Figure 8.12.2.1-2b idealize the truss members as connecting at points, an actual structure has
struts and ties with finite dimensions. The nodal zone sizes are related to both the effective tie member sizes and
the mechanism by which exterior loads are transferred into the structure. As shown in Figure 8.12.2.2-1a and
Figure 8.12.2.2-1c, and as discussed in LRFD Article 5.8.2.5.3, the dimensions of the nodal zone and adjoining
struts are controlled by the anchorage conditions of tie bar reinforcement or bearing areas of applied loads or
reactions.
The strut-and-tie provisions of the LRFD Specifications are based primarily on research conducted at the
University of Texas at Austin (Birrcher, et al., 2009). Nodes may be characterized as follows (LRFD Specifications
Fig. 5.8.2.2-1):
• CCC: nodes where only struts intersect (Fig. 8.12.2.2-1a)
• CCT: nodes where a tie intersects the node in only one direction (Fig. 8.12.2.2-1b)
• CTT: nodes where ties intersect the node in two directions (Fig. 8.12.2.2-1c)
The angle between the axes of a strut and a tie should be greater than 25 degrees.
Figure 8.12.2.2-1
Effects of Nodal Type on Cross-Sectional Geometry

Figure 8.12.2.2-1 (cont.)

Effects of Anchorage Conditions on Cross-Sectional Area of Strut

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8.12.2.3 Strength of Members/9.12.3.2.1 Tie Anchorage

8.12.2.3 Strength of Members

The strength of ties depends directly on the type and strength of the reinforcement bars used in the ties. Strengths
of the individual truss strut members are normally controlled by the limits on stresses within the nodal zones.
The nodal zone compressive stresses are defined by the relationship between compressive stress capacity and
perpendicular tension strains as required by compression stress field theory.

8.12.3 LRFD Specifications Provisions for Strut-and-Tie Models

LRFD Article 5.8.2.1 states that strut-and-tie models may be used to determine internal force effects near
supports and the points of application of concentrated loads at strength and extreme event limit states. In the
second paragraph of that article, there is a more specific statement: “The STM should be considered for the design
of deep footings and pile caps or other situations in which the distance between the centers of applied load and
the supporting reactions is less than two times the member thickness.”
Given the lack of suitable experimental verification, the strut-and-tie provisions apply to components with
reinforcement yield strengths not exceeding 75.0 ksi and normal weight concrete compressive strengths for use
in design up to 15.0 ksi.
LRFD Article 5.8.2 provides the following design provisions for strut-and-tie modeling.

8.12.3.1 Factored Resistance

The factored resistance, Pr, of a node face and ties may be calculated as:

Pr = ɸPn [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.3-1]

where
ϕ = resistance factor for tension or compression as specified in Article
5.5.4.2, as appropriate

Pn = nominal resistance of a node face or tie

8.12.3.2 Ties
LRFD Article 5.8.2.4.1 states that the nominal resistance of a tie, Pn, should be calculated as:
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 + 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝑓𝑝𝑒 + 𝑓𝑦 ) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4.1-1]
where
fy = yield strength of nonprestressed longitudinal
reinforcement
fpe = effective stress in prestressing steel after losses
Ast = total area of longitudinal nonprestressed reinforcement
Aps = area of prestressing steel
In the absence of nonprestressed steel, a value of fy ≈ 60 ksi may be assumed in the equation to reflect the fact
that the stress in the prestressing reinforcement will be increased due to the strain, which will cause concrete to
crack [LRFD Commentary C5.8.2.4.1].
The sum of fpe and fy should not be greater than the yield strength of the prestressing steel.

8.12.3.2.1 Tie Anchorage

The tie reinforcement must be anchored in accordance with LRFD Article 5.9.4.3, which deals with development
of pretensioning strand, and LRFD Article 5.10.8.2, which deals with development of nonprestressed
reinforcement. This ensures the satisfactory transfer of the tension force to the node regions.

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8.12.3.3 Proportioning Node Regions/8.12.3.3.2 Limiting Compressive Stress at the Node Face

8.12.3.3 Proportioning Node Regions

LRFD Article 5.8.2.5.1 states that the nominal resistance, Pn, of the node face should be calculated as follows:
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝐴𝑐𝑛 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5.1-1]
where
fcu = limiting compressive stress at the node face
Acn = effective cross-sectional area of the node face

8.12.3.3.1 Effective Cross-Sectional Area of the Node Face

The effective cross-sectional area of the node face should be determined using LRFD Article 5.8.2.5.2 considering
the details of the nodal region and the in-plane dimensions. The out-of-plane dimension may be based on the
bearing device(s) or the dimension of the member, as appropriate.
When a strut is anchored by reinforcement in one direction, as in a CCT node, the height of the back face, ha, of the
node may be considered to extend twice the distance from the exterior surface of the beam to the centroid of the
longitudinal tensile reinforcement.
At nodes where only struts intersect, as in a CCC node, the height of the back face, ha, may be taken as the effective
depth of the compression stress block determined from a conventional flexural analysis.

8.12.3.3.2 Limiting Compressive Stress at the Node Face

LRFD Article 5.8.2.5.3 states that, in the absence of effective confining reinforcement, the concrete compressive
stress at the node face, fcu, should be taken as:
𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5.3a-1]
where
m = confinement modification factor
= (𝐴2 ⁄𝐴1 )0.5 ≤ 2.0
where
A1 = area under the bearing device
A2 = notional area defined as shown in LRFD Fig. 5.6.5-1 [LRFD Art. 5.6.5]
v = concrete efficiency factor
= 0.45 for structures that do not contain crack control reinforcement
= as shown in Table 8.12.3.2.2-1 for structures with crack control reinforcement
𝑓𝑐′ = compressive strength of concrete for use in design

Table 8.12.3.2.2-1 [LRFD Table 5.8.2.5.3a-1]

Efficiency Factors for Nodes with Crack Control Reinforcement
Node Type
Face (See Fig. 8.12.2.2-1)
CCC CCT CTT
Bearing face
0.85 0.70
Back face 𝑓𝑐′
0.85 −
𝑓𝑐′ 𝑓𝑐′ 20 ksi
Strut-to-node 0.85 − 0.85 −
20 ksi 20 ksi
interface 0.45 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 0.65
0.45 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 0.65 0.45 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 0.65

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8.12.3.3.2 Limiting Compressive Stress at the Node Face/8.12.4.1 Design Criteria

Stress limits at a nodal zone are controlled by the type of truss members meeting at the node. At nodes B and C
(Fig. 8.12.2-1) where compression members meet, and at bearing areas at these locations, a higher concrete
efficiency factor is allowed than at Nodes A and D, where it is necessary to anchor the tie AD.
The reductions resulting from the presence of ties noted in Table 8.12.3.2.2-1 reflect the detrimental effect of
tensile strain in nodes in which tensile reinforcement is anchored. Stresses in nodal zones can be reduced by
increasing the size of bearing plates or by increasing the dimensions of struts and ties.

8.12.3.4 Crack Control Reinforcement

According to LRFD Article 5.8.2.6, an orthogonal reinforcing grid must be provided near each face to control crack
widths in members designed using the concrete efficiency factor (except slabs and footings), and to ensure
minimum ductility so that significant redistribution of internal stresses is possible. The spacing of bars in such a
grid should not exceed the smaller of d/4 and 12.0 in.The ratio of the reinforcement area to the width of the
member’s web multiplied by the crack-control reinforcement spacing should be at least 0.003 in each direction
(LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.6-1 & -2).
In general, these crack control requirements lead to a substantial amount of well-distributed reinforcement on
both faces of relatively thin members and throughout the member for thicker sections. However, the LRFD
Specifications states that the reinforcement is intended to provide restraint for the spread of compression present
in a bottle-shaped strut and should not be included in calculating the resistance of the primary tie.

8.12.4 Steps for Developing Strut-and-Tie Models

The use of strut-and-tie models typically involves a trial-and-error procedure. Taking the following steps should
help reduce the effort required:
• Use strut-and-tie modeling for disturbed regions of the structural member. Solve for internal forces, and
their resultants outside of the disturbed regions by using sectional analysis with all controlling load
combinations. These forces from sectional analysis may be considered as boundary forces for the
disturbed region model. Apply the resultant forces to the disturbed region along with any external loads
that fall on that part of the member.
• Assume initial models for each of the appropriate controlling load cases and boundary condition force
sets. Estimate likely member widths. Elastic stress distribution may be used as a guide. Static equilibrium
is then used to determine forces in members due to factored loads. These forces are used in checking
member dimensions. It may be necessary to modify the assumed model if the members are determined to
be inadequate. A number of appropriate models for different applications are available in the literature;
relevant resources include Martin and Sanders (2007); Guyon (1951); Gergely and Sozen (1967);
Schlaich, et. al. (1987); Collins and Mitchell (1991); Breen, et. al. (1994); Birrcher, et al. (2009); fib Model
Code (2010); Williams, et al. (2012); Larson, et al. (2013); and Mitchell and Collins (2013).
• Draw the strut-and-tie model to a reasonably large scale. This will help avoid errors and offer a better
appreciation of the proportions of the structure.
• Remember that there is no single strut-and-tie model for a particular system. Generally, the forces will
flow in accordance with the pattern of reinforcement. Well-distributed crack-control and tie
reinforcement should be provided to ensure the redistribution of internal forces in the cracked concrete.
• Carefully detail the structure to ensure that the assumed flow of forces can be achieved in the cracked
structure. Accordingly, reinforcement in ties must be effectively anchored to develop the strength of the
member. Nodal zones must be checked to ensure satisfactory load transfer between struts and ties.
• Consider whether simple line struts can be used to replace complicated stress fields such as fans, arches,
and bands. Unnecessary complication of the model is not warranted.

8.12.4.1 Design Criteria

Regardless of the strut-and-tie model adopted, the following design criteria must be met:
• Limits on bearing stresses
• Satisfactory anchorage and careful detailing of tie reinforcement
• Critical examination of nodal zones to determine their maximum capacities

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8.12.4.1 Design Criteria/8.12.5 Pier Cap Example

• Provision of adequate crack control reinforcement throughout the member to ensure the redistribution of
internal stresses after cracking of concrete

8.12.4.2 Summary of Steps

Step 1 Determine bearing areas. [LRFD Art. 5.6.5]
Step 2 Assume appropriate truss geometry (draw a large-scale diagram).
Step 3 Select tension-tie reinforcement. [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.4]
Step 4 Check development of tension-tie reinforcement. [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.4.2]
Step 5 Check strength of node faces. [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.5]
Step 6 Select crack control reinforcement. [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.6]
Step 7 Detail structure carefully.

8.12.4.3 Other Strut-and-Tie Model Training and Resources

After the LRFD Specifications adopted new strut-and-tie modeling requirements in 2018, the FHWA National
Highway Institute (NHI) developed the “Strut-and-Tie Modeling (STM) for Concrete Structures” course (FHWA-
NHI-130126), which aims to address the uncertainties regarding strut-and-tie models and acts as a primary
source of reference material for strut-and-tie modeling applications. The 1.5-day-long, instructor-led training
course serves as a significant step in providing the knowledge transfer necessary for strut-and-tie modeling to be
used more frequently and more effectively. The 196-page course manual dated October 2017 is available online
for free at https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/concrete/nhi17071.pdf.

8.12.5 Pier Cap Example

Design the pier cap shown in Figure 8.12.5-1.
When using strut-and-tie modeling, design iterations may be necessary to determine both the concrete strength
and cap width to provide adequate strength to the critical node. This design example presents the development of
final strut-and-tie models for the last iteration that was performed for this problem.
Assume that normal weight concrete is being used. Because 𝑓𝑐′ is less than 15 ksi and 𝑓𝑦 is less than 75 ksi, the
strut-and-tie provisions of LRFD Article 5.8.2 are applicable.
Figure 8.12.5-1
Pier Cap Dimensions and Loads

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8.12.5.1 Flow of Forces and Truss Geometry/8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss

8.12.5.1 Flow of Forces and Truss Geometry

Figure 8.12.5.1-1 presents the assumed truss geometry for this design example. As specified in LRFD Article
5.8.2, the angle between the axes of a strut and a tie should be greater than 25 degrees. As shown in Figure
8.12.5.1-1b, the angle between the strut and tie for this model is 26.5 degrees. Therefore, the direct strut model
for this design example satisfies the LRFD Specifications.
Figure 8.12.5.1-1
Assumed STM Geometry

a) Strut-and-Tie Model

b) Member Force Calculation

8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss

After the geometry of the strut-and-tie model has been determined, the member forces of the struts and ties are
computed using equilibrium. Because the model is a statically determinate system, all member forces can be
calculated by satisfying equilibrium at the joints of the truss.
Node C
500
𝐹𝐶𝐷 = = 1,002.8 kips
tan(26.5 deg. )
500
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = = −1,120.6 kips
sin(26.5 deg. )
Node D
500
𝐹𝐴𝐷 = = −562.1 kips
sin(62.8 deg. )

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8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss/8.12.5.4 Nodal Zone Strength Checks

𝐹𝐷𝐸 = 𝐹𝐶𝐷 + 𝐹𝐴𝐷 cos(62.8 deg. ) = 1,002.8 + 562.1 cos(62.8 deg. ) = 1,259.7 kips
Node A
𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 𝐹𝐴𝐷 cos(62.8 deg. ) + 𝐹𝐴𝑐 cos(26.5 deg. ) = 562.1 cos(62.8 deg. ) + 1,120.6 cos(26.5 deg. )
= −1,259.7 kips
= −𝐹𝐷𝐸 OK

8.12.5.3 Reinforcement for Ties

FDE = 1,259.7 kips
ϕfyAst ≥ 1,259.7 kips
Ast ≥ 1,259.7/0.9(60) = 23.3 in.2
Because 3 ft 9 in. is available for development at C (at inner edge), choose a bar that can be developed in this
distance; that is, choose No. 10, ℓdb = 43.1 in. < 45 in. available [LRFD Art. 5.10.8.2.1].
No. of bars required = 23.3/1.27 = 18.34 bars
Use twenty No. 10 bars (25.4 in.2) in two layers.
FCD = 1,002.8 kips
Ast > 1,002.8/0.9(60) = 18.6 in.2
If twenty No. 10 bars are used, as in Tie DE:
𝐴𝑠 required 18.6
= = 0.73
𝐴𝑠 provided 25.4
Top bars:
Required development length = 1.3(0.73)(43.1) = 40.9 in. < 45 in. available OK

8.12.5.4 Nodal Zone Strength Checks

Node A (CCC)
This nodal zone (Fig. 8.12.5.4-1) is bounded only by struts and bearing areas; therefore, it is a CCC node type. The
confinement factor, m, is taken as 1.0 since the column and pier cap have the same width.
Figure 8.12.5.4-1
Nodal Zone A

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8.12.5.4 Nodal Zone Strength Checks

The faces of Node A are checked as follows.

Cap-to-column bearing face:
Factored load Pu = 1,000 kips
Concrete efficiency factor 𝑣 = 0.85 [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.5.3a]
Concrete capacity 𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓𝑐′ = (1.0)(0.85)(5.0) = 4.25 ksi
ϕPn = (0.7)(4.25)(30)(48) = 4,284 kips > 1000 kips OK
Back face:
Factored load Pu = 1,259.7 kips
Concrete efficiency
𝑣 = 0.85 [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.5.3]
factor
Concrete capacity 𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓𝑐′ = (1.0)(0.85)(5.0) = 4.25 ksi
ϕPn = (0.7)(4.25)(15)(48) = 2,142 kips > 1259.7 kips OK
Strut-to-node bearing face:
𝑤𝑠 = ℎ𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑠 + 𝛼𝑙𝑏 sin 𝜃𝑠 = 16 cos 38.4 + 30 sin 38.4 = 31.2 in.
Factored load 𝑃𝑢 = √1,259.72 + 1,0002 = 1,608.4 kips
5.0 ksi
Concrete efficiency factor 𝑣 = 0.85 − = 0.6 [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.5.3]
20 ksi
Concrete capacity 𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓𝑐′ = (1.0)(0.6)(5.0) = 3.0 ksi
ϕPn = (0.7)(3.0)(31.2)(48) = 3,145 kips > 1,608.4 kips OK
Therefore, the strength of Node A is sufficient to resist the applied forces.
Node C (CCT)
This nodal zone (Fig. 8.12.5.4-2) is intersected by a tie in only one direction; therefore, it is a CCT node type.
Figure 8.12.5.4-2
Nodal Zone C

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8.12.5.4 Nodal Zone Strength Checks/8.12.5.5 Minimum Reinforcement for Crack Control

The faces of Node C are checked as follows.

Beam bearing face:
The confinement factor, m, is conservatively taken as 1.0.
Factored load Pu = 500 kips
Concrete efficiency factor 𝑣 = 0.7 [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.5.3]
Concrete capacity 𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓𝑐′ = (1.0)(0.7)(5.0) = 3.5 ksi
ϕPn = (0.7)(3.5)(24)(24) = 1,411 kips > 500 kips OK
Back face:
The tie forces at Node C result from the anchorage of the reinforcing bars and do not concentrate at the back face.
In cases where the back face does not resist a direct force, no back face check is necessary.
Strut-to-node bearing face:
The confinement factor, m, is considered for the strut-to-node interface. A1 is taken as the dimension of the
bearing area, 576 in.2 (See Fig. 8.12.5-1) A2 is calculated 6 in. below the top surface of the cap, using a load spread
of 2:1 in accordance with LRFD Article 5.6.5, and is taken as (48 in.)(48 in.) = 2,304 in.2.
𝐴2 2,304
𝑚2: 1 = √ =√ = 2.0 ≥ 2.0; therefore, use m = 2.0
𝐴1 576

The length of the strut-to-node interface is computed as 21.4 in.:

Factored load Pu = 1,120.6 kips
Concrete efficiency 5
𝑣 = 0.85 − ( ) = 0.6 [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.5.3]
factor 20
Concrete capacity 𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓𝑐′ = (2.0)(0.6)(5.0) = 6.0 ksi
ϕPn = (0.7)(6.0)(24)(21.4) = 2,157 kips > 1,120.6 kips OK
Therefore, the strength of Node C is sufficient to resist the applied forces.
Node D (CCT)
Node D is similar to Node C, but with a much smaller compression force. Therefore, the strength of Node D is
sufficient to resist the applied forces.

8.12.5.5 Minimum Reinforcement for Crack Control

Provide minimum reinforcement throughout the pier cap (assume Sh = 12 in. spacing).
Minimum As required in each direction = 0.003 (bw)(Sh) [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.6]
= 0.003(48)(12) = 1.73 in.2/ft
Use No.9 bars each face at 12 in. on center = 2 (1.00) = 2.00 in.2/ft, or No. 6 bars each face at 6 in. on center =
4(0.44) = 1.76 in.2/ft.
Use No. 6 bars at 6 in. on center vertically and horizontally on each face (Fig. 8.12.5.5-1).

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8.12.5.5 Minimum Reinforcement for Crack Control/8.13.1 Introduction

Figure 8.12.5.5-1
Reinforcement Details

8.13 DETAILED METHODS OF TIME-DEPENDENT ANALYSIS

8.13.1 Introduction
Section 8.6 of this chapter presents a variety of practical and relatively simple methods to estimate time-
dependent effects in prestressed concrete members. Those methods are suitable for a wide range of bridge
projects but may not be applicable to certain special situations. More detailed methods are available when the
designer feels that a more rigorous estimate of time-dependent effects is warranted.
The following sections describe a method that can be used to perform time-dependent analysis of a composite
prestressed concrete bridge member of any cross section. This method is based on traditional composite section
analysis using transformed elastic properties of steel elements and any CIP concrete elements. The method is also
applicable when gross section properties are used. Adjustments are made to the elastic modulus of the concrete
elements to reflect creep characteristics. So-called initial strains are introduced in the analysis to account for

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8.13.1 Introduction/8.13.1.1.1 Stress-Strain-Time Relationship

concrete shrinkage, steel relaxation, and residual concrete creep. By analyzing discrete cross sections and then
performing the numerical integration, whole members may also be analyzed using the methods that follow.

8.13.1.1 Properties of Concrete

The mechanical properties of concrete vary with time. As hydration progresses, compressive strength and
modulus of elasticity continually increase, but at a decreasing rate. In addition, it has long been recognized that
concrete exhibits creep, defined as the time-dependent increase in strain that occurs while the material is
subjected to constant stress. Finally, concrete undergoes shrinkage caused by drying. Chapter 2 and Section 8.6.7
provide more detailed discussion of these time-dependent behaviors.
There exists a wide range of methods used to produce precast concrete bridge components. Concrete mixture
proportions, aggregates, admixtures, and curing methods all have significant effects on the time-dependent
properties of concrete as a structural material. Because of these variations, the recommendations in Chapter 2
and Section 8.6 should be used only as a starting point. For applications where it is critical to accurately predict
time-dependent behavior, the properties of the actual materials used should be determined by testing.

8.13.1.1.1 Stress-Strain-Time Relationship

To perform time-dependent analysis, it is necessary to establish the stress-strain-time relationship for the
concrete material. This relationship will predict the total strain, ε, at a future time, t, that results from a stress
increment applied at time t0. The total concrete strain at any time, t, can be separated into three components:
εf = the immediate strain due to the applied stress, f
εcr = the time-dependent creep strain
εsh = free shrinkage strain
It is important to recognize that the modulus of elasticity, E, creep coefficient, Ψ, and shrinkage coefficient, Ψsh,
are functions of time. In addition, because concrete is an aging material, Ψ depends on the loading age, t0.
1. Constant Stress
Total concrete strain is (εf + εcr + εsh), which is usually expressed as follows:
𝑓(𝑡0 )
ε= [1 + Ψ(𝑡, 𝑡0 )] + ε𝑠ℎ (Eq. 8.13.1.1.1-1)
𝐸𝑐 (𝑡0 )
where
Ec(t0) = modulus of elasticity at time, t0, the beginning of the time interval
Ψ(t, t0) = creep coefficient over a time interval from t0 to t
Eq. (8.13.1.1.1-1) applies as long as the stress, f, is a constant, sustained stress. Figure 8.13.1.1.1-1 shows the
gradual development of creep strains with time under the effects of a constant stress.

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8.13.1.1.1 Stress-Strain-Time Relationship

Figure 8.13.1.1.1-1
Concrete Strain versus Time under Constant Stress

2. Variable Stress
Where the applied stress, f, is variable, Eq. (8.13.1.1.1-1) cannot be used directly. Figure 8.13.1.1.1-2 depicts the
development of creep strains under the effects of an increasing applied stress.

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8.13.1.1.1 Stress-Strain-Time Relationship/8.13.1.2 Effective Modulus

Figure 8.13.1.1.1-2
Concrete Strain versus Time under Variable Stress

At most stress levels experienced due to service loads, the principle of superposition applies. Using superposition,
the effects of a series of applied stress increments can be determined individually, using Eq. (8.13.1.1.1-1), and
then combined to give the total time-dependent concrete strain. For a series of stress increments, fj, applied at
times, tj, the total concrete strain can be expressed as follows:
𝑓(𝑡𝑗 )
ε= ∑ [1 + Ψ(𝑡, 𝑡𝑗 )] + ε𝑠ℎ (Eq. 8.13.1.1.1-2)
𝐸𝑐 (𝑡𝑗 )
Therefore, a method for predicting concrete strain, ε, under conditions where stress is not constant is to break the
time interval over which f is applied into many discrete steps and perform a summation using Eq. (8.13.1.1.1-2).
While this approach is general and can be easily implemented on a computer, it is not easily achieved with manual
calculations. However, an accurate but simplified method exists; it will be discussed further in Section 8.13.1.3.

8.13.1.2 Effective Modulus

The effective-modulus concept is used frequently to simplify creep analysis. The effective modulus is defined as
follows:
𝐸𝑐 (𝑡𝑗 )
𝐸𝑐∗ (𝑡, 𝑡0 ) = (Eq. 8.13.1.2-1)
1 + Ψ(𝑡, 𝑡0 )

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8.13.1.2 Effective Modulus/8.13.1.3 Age-Adjusted Effective Modulus

Comparison of Eq. (8.13.1.2-1) with Eq. (8.13.1.1.1-1) shows that 𝐸𝑐∗ relates both the immediate strain, εf, and the
time-dependent creep strain, εcr, to the applied stress, f. Figure 8.13.1.2-1 illustrates the effective-modulus
concept. Notice that the effective modulus, or the slope of the stress versus strain curve, depends on both the time
of application of the load, t0, and the time at which strains are to be determined, t1 or t2. The use of an effective
modulus allows a pseudo-elastic analysis to be performed within a given time interval.
Eq. (8.13.1.1.1-1) can be rewritten to take advantage of the effective-modulus concept:
𝑓(𝑡)
ε= + ε𝑠ℎ (Eq. 8.13.1.2-2)
𝐸𝑐∗ (𝑡, 𝑡0 )
Figure 8.13.1.2-1
Stress versus Strain for Constant Stress, f(t0), Applied at Time, t0

8.13.1.3 Age-Adjusted Effective Modulus

Equations (8.13.1.1.1-1) and (8.13.1.2-2) are valid only when the stress, f, is constant. In many situations,
however, f will vary with time. Figure 8.13.1.1.1-2 graphically depicts this condition.
For example, consider a hollow precast concrete cylinder that is filled with fresh concrete shortly after the
cylinder has been subjected to a constant axial compressive force. When hardened, the CIP concrete fill will be
subjected to a load that increases with time as creep strains develop in the surrounding precast concrete cylinder.
A similar condition exists in a reinforced concrete member under sustained loads as the reinforcing steel resists
creep strains. To solve time-dependent problems such as these, creep strains under varying load must be
predicted.
As discussed in Section 8.13.1.1.1, one approach would be to divide the problem into many short time intervals.
The stress increment during each interval could be treated as a new load and, since superposition is valid, Eq.
(8.13.1.1.1-2) could be used to calculate the total response of the member.
An alternative approach described by Bazant (1972) uses the aging coefficient, , to adjust the creep coefficient.
The aging coefficient accounts for three separate effects:
• When the applied stress, f(t), is increasing, the concrete experiences the maximum force for only an instant at
the end of the time interval (t0, t). At all other times, the concrete experiences a load that is less than the
maximum.

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8.13.1.3 Age-Adjusted Effective Modulus/8.13.1.5 Reduced Relaxation under Variable Strain

• The concrete is gaining strength and, therefore, its modulus is increasing with time. Portions of the time-
varying load that occur earlier are acting on concrete that is not as stiff. Later in the interval, when the loads
are larger, the concrete is also stiffer.
• As shown in Chapter 2, for a given concrete in a given environment, the total creep potential for loads applied
to young concrete is larger than for the same loads applied to old concrete.
Eq. (8.13.1.3-1) should be used when the stress varies over the interval (t0, t):
𝑓(𝑡)
ε= [1 + (𝑡, 𝑡0 )Ψ(𝑡, 𝑡0 )] + ε𝑠ℎ (Eq. 8.13.1.3-1)
𝐸𝑐 (𝑡0 )
The corresponding age-adjusted effective modulus is given by:
𝐸𝑐 (𝑡0 )
𝐸𝑐∗ (𝑡, 𝑡0 ) = (Eq. 8.13.1.3-2)
1 + (𝑡, 𝑡0 )Ψ(𝑡, 𝑡0 )
From here on, the effective-modulus will be referred to as defined by Eq. (8.13.1.3-2), with the understanding that
Eq. (8.13.1.2-1) represents the special case of an instantaneously applied load for which  = 1.
There are methods available (Bazant, 1972) by which the aging coefficient can be computed precisely for different
ages at loading and for different concrete properties. In most practical problems, however, it is sufficiently
accurate to use a value of 0.7 or 0.8 for , depending on the age of concrete at the beginning of the time interval.
For loads applied at a relatively young concrete age, 0.7 should be used. For all other situations, 0.8 is generally
sufficiently accurate given all of the other uncertainties present in this type of analysis.

8.13.1.4 Properties of Prestressing Steel Strand

Most prestressing materials, including steel bars and strands, exhibit relaxation. Relaxation is similar to creep but
is defined as the loss of stress in a stressed material held at constant length. The following equation may be used
to estimate the relaxation, fr, occurring in steel prestressing materials during the interval (t, t0):
𝑓(𝑡0 ) 𝑓(𝑡0 ) 24𝑡 + 1
𝑓𝑟 (𝑡, 𝑡0 ) = [ − 0.55] log10 ( ) (Eq. 8.13.1.4-1)
𝐾𝑟 𝑓𝑝𝑦 24𝑡0 + 1
𝑓(𝑡0 )
for ≥ 0.55
𝑓𝑝𝑦
where
f(t0) = tensile stress at the beginning of the interval
fpy = yield strength of the strand
Kr = constant for the material
t = time, days
t0 = time at start of relaxation, days
Values of Kr and fpy for Grade 270 prestressing strand are provided in Table 8.13.1.4-1.
Table 8.13.1.4-1
Values of Material Constant, Kr, and Yield Strength, fpy
Grade 270 Strand Kr fpy, ksi
Low-relaxation 45 243.0
Stress-relieved (normal relaxation) 10 229.5

8.13.1.5 Reduced Relaxation under Variable Strain

The relaxation predicted by Eq. (8.13.1.4-1) is the intrinsic relaxation (the relaxation that occurs under the
theoretical condition of constant strain). In an actual prestressed concrete member, strain in the prestressing
materials is not constant, and it is usually decreasing due to creep and shrinkage of the concrete. Under these
circumstances, Eq. (8.13.1.4-1) will somewhat overestimate relaxation. Various researchers, including Ghali and

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8.13.1.5 Reduced Relaxation under Variable Strain/8.13.2.2 Method for Time-Dependent Cross Section Analysis

Trevino (1985), Glodowski and Lorenzetti (1972), Hernandez and Gamble (1975), and others, have studied this
problem and have proposed methods for calculating the reduced relaxation that occurs during intervals of
decreasing strain.
However, with low-relaxation prestressing materials, relaxation effects are very small compared with concrete
creep and shrinkage. Therefore, it is sufficiently accurate to adopt a single, standard reduction factor to adjust the
intrinsic relaxation during intervals in which the strain is decreasing. In most practical situations, a factor equal to
0.8 may be applied to that portion of the relaxation that occurs under conditions of gradually reducing strain.

8.13.2 Analysis of Composite Cross Sections

The method of analysis illustrated herein is essentially no different than a conventional elastic analysis of a
prestressed concrete cross section using transformed section properties. However, instead of a conventional
modulus of elasticity, the age-adjusted, effective modulus is used for all concrete elements in the section. In
addition, initial strains must be considered. The following sections will illustrate the procedure.

8.13.2.1 Initial Strains

An initial strain is defined as one that is not directly due to an applied stress. Other than time-dependent analysis,
temperature strain may be the most familiar example of an initial strain.
In time-dependent analysis of concrete members, the initial strains normally considered are as follows:
• Free shrinkage of the concrete occurring during the time interval being considered
• Creep strains of the concrete occurring during the time interval being considered that are due to
previously applied loads
• The apparent steel strain due to relaxation of prestressing steel during the time interval being considered
To incorporate initial strains into cross-section analysis, it is convenient to calculate a fictitious restraining load
that will restrain the initial strains listed above. The restraining load is then subtracted from any real loads
applied to the section. Using the net load, an analysis is performed in a manner similar to conventional
transformed section analysis. Finally, the internal forces are calculated using the two loads,. The internal forces
associated with the net load applied to the entire composite section are calculated. These are then added to the
individual element restraint forces to give the total actual forces on an individual element of the cross section. The
following section provides a detailed description of the procedure used.

8.13.2.2 Method for Time-Dependent Cross-Section Analysis

Several researchers have published methods to perform the time-dependent analysis of cross sections of
prestressed concrete members. These methods include two approximate methods suitable for manual
calculations as well as rigorous time-step methods suitable only for computerized solutions. For additional
information, consult references such as Branson and Kripanarayanan (1971); Tadros, et al. (1975; 1977A;
1977B); Dilger (1982A; 1982B); Tadros, et al. (1985); and Collins and Mitchell (1991).
All of the methods in the cited references, as well as the method presented here, are based on a pseudo-elastic
analysis with the following assumptions and conditions:
• The superposition of creep strains from different stress increments is valid.
• Concrete members remain uncracked.
• Stress levels are low compared with the compressive strength of the concrete.
It is necessary to consider the entire history of a cross section in determining its time-dependent behavior. This
history is usually composed of time intervals of varying lengths. Discrete events (such as the transfer of
prestressing force or the application of the weight of a CIP topping) mark the beginning and end of each time
interval. During the time between these discrete events, there is continual creep, shrinkage, and relaxation, as
well as internal redistribution of stresses. It is convenient to consider each discrete event (such as the transfer of
prestressing force) as though it occurred during a time interval whose length is zero.
Within a given time interval, an elastic analysis with initial strains is performed for the cross section being
analyzed. Because the properties of the concrete are time dependent, transformed composite section properties
are recalculated for the analysis in each time interval. A unique set of initial strains, dependent on all of the stress
increments applied during the history of the member, is calculated for each time interval to be analyzed.

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8.13.2.2 Method for Time-Dependent Cross Section Analysis/8.13.2.2.1 Steps for Analysis

The most rigorous methods of time-dependent analysis reduce the time history into many small steps. As the size
of the time step decreases, the accuracy of the analysis increases. One such method is described by Tadros, et al.
(1977B). A slightly less accurate, but greatly simplified, method is presented by Dilger (1982A; 1982B). That
method will be used as the basis for the procedure described here, which uses creep-transformed section
properties based on the age-adjusted, effective modulus for a given time interval.
Figure 8.13.2.2-1 shows the sign conventions for strain, curvature, and section forces in the following procedure.
Figure 8.13.2.2-1
Sign Conventions for Composite Section Analysis

8.13.2.2.1 Steps for Analysis

The following steps are repeated for each time interval that is to be analyzed over the entire time history of a
single cross section:
1. Calculate the age-adjusted, effective modulus, 𝐸𝑐𝑘
∗
, for the interval under consideration for each element, k,
comprising the composite section. (Take the effective modulus, 𝐸𝑐∗ , of the composite section to be that of the
concrete beam.)
2. Calculate the modular ratio, nk, for each element in the section:
∗
𝐸𝑐𝑘
𝑛𝑘 = (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-1)
𝐸𝑐∗
3. Calculate the transformed composite section area, A, center of gravity, ycg, and moment of inertia, I:
𝐴 = 𝛴𝐴𝑘 𝑛𝑘 (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-2)
1
𝑦𝑐𝑔 = 𝛴𝑦 𝐴 𝑛 (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-3)
𝐴 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
2
𝐼 = 𝛴 [𝐼𝑘 + (𝑦𝑐𝑔 − 𝑦𝑘 ) 𝐴𝑘 ] 𝑛𝑘 (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-4)

4. Calculate the total initial strains, ε0k, and curvature, ϕ0𝑘 , for each element in the composite section. For
concrete elements, the total initial strains will be those due to free shrinkage plus those due to creep resulting
from previously applied stresses. For prestressed steel elements, the initial strain will be the apparent strain
due to relaxation. Typically, nonprestressed steel will have no initial strain. Calculations of initial strains will
be presented in the examples that follow.
5. For each element, k, calculate the theoretical restraint forces N0k and M0k. Sum all the N0k and M0k values over
the section to give N0 and M0:

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8.13.2.2.1 Steps for Analysis/8.13.2.2.2 Example Calculations

∗
𝑁0𝑘 = −𝐸𝑐𝑘 ε0𝑘 𝐴𝑘 (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-5)

𝑁0 = ∑ 𝑁0𝑘 (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-6)

∗
𝑀0𝑘 = −𝐸𝑐𝑘 𝐼𝑘 ϕ0𝑘 (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-7)

𝑀0 = ∑[𝑀0𝑘 − 𝑁0𝑘 (𝑦𝑐𝑔 − 𝑦)] (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-8)

6. Subtract the restraint forces, N0 and M0, from the real applied forces, N and M, and calculate the total strain, ε,
and curvature, ϕ, in the section:
𝑁 − 𝑁0
ε= (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-9)
𝐸𝑐∗ 𝐴
𝑀 − 𝑀0
ϕ= (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-10)
𝐸𝑐∗ 𝐼
7. Calculate the strains and curvatures for each element in the composite section:
εk = ε − ϕ(ycg − y) (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-11)
ϕk = ϕ (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-12)
8. Calculate the element forces, Nk and Mk, and elastic strains, εfk and ϕfk, based on the element strains and the
effective modulus, 𝐸𝑐𝑘
∗
, for each section element:
∗
𝑁𝑘 = 𝐸𝑐𝑘 𝐴𝑘 ε𝑘 + 𝑁0𝑘 (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-13)
𝑁𝑘
ε𝑓𝑘 = ∗ (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-14)
𝐸𝑐𝑘 𝐴𝑘
∗
𝑀𝑘 = 𝐸𝑐𝑘 𝐼𝑘 ϕ𝑘 + 𝑀0𝑘 (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-15)
𝑀𝑘
ϕ𝑓𝑘 = ∗ (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-16)
𝐸𝑐𝑘 𝐼𝑘
Steps 1 through 8 are repeated for each time interval to be analyzed over the time history of the cross section.

8.13.2.2.2 Example Calculations

A 12 by 12 in. concrete prism, reinforced with four No. 9 reinforcing bars, was loaded with a 216-kip axial
compressive force immediately after being wet-cured for 7 days. Find the concrete and steel stresses 90 days
after loading.
The creep coefficient, ψ(97, 7), is assumed to be 1.65 and the total free shrinkage strain, εshu, occurring during this
period is −400 × 10−6. The initial modulus of elasticity of the concrete, Eci, is 3,500 ksi, and the modulus of
elasticity of the steel bars is 29,000 ksi. The strain in the section immediately after initial loading was calculated
to be −0.0003564. The concrete and steel compressive stresses were 1.248 ksi and 10.34 ksi, respectively.
In this example, the initial strains at 90 days are the result of gradual changes that occur during the preceding
time interval. The aging coefficient of 0.7 in this example is used because loading occurs when the concrete is still
relatively young.
The equations used in the following calculations are presented in Section 8.13.2.2.1.
Step 1 Calculate the age-adjusted effective modulus for the concrete:
3,500
𝐸𝑐∗ = = 1,624 ksi
1 + (0.7)(1.65)
Step 2 Calculate the modular ratio for the steel elements:
29,000
𝑛𝑠 = = 17.86
1,624

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8.13.2.2.2 Example Calculations/8.13.3 Analysis of Composite Simple-Span Members

Step 3 Calculate the transformed area of the composite section:

A = [(12)(12) – 4.00](1.0) +(4.00)(17.86) = 211.4 in.2
Step 4 Calculate the initial strain in the concrete (due to both creep and shrinkage):
ε0𝑐 = −0.000400 + (1.65)(−0.0003564) = −0.0009881
Step 5 Calculate the restraint forces for the concrete element and the composite section:
N0 = N0c = −(1,624)(−0.0009881)(144 – 4.00) = 224.7 kips
Step 6 Calculate the composite section strain:
0 − 224.7
ε= = −0.0006544
(1,624)(211.4)
Step 7 Calculate the element strains. This calculation is straightforward for this example. Both the concrete
and steel strains are equal to the composite section strain: −0.0006544.
Step 8 Calculate the internal element forces and elastic strains on the concrete and steel:
Nc = (−0.0006544)(1,624)(140) + 224.7 = 75.9 kips (tension)
Ns = (−0.0006544)(29,000)(4.00) = −75.9 kips (compression)
−75.9
ε𝑓𝑐 = = −0.000334
(140.0)(1,624)
75.9
𝑓𝑐 = = 0.542 ksi (tension)
140.0
−75.9
ε𝑓𝑠 = = −0.000654
(29,000)(4.00)
−75.9
𝑓𝑠 = = −19.0 ksi (compression)
4.00
Therefore, the total concrete and steel stresses at 90 days are (1.248 − 0.542) = 0.706 ksi and (10.34 + 19.0) =
29.3 ksi, respectively.

8.13.3 Analysis of Composite Simple-Span Members

Figure 8.13.3-1 shows a typical simple-span prestressed concrete bridge beam. Detailed information about this
beam is given in Section 8.13.3.2.1. During its history, this beam will experience several different discrete events.
Creep, shrinkage, and relaxation will continue between these discrete events, accompanied by an internal
redistribution of stresses. Table 8.13.3-1 summarizes the significant time intervals during the life of this typical
beam.
Figure 8.13.3-1
Beam Used for Example Calculations

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8.13.3 Analysis of Composite Simple-Span Members/8.13.3.2.1 Example Calculation (at Transfer)

Figure 8.13.3-1 (cont.)

Beam Used for Example Calculations

Table 8.13.3-1
Beam Lifetime Events and Time-Intervals
Interval Event Typical Duration
1 Strand relaxation before transfer 12 to 24 hours
2 Transfer of prestress 0
3 Creep, shrinkage, and relaxation of beam after transfer 30 days to 1 year
4 Placement of cast-in-place deck 0
5 Creep, shrinkage, and relaxation of composite deck and beam 7 days to 6 months
6 Application of superimposed dead load on the composite deck and beam 0
7 Creep, shrinkage, and relaxation of composite deck and beam 25 years or more

The following sections will describe the analyses performed for each time interval during the life of the beam.
This is an incremental analysis, and the state of stress or strain in the system at any point in time is equal to the
sum of the previous intervals.

8.13.3.1 Relaxation of Strands Before Transfer

Eq. (8.13.1.4-1) may be used without adjustment to calculate the intrinsic relaxation of the strands before release
or transfer. While the strands are anchored at the ends of the casting bed, the strain is constant, so the intrinsic
relaxation is the correct quantity in this situation.

8.13.3.2 Transfer of Prestress Force

The method described in Section 8.13.2.2 is used to calculate the effects of transferring the prestressing force.
Transformed section properties, including the strands, the concrete, and any additional nonprestressed steel, are
calculated as described. Because transfer of prestress force is considered to be an interval of zero duration, the
creep coefficient is zero for the concrete. Therefore, the effective modulus of elasticity of the concrete will be
equal to the modulus of elasticity at the time of transfer.
The total prestress force in the strands is treated as an external compressive load applied to the transformed
section at the centroid of the strands.

8.13.3.2.1 Example Calculation (at Transfer)

Analyze the midspan section of the beam shown in Figure 8.13.3-1 immediately after the transfer of prestress. To
simplify, assume that the strands were tensioned and the concrete cast 18 hours (0.75 days) prior to transfer. In
practice, it is more likely that strands might be tensioned 18 hours, and concrete would be cast 12 hours before
transfer. The beam self weight moment at midspan is 3,694 in.-kips.
Design data:
Strands: ½-in.-diameter strand, Grade 270, low relaxation

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8.13.3.2.1 Example Calculation (at Transfer)

Eccentricity at midspan = 16.413 in.

Eccentricity at end of beam = 11.556 in.

Reinforcing bars: No. 6, Grade 60

Beam concrete: 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 4.20 ksi at 18 hours, Eci = 4,054 ksi

𝑓𝑐′ = 6.750 ksi at 28 days, Ec = 4,734 ksi
εshu = −0.0004 in./in.
Ψu= 1.4

Beam section properties: AASHTO-PCI Type III

A = 560 in.2
I = 125,390 in.4
yb = 20.27 in.

Deck concrete 𝑓𝑐′ = 4.50 ksi at 28 days

εshu = −0.0004 in./in.
Ψu = 1.4
Deck properties: Width = 104 in.
Thickness = 8 in.
Area = (104)(8) = 832 in.2
Haunch properties Thickness = 2.5 in.
Composite section properties: Ic = 382,372 in.4
ybc = 36.02 in.
Dead loads: Concrete unit weight = 150 lb/ft3
Beam weight = 583 lb/ft
Deck weight = 867 lb/ft
Haunch weight = 40 lb/ft
Diaphragm weight = 100 lb/ft
Superimposed dead load = 360 lb/ft
The total force in the strands before release is equal to the jacking force minus relaxation losses occurring before
release:
fpj = (0.75)(270.0) = 202.5 ksi
202.5 202.5 (24)(0.75) + 1
𝑓𝑟 = [ − 0.55] log10 [ ] = 1.63 ksi
45 243.0 (24)(0.0) + 1
The force applied to the transformed section at release is:
Pi = (202.5 − 1.63)(28)(0.153) = 860.5 kips = −N
Table 8.13.3.2.1-1 presents the calculation of transformed composite section properties (Steps 1 through 3 from
Section 8.13.2.2.1). The modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete is based on the concrete strength at release.
(The section properties of the bare beam have been adjusted in this example to remove the concrete area
occupied by strands and nonprestressed steel bars. In practice, this refinement may be omitted with no significant

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8.13.3.2.1 Example Calculation (at Transfer)

loss of accuracy.) Because this is a zero-length time interval, there are no initial strains. Steps 4 and 5 may be
omitted for zero-length time intervals.
Table 8.13.3.2.1-1
Calculation of Transformed Composite Section Properties at Transfer
Item Area ycg Moment Modulus of Modular (1) × (5) (1) × (5) × (3) × (5) [ycg − (2)]2 × (8) + (9)
in.2 in. of Inertia Elasticity Ratio, in.2 (2) in.4 (1) in.4
in.4 ksi n in.3 in.4
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)* (10)
Beam 554.836 20.362 123,805 4,054 1.000 554.8 11,298 123,805 207 124,011
Strands 4.284 3.857 10.93 28,500 7.030 30.1 116 77 7,609 7,686
Nonprestressed 0.880 42.000 0.0 29,000 7.154 6.3 264 3,116 3,116
steel
Composite 19.752 591.2 11,678 134,813
section
*ycg in column (9) is for the composite section.

When gross section properties are used in the analysis, the areas of strands and nonprestressed steel are not
transformed into equivalent concrete areas.
Use Eq. (8.13.2.2.1-9) and (8.13.2.2.1-10) to calculate the strain at the c.g. and curvature of the composite section
immediately after release:
−860.5
ε= = −0.000359
(4,054)(591.2)
3,694 − (860.5)(19.752 − 3.857)
ɸ= = −1.83 × 10−5 .
(4,054)(134,813) in
Next, calculate the individual element strains. The strain due to transfer of prestress at the centroid of the strands
is:
εp = −0.000359− (−1.83 × 10−5)(3.857 − 19.752) = −0.000649
The strain at the centroid of the nonprestressed steel bars is:
εs = −0.000359 − (−1.83 × 10−5)(45.0 − 3.0 − 19.752) =0.0000474
The strain at the centroid of the concrete beam section is:
εc = −0.000359 − (−1.83 × 10-5)(20.362 − 19.752) = −0.000348
Finally, calculate the element forces and elastic strains. For this example, since there are no initial strains, the
elastic strains are equal to the total strains that were calculated above. The force on the strands:
Np = (28,500)(4.284)(−0.000649) = −79.3 kips
With this information, the remaining stress in the prestressing strands can be calculated:
860.5 − 79.3
𝑓𝑝 = = 182.4 ksi
4.284
The force in the nonprestressed steel bars is:
Ns = (29,000)(0.88)(0.0000474) = 1.2 kips
The axial force and moment on the concrete beam section are, respectively:
Nc = (4,054)(554.8)(−0.000348) = −782.7 kips
Mc = (4,054)(123,805)(−1.83 × 10−5) = −9,185 in.-kips

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8.13.3.3 Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation After Transfer/8.13.3.3.1 Example Calculation (After Transfer)

8.13.3.3 Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation After Transfer

Following the transfer of prestress, but before casting the deck, the beam will undergo gradual changes due to
creep and shrinkage of the concrete and relaxation of the prestressing steel. The procedure described in Section
8.13.2.2 can be used to analyze these gradual changes. Initial strains due to concrete creep and shrinkage, as well
as the apparent strain due to strand relaxation, are included in the analysis. Since the changes occur gradually
over this interval, the age-adjusted modulus is used.

8.13.3.3.1 Example Calculation (After Transfer)

Analyze the midspan section of the beam in Figure 8.13.3-1, using the results of Example 8.13.3.2.1. Perform the
analysis for a time 90 days after casting the beam.
First, calculate the age-adjusted, effective modulus for the concrete beam. The creep coefficient is:
(90 − 0.75)0.6
Ψ(90, 0.75) = (1.4) = 0.836
10 + (90 − 0.75)0.6
Using an aging coefficient of 0.7, the age-adjusted effective modulus for the concrete is:
4,054
𝐸𝑐∗ = = 2,558 ksi
1 + (0.7)(0.836)
Calculation of the transformed composite section properties in Table 8.13.3.3.1-1 is similar to the procedure in
Example 8.13.3.2.1. The modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete is based on the concrete strength at the
beginning of the interval: 4.95 ksi.
Table 8.13.3.3.1-1
Calculation of Transformed Composite Section Properties after Transfer
Item Area ycg Moment Modulus of Modular (1) × (5) (1) × (5) × (3) × (5) [ygc − (2)]2 × (8) + (9)
in.2 in. of Inertia Elasticity Ratio, in.2 (2) in.4 (1) in.4
in.4 ksi n in.3 in.4
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)* (10)
Beam 554.836 20.362 123,805 2,558 1.000 554.8 11,298 123,805 484 124,289
Strands 4.284 3.857 10.93 28,500 11.142 47.7 184 122 11,574 11,696
Nonprestressed 0.880 42.000 0.0 29,000 11.338 10.0 419 5,083 5,083
steel
Composite 19.429 612.5 11,901 141,067
section
*ycg in column (9) is for the composite section.

When gross section properties are used in the analysis, the areas of strands and nonprestressed steel are not
transformed into equivalent concrete areas.
Unlike the previous example, there are initial strains to consider in association with the current time interval.
First, calculate the initial strain due to shrinkage of the beam concrete:
90 − 0.75
ε𝑠ℎ = 𝜀𝑠ℎ𝑏 (90,0.75) = (−0.000400) = −0.000247
55 + (90 − 0.75)
Next, calculate the creep strain in the beam for this interval. The creep coefficient has already been computed. The
elastic strain and curvature from the previous example will be used to compute the creep strains occurring during
the current interval:
εcr = (0.836)(−0.000348) = −0.000291
ɸcr = (0.836)(−1.83 × 10−5) = −1.53 × 10−5 / in.
The theoretical restraint forces for the concrete are calculated next:
Nc = −(2,558)(−0.000247 − 0.000291)(554.8) = 763.7 kips

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8.13.3.3.1 Example Calculation (After Transfer)

M0c = −(2,558)(123,805)(−1.53 × 10−5) = 4,845 in.-kips

The theoretical restraint force for the strands is due to the apparent strain due to relaxation. Equation (8.13.1.4-
1) is used, with a reduction factor of 0.8, to compute the reduced relaxation occurring in the strands during the
interval:
182.4 182.4 (24)(90) + 1
𝑓𝑟 (90, 0.75) = (0.8) [ − 0.55] log10 [ ] = 1.34 ksi
45 243.0 (24)(0.75) + 1

The relaxation of stress in the strand is treated as an apparent positive initial strain in the strand—that is, as an
apparent increase in strain without a change in stress. Using Eq. (8.13.2.2.1-5) with a positive value for ε0p gives
the following value for N0p:
1.34
𝑁0𝑝 = −(28,500) ( ) (4.284) = −5.7 kips
28,500
Summing the individual restraint forces gives the theoretical restraint forces on the composite transformed
section (Eq. [8.13.2.2.1-6] and [8.13.2.2.1-8]):
N0 = 763.7 +(−5.7) = 758.0 kips
M0 = 4,845 − (763.7)(20.362 − 19.429) − (−5.7)(3.857 − 19.429) = 4,044 in.-kips
Equations (8.13.2.2.1-9) and (8.13.2.2.1-10) are used to compute section strain and curvature:
(0) − (758.0)
ε= = −0.000484
(2,558)(612.5)
(0.0) − (4,044)
ɸ= = −1.12 × 10−5 in.−1
(2,558)(141,067)
The element strains in the concrete beam, strands, and nonprestressed steel using Eq. (8.13.2.2.1-11) and
(8.13.2.2.1-12) are:
εc = −0.000484 − (−1.12 × 10−5)(20.362 − 19.429) = −0.000474
εp = −0.000484 − (−1.12 × 10−5)(3.857 − 19.429) = − 0.000658
εs = −0.000484 − (−1.12 × 10−5)(42.0 − 19.429) = −0.000231
The element forces (Eq. [8.13.2.2.1-13] and [8.12.2.2.1-14]) are:
Nc = (2,558)(554.8)(−0.000474) + 763.7 = 91.0 kips
Np = (28,500)(4.284)(−0.000658) + (−5.7) = −86.0 kips
Ns = (29,000)(0.88)(−0.000231) + 0.0 = −5.9 kips
Mc = (2,558)(123,805)(−1.12 × 10−5) + 4,845 = 1,298 in.-kips
Finally, calculate the elastic strains (the strains due to stress) in the concrete that occurred during this time
interval. These strains will be used to compute creep strains during future time intervals:
91.0
ε𝑓𝑐 = = 6.41 × 10−5
(2,558)(554.8)
1,298
ɸ𝑓𝑐 = = 4.10 × 10−6 in.−1
(2,558)(123,805)

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8.13.3.4 Placement of Cast-in-Place Deck/8.13.4 Continuous Bridges

8.13.3.4 Placement of Cast-in-Place Deck

In a typical prestressed concrete beam bridge, the dead weight of a CIP deck, plus intermediate diaphragms
(where required) will be carried by the bare precast concrete beam. The placement of these loads on the beam is
assumed to occur during a time interval of zero length. Analysis of this interval is essentially an elastic analysis
using transformed composite section properties calculated on the basis of the modulus of elasticity of the
concrete at the time of deck placement.

8.13.3.5 Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation

Following casting and curing, shrinkage of the deck concrete affects the state of stress and strain in the composite
system. Since the beam will typically have undergone 40% to 60% of its ultimate shrinkage by the time the slab is
cast, the ongoing shrinkage of the slab will usually be larger than the combination of the ongoing shrinkage and
creep of the beam. This tends to cause tension in the bottom of the beam, which produces positive curvatures and
moments that gradually diminish with time.

8.13.3.6 Application of Superimposed Dead Load

Application of the superimposed dead load on the composite deck and beam system may occur within 14 days of
placement of deck concrete or may be delayed for several months. Concrete barriers and wearing surfaces are the
most common instances of superimposed dead loads. Usually, it is assumed that these loads are applied during an
interval of zero length, requiring the performance of an elastic analysis for this interval. The appropriate values of
concrete modulus of elasticity for both the deck and the beam, based on their respective ages, are used in
calculating the transformed composite section properties.

8.13.3.7 Long-Term Behavior

Following the application of superimposed dead loads, the bridge will typically remain in a constant configuration
for several years. During this period, shrinkage of both the deck and beam will continue, but at a steadily
decreasing rate. Similarly, creep strains in both the deck and beam will continue to develop. Total creep strains
during this interval will be the sum of the creep strains caused by each stress increment applied during the
preceding intervals.
By the time the superimposed dead load is applied, 60% or more of the creep due to transfer of prestress
probably will have occurred. However, only a small percentage of the creep due to the dead weight of the deck
will have occurred at the start of this final interval.
Usually, the largest stress increments on the beam are associated with transfer of prestress, application of deck
dead weight, and application of superimposed dead loads. It is these large, sudden stress increments that produce
most of the creep strains. In addition to these stresses, the gradually developing stresses that occur between the
major events in the life of the member must be considered. These gradually developing stresses are due to
restrained or differential shrinkage, relaxation of the strands, and restrained or differential creep. For the purpose
of calculating future creep strains, it is customary to assume that these gradually developing stresses can be
represented by a sudden stress increment applied at the midpoint of the interval during which they occur. As long
as these gradually developing stresses are small compared with the stresses associated with discrete events, the
error is small.

8.13.4 Continuous Bridges

In simple-span bridges there will be little or no change in the distribution of forces and moments within the
structure as a result of time-dependent deformations. However, multiple-span bridges that are made continuous
for live loads and superimposed dead loads become statically indeterminate after the deck has cured. As a result,
any time-dependent deformations that occur after the time that the deck is cured will generally induce forces and
moments in the beams (Freyermuth, 1969).
Creep of the beams under the net effects of prestressing, self weight, deck weight, and superimposed dead loads
will tend to produce additional upward camber with time. Shrinkage of the deck concrete will tend to produce
downward camber of the composite system with time. In addition, loss of prestress due to creep, shrinkage, and
relaxation will result in downward camber. Depending on the properties of the concrete materials and the age at
which the beams are erected and subsequently made continuous, either positive or negative moments may occur

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8.13.4 Continuous Bridges/8.13.4.2 Applying Time-Dependent Effects

over continuous supports (Oesterle, et al., 1989). The moments over the supports also affect other moments in the
spans (Oesterle, et al, 1989)
In the situation where beams are made continuous at a relatively young age, it is more likely that positive
moments will develop with time at the supports. These positive restraint moments are the result of the tendency
of the beams to continue to camber upward as a result of ongoing creep strains associated with the transfer of
prestress. Shrinkage of the deck concrete, loss of prestress, and creep strains due to self weight, deck weight, and
superimposed dead loads all tend to reduce this positive moment.
The alternate situation, where mature beams are erected and made continuous, could result in negative moments
at the supports. In this situation, the time-dependent creep strains associated with the transfer of prestress have
diminished to the point where the effects that produce downward deflection are more significant. This action will
induce negative moments as the end rotations that are associated with this sagging at midspan are restrained
over the supports.
For the more typical condition of positive moments developing at the piers, it is recommended that reinforcing
steel be provided to minimize the potentially detrimental effects of cracking at the bottom of the concrete
diaphragm. This reinforcement may be accomplished by extending and bending strands from the bottom rows of
the beam into the pier diaphragms. Alternatively, nonprestressed steel reinforcing bars protruding from the ends
of the beams can be extended and bent into the diaphragms. If nonprestressed steel bars are used, it is essential
that these bars extend far enough into the beam to adequately develop the bars. In addition, bars of different
lengths should be used to avoid the situation where all the bars terminate at one location.

8.13.4.1 Effectiveness of Continuity

The effects of positive moments and associated diaphragm cracking on bridge performance continue to be a hotly
debated subject. Oesterle, et al. (1989) have explained that continuity for live loads becomes unreliable after a
small crack opens near the bottom of the diaphragm. Finite end rotation is required to close this crack, forcing the
beam to carry live loads as a simple-span member. Theoretically, this simple-span action results in live load
moments that are greater than those predicted by the design calculations that assume full continuity.
Countering this explanation, however, is the successful experience of the many agencies that routinely design
precast, prestressed concrete bridges under the assumption of full continuity for live loads. Although the
explanation from Oesterle, et al. (1989) would lead to predictions of higher stresses in the midspan regions of
these bridges, such stresses have not been reported. In addition, only service load behavior is significantly
affected. Under ultimate loads, end rotations of the beams will be large enough to close any crack that may have
opened, restoring full continuity. Ultimate capacity, therefore, is relatively unaffected by this phenomenon.
It is unlikely that this issue will be settled completely in the near future. In the meantime, on the basis of the
excellent performance of structures of this type, it is recommended that designers continue to rely on continuous
action for the design of routine bridges and use details at the piers that have proven to be successful. Further
details are given in LRFD Article 5.12.3.3.

8.13.4.2 Applying Time-Dependent Effects

For unusual or special bridges, a time-dependent analysis to predict restraint moments at the piers may be
performed according to the procedure set forth in the following section. Construction sequence restrictions,
special pier details, and beam design modifications are alternatives the designer may consider should such an
analysis predict excessive positive moments.
Specifically, the designer may wish to consider such an analysis when one or more of the following conditions are
present:
• Spans 140 ft or longer in humid climates. Shorter span lengths should be considered for analysis in arid
climates due to increased creep and shrinkage.
• Concrete materials whose creep properties are either unknown (that is, the mixture has not been used
previously) or whose creep behavior is known to be poor.
• Situations where thermal movements due to daily heating and cooling of the deck are expected to be
unusually high.

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8.13.4.2 Applying Time-Dependent Effects/8.13.4.3.2 Approximate Method

For more information, readers are advised to consult the references by Mattock (1961); Freyermuth (1969);
Oesterle, et al. (1989); Dilger (1982A; 1982B); and Miller, et al. (2004) regarding analysis of the effects of creep
movements in continuous bridges.

8.13.4.3 Methods of Analysis

The following sections describe two methods to evaluate restraint moments in continuous bridges. The first is a
general method and the second is a simplification of the first.

8.13.4.3.1 General Method

The analysis of restraint moments in continuous bridges is a relatively straightforward extension of the methods
described in previous sections. Specifically, the following procedure is used:
1. Use the methods described in Section 8.13.3 to calculate the time-dependent beam end rotations that would
occur under the effects of prestressing, self weight, and deck weight acting on the simple-span beam.
Consider only the portions of time-dependent end rotations that occur after the system is made continuous.
2. Use the age-adjusted, effective-modulus method to calculate the rotational stiffness of the beams by
conventional stiffness analysis methods. If the beam is prismatic, use of the gross section properties,
including the deck, is sufficiently accurate. The stiffness factors are given by Eq. (8.13.4.3.1-1) and (8.13.4.3.1-
2) for interior spans, ML, and end spans, MR, respectively.
4𝐸𝑐∗ 𝐼 2𝐸𝑐∗ 𝐼
𝑀𝐿 = θ𝐿 + θ (Eq. 8.13.4.3.1-1)
𝐿 𝐿 𝑅
2𝐸𝑐∗ 𝐼 4𝐸𝑐∗ 𝐼
𝑀𝑅 = θ𝐿 + θ (Eq. 8.13.4.3.1-2)
𝐿 𝐿 𝑅
where
θL = left end rotation of beam due to simple-span loads
θR = right end rotation of beam due to simple-span loads
𝐸𝑐∗ = age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of concrete
I = moment of inertia of the gross concrete section
L = span length measured center-to-center of the supports for the continuous structure
3. Calculate restraint moments equal to the product of the time-dependent end rotations calculated in Step 1
and the rotational stiffness calculated in Step 2. Any sign convention may be used, as long as it is consistent.
4. Perform moment distribution analysis for the continuous structure, using the restraint moments as the fixed
end moments and the stiffness properties calculated in Step 2.
The age-adjusted effective modulus used in Step 2 must be based on gradually varying loads; in other words, use a
value of  that is appropriate for the age and creep coefficient of the concrete. A value of 0.8 may be used with
relatively little error.
The effects of permanent loads applied to the structure after continuity is achieved may be computed using a
similar analysis. Theoretically, the age-adjusted, effective modulus for this second analysis should be based on a
value of  equal to unity since the application of the load is considered to be instantaneous. However, as a
practical matter, this distinction will only affect the distribution of moments in the structure when different creep
coefficients are used in different spans. For almost all situations, it would be sufficiently accurate to incorporate
the effects of the superimposed dead loads directly into the continuity analysis described previously.

8.13.4.3.2 Approximate Method

The general steps presented in Section 8.13.4.3.1 can be further simplified into the following approximate
procedures of calculating the restraint moment due to the time-dependent effects. Also see Tadros, et al. (2018)
and fib/PCI (2020).

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8.13.4.3.2.1 Restraint Moment Due to Creep/8.13.4.3.2.2 Restraint Moment Due to Differential Shrinkage

8.13.4.3.2.1 Restraint Moment Due to Creep

Only loads introduced before continuity can cause time-dependent restraint moments due to creep. Typically,
these are pretensioning forces, member self weight, and possibly deck weight. Each loading case is considered
separately. The total effect is obtained by simple superposition.
The following assumptions are made: The load is introduced at time, t0, and the modulus of elasticity of concrete
at this time is Ec(t0). The continuity is made at time t1, and the modulus of elasticity of the concrete at this time is
Ec(t1). Specifically, the following procedure is used for each load:
1. Calculate time-dependent material properties:
Ψ(t, t0) is creep at time t for concrete loaded at time t0.
Ψ(t, t1) is creep at time t for concrete loaded at time t1.
Ψ(t1, t0) is creep at time t1 for concrete loaded at time t0.
Age-adjusted effective modulus of elasticity of concrete subjected to gradual loading is:
𝐸𝑐 (𝑡1 )
𝐸𝑐∗ (𝑡, 𝑡1 ) = (Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.1-1)
1 + 0.7Ψ(𝑡, 𝑡1 )
𝐸𝑐 (𝑡0 )
𝐸𝑐∗ (𝑡, 𝑡0 ) = (Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.1-2)
Ψ(𝑡, 𝑡0 ) − Ψ(𝑡1 , 𝑡0 )

Perform elastic analysis, assuming that the load was introduced to a continuous member. Determine the
fictitious elastic restraint moments at the supports, Mel.
2. Determine the time-dependent multiplier, δc, corresponding to the load:
𝐸𝑐∗ (𝑡, 𝑡1 )
δ𝑐 = (Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.1-3)
𝐸𝑐∗ (𝑡, 𝑡0 )
3. Determine the restraining moment Mcr(t):
Mcr(t) = δcMel (Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.1-4)

8.13.4.3.2.2 Restraint Moment Due to Differential Shrinkage

The following assumptions are made: (a) The curing of the beam concludes at time t2. (b) The curing of the deck
ends at time t3. Specifically, the following procedure is used for calculating the restraint moment due to
differential shrinkage:
1. Calculate time-dependent material properties:
Deck:
Ψd(t, t3) is the creep at time t for deck concrete loaded at time t3.
εshd(t, t3) is the shrinkage strain of the deck from time t3 to time t.
Ecd(t3) is the modulus of elasticity for deck concrete at time t3.
Beam:
Ψb(t, t3) is the creep at time t for beam concrete loaded at time t3.
εshb(t, t2) is the shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t.
εshb (t3, t2) is the shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t3.
Ecb(t3) is the modulus of elasticity for beam concrete at time t3.
The age-adjusted, effective modulus for concrete subjected to gradual loading:

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8.13.4.3.2.2 Restraint Moment Due to Differential Shrinkage/8.14 Cited References

𝐸𝑐𝑑 (𝑡3 )
∗
𝐸𝑐𝑑 = (Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.2-1)
1 + 0.7Ψ𝑑 (𝑡, 𝑡3 )
𝐸𝑐𝑏 (𝑡3 )
∗
𝐸𝑐𝑏 = (Eq. 8.13.4.3.22)
1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡, 𝑡3 )

2. Calculate the shrinkage moment, Msh:

∗
ℎ𝑑
𝑀𝑠ℎ = 𝑆ℎ𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑑 ε𝑠ℎ𝑑 (𝑡, 𝑡3 ) (𝑦𝑡𝑐 − )
2 (Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.2-3)
∗
− 𝐴𝐸𝑐𝑏 [ε𝑠ℎ𝑏 (𝑡, 𝑡2 ) − ε𝑠ℎ𝑏 (𝑡3 , 𝑡2 )](𝑦𝑏𝑐 − 𝑦𝑏 )
where
S = beam spacing
hd = deck thickness
ytc = distance from centroidal axis of the composite section to the top of the deck
A = gross area of the noncomposite beam
ybc = distance from centroidal axis of the composite section to the bottom of the beam
yb = distance from centroidal axis of the noncomposite section to the bottom of the beam
3. Perform moment distribution analysis for the continuous structure, using the shrinkage moments as the fixed
end moments and the stiffness properties calculated from the composite section. The moment at the supports
after moment distribution is the restraint moment, Msr(t), due to the differential shrinkage.
If this analysis predicts net positive moments at the piers, the results should probably be treated as an upper
bound to the actual moments in the structure. It is likely that the nonprestressed section of the diaphragm
between the ends of the beams would experience some cracking at relatively low moments. This would have the
effect of introducing a slightly “softer” joint than the fully continuous joint that is assumed by this analysis.

8.14 CITED REFERENCES

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SweepInPrecastPrestressedConcreteBridgeGirders-Pt3.pdf.
70. Russell, H. G. 2009. Adjacent Precast Concrete Box Beam Bridges: Connection Details. NCHRP Synthesis
393, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. 75 pp.
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_syn_393.pdf.
71. Schlaich, J., K. Schafer, and N. Jennewein. 1987. “Toward a Consistent Design of Reinforced Structural
Concrete.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 32, No. 3 (May-June), pp.
74-150.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011998.50.66.
72. Seguirant, S. J., R. Brice, and B. Khaleghi. 2005. “Flexural Strength of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete
T-Beams.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 50, No. 1 (January-
February), pp. 44-73.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01012005.44.73.
73. Shahawy, M. 2001. “A Critical Evaluation of the AASHTO Provisions for Strand Development Length of
Prestressed Concrete Members.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 46,
No. 4 (July-August), pp. 94-117.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07012001.94.117.
74. Shahrooz, B. M., R. A. Miller, K. A. Harries, Q. Yu, and H. G. Russell. 2017. Strand Debonding for
Pretensioned Girders. NCHRP Report 849, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
https://www.trb.org/NCHRP/Blurbs/176163.aspx.
75. Skogman, B. C., M. K. Tadros, and R. Grasmick. 1988. “Flexural Strength of Prestressed Concrete
Members.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 33, No. 5 (September-
October), pp. 96-123.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011988.96.123.
76. Tadros, M. K. 1998. Rapid Replacement of Bridge Decks. NCHRP Report 407, Transportation Research
Board, Washington, DC.
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_407.pdf.
77. Tadros, M. K., A. Ghali, and W. H. Dilger. 1975. “Time-Dependent Prestress Loss and Deflection in
Prestressed Concrete Members.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 20,
No. 3, May-June, pp. 86-98.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011975.86.98.

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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.14 Cited References/8.15 ASTM References

78. Tadros, M. K., A. Ghali, and W. H. Dilger. 1977A. “Effects of Non-Prestressed Steel on Prestress Loss and
Deflection.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 22, No. 2 (March-April),
pp. 50-63.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03011977.50.63.
79. Tadros, M. K., A. Ghali, and W. H. Dilger. 1977B. “Time-Dependent Analysis of Composite Frames.” Journal
of the Structural Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V. 103, No. 4 (April), pp. 871-
884.
https://doi.org/10.1061/JSDEAG.0004612.
80. Tadros, M. K., A. Ghali, and A. W. Mey. 1985. “Prestress Loss and Deflection of Precast Concrete Members.”
PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 30, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 114-
141.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01011985.114.141
81. Tadros, M. K., N. Al-Omaishi, S. J. Seguirant, and J. G. Gallt. 2003. Prestress Losses in Pretensioned High-
Strength Concrete Bridge Girders. NCHRP Report 496. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
https://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_496.pdf.
82. Tadros, M. K., S. S. Badie, and C. Y. Tuan. 2010. Evaluation and Repair Procedures for Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Girders with Longitudinal Cracking in the Web. NCHRP Report 654. Transportation Research
Board, Washington, DC.
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_654.pdf.
83. Tadros, M. K., F. Fawzy, and K. E. Hanna. 2011. “Precast, Prestressed Girder Camber Variability.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 56, No. 1 (Winter), pp. 135-154.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01012011.135.154.
84. Tadros, M. K., A. M. Girgis, C. Y. Tuan, and A. A. Alex. 2018. “Simplified Design for Positive Restraint
Continuity Moment in Bridge Girders.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V.
63, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 62-78.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij63.4-04.
85. Wassef, W. G., J. M. Kulicki, H. A. Nassif, D. R. Mertz, and A. S. Nowak. 2014. Calibration of LRFD Concrete
Bridge Design Specifications for Serviceability. NCHRP Web-Only Document 201. Transportation Research
Board, Washington, DC.
https://dx.doi.org/10.17226/22407.
86. Williams, C., D. Deschenes, and O. Bayrak. 2012. Strut-and-Tie Model Design Examples for Bridges: Final
Report. FHWA/TX-12/5-5253-01-1. Texas Department of Transportation, Austin, TX.
https://ctr.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/pubs/5_5253_01_1.pdf.
87. Yamane, T., M. K. Tadros, S. S. Badie, and M. C. Baishya. 1998. “Full Depth Precast, Prestressed Concrete
Bridge Deck System.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 43, No. 3 (May-
June), pp. 50-66.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011998.50.66.

8.15 ASTM REFERENCES

Publications are available from ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA (www.ASTM.org).
Number Title
A36 Standard Specification for Carbon Structural Steel
A194 Standard Specification for Carbon Steel, Alloy Steel, and Stainless Steel Nuts for Bolts for High
Pressure or High Temperature Service, or Both
A436 Standard Specification for Austenitic Gray Iron Castings

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8.15 ASTM References

A449 Standard Specification for Hex Cap Screws, Bolts and Studs, Steel, Heat Treated, 120/105/90 ksi
Minimum Tensile Strength, General Use
F436 Standard Specification for Hardened Steel Washers Inch and Metric Dimensions
F959 Standard Specification for Compressible-Washer-Type Direct Tension Indicators for Use with
Structural Fasteners, Inch and Metric Series

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
Notation

Appendix 8A—Prestress Loss and Girder

Concrete Stress due to Slab Shrinkage.
NOTATION
𝐴𝑐𝑛 = area of net composite concrete section
𝐴𝑑 = area of deck
𝐴𝑔 = area for gross beam cross section
𝐴𝑔𝑐 = area for gross composite cross section (Gross composite is gross section for composite deck and
beam, with deck transformed with deck-to-beam modular ratio.)
𝐴𝑛 = area of net beam cross section
𝐴𝑛𝑐 = area of net composite cross section (Net composite is net section for composite deck plus beam,
deck transformed with deck-to-beam modular ratio.)
𝐴𝑝𝑠 = area of prestressing strands
𝐴𝑡𝑐 = area of steel transformed composite section
𝐴𝑡𝑟 = area for steel transformed beam cross section at transfer
𝐴′′𝑡𝑟 = area of composite transformed section computed using age-adjusted moduli of elasticity
𝐸𝑐 = modulus of elasticity of girder concrete
𝐸𝑐′′ = age-adjusted modulus of elasticity of beam concrete
𝐸𝑑 = modulus of elasticity of deck concrete
𝐸𝑑′′ = age-adjusted modulus of elasticity of deck concrete
𝐸𝑝𝑠 = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands
𝑒𝑐 = distance between centroids of the composite transformed section and the net composite concrete
section
𝑒𝑑 = eccentricity of the centroid of deck relative to center of gravity of steel transformed composite
section
𝑒𝑑𝑛 = eccentricity of deck relative to centroid of the net composite concrete section
𝑒𝑔 = strand eccentricity for gross beam cross section
𝑒𝑔𝑐 = strand eccentricity for gross composite cross section (Gross composite is gross section for
composite deck and beam, with deck transformed with deck-to-beam modular ratio.)
𝑒𝑛 = strand eccentricity of net beam cross section
𝑒𝑛𝑐 = strand eccentricity of net composite cross section (Net composite is net section for composite
deck plus beam, deck transformed with deck-to-beam modular ratio.)
𝑒𝑝𝑐 , 𝑒𝑝𝑠 = eccentricity of prestressing strands relative to the centroid of the composite transformed section
𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 = eccentricity of prestressing strands relative to the centroid of the net composite concrete section
𝑒𝑡𝑟 = strand eccentricity for steel transformed beam cross section at transfer

Appendix 8A - 1 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
Notation

𝑓 = stress in top or bottom of beam depending on the section moduli being for the top or bottom of
the beam
𝑓𝑏𝑑𝑠 = stress in bottom of beam due to shrinkage of deck concrete
𝑓𝑝𝑗 = stress in prestressing strand immediately before transfer
𝐼𝑐𝑛 = moment of inertia of net composite concrete section
𝐼𝑝𝑠 = moment of inertia of prestressing strands
𝐼𝑡𝑟 = moment of inertia of composite transformed section
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between deck placement and
final time
Mbarrier = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight
Mbeam = unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight
Mdeck = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights
𝑀𝑑𝑠 = moment of equilibrium restoring force taken about centroid of composite transformed section
MLL+IM = unfactored bending moment due to live load and impact
Moverlay = unfactored bending moment due to overlay
𝑛 = modular ratio
𝑃𝑑𝑠 = equilibrium-restoring force
𝑃𝑑𝑠𝑟 = force required to restrain deck deformations
𝑃𝑟 = force required to restrain deck shrinkage deformation
𝑆𝑔 = section modulus for gross beam cross section
𝑆𝑔𝑐 = section modulus for gross composite cross section (Gross composite is gross section for
composite deck and beam, with deck transformed with deck-to-beam modular ratio.)
𝑆𝑛 = section modulus of net beam cross section
𝑆𝑛𝑐 = section modulus of net composite cross section (Net composite is net section for composite deck
plus beam, deck transformed with deck-to-beam modular ratio.)
𝑆𝑡𝑐 = section modulus of the steel transformed composite cross section
𝑆𝑡𝑑 = section modulus of steel transformed beam cross at time of deck placement
𝑆𝑡𝑟 = section modulus for steel transformed beam cross section at transfer
′′
𝑆𝑡𝑟 = section modulus for the steel transformed composite cross section computed using age-adjusted
moduli of elasticity
𝑌𝑏𝑛 = distance from centroid of net composite concrete section to the bottom of the beam
𝑌𝑏𝑡 = distance from centroid of composite transformed section to the bottom of the beam
Δε = change in strain (Eq. [8A.3.4.2-1])
Δε𝑐 = change in strain in net composite concrete section
Δε𝑝𝑠 = change in strain in prestressing strands
Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 = change in stress in beam concrete at centroid of prestressing strands due to shrinkage of deck
concrete

Appendix 8A - 2 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
Notation

Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = loss in prestressing steel stress due to creep of beam concrete from time of deck placement to
final time
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = loss in prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete from transfer to time of deck placement
ΔfpR1 = loss in prestressing steel stress due to strand relaxation between transfer and deck casting
ΔfpR2 = loss in prestressing steel stress due to strand relaxation between deck casting and final time
ΔfpSD = loss in prestressing steel stress due to beam shrinkage between deck casting and final time
ΔfpSR = loss in prestressing steel stress due to beam shrinkage between transfer and deck casting
ΔfpSS = gain in prestressing steel stress due to shrinkage of deck concrete
Δ𝑀 = change in moment applied to the composite transformed section
Δ𝑀𝑐 = change in moment on net composite concrete section
Δ𝑀𝑝𝑠 = change in moment in prestressing strand
Δ𝑃𝑐 = change in axial force on net composite concrete section
Δ𝑃𝑐1 = change in axial force on net composite concrete section for Case 1
Δ𝑃𝑐2 = change in axial force on net composite concrete section for Case 2
Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 = equivalent deck shrinkage–restraining force
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 = change in force in prestressing strands
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠1 = change in force in prestressing strands for Case 1
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠2 = change in force in prestressing strands for Case 2
γLL = live load factor
ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 = unrestrained shrinkage of deck concrete from time of deck placement to final
ε𝑛𝑐 = strain in the beam concrete at the centroid of the net composite concrete section
ε𝑡𝑟 = strain in the beam concrete at the centroid of the composite transformed section
ϕ = curvature
ϕ𝑐𝑛 = curvature of the net composite concrete section
ϕ𝑡𝑟 = curvature of the composite transformed section
ϕ𝑝𝑠 = curvature of the prestressing strands
χ = aging coefficient
ψ𝑏𝑑𝑓 = creep coefficient of beam concrete from time of deck placement to final = Ψb(tf, td)
ψ𝑑𝑑𝑓 = creep coefficient for deck concrete from time of deck placement to final = Ψd(tf, td)

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Appendix 8A - 4 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.1 Introduction/8A.2.1 Initial Strain Analysis

8A.1 INTRODUCTION
The refined estimate of time-dependent prestress losses in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Ninth
Edition (2020) includes a term of prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete, Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 , that accounts for the
elongation of the prestressing strand due to the mechanical action of deck concrete creep and shrinkage, as well
as the time-dependent change in prestressing force due to creep of the beam concrete induced by the mechanical
action of creep and shrinkage of the deck concrete. This action is somewhat analogous to the elongation of the
prestressing strands due to the mechanical action of externally applied loads and the resulting time-dependent
change in prestressing force due to creep of the beam concrete induced by that mechanical action.
This appendix explains how the LRFD Specifications provides for the prestress loss and beam concrete stress due
to shrinkage of deck concrete and how these topics are treated in Chapters 8 and 9 of this manual.

8A.2 SHRINKAGE OF DECK CONCRETE

The refined method of estimating time-dependent prestress losses in the LRFD Specifications includes the effect
of shrinkage of the deck concrete. When the deck is composite with the prestressed concrete beam section, the
shrinkage deformation of the deck causes deformations throughout the composite cross section and internal self-
equilibrating forces are developed. The stress analysis for these forces can be carried out using an initial strain
analysis, as discussed in Section 8.13.2. This section presents the initial strain analysis, the change in prestressing
force, and resulting forces in the concrete elements of the beam section. Note that the notations in the equations
are defined in the Notation section at the beginning of this appendix.

8A.2.1 Initial Strain Analysis

The self-equilibrating internal forces associated with shrinkage of the deck concrete can be determined by
performing an initial strain analysis. Initial strain analysis fictitiously removes and restores the bond between
elements of the composite cross section, and it applies fictitious internal and exterior equilibrating forces. The
initial strain analysis for deck concrete shrinkage is accomplished with the following steps:
1. Remove bond between deck and beam concrete so that the the deck is allowed to deform freely. The
deformation, 𝜀𝑑𝑑𝑓 , is the shrinkage of the deck concrete that would theoretically occur if the deck was
completely unrestrained as shown in Figure 8A.2.1-1.

Figure 8A.2.1-1
Unrestrained Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

2. Restore compatibility by applying a restoring force, 𝑃𝑑𝑠𝑟 , to bring the deck strain to zero as shown in Figure
8A.2.1=2.

Appendix 8A - 5 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.2.1 Initial Strain Analysis

Figure 8A.2.1-2
Deck Concrete Strain Restored to Zero by Force Pdsr

The force restraining the shrinkage deformation of the deck concrete is 𝑃𝑟 = 𝜀𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑑 . This force is
developed slowly over the lifetime of the structure. The total strain in the deck concrete that is to be
restrained is the sum of shrinkage strain and the creep strain. The creep strain can be approximated with
the age-adjusted modulus of elasticity of the deck concrete:
𝐸𝑑
𝐸𝑑′′ =
(1 + χψ𝑑𝑑𝑓 )
Therefore, the restraining force is:
𝐸𝑑
𝑃𝑑𝑠𝑟 = ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑑′′ = ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 .
(1+χψ𝑑𝑑𝑓 )
3. Restore bond between the deck and beam concrete and restore equilibrium by applying an equal and
opposite restoring force, 𝑃𝑑𝑠 , to the transformed composite section where section properties are
computed with an age-adjusted modulus of elasticity. The restraining and restoring forces are located at
the centroid of the deck. The equilibrium restoring force can also be represented by an equivalent force
couple system at the centroid of the transformed section, as shown in Figure 8A.2.1-3.

Figure 8A.2.1-3
Restoring Force Applied to the Composite Section

(a) Equilibrium Force (b) Equivalent Force System Applied to Composite Section

The deformations are computed from Step 3, and the resultant stresses are those resulting from the compatibility
restoring force and the equilibrium restoring force from Steps 2 and 3. Initial strain analysis for other time-
dependent behaviors of the deck and beam concrete are discussed in Section 8.13.2.
Because there are no externally applied forces, the shrinkage of the deck concrete results in internal self-
equilibrating forces on the net composite concrete section and the prestressing reinforcement. If the beam is
unrestrained, there are no net external forces. In a continuous system, self-equilibrating reaction forces would
develop that restrain the overall deformation of the continuous structural system.

Appendix 8A - 6 (2023)
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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.2.1 Initial Strain Analysis/8A2.2 Change in Force on Concrete Section

The internal forces that develop due to shrinkage of the deck concrete can be expressed in terms of the internal
force on each element of the section (deck to beam concrete net section and prestressing reinforcement). The
cross section of the prestressing force is small enough that it contributes only an axial force. The internal forces
are in equilibrium with the fictitious equilibrium restoring force. These forces are illustrated in the Figure
8A.2.1-4.
Figure 8A.2.1-4
Equilibrium-Restoring Forces Applied to Each Element

The deck/beam concrete net section is comprised of the deck concrete area transformed into the beam concrete
and beam concrete elements into a single concrete element simplifies the stress analysis and is the approach
taken in NCHRP Report 496 (Tadros et al., 2003).

8A.2.2 Change in Force on Concrete Section

The change in forces on the net composite concrete section and prestressing reinforcement is determined by
recognizing that the external forces must be in equilibrium with the internal forces.
For the axial forces:
𝑃𝑑𝑠 = Δ𝑃𝑐 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.2.2-1)
Rearrange Eq. (8A.2.2-1):
Δ𝑃𝑐 = −Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 + 𝑃𝑑𝑠 (Eq. 8A.2.2-2)
For the bending moments, take moments about the centroid of the composite transformed section:
𝑀𝑑𝑠 = Δ𝑀𝑐 + Δ𝑃𝑐 𝑒𝑐 − Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.2.2-3)
Rearrange Eq. (8A.2.2-3):
Δ𝑀𝑐 = 𝑀𝑑𝑠 − Δ𝑃𝑐 𝑒𝑐 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.2.2-4)
Substitute for ∆𝑃𝑐 from Eq. (8A.2.2-2)
Δ𝑀𝑐 = 𝑀𝑑𝑠 − (Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 + 𝑃𝑑𝑠 )𝑒𝑐 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.2.2-5)
Rearrange terms in Eq. (8A.2.2-5):
Δ𝑀𝑐 = 𝑀𝑑𝑠 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 (𝑒𝑐 + 𝑒𝑝𝑠 ) − 𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑐 (Eq. 8A.2.2.6)
Substitute for 𝑀𝑑𝑠 = 𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑑 :
Δ𝑀𝑐 = 𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑑 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 (𝑒𝑐 + 𝑒𝑝𝑠 ) − 𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑐 (Eq. 8A.2.2-7)
Rearrange terms in Eq. (8A.2.2-7):
Δ𝑀𝑐 = 𝑃𝑑𝑠 (𝑒𝑑 − 𝑒𝑐 ) + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 (𝑒𝑐 + 𝑒𝑝𝑠 ) (Eq. 8A.2.2-8)
From the section geometry:
• (𝑒𝑑 − 𝑒𝑐 ) = 𝑒𝑑𝑛 = the eccentricity of the deck relative to the net composite transformed concrete section

Appendix 8A - 7 (2023)
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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.2.2 Change in Force on Concrete Section/8A.2.3 Change in Force in Prestressing Strand

• (𝑒𝑐 + 𝑒𝑝𝑠 ) = 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 = the eccentricity of the prestressing strand relative to the net composite concrete
transformed section

Substitute the terms into Eq. (8A.2.2-8):

Δ𝑀𝑐 = 𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑑𝑛 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 (Eq. 8A.2.2-9)

8A.2.3 Change in Force in Prestressing Strand

The change in prestress due to shrinkage of the deck concrete is the change in prestress force per area of strand:
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠
= Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 .
𝐴𝑝𝑠

By Hooke’s law, the change in strain in the strand is:

Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠
Δε𝑝𝑠 =
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠
Assuming perfect bond between the concrete and prestressing strands, strain compatibility requires that the
change in strain in the concrete at the level of the prestressing must be equal to the change in strain in the
prestressing.
The change in strain in the prestressing strand is equated to the change in strain in the net composite concrete
section as follows:
Δε𝑝𝑠 = Δ𝜀𝑐
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 Δ𝑃𝑐 Δ𝑀𝑐 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛
= ′′ − ′′
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐𝑛
The age-adjusted modulus of elasticity is used for the concrete to account for both the initial strain caused by the
internal self-equilibrating force in the net composite transformed concrete section and the creep strain in the
concrete that occurs over time due to the internal force developed in the net concrete section. Figure 8A.2.3-1
represents the age-adjusted modulus of elasticity concept.
Figure 8A.2.3-1
Age-Adjusted Modulus of Elasticity

Appendix 8A - 8 (2023)
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DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.2.3 Change in Force in Prestressing Strand

where
𝐸𝑐
𝐸𝑐′′ =
1 + χψ𝑏𝑑𝑓
Substitute for Δ𝑀𝑐 and Δ𝑃𝑐 into Eq. (8A.2.2-9):
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 −Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 + 𝑃𝑑𝑠 (𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑑𝑛 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 )𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 (Eq. 8A.2.3-1)
= −
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐼𝑐𝑛
Rearrange the terms in Eq. (8A.2.3-1):
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 2
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑑𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 𝑃𝑑𝑠 (Eq. 8A.2.3-2)
= − ′′ − ′′ − ′′
+ ′′
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 2
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 𝑒𝑑𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 1 1 (Eq. 8A.2.3-3)
= − ′′ − ′′ − 𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( − )( )
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐′′
Substitute for 𝑃𝑑𝑠 in Eq. (8A.2.3-3):
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 2
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑑 𝑒𝑑𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 1 1 (Eq. 8A.2.3-4)
= − ′′ − ′′ − ( − ) ( ′′ )
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐𝑛 (1 + χψ𝑑𝑑𝑓 ) 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐
Let
𝜀𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑑 1 𝑒𝑑𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 (Eq. 8A.2.3-5)
Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 = ( − )
(1 + χψ𝑑𝑑𝑓 ) 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛
Substitute Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 into Eq. (8A.2.3-4) and simplify:
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 1 Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 2
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 1 Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 1 2
𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 (Eq. 8A.2.3-6)
= Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 ( ′′ ) − ′′ − ′′ = Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 ( ′′ ) − ′′ ( + )
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛
𝐴𝑐𝑛
Multiply the second term on the right-hand side of Eq. 8A.2.3-6) by ( ):
𝐴𝑐𝑛

Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 1 Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 1 2
𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑛 (Eq. 8A.2.3-7)
= Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 ( ′′ ) − ′′ ( + )( )
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑛
Simplify Eq. (8A.2.3-7):
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 1 Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 2
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 (Eq. 8A.2.3-8)
= Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 ( ′′ ) − ′′ (1 + )
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛
Move all Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 terms in Eq. (8A.2.3-8) to the left-hand side:
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 2
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 1 (Eq. 8A.2.3-9)
+ ′′ (1 + ) = Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 ( ′′ )
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐
Multiply the terms in Eq. (8A.2.3-9) by 𝐸𝑝𝑠 :
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 2
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 1 (Eq. 8A.2.3-10)
𝐸𝑝𝑠 [ + ′′ (1 + )] = 𝐸𝑝𝑠 [Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 ( ′′ )]
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐
Simplify Eq. (8A.2.3-10):
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 2
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 𝐸𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.2.3-11)
+ Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 ′′ (1 + ) = Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 ( ′′ )
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐
Factor out Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 in Eq. (8A.2.3-11):

Appendix 8A - 9 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.2.3 Change in Force in Prestressing Strand/8A.2.4 AASHTO LRFD Equations

1 𝐸𝑝𝑠 2
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 𝐸𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.2.3-12)
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 [ + ′′ (1 + )] = Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 ( ′′ )
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐
𝐴𝑝𝑠
Multiply left-hand side of Eq. (8A.2.3-12) by ( ):
𝐴𝑝𝑠

1 𝐸𝑝𝑠 2
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.2.3-13)
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 [ + ′′ (1 + )] ( ) = Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 ( ′′ )
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐
Simplify Eq. (8A.2.3-13):
∆𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 2
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 𝐸𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.2.3-14)
[1 + ′′ ( ) (1 + )] = Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 ( ′′ )
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠
Solve Eq. (8A.2.3-14) for :
𝐴𝑝𝑠

Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 1 (Eq. 8A.2.3-15)

= Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 ( ′′ ) 2
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛
[1 + (1 + )]
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛
Recall from Section 8A.2.1:
𝐸𝑐 (Eq. 8A.2.3-16)
𝐸𝑐′′ =
1 + χψ𝑏𝑑𝑓
Substitute Eq. (8A.2.3-16) into Eq. (8A.2.3-15):
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 1 (Eq. 8A.2.3-17)
= ( ) Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 (1 + χψ𝑏𝑑𝑓 ) 2
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛
[1 + (1 + ) (1 + χψ𝑏𝑑𝑓 )]
𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛
Let
1 (Eq. 8A.2.3-18)
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = 2
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛
[1 + (1 + ) (1 + χψ𝑏𝑑𝑓 )]
𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛
Substitute Eq. (8A.2.3-18) into Eq. (8A.2.3-17):
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.2.3-19)
= Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = ( ) Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 (1 + χψ𝑏𝑑𝑓 )𝐾𝑑𝑓
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐

8A.2.4 AASHTO LRFD Equations

The equations developed above are simplified in the LRFD Specifications.
The aging coefficient is approximated as 𝜒 = 0.7, and net composite concrete properties are approximated with
gross composite properties: 𝐴𝑛𝑐 ≈ 𝐴𝑐 , 𝐼𝑛𝑐 ≈ 𝐼𝑐 , 𝑒𝑑𝑛 ≈ 𝑒𝑑 , 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 ≈ 𝑒𝑝𝑐 .
Making these substitutions creates the following equations:
ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑑 1 𝑒𝑑𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑑 1 𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑝𝑐 [LRFD Eq 5.9.3.4.3d-2]
Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 = ( − )≈ ( − )
(1 + χψ𝑑𝑑𝑓 ) 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛 (1 + 0.7ψ𝑑𝑑𝑓 ) 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐
1 [LRFD Eq 5.9.3.4.3a-2]
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = 2
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛
[1 + (1 + ) (1 + χψ𝑏𝑑𝑓 )]
𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛
1
≈ 2
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐 𝑒𝑝𝑐
[1 + (1 + ) (1 + 0.7ψ𝑏𝑑𝑓 )]
𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐

Appendix 8A - 10 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.2.4 AASHTO LRFD Equations/8A.3.2 Section Geometry and Strains

𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 [LRFD Eq 5.9.3.4.3d-1]

Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = ( ) Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 (1 + χψ𝑏𝑑𝑓 )𝐾𝑑𝑓 ≈ ( ) Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝐾𝑑𝑓 (1 + 0.7ψ𝑏𝑑𝑓 )
𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐

8A.3 STRESS IN BEAM CONCRETE DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF DECK CONCRETE

This section explains how the internal self-equilibrating forces caused by shrinkage of the deck concrete develops
stresses in the beam concrete section. This discussion specifically addresses the development of stress at the
bottom of the beam; however, stress is developed over the entire depth of the beam section and is to be accounted
for in all service limit state evaluations.

8A.3.1 Internal Forces

The change in force in the prestress due to shrinkage of the deck concrete is:
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 = Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑝𝑠
From equilibrium, the change in force in the net composite transformed concrete section due to shrinkage of the
deck concrete is equal to the change in force in the prestressing.
Δ𝑃𝑐 = Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 = Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑝𝑠
Sum moments about the centroid of the transformed composite concrete section to obtain the change in moment
in the net composite concrete section due to shrinkage of the deck concrete:

∑ 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑑𝑠 − 𝑃𝑑𝑠𝑟 𝑒𝑑 − Δ𝑀𝑐 + Δ𝑃𝑐 𝑒𝑐 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠 = 0 (Eq. 8A.3.1-1)

Substitute 𝑀𝑑𝑠 = 𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑑 into Eq. (8A.3.1-1):

∑ 𝑀 = 𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑑 − 𝑃𝑑𝑠𝑟 𝑒𝑑 − Δ𝑀𝑐 + Δ𝑃𝑐 𝑒𝑐 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠 = 0 (Eq. 8A.3.1-2)

Solve for ∆𝑀𝑐 , noting that 𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑑 − 𝑃𝑑𝑠𝑟 𝑒𝑑 = 0:

Δ𝑀𝑐 = Δ𝑃𝑐 𝑒𝑐 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.3.1-3)
Substitute ∆𝑃𝑐 = ∆𝑃𝑝𝑠 into and simplify Eq. (8A.3.1-3):
Δ𝑀𝑐 = Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑐 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠 = Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 (𝑒𝑐 + 𝑒𝑝𝑠 ) = Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.1-4)
Substitute Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 = Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑝𝑠 into Eq. (8A.3.1-4):
Δ𝑀𝑐 = Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.1-5)

8A.3.2 Section Geometry and Strains

Figure 8A.3.2-1 illustrates the location of the bottom of the beam relative to the net composite section and
transformed section centroids, as well as the state of strains.
Figure 8A.3.2-1
Curvature of Composite Section

Appendix 8A - 11 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.3.2 Section Geometry and Strains/8A.3.4.1 Case 1: Change in Moment

The strain at the bottom of the beam is:

ε = ε𝑛𝑐 + ϕ𝑌𝑏𝑛 = ε𝑡𝑟 + ϕ𝑌𝑏𝑡

8A.3.3 Stress Computed from Net Composite Concrete Section

The stress at the bottom of the beam concrete can be determined using the net composite concrete section and
the change in axial force and moment on that section:
Δ𝑃𝑐 Δ𝑀𝑐 𝑌𝑏𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.3-1)
𝑓= −
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛
Substitute Δ𝑃𝑐 = Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 = Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑝𝑠 and Δ𝑀𝑐 = Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑛 into Eq. (8A.3.3-1):
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑝𝑠 Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑛 𝑌𝑏𝑛 1 𝑒𝑛 𝑌𝑏𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.3-2)
𝑓= − = Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( − )
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛

8A.3.4. Stress Computed from Transformed Section

The stress at the bottom of the beam due to change in axial force, ∆𝑃, and moment, ∆𝑀, can be determined using
the external force on the transformed section:
Δ𝑃 Δ𝑀𝑌𝑏𝑡 (Eq. 8A.3.4-1)
𝑓= −
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝐼𝑡𝑟
When the shrinkage of deck concrete is treated as an equivalent externally applied load, ∆𝑃 and ∆𝑀 are
calculated as follows:
𝐸𝑑 (Eq. 8A.3.4-2)
Δ𝑃 = 𝑃𝑑𝑠𝑟 = 𝜀𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑑′′ = ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑
(1 + χψ𝑑𝑑𝑓 )
Δ𝑀 = 𝑃𝑑𝑠𝑟 𝑒𝑑 (Eq. 8A.3.4-3)
Subscripts 1 and 2 are introduced to represent Case 1(change in moment) and Case 2 (change in axial force),
respectively.

8A.3.4.1 Case 1: Change in Moment

A change in moment induces curvature in the beam. Internal forces develop in the concrete and prestressing
strand but those forces result in no net axial force and comprise a force-couple equal to the applied change in
moment, as illustrated in Figure 8A.3.4.1-1.
Figure 8A.3.4.1-1
Curvature Caused by Moment

For plane sections to remain plane, the curvatures of all parts of the cross section are equal.
ϕ𝑡𝑟 = ϕ𝑐𝑛 = ϕ𝑝𝑠
𝑀
Given the moment curvature relationship ϕ = , the following can be written:
𝐸𝐼

𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐼𝑡𝑟 ϕ𝑡𝑟 = Δ𝑀

𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐼𝑐𝑛 ϕ𝑐𝑛 = Δ𝑀𝑐
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐼𝑝𝑠 ϕ𝑝𝑠 = Δ𝑀𝑝𝑠

Appendix 8A - 12 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.3.4.1 Case 1: Change in Moment/8A.3.4.2 Case 2: Change in Axial Force

Assume that the prestressing steel has a very small moment of inertia, 𝐼𝑝𝑠 ≅ 0, and therefore, ∆𝑀𝑝𝑠 = 0.
Equating the curvatures of the transformed section and the net composite concrete section yields the following
expression relating the external change in moment to the change in moment on the net composite concrete
element:
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐼𝑡𝑟 𝐼𝑡𝑟 (Eq. 8A.3.4.1-1)
𝛥𝑀 = ′′
∆𝑀𝑐 = Δ𝑀𝑐
𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛
The strain at the centroid of the net composite concrete section is:
Δ𝑀𝑒𝑐 (Eq. 8A.3.4.1-2)
ε𝑐 = ϕ𝑒𝑐 =
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐼𝑡𝑟
The axial force acting at the centroid of the net composite section is:
𝐴𝑐𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.1-3)
Δ𝑃𝑐1 = 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐′′ ε𝑐 = Δ𝑀𝑒𝑐
𝐼𝑡𝑟
The strain at the centroid of the prestressing steel is:
Δ𝑀𝑒𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.3.4.1-4)
𝜀𝑝𝑠 = ϕ𝑒𝑝𝑠 =
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐼𝑡𝑟
The force in the prestressing steel is:
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.3.4.1-5)
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠1 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 ε𝑝𝑠 = Δ𝑀𝑒𝑝𝑠
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐼𝑡𝑟

8A.3.4.2 Case 2: Change in Axial Force

A change in axial force induces a uniform change in strain in the beam. Internal forces develop in the concrete and
prestressing steel that result in zero net bending moment and are equal to the change in axial force.
Figure 8A.3.4.2-1
Shortening Caused by Axial Force

For an axial force acting at the centroid of the transformed section, the entire section deforms uniformly. Using
strain compatibility:
Δε = Δε𝑐 = Δε𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.3.4.2-1)
Δ𝑃𝑐2 (Eq. 8A.3.4.2-2)
Δε𝑐 =
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑐𝑛
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠2 (Eq. 8A.3.4.2-3)
Δε𝑝𝑠 =
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠2 Δ𝑃𝑐2 (Eq. 8A.3.4.2-4)
Δε𝑝𝑠 = ∆ε𝑐 = = ′′
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑐𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.2-5)
Δ𝑃𝑐2 = Δ𝑃
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑝𝑠2
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.3.4.2-6)
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠2 = Δ𝑃
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑐2

Appendix 8A - 13 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.3.4.2 Case 2: Change in Axial Force /8A.3.4.3 Total Change in Internal Forces

Using equilibrium:of forces:

Δ𝑃 = Δ𝑃𝑐2 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠2 (Eq. 8A.3.4.2-7)
Substitute for Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠2 from Eq. (8A.3.4.2-6) and recognizing that 𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑡𝑟 = 𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑐𝑛 + 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 :
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑐𝑛 + 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑡𝑟 (Eq. 8A.3.4.2-8)
Δ𝑃 = Δ𝑃𝑐2 + Δ𝑃 = Δ𝑃 (1 + ) = Δ𝑃 ( ) = Δ𝑃
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑐2 𝑐2
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑐2
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑐2 ′′
𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛
Simplify to yield an expression that relates the change in axial force on the net composite concrete section to
the external change in axial force:
𝐴𝑐𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.2-9)
Δ𝑃𝑐2 = Δ𝑃
𝐴𝑡𝑟
Substitute ∆𝑃𝑐2 from Eq. (8A.3.4.2-9) into Eq. (8A.3.4.2-6):
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.2-10)
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠2 = Δ𝑃 ( )
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐴𝑡𝑟
Rearrange and simplify to yield an expression that relates the change in axial force in the prestressing to the
external change in axial force:
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.3.4.2-11)
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠2 = Δ𝑃
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑡𝑟

8A.3.4.3 Total Change in Internal Forces

By superposition, the total change in internal forces is the sum of Case 1 and Case 2:
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-1)
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 = Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠1 + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠2 = Δ𝑀𝑒𝑝𝑠 + ′′ Δ𝑃
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐼𝑡𝑟 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑡𝑟
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-2)
Δ𝑃𝑐 = Δ𝑃𝑐1 + Δ𝑃𝑐2 = Δ𝑀𝑒𝑐 + Δ𝑃
𝐼𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝑡𝑟
Rearrange Eq. (8A.3.4.3-2):
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-3)
Δ𝑃 = (Δ𝑃𝑐 − Δ𝑀𝑒𝑐 )
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑡𝑟
Recall from Eq. (8A3.4.1-1):
𝐼𝑡𝑟 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-4)
𝛥𝑀 = ′′
∆𝑀𝑐
𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐𝑛
Substitute into Eq. (8A.3.4.3-3):
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐼𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑛 Δ𝑃𝑐 Δ𝑀𝑐 𝑒𝑐 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-5)
Δ𝑃 = (Δ𝑃𝑐 − ∆𝑀𝑐 𝑒𝑐 ) = (Δ𝑃𝑐 − ∆𝑀𝑐 𝑒𝑐 ) = 𝐴𝑡𝑟 ( − )
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑡𝑟 𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛
The strain at the bottom of the beam is:
𝑓 1 Δ𝑃 𝑌𝑏𝑡 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-6)
𝜀𝑏 = ′′
= ′′ [ − Δ𝑀 ]
𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝐼𝑡𝑟
Substitute for Δ𝑃 from Eq. (8A.3.4.3-5) and Δ𝑀 from Eq. (8A.3.4.3-4) into Eq. (8A.3.4.3-6):
Δ𝑃𝑐 Δ𝑀𝑐 𝑒𝑐 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-7)
𝑓 1 𝐴𝑡𝑟 (𝐴𝑐𝑛 − 𝐼𝑐𝑛 ) 𝐼𝑡𝑟 𝑌𝑏𝑡 1 Δ𝑃𝑐 Δ𝑀𝑐 𝑒𝑐 Δ𝑀𝑐 𝑌𝑏𝑡
𝜀𝑏 = ′′ = ′′ [ − Δ𝑀𝑐 ] = ′′ [ − − ]
𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑡𝑟 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛

Appendix 8A - 14 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.3.4.3 Total Change in Internal Forces/8A.4 Prestress Gain Due to Shrinkage of Deck in Composite Section

Substitute 𝑌𝑏𝑛 = 𝑌𝑏𝑡 + 𝑒𝑐 into Eq. (8A.3.4.3-7):

𝑓 1 Δ𝑃𝑐 Δ𝑀𝑐 𝑌𝑏𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-8)
𝜀𝑏 = = [ − ]
𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐸𝑐′′ 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛
Multiply Eq. (8A.3.4.3-8) by 𝐸𝑐′′ to get the stress at the bottom of the beam:
Δ𝑃𝑐 Δ𝑀𝑐 𝑌𝑏𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-9)
𝑓= −
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛

Eq. (8A.3.4.3-9) is the same expression as Eq. (8A.3.3-1) for computing stress at the bottom of the beam with net
composite concrete properties.
Substitute Eq. (8A.2.2-2) and Eq. (8A.2.2-8) for Δ𝑃𝑐 and Δ𝑀𝑐 , respectively:
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 + Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 (Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑑𝑛 − Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 )𝑌𝑏𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-10)
𝑓= −
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝐼𝑐𝑛
When terms are regrouped, Eq. (8A.3.4.3-10) becomes:
1 𝑒𝑑𝑛 1 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-11)
𝑓 = Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( − ) + Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 ( + )
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑆𝑏𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑆𝑏𝑛

Recall that Δ𝑃𝑝𝑠 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 Δ𝑓𝑠𝑠 , and substitute into Eq. (8A.4.3.3-11):
1 𝑒𝑑𝑛 1 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-12)
𝑓 = Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( − ) + 𝐴𝑝𝑠 Δ𝑓𝑠𝑠 ( + )
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑆𝑏𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑆𝑏𝑛
The right-hand term of Eq. (8A.3.4.3-12) is the beam concrete stress due to the prestress gain associated with
deck concrete shrinkage. This term is already included in the general beam stress equations Eq. (8.2.1.8.2-1) and
Eq. (8.2.1.8.2-2). The right-hand term is removed from Eq. (8A.3.4.3-12) so that the beam concrete stress does not
account for this effect twice. Eq. (8A.3.4.3-12) then becomes:
1 𝑒𝑑𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-13)
𝑓 = Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( − )
𝐴𝑐𝑛 𝑆𝑏𝑛
𝜀𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑑
Substituting Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 = in Eq. (8A.4.3.3-13), the stress in the bottom of the beam due to shrinkage of the
(1+𝜒Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 ,𝑡𝑑 ))
deck concrete is:
𝜀𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑑 1 𝑒𝑑𝑛 (Eq. 8A.3.4.3-14)
𝑓𝑏𝑑𝑠 = ( − )
(1 + 𝜒Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )) 𝑐𝑛 𝑆𝑏𝑛
𝐴

Eq. 8A.3.4.3-14 is equivalent to computing the beam concrete stress by treating the internally developing deck
shrinkage restraining force as an externally applied force, Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 , where
𝜀𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑑 𝐸𝑑 (Eq. 8A.4.3.3-15)
Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 = ≈ 𝜀𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑
(1 + 𝜒Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )) (1 + 0.7Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ))

8A.4 PRESTRESS GAIN DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF DECK CONCRETE IN

COMPOSITE SECTION
The LRFD Specifications defines the term Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 as the prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck in composite section.
By virtue of using an age-adjusted modulus of elasticity in the development of Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 , this gain is the sum of the
change in prestress due to the elongation of the strand associated with the mechanical action of the deck concrete
creep and shrinkage strains plus the change in strain in the strand due to the creep of the beam concrete induced

Appendix 8A - 15 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.4 Prestress Gain Due to Shrinkage of Deck Concrete In Composite Section/8A.5 Treatment of Deck Shrinkage for Transformed Section
Analysis
by the same mechanical action of the deck concrete creep and shrinkage. These changes in stress can be thought
of as “elastic gain” and “gain due to creep of beam concrete,” respectively.
The change in the prestress due to deck shrinkage is given by:
𝐸𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.4-1)
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = ( ) Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 (1 + 0.7ψ𝑏𝑑𝑓 )𝐾𝑑𝑓
𝐸𝑐
This change can also be expressed as:
𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝐸𝑝𝑠 (Eq. 8A.4-2)
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = ( ) Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝐾𝑑𝑓 + ( ) Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝐾𝑑𝑓 (0.7ψ𝑏𝑑𝑓 )
𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐
𝐸𝑝𝑠
The first term in the right-hand side of equation Eq. (8A.4-2), ( ) Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝐾𝑑𝑓 , represents the change in stress in the
𝐸𝑐
prestressing steel due to a perfect bond between the concrete and steel and the internal self-equilibrating forces
caused by creep and shrinkage of the deck (“elastic gain”). These internal self-equilibrating forces are in the
concrete and the steel and are sustained from deck placement to final time. The sustained force in the beam
concrete causes creep deformations that are restrained by the prestressing reinforcement. The second term in the
right-hand side of the equation represents the change in stress in the prestressing steel due to the internal
redistribution of forces caused by creep of the beam concrete. Since the deck shrinkage causes elongation of the
concrete at the level of the prestressing, the creep strain further elongates the steel and increases the stress in the
prestressing (“gain due to creep of beam concrete”).
Note that the change in prestress due to shrinkage of deck concrete differs from the prestress loss due to creep of
the beam concrete caused by application of the prestress force and the beam self -weight (Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 ) and prestress
loss due to externally applied loads (Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 ). Prestress losses for self weight and external loads are due only to the
time-dependent creep and shrinkage strains of the beam concrete. The change in strain due to the mechanical
action of the loading is not included in the time-dependent prestress losses. Stated simply, Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 includes direct
strain from mechanical action, whereas Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 and Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 do not. This difference is significant in the formulation of
the change in prestress gain due to shrinkage of the deck concrete compared with the other time-dependent
prestress losses accounted for in the LRFD Specifications refined estimates of time-dependent losses.

8A.5 TREATMENT OF DECK SHRINKAGE FOR TRANSFORMED SECTION

ANALYSIS
The previous analysis shows that the effect of shrinkage of the deck concrete is a net increase in the prestressing
tension caused by elongation of the prestressing strand and additional elongation due to creep of the beam
concrete arising from the sustained self-equilibrating internal forces that develop because of shrinkage of the
deck concrete.
The change in prestress due to external loads (deck, barrier, overlay) or internal redistribution of forces due to
time-dependent effects (creep and shrinkage of beam and deck concrete) is accompanied by a corresponding
change in the concrete stress. For convenience, an equivalent deck shrinkage force is applied to the centroid of the
deck and the corresponding change in concrete stress is computed.
When the beam concrete stress is computed using transformed sections, the effect of perfect bond and strain
compatibility between the prestressing steel and concrete is considered. This is the so-called implicit elastic gain.
For deck shrinkage, this implicit elastic gain is directly included in Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 . When using transformed section
analysis, the implicit elastic gain due to shrinkage of the deck concrete is accounted for twice: once in Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 and
once in the transformed section stress analysis.
Excluding ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 from the time-dependent prestress losses corrects a double-counting issue when transformed
section analysis is used. However, Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 also includes the change in prestressing due to beam concrete creep
induced by the tension stress in the beam from deck shrinkage. These creep strains elongate the strand, resulting
in an increase in the effective prestress. Excluding Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 eliminates this effect from the stress analysis. The
calculated magnitude of deck shrinkage strains may not develop in the presence of deck cracking and deck

Appendix 8A - 16 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8A.5 Treatment of Deck Shrinkage for Transformed Section Analysis/8A.6 References

reinforcement. For this reason, it is conservative to neglect the prestress gain due to creep in the beam concrete
that is induced by deck shrinkage.
The stress in the beam concrete due to shrinkage of the deck concrete must be included in the beam stress
analysis. Stated simply, ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 can be conservatively excluded from the effective prestress, but 𝑓𝑏𝑑𝑠 must always be
included in the beam stress analysis. The beam concrete stress is computed as:
1 𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 1 𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑘 (Eq. 8A.5-1)
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑝𝑗 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( ∓ )± − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( ∓ ) ±
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝑛 𝑆𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑑
1 𝑒𝑛𝑐
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 ( ∓ )
𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝑆𝑛𝑐
(𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 + 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 ) 1 𝑒𝑑
± ± ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( ± )
𝑆𝑡𝑐 𝐴𝑡𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑐
When Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 is neglected, the stress in the beam concrete due to shrinkage of the deck concrete must be computed
using the age-adjusted composite transformed area, 𝐴′′𝑡𝑐 , and section modulus, 𝑆𝑡𝑐
′′
, respectively, to capture the
elastic and creep aspects of the beam concrete stress due to slab shrinkage. The stress calculation then becomes:
1 𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 1 𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑘 (Eq. 8A.5-2)
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑝𝑗 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( ∓ )± − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( ∓ ) ±
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝑛 𝑆𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑑
1 𝑒𝑛𝑐
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 )𝑑𝑓 ( ∓ )
𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝑆𝑛𝑐
(𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 + 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 ) 1 𝑒𝑑
± ± ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( ′′ ± ′′ )
𝑆𝑡𝑐 𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟
This refinement is overly complicated because it requires the use of another set of steel transformed section
properties. A reasonable simplification for transformed section analysis is to use gross properties in place of net
properties. Using gross properties with the change in prestress due to shrinkage of deck concrete eliminates the
ouble counting of elastic gains, conservatively neglects the creep of beam concrete aspect of the prestress gain
due to shrinkage of deck concrete, and includes a reasonable approximation of the elastic aspects of the beam
concrete stress due to slab shrinkage. The creep aspects of the beam concrete stress due to slab shrinkage are
neglected, which is unconservative; however, the magnitude of this stress is very small and any error is negligible.
The resulting stress equation becomes:
1 𝑒𝑡𝑟 𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 1 𝑒𝑔 𝑀𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑘 (Eq. 8A.5-3)
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑝𝑗 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( ∓ )± − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( ∓ ) ±
𝐴𝑡𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑑
1 𝑒𝑔𝑐
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 ( ∓ )
𝐴𝑔𝑐 𝑆𝑔𝑐
(𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 + 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 ) 1 𝑒𝑑
± ± ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( ± )
𝑆𝑡𝑐 𝐴𝑔𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐
Equation (8A.5-3) is the same as Eq. (8.2.1.8.2-2). This approach to computing stresses in the beam concrete is
used for the design examples presented in Chapter 9 of this manual.
The selection of + or – and section moduli in Eq. 8A.5-1, 8A.5-2, and 8A.5-3 depends on whether the stress is
being calculated for the top or bottom of the beam. The ± and ∓ symbols are the algebraic operation for the top or
bottom beam stress, respectively.

8A.6 REFERENCES
1. AASHTO. 2020. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 9th Edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
https://store.transportation.org/item/collectiondetail/202 (Fee)
2. Tadros, M. K., N. Al-Omaishi, S. J. Seguirant, and J. G. Gallt. 2003. Prestress Losses in Pretensioned High-
Strength Concrete Bridge Girders. NCHRP Report 496. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
https://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_496.pdf

Appendix 8A - 17 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________________________________________ APPENDIX 8A
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE

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Appendix 8A - 18 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Table of Contents

NOTATION ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.0-3

9.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.0-15
9.0.1 Service Life ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.0-15
9.0.2 Sign Convention............................................................................................................................................................................. 9.0-15
9.0.3 Level of Precision.......................................................................................................................................................................... 9.0-15
DESIGN EXAMPLES IN THE FOURTH EDITION, FIRST RELEASE

Note: The following examples have been updated with the revised LRFD equations.

9.1a Design Example – Bulb-Tee (BT-72), Single Span with Composite Deck. Designed using Transformed Section
Properties, General Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses

9.1b Design Example – Bulb-Tee (BT-72), Single Span with Composite Deck. Designed using Gross Section
Properties, Appendix B5 Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses

9.1d Design Example – Bulb Tee (BT-72) Single Span with Composite Deck Designed using Gross Section
Properties and Approximate Estimate of Prestress Losses without Elastic Gains

UPDATED DESIGN EXAMPLES SCHEDULED FOR FUTURE RELEASE

Note: The following examples from the PCI BDM Third Edition have not been updated with the revised LRFD
equations. These examples are provided for reference only.

9.2 Design Example – Bulb-Tee (BT-72), Three Spans with Composite Deck. Designed using Transformed Section
Properties, General Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses

9.4 Design Example – Box Beam (BIII-48), Single Span with Noncomposite Surface. Designed using Transformed
Section Properties, General Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses

9.10 Design Example – Precast Concrete Stay-in-Place Deck Panel System. Designed using Transformed Section
Properties and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses

NEW DESIGN EXAMPLES SCHEDULED FOR FUTURE RELEASE

9.11 Design Example – Florida I-Beam (FIB-102), Single Span with Composite Deck and Straight Strands. Designed
using Transformed Section Properties, General Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses

9.12 Design Example – Washington State Wide Flange Girder (WF100G), 200-ft Single Span with Lightweight
Concrete Girders, Harped Strands, and Lightweight Concrete Composite Deck. Designed using Transformed
Section Properties, General Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses without Elastic Gains

NEW DESIGN EXAMPLE RESERVED FOR FUTURE RELEASE

9.9 Design Example – Slab Superstructure

DESIGN EXAMPLES INCORPORATED BY REFERENCE TO THE THIRD EDITION

A full copy of the Third Edition of the Bridge Design Manual, including the design examples listed below, is
available to download as a free pdf from the PCI Bookstore (https://doi.org/10.15554/MNL-133-14). The design
examples listed below are also included for reference only in this Fourth Edition, 1st Release of the Bridge Design
Manual. The Third Edition design examples are based on the Fifth Edition of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design

9.0 - 1 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Table of Contents

Specifications, whereas the Fourth Edition design examples are based on the Ninth Edition of the LRFD
Specifications. Between the Seventh and Eighth Editions, Section 5: Concrete Structures of the LRFD Specifications
was reorganized and many article and equation numbers changed. A crosswalk between the two editions is
available at https://www.aspirebridge.com/additionalresources/index.shtml.

Note: The following examples from the PCI BDM Third Edition have not been updated with the revised LRFD
equations. These examples are provided for reference only.

9.1c Design Example – Bulb-Tee (BT-72), Single Span with Composite Deck. Designed using Transformed Section
Properties, Simplified Shear, and Approximate Prestress Losses

9.3 Design Example – Deck Bulb-Tee (DBT-53), Single Span with Noncomposite Surface. Designed using
Transformed Section Properties, General Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses

9.5 Design Example – Box Beam (BIII-48), Single Span with Composite Deck. Designed using Transformed Section
Properties, General Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses

9.6 Design Example – U-Beam (TX-U54), Single Span with Precast Panels and Composite Deck. Designed using
Transformed Section Properties, General Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses

9.7 Design Example – Double-Tee Beam (NEXT 36 D), Single Span with Noncomposite Surface. Designed using
Transformed Section Properties, General Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress Losses

9.8 Design Example – Double-Tee Beam (NEXT 36 F), Single Span with Composite Deck. Designed using
Transformed Section Properties, General Shear Procedure, and Refined Estimates of Prestress LosseNote:

Each design example contains a separate detailed table of contents.

9.0 - 2 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Notation

NOTATION
The section number with each notation is the location where the notation is first used in design examples of the
Third and Fourth editions. The [LRFD] identifies that similar notation is used in the LRFD Specifications.
A = area (9.1a.3.2.3)
Abs = cross-sectional area of beam stems (9.7.4.2.2.1)
Ac = total area of the composite section (9.1a.3.2.3)
Ac = area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member (9.1b.11.2.1.1)
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear transfer (9.1a.12.3) [LRFD]
Ad = area of deck concrete (9.1a.5.1) [LRFD]
Ag = cross-sectional area of the precast beam or section (9.1a.3) [LRFD]
Ao = area enclosed by centerlines of the elements of the beam (9.4.4.2.2-1) [LRFD]
Aps = area of prestressing strand (9.1a.5.3) [LRFD]
APT = area of transverse post-tensioning reinforcement (9.4.1.5)
A's = area of compression reinforcement (9.1a.9) [LRFD]
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement (9.1a.9) [LRFD]
As = total area of vertical reinforcement located within a distance h/4 from the end of [LRFD]
the beam, in.2 (9.1a.14.1)
Atc = area of transformed composite section at final time (9.1a.5.5)
Atf = area of transformed section at final time (9.1a.5.5)
Ati = area of transformed section at transfer (9.1a.5.5)
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s (9.1a.11.3.2) [LRFD]
Avf = area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane (9.1a.12.3) [LRFD]
a = depth of equivalent stress block (9.1a.9) [LRFD]
a = distance from the end of beam to harp point (9.1a.15.1) or concentrated load
(9.6.15.3)
b = effective width of compression flange (9.1a.9) [LRFD]
b = width of beam (9.4.4.2.2.1) [LRFD]
b = width of the compression face of a member (9.4.6) [LRFD]
bv = effective web width (9.1a.11.2.3) [LRFD]
bvi = interface width (9.1a.12.1) [LRFD]
bv = width of interface or actual contact width between the slab and the beam [LRFD]
(9.1a.12.3)
bw = web width (9.2.6.1) [LRFD]
C = compression force for flexural resistance (9.10.14.2)
C = stiffness parameter (9.3.4.2.2.1) [LRFD]
c = cohesion factor (9.1a.12.3) [LRFD]
c = distance from the extreme compressive fiber to the neutral axis (9.1a.9) [LRFD]

9.0 - 3 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Notation

D = width of distribution per lane (9.3.4.2.2.1) [LRFD]

DC = dead load of structural components and non-structural attachments (9.1a.4.1.1) [LRFD]
DFD = distribution factor for deflection (9.1a.15.6) [LRFD]
DFM = distribution factor for bending moment (9.1a.4.2.2.1) [LRFD]
DFV = distribution factor for shear force (9.1a.4.2.2.2) [LRFD]
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (9.1a.4.1.1) [LRFD]
d = distance of center of gravity of piece from the extreme bottom fiber of the beam
(9.1a.3.2.3)
db = nominal strand diameter (9.10.11) [LRFD]
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of the [LRFD]
flexural reinforcement located closest thereto (9.10.13.5)
de = effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile [LRFD]
force in the tensile reinforcement (9.1a.11.1)
de = roadway part of the overhang = distance from the centerline of the exterior web of [LRFD]
exterior beam to the interior edge of curb or traffic barrier (9.1a.4.1.1)
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing strands [LRFD]
(9.1a.9)
dv = distance between the centroid of the tension steel and the mid-thickness of the slab [LRFD]
(9.1a.12.1)
dv = effective shear depth (9.1a.11.1) [LRFD]
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (9.1a.3.1) [LRFD]
Ecd = modulus of elasticity of deck concrete (9.1a.5.1) [LRFD]
Eci = modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at transfer (9.1a.6.1) [LRFD]
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons or strands (9.1a.2) [LRFD]
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars (9.1a.2) [LRFD]
e = eccentricity of the strand group at transfer length (9.1a.7.2)
e’ = difference between eccentricity of prestressing steel at midspan and at end of the
beam (9.1a.15.1)
ec = eccentricity of the prestressing strands at midspan (9.1a.5.3)
ed = eccentricity of deck with respect to the gross composite section (9.1a.6.3.4) [LRFD]
ee = eccentricity of prestressing force at end of beam (9.1a.15.1)
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the precast beam and the slab
(9.1a.4.2.2.1)
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the stems and the flange of the precast
beam (9.7.4.2.2.1)
epc = eccentricity of prestressing strands with respect to centroid of composite section [LRFD]
(9.1a.6.3.1)
epg = strand eccentricity at midspan with respect to centroid of girder (9.1a.5.4) [LRFD]
etc = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed composite section at final time
(9.1a.5.5)

9.0 - 4 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Notation

etf = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at final time (9.1a.5.5)
et = eccentricity of strands with respect to the centroid of the steel transformed section
at transfer (9.1a.5.5)
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at transfer (9.1a.6.1)
fb = concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam (9.1a.5.1)
fbds = tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam attributable to shrinkage of deck concrete
(9.1a.5.1)
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete for use in design (9.1a.2) [LRFD]
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons due to [LRFD]
prestressing force at transfer and the self-weight of the member at sections of
maximum moment (9.1a.6.1)
𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = specified compressive strength of concrete at time of initial loading or prestressing [LRFD]
(9.1a.2)
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance [LRFD]
for all prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads (9.1a.10.2)
fpb = compressive stress at bottom fiber of the beam due to prestress force (9.1a.5.3)
fpbt = stress in the prestressing strand immediately before transfer (9.1a.2) [LRFD]
fpc = compressive stress in concrete after all prestress losses have occurred either at the [LRFD]
centroid of the cross section resisting live load or at the junction of the web and
flange when the centroid lies in the flange. In a composite section, fpc is the resultant
compressive stress at the centroid of the composite section, or at the junction of the
web and flange when the centroid lies within the flange, due to both prestress and
to the bending moments resisted by the precast member acting alone (9.1c.11.2)
fpe = effective stress in the prestressing strands after all losses (9.1a.6.6) [LRFD]
fpi prestressing steel stress before transfer (9.1d.6.2) [LRFD]
fpo = a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by [LRFD]
the locked-in difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the
surrounding concrete (9.1a.11.2.1)
fps = average stress in prestressing strand at the time for which the nominal resistance [LRFD]
of member is required (9.1a.9)
fpt = stress in prestressing strand immediately after transfer (9.1a.6.2.3) [LRFD]
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing strand (9.1a.2) [LRFD]
fpy = yield strength of prestressing strand (9.1a.2) [LRFD]
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete (9.1a.10.2) [LRFD]
fs = allowable stress in steel (9.1a.14.1)
fs = stress in the nonprestressed tension reinforcement at nominal resistance (9.1a.9) [LRFD]
𝑓𝑠′ = stress in the nonprestressed compression reinforcement at nominal resistance [LRFD]
(9.1a.9)
fss = tensile stress in steel reinforcement at the service limit state (9.10.13.5 [LRFD]
ft = concrete stress at top fiber of the beam for the non-composite section (9.1a.7.2)

9.0 - 5 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Notation

ftc = concrete stress at top fiber of the slab for the composite section (9.1a.8.2.2)
ftg = concrete stress at top fiber of the beam for the transformed section (9.1a.8.2)
ftgf = concrete stress at top fiber of the beam for the transformed section under fatigue
loading (9.1a.8.3)
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (9.1a.2) [LRFD]
H = average annual ambient mean relative humidity, percent (9.1a.6.2.1) [LRFD]
H = height of wall (9.10.14.2) [LRFD]
h = overall depth of a member (9.1a.3.1) [LRFD]
hc = overall depth of the composite section (9.1a.3.2.3)
hf = compression flange depth (9.4.6) [LRFD]
I = moment of inertia (9.1a.3.1) [LRFD]
IM = dynamic load allowance (9.1a.4.2.3) [LRFD]
Ibs = moment of inertia of beam stems (9.7.4.2.2.1)
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section (9.1a.3.2.3) [LRFD]
Ig = moment of inertia about the centroid of the non-composite precast beam [LRFD]
(9.1a.4.2.2.1)
It = moment of inertia of steel transformed beam cross section at transfer (9.1a.5.5)
Iti = moment of inertia of the transformed section at transfer (9.1a.7.2)
Itf = moment of inertia of the transformed section at final time (9.1a.5.5)
Itc = moment of inertia of the transformed composite section at final time (9.1a.5.5)
Jg = St. Venant torsional inertia (9.3.3) [LRFD]
I0 = moment of inertia of beam cross section (Table 9.1a.5.5 -1)
j = a factor relating lever arm to effective depth (9.10.13.5)
K = factor used in the calculation of development length (9.10.11)
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate (9.1a.3.1) [LRFD]
K1 = fraction of concrete strength available to resist interface shear (9.1a.12.3.1) [LRFD]
K2 = limiting interface shear resistance (9.1a.12.3.1)
Kdf = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction [LRFD]
between concrete and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period
between deck placement and final time (9.1a.6.3.1)
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter (9.1a.4.2.2.1) [LRFD]
Kid = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction
between concrete and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period
between transfer and deck placement (9.1a.6.2.1)
KL = factor accounting for type of steel taken as 30 for low relaxation strands and 7 for [LRFD]
other prestressing steel, unless more accurate manufacturer's data are available
(9.1a.6.2.3)
k = factor used to calculate j (9.10.13.5)
k = factor used in calculation of distribution factor for multi-beam bridges (9.5.4.2.2.1) [LRFD]

9.0 - 6 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Notation

k = factor used in calculation of average stress in prestressing strand for Strength Limit [LRFD]
State (9.1a.9)
kf = factor for the effect of concrete strength (9.1a.6.2.1) [LRFD]
khc = humidify factor for creep (9.1a.6.2.1) [LRFD]
khs = humidity factor for shrinkage (9.1a.6.2.1) [LRFD]
ks = factor for volume-to-surface area ratio of the beam (9.1a.6.2.1) [LRFD]
ktd = time development factor (9.1a.6.2.1) [LRFD]
ktdd = time development factor at deck placement (9.1a.6.2.1)
ktdf = time development factor at final time (9.1a.6.3.2)
[LRFD]
L = overall beam length or design span length (9.1a.4.1.2) [LRFD]
LL = vehicular live load (9.1a.4.3) [LRFD]
Lc = critical length of yield line failure pattern (9.10.14.2) [LRFD]
ℓd = development length (9.10.11) [LRFD]
Ma = negative moment at the end of the span being considered (9.2.15.6)
Mb = negative moment at the end of the span being considered (9.2.15.6)
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight (Table 9.1a.4-1)
Mc = flexural resistance of barrier at its base (9.10.14.2)
MCIP = unfactored bending moment due to cast-in-place slab weight (9.10.6.1)
Mconst = unfactored bending moment due to construction load (9.10.9.2)
Mcr = cracking moment (9.1a.10.2) [LRFD]
Md = unfactored bending moment due to diaphragm weight per beam (Table 9.4.4-1)
Mdnc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section (9.1a.10.2) [LRFD]
Mf = unfactored bending moment due to fatigue truck per beam (9.1a.4.2.4.1)
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight (Table 9.1a.4-1) [LRFD]
Mj = unfactored bending moment due to joint concrete weight (9.7.5.1)
MLL = unfactored bending moment due to lane load per beam (9.1a.4.2.4.2)
MLL+I = unfactored bending moment due to live load plus impact (9.10.6.1)
MLL+IM = lane load moment + (truck load moment x impact) (9.1a.8.2.1)
MLL+LT = unfactored bending moment due to truck load plus impact and lane load = MLT +
MLL (Table 9.2.4-1)
MLT = unfactored bending moment per beam due to truck load with dynamic allowance
(9.1a.4.2.4.1)
Mmax = maximum factored moment at section due to externally applied loads (9.1c.11.2)
Mn = nominal flexural resistance (9.1a.9) [LRFD]
Mr = factored flexural resistance of a section in bending (9.1a.9) [LRFD]
Ms = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights (Table 9.1a.4-1)

9.0 - 7 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Notation

Mservice = total bending moment for service load combination (9.10.13.2)

MSIP = unfactored bending moment due to stay-in-place panel self weight (9.10.6.1)
Mu = factored moment at a section (9.1a.9) [LRFD]
Mws = unfactored bending moment due to wearing surface T (Table 9.1a.4-1)
Mx = bending moment at a distance (x) from the support (9.1a.4.1.2)
m = multiple presence factor (9.1a.4.2.2.1) [LRFD]
m = stress ratio = (fy/0.85𝑓𝑐′ ) (9.2.9.2.1) [LRFD]
Nb = number of beams (9.1a.4.1.1) [LRFD]
Nu = applied factored axial force taken as positive if tensile (9.1a.11.2.1) [LRFD]
n = modular ratio between deck slab and beam concrete (9.1a.3.2.2)
n = modular ratio between beam and deck slab concrete (9.1a.4.2.2.1)
n = modular ratio between prestressing strand and concrete (9.1a.5.5) [LRFD]
Pc = permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane (9.1a.12.3) [LRFD]
Pd = diaphragm weight (9.4.15.3)
Ppe = total prestressing force after all losses (9.1a.5.3)
Ppi = total prestressing force before transfer (9.1a.6.1)
Ppt = total prestressing force immediately after transfer (9.1a.15.1)
Pr = factored bursting resistance of pretensioned anchorage zone provided by [LRFD]
transverse reinforcement (9.1a.14.1)
Q = total factored load (9.1a.4.3) [LRFD]
Qi = force effects from specified loads (9.1a.4.3) [LRFD]
R = reaction at support (9.3.4.2.2.2)
Ru = flexural resistance factor (9.2.9.2.1)
Rw = total transverse resistance of the railing or barrier (9.10.14.2) [LRFD]
S = spacing of beams (9.1a.4.2.2.1) [LRFD]
S = effective span length of the deck slab; clear span plus distance from extreme flange [LRFD]
tips to face of web (9.10.15)
Sb = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the non-composite precast beam
(9.1a.3.1)
Sbc = section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the composite precast beam
(9.1a.3.2.3) or panel (9.10.5.2)
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section
at final time (9.1a.5.5)
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at final
time (9.1a.5.5)
Sbti = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at transfer
(9.1a.5.5)
Sc = section modulus of cast-in-place deck (9.10.14.3)

9.0 - 8 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Notation

Sdtc = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the deck for transformed
section at final time (9.1a.5.5)
St = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the non-composite precast beam
(9.1a.3.1)
Stc = composite section modulus for top fiber of the structural deck slab (9.1a.3.2.3) or
panel (9.10.5.2)
Stg = composite section modulus for top fiber of the precast beam (9.1a.3.2.3) or panel
(9.10.5.2)
Sttc = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast beam for
transformed section at final time (9.1a.5.5)
Sttf = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at final time
(9.1a.5.5)
Stti = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at transfer
(9.1a.5.5)
s = spacing of rows of ties or stirrups (9.1a.11.3.2) [LRFD]
T = collision force at deck slab level (9.10.14.2) [LRFD]
t = thickness of an element (9.4.4.2.2.1) [LRFD]
td = concrete age at deck placement (9.1a.6.2) [LRFD]
tf = concrete age at final stage (9.1a.6.2) [LRFD]
ti = concrete age at transfer (9.1a.6.2) [LRFD]
ts = structural depth of concrete deck (9.1a.2)
Vb = unfactored shear force due to barrier weight per beam (Table 9.1a.4.3-1)
Vc = nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the concrete (9.1a.11) [LRFD]
Vci = nominal shear resistance provided by concrete when inclined cracking results from [LRFD]
combined shear and moment (9.1c.11.2)
Vcw = nominal shear resistance provided by concrete when inclined cracking results from [LRFD]
excessive principal tensions in web (9.1c.11.2)
Vd = unfactored shear force due to barrier weight/lane (9.4.4-1)
Vd = shear force at section due to unfactored dead load and includes both DC and DW [LRFD]
(9.1c.11.2)
Vg = unfactored shear due to beam weight (Table 9.1a.4.3-1)

Vi = factored shear force at section due to externally applied loads occurring

simultaneously with Mmax (9.1c.11.2)
VLL = unfactored shear force due to lane load per beam (9.1a.4.2.4.1)
VLL+LT = unfactored shear force due truck load plus impact and lane load = VLT + VLL (Table
9.2.4-1)
VLT = unfactored shear force due to truck load with dynamic allowance per beam
(9.1a.4.2.4.1)
Vn = nominal shear resistance of the section considered (9.1a.11.3.2) [LRFD]

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Notation

Vni = nominal horizontal shear resistance (9.1a.12.2) [LRFD]

Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, [LRFD]
positive if resisting the applied shear (9.1a.11)
Vri = factored interface shear resistance (9.1a.12.1)
V/S = volume-to-surface ratio of the beam (9.1a.6.2.1)
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement (9.1a.11.3.2) [LRFD]
Vs = unfactored shear force due to slab and haunch weight/beam (Table 9.1a.4.3-1)
Vu = factored shear force at section (9.1a.11) [LRFD]
Vu1 = factored vertical shear (9.1a.12.1)
Vws = unfactored shear force due to wearing surface weight/beam (Table 9.1a.4.3-1)
Vx = shear force at a distance (x) from the support (9.1a.4.1.2)
vu = factored shear stress on the concrete (9.1a.11.3.3) [LRFD]
vui = factored interface shear stress (9.1a.12.1)
W = edge-to-edge width of bridge (9.3.4.2.2.1) [LRFD]
w = uniformly distributed load (9.1a.4.1.2)
w = width of clear roadway (9.1a.4.2.2) [LRFD]
w = weight per unit length of beam (9.1a.3.1)
wb = weight of barriers per unit length (9.1a.4.1.1)
wc = unit weight of concrete (9.1a.2) [LRFD]
wg = beam self-weight per unit length (9.1a.4.1.1)
wj = weight of joint concrete per unit length (9.7.15.3)
ws = slab and haunch weights per unit length (9.1a.4.1.1)
wws = weight of future wearing surface per unit length (9.1a.4.1.1)
X = distance from load to point of support (9.10.14.2)
x = distance from the support to the section under question (9.1a.4.1.2)
y = distance from the bottom of beam to prestressing strand (Table 9.1a.5.5-1a)
yb = distance from centroid of the component to the extreme bottom fiber of the non-
composite precast beam (9.1a.3.1)
ybc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme bottom fiber of the
precast beam (9.1a.3.2.3)
ybs = distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom fiber of the beam
(9.1a.5.3) or panel (9.10.5.2)
ybtc = distance from the centroid of the composite transformed section to the extreme
bottom fiber of the beam at final time (9.1a.5.5)
ybtf = distance from the centroid of the noncomposite transformed section to the extreme
bottom fiber of the beam at final time (9.1a.5.5)
ybti = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber
of the beam at transfer (9.1a.5.5)

9.0 - 10 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Notation

yt = distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the non-composite precast beam
(9.1a.3.1)
ytc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme top fiber of the
structural deck (9.1a.3.2.3) or panel (9.10.5.2)
ytg = distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme top fiber of the
precast beam (9.1a.3) or panel (9.10.5.2)
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis (9.1a.11.3.2) [LRFD]
α1 = stress block factor (9.1a.9) [LRFD]
β = factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension (a value [LRFD]
indicating concrete contribution) (9.1a.11.2)
β1 = stress block factor = ratio of the depth of the equivalent uniformly stressed [LRFD]
compression zone assumed in the strength limit state to the depth of the actual
compression zone (9.1a.9)
γ = load factor for Fatigue I load combination (9.4.9.2) [LRFD]
γe = exposure factor (9.10.13.5) [LRFD]
γh = correction factor for relative humidity of the ambient air (9.1c.6.2 [LRFD]
γi = load factors (9.1a.4.3) [LRFD]
γst = correction factor for specified concrete strength at time of prestress transfer [LRFD]
(9.1c.6.2)
γ1 = flexural cracking variability factor (9.1a.10.2) [LRFD]
γ2 = prestress variability factor (9.1a.10.2) [LRFD]
γ3 = ratio of specified minimum yield strength to ultimate strength of the [LRFD]
nonprestressed reinforcement (9.1a.10.2)
(ΔF)TH = constant-amplitude fatigue threshold (9.4.9.3) [LRFD]
Δb+ws = deflection due to barrier and wearing surface weights (9.1a.15.4)
Δd = deflection due to diaphragm weight (9.4.14.3)
Δf = force effect, live load stress range for fatigue (9.4.9.2) [LRFD]
Δfcd = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to long-term [LRFD]
losses between transfer and deck placement, combined with deck weight and
superimposed loads (9.1a.6.3.2)
Δfcdf = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to shrinkage of [LRFD]
deck concrete (9.1a.6.3.4)
ΔfpCD = prestress due to creep of girder concrete between time of deck placement and final [LRFD]
time (9.1a.6.3.2)
ΔfpCR = loss in prestressing steel stress due to creep between time of transfer and deck [LRFD]
placement (9.1a.6.2.2)
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of [LRFD]
application of prestress and/or external loads (9.1a.6)
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel
after transfer (9.1a.6)
ΔfpR = loss in pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of steel (9.1c.6.2) [LRFD]

9.0 - 11 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Notation

ΔfpR1 = loss in prestressing steel stress due to relaxation of steel between transfer and deck [LRFD]
placement (9.1a.6.2.3)
ΔfpR2 = loss in prestressing steel stress due to relaxation of steel between time of deck [LRFD]
placement and final time (9.1a.6.3.3)
ΔfpSD = prestress loss due to shrinkage )of concrete between time of deck placement and [LRFD]
final time (9.1a.6.3.1)
ΔfpSR = loss in prestressing steel stress due to shrinkage between time of transfer and deck [LRFD]
placement (9.1a.6.2.1)
ΔfpSS = prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete (9.1a.6.3.4) [LRFD]
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress (9.1a.6) [LRFD]
Δg = deflection due to beam self weight (9.1a.15.2)
Δj+b+ws = deflection due to joint concrete, barrier, and wearing surface (9.7.15.3)
Δb+ws = deflection due to barrier and wearing surface weights (9.1a.15.4)
ΔL = deflection due to specified live load (9.2.15.6)
ΔLL = deflection due to lane load (9.1a.15.6)

ΔLT = deflection due to design truck load and impact (9.1a.15.6)

ΔPds = restraining force due to deck shrinkage (9.1a.8.2.1)
Δp = camber due prestressing force at transfer (9.1a.15.1)
ΔS = deflection due to slab and haunch weight (9.1a.15.3)
εbdf = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between deck placement and [LRFD]
final time (9.1a.6.3.1)
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between time of transfer and [LRFD]
deck placement (9.1a.6.2.1)
εbif = total concrete shrinkage strain of girder between time of transfer and final time
(9.1a.6.3.1)
εcl = compression control limit (9.1a.9)
εddf = shrinkage strain of deck concrete between time of placement and final time [LRFD]
(9.1a.5.1)
εt = tensile strain in the prestressing steel at nominal resistance (9.1a.9) [LRFD]
εtl = tension control limit (9.1a.9) [LRFD]
εx = longitudinal strain in the web of the member (9.1b.11.2.1) [LRFD]
ηi = load modifier relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance [LRFD]
(9.1a.4.3)
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (9.1a.11.2.2)
λ = concrete density modification factor [LRFD]
λduct = shear strength reduction factor accounting for the reduction in the shear resistance [LRFD]
provided by transverse reinforcement due to the presence of a grouted post-
tensioning duct
µ = coefficient of friction (9.1a.12.3) [LRFD]
µ = Poisson's ratio (9.3.4.2.2.1) [LRFD]

9.0 - 12 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Notation

ρ = ratio of nonprestressed reinforcement (9.2.9.2.1)

ρa = actual ratio of nonpretensioned reinforcement (9.10.13.5)
ɸ = resistance factor (9.1a.9) [LRFD]
ɸc = resistance factor for axial load (9.1a.13) [LRFD]
ɸf = resistance factor for moment (9.1a.13) [LRFD]
ɸv = resistance factor for shear (9.1a.13) [LRFD]
ψ = angle of harped pretensioned reinforcement (Figure 9.1a.7.2-2)
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = beam creep coefficient at time of deck placement due to loading introduced at [LRFD]
transfer (9.1a.6.2.2)
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = beam creep coefficient at final time due to loading at deck placement (9.1a.6.3.2) [LRFD]

Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = beam creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced at transfer [LRFD]
(9.1a.6.2.1)
Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = deck concrete creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced shortly after [LRFD]
deck placement (9.1a.5.1)

9.0 - 13 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES

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9.0 - 14 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
9.0 Introduction/9.0.3 Level of Precision

Design Examples
9.0 INTRODUCTION
Design examples included in this chapter illustrate the step-by-step procedure used in the design of precast,
prestressed concrete bridges. Each design is based on the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 9th Edition,
2020.
Design examples for five different bridge types and span lengths are included to illustrate the range of
possibilities with precast, prestressed components. A sixth design example is for a precast concrete stay-in-place
deck panel system. The complete list of design examples for the fourth Edition is shown in Table 9.0-1. Design
Example 9.1 has three sets of calculations to illustrate the use of transformed or gross section properties;
determination of prestress losses by the approximate method or refined estimates; and design for shear using the
general method or the Appendix B5 method. All other design examples use transformed section properties,
refined estimates for prestress losses, and the general method for shear design.
The three sets of calculations for Design Example 9.1 are included in this release. The other design examples are
scheduled for a future release.
All design examples except 9.2 are for simple span bridges. Design Example 9.2 is for a bridge that is simply
supported for girder and deck dead loads but made continuous for subsequent superimposed dead loads and live
loads.
For the five bridge types, the design examples are for an interior beam. In some situations, the design of the
exterior beams may require more strands than the interior beam depending on the assumed distribution of the
barrier weight and top flange overhang on the outside of the bridge. Some owners prefer to use the same beam
cross sections for interior and exterior beams to facilitate casting and to avoid confusion during erection. The
steps in the design procedure are the same for both interior and exterior beams.
The design examples do not always represent the optimum solution for each span length but serve to
demonstrate the wide variety of options that exist for a precast, prestressed concrete superstructure. Ideally, the
designer would try to match the beam concrete stress level under Service III load combination with the Service III
tensile stress limit by incrementally reducing the number of strands and repeating the relevant design steps.

9.0.1 Service Life

Design calculations for prestress losses are based on a final age of 20,000 days or 54.8 years to be consistent with
previous editions of the manual. These losses, however, are applicable to longer service lives such as 75 or 100
years because the time development factor only changes by 0.2% after 20,000 days.

9.0.2 Sign Convention

The following sign convention is used where it is necessary to differentiate between compressive and tensile
stresses.
• For concrete stresses:
Compression is positive (+ ve)
Tension is negative (− ve)
• For steel stresses:
Compression is negative (− ve)
Tension is positive (+ ve)

9.0.3 Level of Precision

The levels of precision shown in Table 9.0.3-1 are used for most hand calculations. Some calculations were
carried out to a higher number of significant figures than common practice with hand calculations and the
numbers rounded off. Consequently, slight differences in the values of the numbers may occur between those

9.0 - 15 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
9.0.3 Level of Precision

made by hand and those made with a higher level of precision. Depending on available computation resources
and designer preference, other levels of precision may be used.

Table 9.0.3-1
Level of Precision
Item Units Precision
Concrete Stresses ksi 1/1000
Steel Stresses ksi 1/10
Prestress Forces kips 1/10
Moments ft-kips 1/10
Shears kips 1/10
For the Beam:
Cross-Section Dimensions in. 1/100
Section Properties in. 1
Length ft 1/100
Area of Prestressing Steel in.2 1/1000
Area of Nonprestressed
in.2 1/100
Reinforcement

9.0 - 16 (2023)
 PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
9.0.3 Level of Precision

Table 9.0-1
Design Examples
Span Bridge Beam Beam Beam CIP Strand
Example AASHTO Beam Cross Prestress
Bridge Type Lengths Width Spacing f'ci f'c Deck f'c Dia. Shear
Number Type Type Section Losses
ft ft ft ksi ksi ksi in.
Bulb-tee beams with CIP Trans- Refined General
9.1a (a) k BT-72 120 51.0 9.0 5.8 6.5 4..0 0.5
composite deck formed 5.9.3.4 5.7.3.4.2
Bulb-tee beams with CIP Refined Appendix
9.1b (a) k BT-72 120 51.0 9.0 5.8 6.5 4..0 0.5 Gross
composite deck 5.9.3.4 B5
Bulb-tee beams with CIP Trans- Approx. Not
9.1c (b) k BT-72 120 51.0 9.0 5.8 6.5 4..0 0.5
composite deck formed 5.9.3.3 included
Bulb-tee beams with CIP Approx. Not
9.1d (a) k BT-72 120 51.0 9.0 5.8 6.5 4..0 0.5 Gross
composite deck 5.9.3.3 included
Bulb-tee beams with
110, 120, Trans- Refined General
9.2 (c) composite deck continuous for k BT-72 44.5 12.0 5.5 7.0 4..0 0.5
110 formed 5.9.3.4 5.7.3.4.2
live load
Deck bulb-tee beams w/o CIP
Trans- Refined General
9.3 (b) deck, with noncomposite j DBT-53 95 54.0 6.0 5.5 7.0 N/A 0.6
formed 5.9.3.4 5.7.3.4.2
wearing surface
Adjacent box beams without Adjacent Trans- Refined General
9.4 (c) g BIII-48 95 28.0 4.0 5.0 N/A 0.5
CIP deck, with transverse P/T 4.0 formed 5.9.3.4 5.7.3.4.2
Adjacent box beams with 5.5- Adjacent Trans- Refined General
9.5 (b) f BIII-48 95 28.0 4.0 5.0 4..0 0.5
in. thick CIP composite deck 4.0 formed 5.9.3.4 5.7.3.4.2
U-beams with 3-½-in.-thick
Trans- Refined General
9.6 (b) precast panels and 4-in.-thick c TX U54 110 50.0 12.0 6.0 10.0 4..0 0.6
formed 5.9.3.4 5.7.3.4.2
CIP composite deck
Double-tee beams without CIP
NEXT Trans- Refined General
9.7(b) deck, with transverse post- i 80 44.33 9.0 6.0 8.0 N/A 0.6
36 D formed 5.9.3.4 5.7.3.4.2
tensioning
Double-tee beams with 6-in.- NEXT Trans- Refined General
9.8 (b) k 80 44.33 8.88 6.0 8.0 4..0 0.6
thick CIP deck and no P/T 36 F formed 5.9.3.4 5.7.3.4.2
9.9 Reserved for future use
3.5 in.-
Precast concrete stay-in-place Trans- Refined General
9.10 (c) N/A thick 9.5 44.5 Adjacent 6.5 8.0 4..0 0.5
deck panel system formed 5.9.3.4 5.7.3.4.2
SIP
I-beams with CIP composite Trans- Refined General
9.11(d) k FIB-102 200 51 9.0 7.5 10.0 4.0 0.6
deck formed 5.9.3.4 5.7.3.4.2

9.0 - 17 (2023)
 PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 9.0
DESIGN EXAMPLES
9.0.3 Level of Precision

Table 9.0-1
Design Examples
Span Bridge Beam Beam Beam CIP Strand
Example AASHTO Beam Cross Prestress
Bridge Type Lengths Width Spacing f'ci f'c Deck f'c Dia. Shear
Number Type Type Section Losses
ft ft ft ksi ksi ksi in.
Refined
Wide flange lightweight
5.9.3.4
concrete beams with WF Trans- General
9.12 (d) k 200 51 9.0 6.5 10.0 4.0 0.6 without
lightweight concrete CIP 100G formed 5.7.3.4.2
elastic
composite deck
gains

a. Included in this release.

b. Included by reference to the Third Edition.
c. Revised version scheduled for future release.
d. Scheduled for future release.

9.0 - 18 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents

Part 1
9.1a.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-5
9.1a.1.1 Terminology...............................................................................................................................................................................9.1a-5
9.1a.2 MATERIALS ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-6
9.1a.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR ........................................................................................... 9.1a-8
9.1a.3.1 Noncomposite Nontransformed Beam Section ..........................................................................................................9.1a-8
9.1a.3.2 Composite Section ...................................................................................................................................................................9.1a-8
9.1a.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width .................................................................................................................................................9.1a-8
9.1a.3.2.2 Modular Ratio between Slab and Beam Concrete ............................................................................................9.1a-8
9.1a.3.2.3 Section Properties ..........................................................................................................................................................9.1a-8
9.1a.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENTING MOMENTS ....................................................................................................................... 9.1a-10
9.1a.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads ................................................................................... 9.1a-10
9.1a.4.1.1 Dead Loads ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-10
9.1a.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments .......................................................................................... 9.1a-11
9.1a.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads ..................................................................................... 9.1a-11
9.1a.4.2.1 Live Loads ....................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-11
9.1a.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam .................................................................... 9.1a-11
9.1a.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment ................................................................................................ 9.1a-12
9.1a.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force ........................................................................................................... 9.1a-13
9.1a.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance .................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-13
9.1a.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments .......................................................................................... 9.1a-13
9.1a.4.2.4.1 Due To Truck Load; VLT, MLT, and Mf........................................................................................................... 9.1a-13
9.1a.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL ....................................................................................................... 9.1a-14
9.1a.4.3 Load Combinations .............................................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-14
9.1a.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS ....................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-16
9.1a.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan ................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-16
9.1a.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete ................................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-17
9.1a.5.3 Required Number of Strands........................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-17
9.1a.5.4 Strand Pattern ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-18
9.1a.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties ........................................................................................................................ 9.1a-18
9.1a.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES ...................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-20
9.1a.6.1 Elastic Shortening ................................................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-21
9.1a.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement .................................................................. 9.1a-21
9.1a.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-22
9.1a.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete ........................................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-23
9.1a.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ...................................................................................................................... 9.1a-23
9.1a.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time .............................................................. 9.1a-23
9.1a.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-23

9.1a - 1 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.1a.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete ........................................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-24
9.1a.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ..................................................................................................................... 9.1a-25
9.1a.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete .................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-25
9.1a.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss ............................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-26
9. 1a.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer ................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-26
9.1a.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads ......................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-27
9.1a.7 CONCRETE STRESS AT TRANSFER ....................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-27
9.1a.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ................................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-27
9.1a.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section ............................................................................................................................. 9.1a-27
9.1a.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points ...................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-30
9.1a.7.4 Stresses at Midspan ............................................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-30
9.1a.7.5 Hold-Down Forces ............................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-31
9.1a.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer .................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-31
9.1a.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS ....................................................................................................................... 9.1a-31
9.1a.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ................................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-31
9.1a.8.2 Stresses at Midspan ............................................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-32
9.1a.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam ........................................................................................................ 9.1a-32
9.1a.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck .................................................................................................. 9.1a-33
9.1a.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III ...................................................... 9.1a-34
9.1a.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit ............................................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-35
9.1a.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads ............................................................................................... 9.1a-35
9.1a.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage.................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-36
9.1a.8.5.1 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam without Deck Shrinkage, Load Combination Service III ... 9.1a-36
9.1a.8.5.2 Stresses from Deck Shrinkage ............................................................................................................................... 9.1a-36
9.1a.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE........................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-36
9.1a.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT ............................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-38
9.1a.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement .............................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-38
9.1a.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-38
9.1a.11 SHEAR DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-39
9.1a.11.1 Critical Section .................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-39
9.1a.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance ................................................................................... 9.1a-40
9.1a.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement .................................................................................................... 9.1a-40
9.1a.11.2.2 Values of β and θ ....................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-41
9.1a.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution ........................................................................................................................ 9.1a-41
9.1a.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance ....................................................................... 9.1a-42
9.1a.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................ 9.1a-42
9.1a.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement ....................................................................................................................... 9.1a-42
9.1a.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement .............................................................................................................. 9.1a-42

9.1a - 2 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.1a.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement .......................................................................................................... 9.1a-42
9.1a.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance ....................................................................................................................... 9.1a-43
9.1a.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER ............................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-43
9.1a.12.1 Interface Shear Resistance ............................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-43
9.1a.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance ...................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-43
9.1a.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement ............................................................................................................... 9.1a-43
9.1a.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement ..................................................................................................... 9.1a-44
9.1a.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance ....................................................................................................................... 9.1a-44
9.1a.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement ................................................................................................ 9.1a-45
9.1a.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing .......................................................................................................... 9.1a-45
9.1a.14 Pretensioned Anchorage Zone .............................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-46
9.1a.14.1 Splitting Resistance ........................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-46
9.1a.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement ......................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-47
9.1a.15 Deflection and Camber ............................................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-47
9.1a.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer ............................................................................................... 9.1a-47
9.1a.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight .......................................................................................................................... 9.1a-47
9.1a.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights ......................................................................................................... 9.1a-47
9.1a.15.4 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface Weights ................................................................. 9.1a-48
9.1a.15.5 Deflection and Camber Summary ............................................................................................................................... 9.1a-48
9.1a.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact .................................................................................................................. 9.1a-48

Part 2
9.1a6.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-50
9.1a6.2 MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-50
9.1a6.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM........................................................................ 9.1a-50
9.1a6.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS .................................................................................................................... 9.1a-50
9.1a6.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS .................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-50
9.1a6.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan............................................................................................................................... 9.1a-50
9.1a6.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete .............................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-51
9.1a6.5.3 Required Number of Strands ........................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-51
9.1a6.5.4 Strand Pattern ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-52
9.1a6.6 PRESTRESS LOSES ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-52
9.1a6.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER ............................................................................................................................... 9.1a-53
9.1a6.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete .............................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-53
9.1a6.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section .......................................................................................................................... 9.1a-53
9.1a6.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points ................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-55
9.1a6.7.4 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-56
9.1a6.7.5 Hold-Down Forces ............................................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-56

9.1a - 3 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.1a6.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer ................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-56
9.1a6.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS .................................................................................................................... 9.1a-57
9.1a6.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete .............................................................................................................................................. 9.1a-57
9.1a6.8.2 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-57
9.1a6.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam ..................................................................................................... 9.1a-57
9.1a6.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck ............................................................................................... 9.1a-58
9.1a6.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III ................................................... 9.1a-58
9.1a6.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-58
9.1a6.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads ............................................................................................. 9.1a-58
9.1a6.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE ........................................................................................................................................................ 9.1a-59
9.1a6.10 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1a-59

9.1a - 4 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses/9.1a.1.1 Terminology

Part 1
Part 1 is an updated version of Design Example 9.1a from the previous edition of this manual. It is based on the
use of ½-in.-diameter prestressing strands. Part 2, which follows after the end of 9.1a, repeats the flexural design
using 0.6-in.-diameter strands for comparison purposes and is identified as 9.1a6.

9.1a Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses

9.1a.1 INTRODUCTION
This example illustrates in detail the design of a typical interior beam at the critical sections in positive flexure,
shear, and deflection due to prestress, dead loads, and live load. For completeness, this example includes the
design of all aspects of a typical beam bridge.
The purpose of design examples 9.1a, 9.1b and 9.1d is to illustrate the application and interpretation of the
AASHTO LRFD Specifications as written, even though the resulting complexity may imply a precision that is often
not achieved in practice. The examples demonstrate varying levels of rigor and detail that may not always be
necessary for typical bridge designs, where simplified analysis and approximate methods may be appropriate.
The examples may be used by new and experienced designers as both an educational reference and a design aid.
It assumes that the reader is generally knowledgeable about prestressed concrete beam design. The reader is
referred to Chapters 7 and 8 for additional theory and guidance.
This design example demonstrates the design of a 120-ft, single-span, AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beam bridge with no
skew. The superstructure consists of six beams spaced at 9 ft 0 in. centers, as shown in Figure 9.1a.1-1. Beams
are designed to act compositely with the cast-in-place concrete deck to resist all superimposed dead loads, live
loads, and impact. The 8-in.-thick deck includes a ½-in.-thick sacrificial wearing surface that is not included in the
calculation of the composite section properties. Design live load is HL-93. The design is accomplished in
accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Ninth Edition (2020). Elastic stresses from
external loads are calculated using transformed sections. Since transformed sections are used, elastic gains are
implicitly included in the calculation of losses and stresses. Shear strength is calculated using the general
procedure. Time-dependent prestress losses are calculated using the refined estimates. In addition to these
calculations, checks for lateral stability should be made (See Chapter 8).
Figure 9.1a.1-1
Bridge Cross Section

9.1a.1.1 Terminology
The following terminology is used to describe cross sections in this design example:
• composite section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch

9.1a - 5 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.1.1 Terminology/9.1a.2 Materials

• composite nontransformed section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch transformed
to provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the girder concrete but without the strands
transformed.
• composite steel transformed section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch and the
strands transformed to provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the girder concrete.
• noncomposite section—the concrete beam cross section.
• noncomposite nontransformed section—the concrete beam cross section without the strands
transformed. Also called the gross section.
• noncomposite steel transformed section—the concrete beam cross section with the strands transformed
to provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the girder concrete.
Note: The term “composite” implicitly includes the transformation of the concrete deck and haunch, and the term
“transformed” generally refers to transformation of the strands.
Designers may conservatively exclude the haunch in the calculation of section properties because beam camber
causes a variability of its thickness.

9.1a.2 MATERIALS
Cast-in-place concrete slab: Actual thickness = 8.0 in.
Structural thickness, ts = 7.5 in.
Note that a ½-in.-thick wearing surface is integral to the 8-in.-thick deck but is considered nonstructural.
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 4.0 ksi
Precast concrete beams: AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beams as shown in Figure 9.1a.2-1
Required concrete compressive strength at transfer, 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 5.8 ksi
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 6.5 ksi
Concrete unit weight, wc = 0.150 kcf
Overall beam length = 121.0 ft
Design span = 120.0 ft

9.1a - 6 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.2 Materials

Figure9.1a.21
AASHTO-PCI BT-72 Dimensions

Prestressing strands: ½-in.-diameter, seven-wire, low-relaxation

Area of one strand = 0.153 in.2
Specified tensile strength, fpu = 270.0 ksi
Yield strength, fpy = 0.9fpu = 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Stress limits for prestressing strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.2.2-1]
• before transfer, fpbt ≤ 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi
• at service limit state (after all losses), fpe ≤ 0.80fpy = 194.4 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Ep = 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
Reinforcing bars:
Yield strength, fy = 60.0 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Es = 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Future wearing surface: 2 in. additional concrete, unit weight = 0.150 kcf
New Jersey–type barrier: unit weight = 0.300 kips/ft/side

9.1a - 7 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.3 Cross-Section Properties For A Typical Interior Beam/9.1a.3.2.3 Section Properties

9.1a.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM

9.1a.3.1 Noncomposite Nontransformed Beam Section
Ag = area of gross beam cross section = 767 in.2
h = overall depth of beam = 72 in.
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 545,894 in.4
yb = distance from the centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam =
36.60 in.
yt = distance from the centroid to the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 35.40
in.
Sb = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam
= I/yb = 14,915 in.3
St = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam
= I/yt = 15,421 in.3
w = weight per unit length of beam = (767/144)(0.150) = 0.799 kips/ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, ksi = 120,000𝐾1 𝑤𝑐2.0 𝑓𝑐′ 0.33 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]
where
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate; taken as 1.0
wc = unit weight of concrete = 0.150 kcf
LRFD Table 3.5.1-1 states that, in the absence of more precise data, the unit weight of concrete may
be taken as 0.140 + 0.001𝑓𝑐′ for 5.0 < 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 15.0 ksi. For 𝑓𝑐′ = 6.5 ksi, the unit weight would be
0.1465 kcf. However, precast concrete mixtures typically have a relatively low water-cementitious
materials ratio and high density. Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150 kcf is used in this example. For
high-strength concrete, this value may need to be increased based on test results. For simplicity, a
value of 0.150 kcf is also used for the cast-in-place concrete.
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi
Therefore, the moduli of elasticity are as follows:
• cast-in-place slab, 𝐸𝑐 = 120,000(1.0)(0.150)2.0 (4.0)0.33 = 4,266 ksi
• precast concrete beam at transfer, 𝐸𝑐𝑖 = 120,000(1.0)(0.150)2.0 (5.8)0.33 = 4,823 ksi
• precast concrete beam at service loads, 𝐸𝑐 = 120,000(1.0)(0.150)2.0 (6.5)0.33 = 5,008 ksi

9.1a.3.2 Composite Section

9.1a.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.6.1]

Effective flange width is taken as the tributary width perpendicular to the axis of the beam. For the interior beam,
the effective flange width is calculated as one-half the distance to the adjacent beam on each side.
2 × (4.5 × 12) = 108.00 in.
Therefore, the effective flange width is 108.00 in.

9.1a.3.2.2 Modular Ratio between Slab and Beam Concrete

𝐸𝑐 (slab) 4,266
Modular ratio between slab and beam concrete, 𝑛 = = = 0.8520
𝐸𝑐 (beam) 5,008

9.1a.3.2.3 Section Properties

The effective flange width must be transformed by the modular ratio to provide cross-sectional properties
equivalent to the girder concrete.
Transformed flange width = n(effective flange width) = (0.8520)(108.00) = 92.01 in.

9.1a - 8 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.3.2.3 Section Properties

Transformed flange area = n(effective flange width)(ts)= 92.01(7.50) = 690.09 in.2

Transformed flange moment of inertia = (92.01)(7.50)3/12 = 3,235 in.4
Note: Only the structural thickness of the deck, 7.50 in., is considered.
Due to camber of the precast, prestressed concrete beam, a minimum haunch thickness of ½ in. at midspan is
considered in the structural properties of the composite section. Also, the width of haunch must be transformed
by the modular ratio.
Transformed width of haunch = (0.8520)(42.00) = 35.78 in.
Transformed area of haunch = 35.78(0.5) = 17.89 in.2
Transformed moment of inertia of haunch = (35.78)(0.5)3/12 = 0.37 in.4 (taken as zero in calculations)
Note that the haunch should only be considered to contribute to section properties if it is required to be provided
in the completed structure. Therefore, some designers neglect its contribution to the section properties.
Figure 9.1a.3.2.3-1
Dimensions of the Composite Section

Table 9.1a.3.2.3-1
Properties of Composite Section
Piece Area, A yb Ayb d Ad2 I I + Ad2
in.2 in. in.3 in. in.4 in.4 in.4
Deck 690.09 76.25 52,619 20.67 294,748 3,235 297,983
Haunch 17.89 72.25 1,293 16.67 4,970 0.00 4,970
Beam 767.00 36.60 28,072 −18.98 276,397 545,894 822,291
∑ 1474.98 81,984 1,125,244

9.1a - 9 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.3.2.3 Section Properties/9.1a.4.1.1 Dead Loads

c = total area of the gross composite section = 1,474.98 in.2

hc = overall depth of the composite section = 80.00 in.
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section = 1,125,244 in.4
ybc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme bottom fiber of the precast
concrete beam = 81,894/1,474.98 = 55.58 in.
ytg = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the precast concrete
beam = 72.00 − 55.58 = 16.42 in.
ytc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the structural deck =
80.00 − 55.58 = 24.42 in.
Sbc = composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast concrete beam
1,125,244
= (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑏𝑐 ) = = 20,244 in.3
55.58
Stg = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast concrete beam
1,125,244
= (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑡𝑔 ) = = 68,542 in.3
16.42
Sdtc = composite section modulus for extreme top fiber of the structural deck slab [(1/n) factor allows for
stress check of deck concrete]
1 1 1,125,244
( ) (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑡𝑐 ) = ( )( ) = 54,093 in.3
𝑛 0.8520 24.42

9.1a.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

The self weight of the beam and the weight of the deck and haunch act on the noncomposite, simple-span
structure, while the weight of barriers, future wearing surface, and live loads with impact act on the composite,
simple-span structure. Refer to Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2, which follow Section 9.1a.4.3, for a summary of
unfactored values calculated herein.

9.1a.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads

9.1a.4.1.1 Dead Loads [LRFD Art. 3.3.2]

DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
Dead loads acting on the noncomposite structure:
Beam self weight, wg = 0.799 kips/ft
8-in.-thick deck weight = (8 in./12 ft)(9 ft)(0.150 kcf) = 0.900 kips/ft
½-in.-thick haunch weight = (0.5)(42/144)(0.150) = 0.022 kips/ft
Slab and haunch weight, ws = 0.900 + 0.022 = 0.922 kips/ft
Notes:
1. Actual deck thickness (8 in.) is used for computing dead load.
2. A ½ in. minimum haunch thickness is assumed in the computations of dead load. If a deeper haunch
will be used because of final beam camber, the weight of the actual haunch should be used.
3. For this design example, the unit weight of the reinforced concrete is taken as 0.150 kcf. Some
designers use a higher unit weight to account for the weight of the reinforcement.
4. The weight of cross diaphragms is ignored assuming the use of lightweight steel diaphragms.
Dead loads placed on the composite structure:
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1 states that permanent loads (curbs and wearing surface) may be distributed uniformly
among all beams if the following conditions are met:
• Width of the deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb, is not less than four (Nb = 6) OK
• Beams are parallel and have the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft
de = 3.0 − 1.5 = 1.50 ft OK

9.1a - 10 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.4.1.1 Dead Loads/9.1a.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam

• Curvature in plan is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (curvature = 0.0 degrees) OK
• Cross section of the bridge is consistent with one of the cross sections in LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 OK
Since these criteria are satisfied, the barrier and wearing surface loads are distributed equally among the six
beams.
Barrier weight = (2 barriers)(0.300 kips/ft)/(6 beams) = 0.100 kips/ft/beam = wb
DW = dead load of wearing surface
= (2/12)(0.150) = 0.025 ksf
wws = wearing surface weight
= (0.025 ksf)(48.0 ft)/(6 beams) = 0.200 kips/ft/beam

9.1a.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments

For a simply supported beam with span length, L, loaded with a uniformly distributed load, w, the shear force, Vx ,
and bending moment, Mx, at any distance, x, from the support are given by:
Vx = w(0.5L − x) (Eq. 9.1a.4.1.2-1)
Mx = 0.5wx(L − x) (Eq. 9.1a.4.1.2-2)
Using Eq. (9.1a.4.1.2-1) and (9.1a.4.1.2-2), values of shear forces and bending moments for a typical interior
beam, under self weight of beam, weight of slab and haunch, and weight of barriers and wearing surface are
computed (see Table 9.1a.4-1, located at the end of Sect. 9.1a.4.3). For these calculations, the span length, L, is the
design span, 120 ft. However, for calculations of stresses and deformation at the time prestress is transferred, the
overall length of the precast concrete member, 121 ft, is used, as illustrated later in this example.

9.1a.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads

9.1a.4.2.1 Live Loads

The design live load is HL-93, which consists of a combination of the [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.1]
following:
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.2]
The design truck consists of 8.0-, 32.0-, and 32.0-kip axles, with the first pair spaced at 14.0 ft and the
second pair spaced at 14.0 to 30.0 ft. The design tandem consists of a pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced at 4.0 ft
apart. [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.3]
2. Design lane load of 0.64 kips/ft without dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.4]

9.1a.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam

The live load bending moments and shear forces are determined by using the simplified distribution factor
formulas [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]. To use the simplified live load distribution factor formulas, the following conditions
must be met [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2.1]:
• Width of deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb, not less than four (Nb = 6) OK
• Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft (de = 1.5 ft) OK
• Curvature is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (curvature = 0.0 degrees) OK
For precast concrete I-beams or bulb-tee beams with cast-in-place concrete deck,
the bridge type is (k). [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]

9.1a - 11 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam/9.1a.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment

The number of design lanes is computed as follows:

Number of design lanes = the integer part of the ratio of w/12, where w is the clear roadway width, ft, between
the curbs [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.1]
From Figure 9.1a.1-1, w = 48 ft
Number of design lanes = integer part of (48/12) = 4 lanes

9.1a.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment

• For all limit states except fatigue limit state:
For two or more lanes loaded:
𝑆 0.6 𝑆 0.2 𝐾𝑔 0.1
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 0.075 + ( ) ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
9.5 𝐿 12.0𝐿𝑡𝑠3
Provided that:
3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16.0; S = 9.0 ft OK
4.5 ≤ ts ≤ 12.0; ts = 7.5 in. OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 240; L = 120 ft OK
Nb ≥ 4; Nb = 6 OK
10,000 ≤ Kg ≤ 7,000,000 OK (see below)
where
DFM = distribution factor for bending moment for the interior beam
S = beam spacing, ft
L = beam span, ft
ts = structural depth of the concrete deck, in.
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter, in.4 = n(Ig + Ageg2) [LRFD Eq. 4.6.2.2.1-1]
where
n = modular ratio between beam and deck slab concrete
𝐸𝑐 (beam) 5,008
= = = 1.1738
𝐸𝑐 (slab) 4,266
Ag = cross-sectional area of the precast concrete beam (noncomposite section), in.2
Ig = moment of inertia of the precast concrete beam (noncomposite section), in.4
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the precast concrete beam and slab, in.
= (7.5/2 + 0.5 + 35.4) = 39.65 in.
Therefore,
Kg = 1.1738[545,894 + 767(39.65)2] = 2,056,100 in.4
0.1
9 0.6 9 0.2 2,056,100
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 0.075 + ( ) ( ) ( )
9.5 120 12.0(120)(7.5)3
= 0.726 lanes/beam
For one design lane loaded:
𝑆 0.4 𝑆 0.3 𝐾𝑔 0.1
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 0.06 + ( ) ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
14 𝐿 12.0𝐿𝑡𝑠3
0.1
9 0.4 9 0.3 2,056,100
= 0.06 + ( ) ( ) ( )
14 120 12.0(120)(7.5)3
= 0.495 lanes⁄beam
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls and DFM = 0.726 lanes/beam

9.1a - 12 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment/9.1a4.2.4.1 Due To Truck Load, VLT, MLT, Mf

• For fatigue limit state:

LRFD Article C3.4.1 states that for fatigue limit state, a single design truck should be used. However, live
load distribution factors given in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 take into consideration the multiple presence
factor, m. LRFD Article 3.6.1.1.2 states that the multiple presence factor, m, for one design lane loaded is
1.2. Therefore, the multiple presence factor should be removed and the distribution factor for fatigue
limit state is 0.495/1.2 = 0.413 lanes/beam.

9.1a.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force

For two or more lanes loaded:
𝑆 𝑆 2
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = 0.2 + ( ) − ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
12 35
Provided that:
3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16.0; S = 9.0 ft OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 240; L = 120 ft OK
4.5 ≤ ts ≤ 12.0; ts = 7.5 in. OK
Nb ≥ 4; Nb = 6 OK
where
DFV = distribution factor for shear force for interior beam
S = beam spacing, ft
Therefore, the distribution factor for shear force is:
9 9 2
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = 0.2 + ( ) − ( ) = 0.884 lanes⁄beam
12 35
For one design lane loaded:
S 9
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = 0.36 + ( ) = 0.36 + ( ) = 0.720 lanes⁄beam [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
25.0 25.0
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls, and DFV = 0.884 lanes/beam.

9.1a.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance

IM = 15% for fatigue limit state
IM = 33% for all other limit states [LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]
where IM = dynamic load allowance, applied to design truck load only

9.1a.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments

9.1a.4.2.4.1 Due To Truck Load; VLT, MLT, and Mf

• For all limit states except the fatigue limit state:
Shear force and bending moment envelopes on a per-lane basis are calculated at tenth-points of the span
using the equations given in Chapter 8 of this manual. However, the calculations are generally done by
means of commercially available computer software that has the ability to deal with moving loads.
The truck load shear forces and bending moments per beam are as follows:
VLT = (shear force per lane)(DFV)(1 + IM)
= (shear force per lane)(0.884)(1 + 0.33)
= (shear force per lane)(1.176) kips
MLT = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.726)(1 + 0.33)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.966) ft-kips
Values of VLT and MLT at different points are given in Table 9.1a.4-2.

9.1a - 13 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a4.2.4.1 Due To Truck Load, VLT, MLT, Mf/9.1a.4.3 Load Combinations

• For fatigue limit state:

LRFD Article 3.6.1.4.1 states that the fatigue load is a single design truck that has the same axle weight
used in all other limit states but with a constant spacing of 30.0 ft between the 32.0-kip axles. Bending
moment envelope on a per-lane basis is calculated using the equation given in Chapter 8 of this manual.
The bending moment of the fatigue truck load is:
Mf = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.413)(1 + 0.15)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.475) ft-kips
Values of Mf at different points are given in Table 9.1a.4-2.

9.1a.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL

To obtain the maximum shear force at a section located at a distance, x, from the left support under a uniformly
distributed load of 0.64 kips/ft, load the member to the right of section under consideration (Fig. 9.1a.4.2.4.2-1).
Therefore, the maximum shear force per lane is:
0.32(𝐿 − 𝑥)2
𝑉𝑥 = for 𝑥 ≤ 0.5𝐿 (Eq. 9.1a.4.2.4.2-1)
𝐿
where Vx is in kips/lane and L and x are in ft
Figure 9.1a.4.2.4.2-1
Maximum Shear Force Due to Design Lane Load

To calculate the maximum bending moment at any section, use Eq. (9.1a.4.1.2-2).
Lane load shear force and bending moment per typical interior beam are as follows:
VLL = (lane load shear force)(DFV)
= (lane load shear force)(0.884) kips
For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
MLL = (lane load bending moment)(DFM)
= (lane load bending moment)(0.726) ft-kips
Note that the dynamic allowance is not applied to the design lane loading.
Values of shear forces and bending moments, VLL and MLL, are given in Table 9.1a.4-2.

9.1a.4.3 Load Combinations [LRFD Art. 3.4]

Total factored load is taken as:
Q = ∑ηiγiQi [LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]

9.1a - 14 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.4.3 Load Combinations

where
ηi = a load modifier relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational [LRFD Art. 1.3.2]
importance (Here, ηi is considered to be 1.0 for typical bridges.)
γi = load factors [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Qi = force effects from specified loads
Investigating different limit states given in LRFD Article 3.4.1, the following limit states are applicable:
Service I: Check compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 1.00(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is the general combination for service limit state stress checks and applies to all conditions
other than Service III.
Service III: Check tensile stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + γLL(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress checks that applies only to tension in
prestressed concrete structures to control cracks. For a preliminary estimate of the number of strands, using
gross section properties, a live load factor, γLL, of 0.8 is used. Subsequent final design calculations use transformed
sections, make use of elastic gains, and will use a live load factor of 1.0.
Strength I: Check ultimate strength: [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and -2]
Maximum Q = 1.25(DC) + 1.50(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Minimum Q = 0.90(DC) + 0.65(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
This load combination is the general load combination for strength limit state design.
Note: For simple-span bridges, the maximum load factors produce maximum effects. However, use minimum load
factors for dead load, DC, and wearing surface, DW, when dead load and wearing surface stresses are opposite to
those of live load.
Fatigue I: Check stress range in strands: [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Q = 1.75(LL + IM)
This load combination is a special load combination to check the tensile stress range in the strands due to live
load and dynamic allowance.
Table 9.1a.4-1
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads for a Typical Interior
Beam
Slab + Haunch Wearing Surface
Beam Weight Barrier Weight
Weight Weight
Distance Section
x, ft x/L Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment
Vg Mg Vs Ms Vb Mb Vws Mws
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips
0 0.0 47.9 0.0 55.3 0.0 6.0 0.0 12.0 0.0
*6.10 0.051 43.1 277.6 49.7 320.3 5.4 34.7 10.8 69.5
12 0.1 38.4 517.8 44.3 597.5 4.8 64.8 9.6 129.6
24 0.2 28.8 920.4 33.2 1,062.1 3.6 115.2 7.2 230.4
36 0.3 19.2 1,208.1 22.1 1,394.1 2.4 151.2 4.8 302.4
48 0.4 9.6 1,380.7 11.1 1,593.2 1.2 172.8 2.4 345.6
60 0.5 0.0 1,438.2 0.0 1,659.6 0.0 180.0 0.0 360.0
*Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.1a.11).

9.1a - 15 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.4.3 Load Combinations/9.1a.5.1 Service Load Stress Midspan

Table 9.1a.4-2
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads for a Typical Interior Beam
Fatigue
Truck Load with
Lane Load Truck with
Impact
Distance Section Impact
x, ft x/L
Shear Moment Shear Moment Moment
VLT MLT VLL MLL Mf
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips ft-kips
0 0.0 78.1 0.0 33.9 0.0 0.0
*6.10 0.051 73.8 369.6 30.6 161.4 —
12 0.1 69.6 686.0 27.5 301.2 312.8
24 0.2 61.1 1,205.2 21.7 535.4 541.9
36 0.3 52.7 1,557.6 16.6 702.6 700.0
48 0.4 44.2 1,764.5 12.2 803.0 748.7
60 0.5 35.7 1,815.5 8.5 836.5 785.9
*Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.1a.11)

9.1a.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

The required number of strands is usually governed by concrete tensile stresses at the bottom fiber for load
combination Service III at the section of maximum moment or at the harp points. For estimating the number of
strands, only the stresses at midspan are considered. For this preliminary estimate, nontransformed or gross
section properties are used with estimated prestress losses; therefore, the live load factor, γLL, is taken as 0.8.

9.1a.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Bottom tensile stress due to applied dead and live loads and shrinkage of deck concrete using load combination
Service III is:
𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + (0.8)(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 = + + 𝑓𝑏𝑑𝑠
𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑐
where
fb = concrete tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam, ksi
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight, ft-kips
Ms = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights, ft-kips
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
Mws = unfactored bending moment due to future wearing surface, ft-kips
MLT = unfactored bending moment due to truck load, ft-kips
MLL = unfactored bending moment due to lane load, ft-kips
fbds = tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam attributable to shrinkage of deck concrete, ksi
The tensile stress in the bottom fiber of the beam attributed to shrinkage of deck concrete is computed by treating
the shrinkage as an external force, Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 , as follows:
ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑑 0.000582(108)(7.5)(4,266)
Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 = = = 779 kips
1 + 0.7Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) 1 + 0.7(2.258)
Where
ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 = shrinkage strain of deck concrete between time of placement and final time
𝐴𝑑 = area of deck concrete, in.2
𝐸𝑐𝑑 = modulus of elasticity of deck concrete, ksi
Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = deck concrete creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced shortly after
deck placement

9.1a - 16 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.5.1 Service Load Stress Midspan/9.1a.5.3 Required Number of Strands

The details of the deck shrinkage strain and creep coefficient are presented in 9.1a.6.3.4.
This force is applied at the center of the deck with an eccentricity from the center of the deck to the composite
center, ed = 24.42 − 3.75 = 20.67 in. The resulting bottom fiber stress, fbds, is:
∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑑 779 (779)(20.67)
𝑓𝑏𝑑𝑠 = − = − = 0.528 − 0.795 = −0.267 ksi
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐 1,475 20,244
Using values of bending moments from Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2, bottom tensile stress at midspan is:
(1,438 + 1,660) (180 + 360) + (0.8)(1815 + 837)
𝑓𝑏 = − (12) − (12) + (−0.267)
14,915 20,244
= (−2.493 − 1.578 − 0.267) = −4.338 ksi (tension)

9.1a.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete

Tensile stress limit at service loads = −0.19λ√𝑓𝑐′ ≥ −0.6 ksi [LRFD Table 5.9.2.3.2b-1]
where
𝑓𝑐′ = specified concrete compressive strength of beam for design, ksi
λ = 1 for normal weight concrete
Concrete tensile stress limit = −0.19(1) √6.50 = −0.484 ksi

9.1a.5.3 Required Number of Strands

The required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam is the difference between bottom tensile
stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress limit:
fpb = (4.338 − 0.484) = 3.854 ksi (required compression)
The location of the strand center of gravity at midspan ranges from 5% to 15% of the beam depth, measured from
the bottom of the beam. A value of 5% is appropriate for newer efficient sections such as bulb-tee beams and 15%
is appropriate for less-efficient AASHTO standard shapes.
Assume the distance between the center of gravity of the bottom strands and the bottom fiber of the beam:
ybs = 0.05h = 0.05(72) = 3.60 in.; use ybs = 4.0 in.
Therefore, strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = (yb − ybs) = (36.6 − 4.0) = 32.6 in.
If Ppe is the total prestressing force after all losses, the stress at the bottom fiber due to prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 (32.6)
𝑓𝑝𝑏 = + or 3.854 = +
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 767 14,915
Solving for Ppe, the required Ppe = 1,104 kips
Final prestress force per strand = (area of strand)(fpbt)(1 − losses)
where fpbt = initial strand stress before transfer, ksi (see Sect. 9.1a.2) = 202.5 ksi
Assuming final loss of 25% of fpbt, the prestress force per strand after all losses
= (0.153)(202.5)(1 − 0.25) = 23.2 kips
Number of strands required = (1104/23.2) = 47.6 strands
As an initial trial, forty-eight ½-in.-diameter, 270 ksi strands are selected. The strand pattern at midspan for the
48 strands is shown in Figure 9.1a.5.3-1. Each available position is filled symmetrically, beginning with the
bottom row.
Total area of prestressing strands, Aps = 48(0.153) = 7.344 in.2
Note: This is a simplified estimate of the number of strands using nontransformed section properties. The number
of strands is verified later in the design process as more accurate section properties and prestress losses are
determined.

9.1a - 17 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.5.4 Strand Pattern/9.1a.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

9.1a.5.4 Strand Pattern

The distance between the center of gravity of the bottom strands and the bottom concrete fiber of the beam at
midspan is:
ybs = [12(2) + 12(4) + 8(6) + 4(8) + 2(10) + 2(12) + 2(14) + 2(16) + 2(18) + 2(20)]/(48) = 6.92 in.
Strand eccentricity at midspan, epg = yb − ybs = 36.60 − 6.92 = 29.68 in.
Figure 9.1a.5.3-1
Assumed Strand Pattern at Midspan

9.1a.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

Starting in the earliest years of prestressed concrete design, the gross section was conservatively used in analysis
since the prestressing forces were smaller and computer programs were not widely used. However, the use of
transformed section, which is obtained from the gross section by adding transformed steel area, yields more
accurate results than the gross section analysis.
For each row of the prestressing strands shown in Figure 9.1a.5.3-1, the steel area is multiplied by (n − 1) to
calculate the transformed section properties, where n is the modular ratio between prestressing strand and
concrete. Since the modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer is different than that at final time, the transformed
section properties should be calculated separately for the two stages. Using similar procedures as in Section
9.1a.3.2.3, a sample calculation is shown in Tables 9.1a.5.5-1a through 9.1a.5.5-1c.
At transfer:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 4.909
4,823

9.1a - 18 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

At final:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 4.691
5,008
Table 9.1a.5.5-1a
Properties of Transformed Beam and Strands at Transfer
No. of Aps Transformed y Ay d Ad2 I0 I0 + Ad2
Strands in.2 Area A, in.2 in. in.3 in. in.4 in.4 in.4
Beam 767.00 36.60 28,072 1.33 1,362 545,894 547,256
Row 1 12 0.153 9.01 2.00 18 33.28 9,976 * 9,976
Row 2 12 0.153 9.01 4.00 36 31.28 8,812 * 8,812
Row 3 8 0.153 6.01 6.00 36 29.28 5,147 * 5,147
Row 4 4 0.153 3.00 8.00 24 27.28 2,234 * 2,234
Row 5 2 0.153 1.50 10.00 15 25.28 959 * 959
Row 6 2 0.153 1.50 12.00 18 23.28 813 * 813
Row 7 2 0.153 1.50 14.00 21 21.28 679 * 679
Row 8 2 0.153 1.50 16.00 24 19.28 558 * 558
Row 9 2 0.153 1.50 18.00 27 17.28 448 * 448
Row 2 0.153 1.50 20.00 30 15.28 350 * 350
10
∑ 803.06 28,322 577,233
* The moment of inertia of strand about its own centroid, I0, is neglected.

Table 9.1a.5.5-1b
Properties of Transformed Beam and Strands at Final Time
No. of Aps Transformed y Ay d Ad2 I0, I0 + Ad2
strands in.2 Area A, in.2 in. in.3 in. in.4 in.4 in.4
Beam 767.00 36.60 28,072 1.28 1,249 545,894 547,143
Row 1 12 0.153 8.61 2.00 17 33.33 9,565 * 9,565
Row 2 12 0.153 8.61 4.00 34 31.33 8,451 * 8,451
Row 3 8 0.153 5.74 6.00 34 29.33 4,938 * 4,938
Row 4 4 0.153 2.87 8.00 23 27.33 2,144 * 2,144
Row 5 2 0.153 1.44 10.00 14 25.33 921 * 921
Row 6 2 0.153 1.44 12.00 17 23.33 781 * 781
Row 7 2 0.153 1.44 14.00 20 21.33 653 * 653
Row 8 2 0.153 1.44 16.00 23 19.33 536 * 536
Row 9 2 0.153 1.44 18.00 26 17.33 431 * 431
Row 2 0.153 1.44 20.00 29 15.33 337 * 337
10
∑ 801.45 28,311 575,899
* The moment of inertia of strand about its own centroid, I0, is neglected.

9.1a - 19 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties/9.1a.6 Prestress Losses

Table 9.1a.5.5-1c
Properties of Composite Transformed Section at Final Time
Transformed y Ay d Ad2 Io I0 + Ad2
Area, A, in.2 in. in.3 in. in.4 in.4 in.4
Deck 690.09 76.25 52,619 21.78 327,285 3,235 330,520
Haunch 17.89 72.25 1,293 17.77 5,654 0 5,654
Transformed 801.45 35.32 28,311 19.15 293,861 575,899 869,760
beam
∑ 1509.43 82,222 1,205,935
Note: The moment of inertia of strand about its own centroid, I0, is neglected.

The steel transformed section properties are calculated as follows:

Noncomposite steel transformed section at transfer:
Ati = area of steel transformed beam section at transfer = 803.1 in.2
Iti = moment of inertia of steel transformed beam section at transfer = 577,233 in.4
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to the centroid of the steel transformed beam cross section at
transfer = 28.35 in.
ybti = distance from the centroid to the bottom fiber of the steel transformed beam at transfer = 35.27 in.
Sbti = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the steel transformed beam section at transfer =
16,367 in.3
Stti = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the steel transformed beam section at transfer = 15,714
in.3
Noncomposite steel transformed section at final time:
Atf = area of steel transformed beam section at final time = 801.5 in.2
Itf = moment of inertia of the steel transformed beam section at final time = 575,899 in.4
etf = eccentricity of strands with respect to the centroid of the steel transformed beam section at final time
= 28.41 in.
ybtf = distance from the centroid to the bottom fiber of the steel transformed beam at final time = 35.32 in
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the steel transformed beam section at final time =
16,303 in.3
Sttf = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the steel transformed beam section at final time =
15,702 in.3
Composite steel transformed section at final time:
Atc = area of steel transformed composite section at final time = 1,509.4 in.2
Itc = moment of inertia of the steel transformed composite section at final time = 1,205,935 in.4
etc = eccentricity of strands with respect to steel transformed composite section at final time = 47.56 in.
ybtc = distance from the centroid of the steel transformed composite section to the extreme bottom fiber of
the beam at final time = 54.47 in.
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the steel transformed composite section at
final time = 22,138 in.3
Sttc = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast concrete beam for steel transformed
composite section at final time = 68,802 in.3steel
Sdtc = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the deck for steel transformed composite section at final
time = 55,449 in.3 (Includes 1/n factor for the calculation of deck concrete stresses)

9.1a.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES

In Section 9.1a.5 prestress losses were estimated to determine a preliminary strand pattern. Now a refined
estimate of prestress losses will be computed.
Total prestress loss:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.1-1]

9.1a - 20 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.6 Prestress Losses/9.1a.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

where
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel after transfer. In
this design example, the refined estimates of time-dependent losses are used.

9.1a.6.1 Elastic Shortening

𝐸𝑝
∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.2.3a-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
where
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands = 28,500 ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete at transfer = 4,823 ksi
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing strands due to prestressing force
at transfer and the self weight of the member at sections of maximum moment
If the gross (or net) cross-section properties are used, it is necessary to perform numerical iterations. The elastic
loss, ΔfpES , is usually assumed to be 10% of the initial prestress to calculate fcgp, which is then used in LRFD Eq.
(5.9.3.2.3a-1) to calculate a refined ΔfpES. The process is repeated until the assumed ΔfpES and refined ΔfpES
converge. Alternately, LRFD Eq. C5.9.3.2.3a-1 may be used to determine elastic shortening losses in pretensioned
members without iteration.
However, when steel transformed section properties are used to calculate the concrete stress, that calculation
implicitly accounts for the effects of losses and gains due to elastic deformations Therefore, when calculating fcgp,
the term Ppi is calculated using the stress in the strand before transfer.
Force per strand before transfer = (area of strand)(prestress stress before transfer)
= (0.153)(202.5) = 30.98 kips
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖2 𝑀𝑔 𝑒𝑡𝑖
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖
where
eti = eccentricity of strands at midspan with respect to the transformed section at transfer = 28.35 in.
Ppi = total prestressing force before transfer = (48 strands)(30.98) = 1,487.0 kips
Mg should be calculated based on the overall beam length of 121 ft. Because the elastic shortening loss is a
part of the total loss, fcgp will be conservatively computed based on Mg using the design span length of 120 ft.
1,487.0 (1,487.0)(28.35)2 (1,438.2)(12)(28.35)
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + − = 3.075 ksi
803.1 577,233 577,233
Therefore, the loss due to elastic shortening is:
28,500
∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = (3.075) = 18.172 ksi
4,823
LRFD Article C5.9.3.3 indicates that the loss due to elastic shortening at transfer should be added to the time-
dependent losses to determine total losses. However, this loss at transfer is directly accounted for if transformed
section properties are used in the stress analysis.

9.1a.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

The following construction schedule is assumed in calculating the time-dependent losses:
Concrete age at transfer: ti = 1 day
Concrete age at deck placement: td = 90 days
Concrete age at final stage: tf = 20,000 days

9.1a - 21 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement/9.1a.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The total time-dependent loss between time of transfer and deck placement is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of concrete, creep of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing strands.

9.1a.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is calculated by:
ΔfpSR = εbidEpKid [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2a-1]
where
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain of the girder for time period between transfer and deck placement
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kid = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between transfer and deck
placement
The concrete shrinkage strain εbid is taken as:
εbid = ks khs kf ktd 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
where
The factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam is:
ks = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13 × 3.01 = 1.059
The minimum value of ks is 1.0 OK
V/S is the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam in Table 2.5.7.1-1.
The humidity factor for shrinkage is:
khs = 2.00 − 0.014H = 2.00 − 0.014(70) = 1.020
where H = average annual mean relative humidity (assume 70%)
The factor for the effect of concrete strength is:
5 5
𝑘𝑓 = = = 0.735
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 1 + 5.8
The time development factor at deck placement is:
𝑡 89
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = ′ = = 0.714 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑
100 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 100 − 4(5.8)
12 ( ′ )+𝑡 12 ( ) + 89
𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 20 5.8 + 20
where t is the maturity of concrete, days = td − ti = 90 − 1 = 89 days
εbid = (1.059)(1.020)(0.735)(0.714)(0.48 × 10−3) = 0.000272
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 (𝑒𝑝𝑔 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔
where
epg = eccentricity of prestressing strand with respect to the centroid of the girder, in.
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced at transfer
For the time between transfer and final time:
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = 1.9ks khc kf ktd ti [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
−0.118

khc = 1.56 − 0.008H = 1.56 − 0.008(70) = 1.000

𝑡 20,000 − 1
= = 0.998
100 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 100 − 4(5.8)
ktd = 12 ( ′ )+𝑡 12 ( ) + (20,000 − 1)
𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 20 5.8 + 20
= 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑

9.1a - 22 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.1a.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

Ψ𝑏 ( 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑖 ) = 1.9(1.059)(1.000)(0.735)(0.998)(1)−0.118
= 1.476
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = = 0.795
28,500 7.344 767(29.68)2
1+ (1 + [1
) + 0.7(1.476)]
4,823 767 545,894
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between transfer and deck placement is:
ΔfpSR = (0.000272)(28,500)(0.795) = 6.164 ksi

9.1a.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of girder concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = 𝑓 Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 )𝐾 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖 𝑖𝑑
where
Ψ𝑏 ( 𝑡 𝑑 , 𝑡 𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at time of deck placement due to loading introduced at transfer
= 1.9ks khckfktddti−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
= 1.9(1.059)(1.000)(0.735)(0.714)(1)−0.118
= 1.055
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = (3.075)(1.055)(0.795) = 15.252 ksi
4,823
9.1a.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands
The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck placement is
determined as:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑡
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2c-1]
𝐾𝐿 𝑓𝑝𝑦
where
fpt = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer, taken not less than 0.55fpy
KL = 30 for low-relaxation strands and 7 for other prestressing steel, unless more accurate
manufacturer’s data are available
(202.5 − 18.2) (202.5 − 18.2)
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) = 1.281 ksi
30 243
According to LRFD Article 5.9.3.4.2c, the relaxation loss may also be assumed equal to 1.2 ksi for low-relaxation
strands.
9.1a.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time
The total time-dependent loss between time of deck placement and final time is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of beam concrete, creep of beam concrete, relaxation of prestressing strands, and shrinkage of
deck concrete.

9.1a.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of deck placement and final time is calculated by:
ΔfpSD = εbdfEpKdf [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3a-1]
Where
εbdf = concrete shrinkage strain of the girder for time period between deck placement and final time
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kdf = transformed section coefficient that accounts for the time-dependent interaction between
concrete and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between deck
placement and final time

9.1a - 23 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.1a.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

The total girder concrete shrinkage strain between transfer and final time is taken as:
εbif = kskhs kfktdf0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
= (1.059)(1.020)(0.735)(0.998)(0.48 × 10−3) = 0.000380
The girder concrete shrinkage strain between deck placement and final time is:
εbdf = εbif − εbid = 0.000380 − 0.000272 = 0.000108
The beam concrete transformed section coefficient between deck placement and final time is:
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐 (𝑒𝑝𝑐 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
Ac = area of the composite section = 1,475.0 in.2
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section = 1,125,244 in.4
epc = eccentricity of strands with respect to the centroid of the composite section
= 55.58 − 6.92 = 48.67 in.
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = = 0.803
28,500 7.344 1,475(48.67)2
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(1.476)]
4,823 1,475 1,125,244
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of deck placement and final time is:
ΔfpSD = (0.000108)(28,500)(0.803) = 2.482 ksi

9.1a.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between time of deck placement and final time is determined as:
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓 [Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 ) − Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )]𝐾𝑑𝑓 + Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑓 𝑖 𝐸𝑐
where
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading at deck placement
= 1.9kskhckfktdftd −0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
ktdf = 0.998; previously calculated with SH
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = 1.9(1.059)(1.000)(0.735)0.998)(90)−= 0.868
Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to long-term losses between
transfer and deck placement, combined with deck weight and superimposed loads, ksi
𝐴 𝐴 𝑒2 𝑀𝑒 (𝑀 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐
= −(Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 ) 𝑝𝑠 (1 + 𝑔 𝑝𝑔 ) − ( 𝑠 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑏 )
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐
7.344 767(29.68)2
= −(6.164 + 15.252 + 1.281) (1 + )
767 545,894
1,659.6(12)(28.41) (180 + 360)(12)(47.56)
−( + )
575,899 1,205,935
= −1.724 ksi

The gross section properties are used in the equation to calculate Δfcd for the long-term losses since the
transformed section effect was already included in the factor Kid when the losses between initial time and deck
placement were calculated.
28,500 28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = (3.075)(1.476 − 1.056)(0.803) + (−1.724)(0.868)(0.803)
4,823 5,008
= −0.698 ksi
The negative sign indicates a prestressing gain.

9.1a - 24 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands/9.1a.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

9.1a.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands in the composite section between time of deck
placement and final time is taken as:
ΔfpR2 = ΔfpR1 = 1.281 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3c-1]

9.1a.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

The prestressing gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete is calculated by:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = ∆𝑓 𝐾 [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )] [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3d-1]
𝐸𝑐 𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
where
Δfcdf = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to shrinkage of deck concrete, ksi
ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑘 1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝑒𝑑
Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 = ( − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3d-2]
𝐴
1 + 0.7Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) 𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
εddf = shrinkage strain of deck concrete between placement and final time by LRFD Eq. (5.4.2.3.3-
1)
Ad = area of deck concrete, in.2
Ecdeck = modulus of elasticity of deck concrete, ksi
Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = deck concrete creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced shortly after deck
placement
ed = eccentricity of the deck with respect to the gross composite section, in.
Assume that the initial strength of deck concrete at deck placement is 0.8(4.0 ksi) = 3.2 ksi, and use a volume-to-
surface ratio, V/S, of 3.582 for the deck:
ks = 1.45 − 0.13(𝑉 ⁄𝑆) = 1.45 − 0.13 (3.582) = 0.984 < 1.0
Use ks = 1.000
5 5
kf = = = 1.190
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 1 + 3.2
ktd = 0.998 from previous calculations
εddf = kskhskfktd0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3−1]
= (1.000)(1.020)(1.190)(0.998)(0.48 × 10−3)
= 0.000582

Ψ𝑑 ( 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑑 ) = 1.9kskhckfktdti−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

= 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(1.190)(0.998)(1)−0.118 = 2.258
Creep of the deck concrete is assumed to start at 1 day.
0.000582(108)(7.5)(4,266) 1 48.67(80 − 7.5⁄2 − 55.58)
Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 = ( − )
1 + 0.7(2.258) 1,475 1,125,244
= −0.168 ksi
The negative sign indicates a prestressing gain.
The prestressing gain due to shrinkage of the deck in the composite section is:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = (–0.168)(0.803)[1 + 0.7(0.868)] = −1.235 ksi
5,008
Note: The effect of deck shrinkage on the calculation of prestressing gain is discussed further in Section 9.1a.8.5.

9.1a - 25 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss/9.1a.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer

9.1a.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss

The total time-dependent loss, ΔfpLT , is determined as:

ΔfpLT = (ΔfpSR + ΔfpCR + ΔfpR1)id + (ΔfpSD + ΔfpCD + ΔfpR2 − ΔfpSS)df [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.1-1]
= (6.164 + 15.252 + 1.281) + (2.482 − 0.698 + 1.281 − 1.235)
= 22.698 + 1.830 = 24.5 ksi
Note: ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 is a negative value indicating it is a prestress gain. The sign of ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 is changed for use in LRFD Eq.
5.9.3.4.1-1 loss calculation as described in LRFD C5.9.3.4.3d.
The history of the development of the stress in the prestressing strands is illustrated in Figure 9.1a.6.4-1.

Figure 9.1a.6.4-1
Stress in the Prestressing Strands

9. 1a.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer

LRFD Articles C5.9.3.2.3a and C5.9.3.3 indicate that the losses or gains due to elastic deformation must be taken as
equal to zero if transformed section properties are used in stress analysis. However, the losses or gains due to
elastic deformation must be included in determining the total prestress losses and effective stress in the
prestressing strands.
When determining the concrete stresses using transformed section properties, the strand force is that before
transfer:
Force per strand = (202.5)(0.153) = 30.98 kips
The total prestressing force before transfer, Ppi = 30.98(48) = 1,487 kips

9.1a - 26 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads/9.1a.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

9.1a.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads

Total loss due to elastic shortening at transfer and long-term losses is:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT = 18.2 + 24.5 = 42.7 ksi
The elastic gain due to deck weight, superimposed dead load, and live load is computed herein. The elastic gain is
the sum of permanent and transient gains. The Service I limit state combination is used to check the stress in the
strands against the LRFD Specifications stress limit of 0.8fpy:

𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝 (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝

( + ) +( )
𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐
1,659.6(12)(28.41) (180 + 360)(12)(47.56) 28,500 (1,815 + 837)(12)(47.56) 28,500
=( + ) +( )
575,899 1,205,935 5,008 1,205,935 5,008
= 7.05 + 7.14 = 14.2 ksi
The effective stress in strands after all losses and gains is:
fpe = fpbt − ΔfpT + 14.2= 202.5 − 42.7 + 14.2= 174.0 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.2.2-1]
fpe ≤ 0.8fpy = 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 174 ksi OK

9.1a.7 CONCRETE STRESS AT TRANSFER

Because the transformed section is used, the total prestressing force before transfer, Ppi = 1,487 kips, from
Section 9.1a.6.5.

9.1a.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3]

Compression:
• 0.65𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 0.65(5.8) = +3.770 ksi
where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = concrete strength at transfer = 5.800 ksi
Tension:
• Without bonded auxiliary reinforcement:
−(0.0948𝜆√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≤ 0.200) ksi = −0.0948(1)√5.8 = −0.228 ksi
Therefore, −0.200 ksi (controls)
• With bonded auxiliary reinforcement that is sufficient to resist the tension force in the concrete computed
assuming an uncracked section, where reinforcement is proportioned using a stress of 0.5fy, not to exceed
30.0 ksi:

−0.24λ√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = −0.24(1)√5.8 = −0.578 ksi

To use this limit the reinforcement on the tension side of the beam needs to be evaluated for adequacy in
accordance with LRFD 5.9.2.3.1b with the tension force calculation per C5.2.3.1b., The tension limit of -0.200
ksi without top tension reinforcement is used in this example.

9.1a.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Stresses at this location need only be checked at transfer because this stage almost always governs. Also, losses
with time will reduce the concrete stresses and concrete gains strength with time, making the stresses less
critical.
Transfer length = 60(strand diameter) = 60(0.5) = 30 in. = 2.5 ft [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.3]

9.1a - 27 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Because of camber of the beam at transfer, the beam self weight acts on the overall beam length, 121 ft. Therefore,
values for bending moment given in Table 9.1a.4-1 cannot be used because they are based on the design span of
120 ft. Using statics, bending moment at transfer length due to beam self weight is:
Mg = 0.5wgx(L − x) = (0.5)(0.799)(2.5)(121 − 2.5) = 118.4 ft-kips
Compute stress in the top of the beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1,487 (1,487)(28.35) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 803.1 15,714 15,714
= 1.852 − 2.683 + 0.090 = −0.741 ksi
Tensile stress limit for concrete without bonded reinforcement is −0.200 ksi NG
Compute stress in the bottom of the beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1,487 (1,487)(28.35) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 803.1 16,367 16,367
= 1.852 + 2.576 − 0.087 = +4.341 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete is +3.770 ksi NG
Since stresses at the top and bottom exceed the stress limits, harp strands to satisfy the specified limits. Harp 12
strands at the 0.4L points from beam ends, as shown in Figures 9.1a.7.2-1 and 9.1a.7.2-2.

Figure 9.1a.7.2-1
Strand Pattern

9.1a - 28 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Figure 9.1a.7.2-2
Longitudinal Strand Profile

Compute the center of gravity of the prestressing strands at the transfer length section using the harped pattern.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped strands at the end of the beam and the bottom fiber
of the precast concrete beam is:
2(60 + 62 + 64 + 66 + 68 + 70)
= 65.0 in.
12
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped stands at the harp point and the bottom fiber of the
beam is:
2(10 + 12 + 14 + 16 + 18 + 20)
= 15.0 in.
12
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped strands and the bottom fiber of the beam at the
transfer length section is:
2.5
65 in. − (65 − 15 in. ) ( ft) = 62.42 in.
48.5
The distance between the center of gravity of the 36 straight bottom strands and the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam is:
12(2) + 12(4) + 8(6) + 4(8)
= 4.22 in.
36
Therefore, the distance between the center of gravity of the total number of strands measured to the bottom of
the precast concrete beam at transfer length is:
36(4.22) + 12(62.42)
= 18.77 in.
48
Eccentricity of the 48-strand group at transfer length, e, is:
35.80 − 18.77 = 17.03 in.
The center of gravity of all prestressing strand with respect to the extreme bottom fiber at the end of the beam,
ybs, is:
36(4.22) + 12(65)
= 19.42 in.
48
The center of gravity of the 48-strand group with respect to the extreme bottom fiber at the harp point is 6.92 in.
(Sect. 9.1a.5.4).
Recompute top and bottom stresses at the transfer length section with harped strands. Note that the transformed
section properties here are different than those at midspan and have been recalculated in Table 9.1a.7.2-1.

9.1a - 29 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.1a.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

Table 9.1a.7.2-1
Properties of Transformed Section and Strands at the Transfer Length Location at Transfer
No. of Aps Transformed y Ay Ad2 I0 I0 + Ad2
Strands in.2 Area, A, in.2 in. in.3 in.4 in.4 in.4
Beam 767.00 36.60 28,072 492 545,894 546,386
Lumped 36 0.153 27.04 4.22 114 26,967 - 26,967
straight
strands
Lumped 12 0.153 9.01 62.42 563 6,388 – 6,388
harped
strands
∑ 803.1 28,749 579,741
Note: The moment of inertia of strand about its own centroid, I0, is neglected.

Noncomposite transformed section at transfer length location at transfer:

Ati = area of the transformed section at transfer = 803.1 in.2
Iti = moment of inertia of the transformed section at transfer = 579,741 in.4
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to the transformed section at transfer = 17.03 in.
ybti = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam at
transfer = 35.80 in.
Sbti = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 16,194 in.3
Stti = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 16,015 in.3
Concrete stress in top of beam:
1,487 (1,487)(17.03) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.852 − 1.581 + 0.089 = +0.359 ksi
803.1 16,015 16,015
Compressive stress limit +3.770 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
1,487 (1,487)(17.03) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.852 + 1.564 − 0.088 = +3.328 ksi
803.1 16,194 16,194
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK

9.1a.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points

The strand eccentricity at the harp points is the same as at midspan, eti = 28.35 in.
Bending moment at the harp points (0.4L) due to the self weight of the beam is:
(0.5)(0.799)(48.5)(121 − 48.5) = 1,404 ft-kips
Therefore, top and bottom stresses are as follows:
Concrete stress in top of beam:
1,487 (1,487)(28.35) (1,404)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.852 − 2.683 + 1.072 = +0.241 ksi
803.1 15,714 15,714
Compressive stress limit is +3.77 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
1,487 (1,487)(28.35) (1,404)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.852 + 2.576 − 1.029 = +3.399 ksi
803.1 16,367 16,367
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK

9.1a.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

Bending moment at midspan due to the beam self weight is:

9.1a - 30 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.7.4 Stresses at Midspan/9.1a.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

Mg= 0.5(0.799)(60.5)(121 − 60.5) = 1,462.3 ft-kips

1,487 (1,487)(28.35) (1,462)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.852 − 2.683 + 1.117 = +0.285 ksi
803.1 15,714 15,714
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK
1,487 (1,487)(28.35) (1,462)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.852 + 2.576 − 1.072 = +3.356 ksi
803.1 16,367 16,367
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK

9.1a.7.5 Hold-Down Forces

Assume that the stress in the strand at the time of prestressing, before seating losses, is:
0.80 fpu = 0.80(270) = 216 ksi [LRFD Construction Art. 10.10.1]
Thus, the prestress force per strand before seating losses is 0.153(216) = 33.0 kips
From Figure 9.1a.7.2-2, the harp angle is:
65 − 15
ψ = tan−1 ( ) = 4.91 degrees
48.5(12)
Therefore, hold-down force/strand = 1.05(force per strand)(sin ψ)
= 1.05(33.0) sin 4.91 degrees = 2.97 kips/strand
Note that the factor 1.05 is applied to account for friction.
Total hold-down force = 12 strands(2.97) = 35.6 kips
The hold-down force and the harp angle should be checked against maximum limits for local practices. Refer to
Chapter 3, Fabrication and Construction and Chapter 8, Design Theory and Procedures for additional details.

9.1a.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

Top Fiber Bottom Fiber
Stresses Stresses
ft, ksi fb, ksi
At transfer length section +0.359 +3.328
At harp points +0.241 +3.399
At midspan +0.285 +3.356

9.1a.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS

9.1a.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3.2]
Compression:
Due to permanent loads (beam self weight, weight of slab and haunch, weight of future wearing surface, and
weight of barriers), for load combination Service I:
for precast concrete beams: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(6.500) = +2.925 ksi
for deck: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(4.000) = +1.800 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads (all dead loads and live loads), for load combination Service I:
for precast concrete beams: 0.60ϕw 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(1)(6.500) = +3.900 ksi
for deck: 0.60ϕw 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(1)(4.000) = +2.400 ksi
Tension:
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III: −(0.19λ √𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 0.600) ksi
for precast concrete beam: −0.19(1)√6.500 = −0.484 ksi

9.1a - 31 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.8.2 Stresses at Midspan/9.1a.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam

9.1a.8.2 Stresses at Midspan

9.1a.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam

To check top compressive stresses, two cases are considered
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
Using bending moment values given in Table 9.1a.4-1, compute the top-fiber stresses in the beam:
1 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = 𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( − )+ − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( − )+
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓
1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 ) 1 𝑒𝑑
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 ( − )+ + ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( + )
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑔
where:
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = concrete stress in top of beam, ksi
𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 = stress in prestressing strands before transfer, ksi
𝐴𝑝𝑠 = total area of prestressing strands, in.2
𝑒𝑡𝑖 = eccentricity of strands with respect to steel transformed section at transfer, in.
𝐴𝑡𝑖 = area of steel transformed section at transfer, in.2
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the steel transformed section at transfer, in.3
𝑀𝑔 = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight, ft-kips
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 = prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of transfer and deck placement, ksi
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = prestress loss due to creep of girder concrete between time of transfer and deck placement, ksi
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck
placement, ksi
𝑒𝑝𝑔 = eccentricity of prestressing strand with respect to the centroid of the girder, in.
𝐴𝑔 = cross-sectional area of the precast concrete beam (noncomposite section), in.2
𝑆𝑡 = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the gross noncomposite precast concrete beam, in.3
𝑀𝑠 = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights, ft-kips
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the steel transformed section at final time, in.3
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 = prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of deck placement and final time, ksi
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between time of deck placement and final time, ksi
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 = prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands in composite section between time of
deck placement and final time, ksi
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = prestressing gain due to shrinkage of the deck in the composite section, ksi
𝑒𝑝𝑐 = eccentricity of strands on the nontransformed composite section, in.
𝐴𝑐 = total area of the gross composite section, in.2
𝑆𝑡𝑔 = gross composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast concrete beam, in.3
𝑀𝑏 = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
𝑀𝑤𝑠 = unfactored bending moment due to future wearing surface, ft-kips

9.1a - 32 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam/9.1a.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck

𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐 = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast concrete beam for the steel
transformed section at final time, in.3
∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 = restraining force due to deck shrinkage, kips (See Sect. 9.1a.8.5.)
𝑒𝑑 = eccentricity from the center of the deck to the composite center, in.
in.
1 28.35 12 ( ) 1,438.2(ft-kips)
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = 202.5(7.344) ( − )+ ft
803.1 15,714 15,714
in.
1 29.68 12 ( ) (1,659.6)(ft-kips)
− 7.344(6.164 + 15.252 + 1.281) ( − )+ ft
767 15,421 15,702
1 48.66
− 7.344(2.482 + (−0.698) + 1.281 − 1.235) ( − )
1,474.98 68,542
in.
12 ( ) (180.0 + 360.0)(ft-kips) 1 20.67
+ ft + 779 ( + )
68,802 1,474.98 68,542

𝑓𝑡𝑔 = −0.831 + 1.098 − (−0.103) + 1.268 − 0.000 + 0.094 + 0.763 = 2.495 ksi

Compressive stress limit is +2.925 ksi OK

. Although the Δfpss value calculated in Section 9.1a.6.3.4 is negative, it is substituted here as a positive value per
LRFD Article C5.9.3.4d to reflect the condition at the top of the beam.

2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:

(𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = +2.495 +
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
where
𝛾𝐿𝐿 = live load factor
𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 = live load bending moment per beam [lane load moment + (truck load moment times impact)], ft-kips
(1.0)(1,815 + 837)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = +2.495 + = +2.495 + 0.463 = +2.958 ksi
68,802
Compressive stress limit is +3.900 ksi OK

9.1a.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck

Note: Compressive stress in the deck slab at service loads never controls the design for typical applications. The
following calculations are for illustration purposes and may not be necessary in most practical applications.
Note that the section modulus of 55,449 in.3 includes the 1/n factor for the calculation of deck concrete stresses.
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 (360 + 180)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = = = +0.117 ksi
𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 55,449
Compressive stress limit is +1.800 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 (1,815 + 837)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = + = 0.117 + = +0.691 ksi
𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 55,449
Compressive stress limit is +2.400 ksi OK

9.1a - 33 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III

9.1a.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III

1 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠
𝑓𝑏 = 𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + )− − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( + )−
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 )
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 ( + )−
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
1 𝑒𝑑
+ ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( − )
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐
where
𝑓𝑏 = concrete stress in bottom of beam, ksi
𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 = stress in prestressing strands before transfer, ksi
𝐴𝑝𝑠 = total area of prestressing strands, in.2
𝑒𝑡𝑖 = eccentricity of strands with respect to the steel transformed section at transfer, in.
𝐴𝑡𝑖 = area of the steel transformed section at transfer, in.2
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the steel transformed section at transfer, in.3
𝑀𝑔 = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight, ft-kips
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 = prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of transfer and deck placement, ksi
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = prestress loss due to creep of girder concrete between time of transfer and deck placement, ksi
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck
placement, ksi
𝑒𝑝𝑔 = eccentricity of prestressing strand with respect to the centroid of the girder, in.
𝐴𝑔 = cross-sectional area of the precast concrete beam (noncomposite section), in.2
𝑆𝑏 = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the gross noncomposite precast concrete
beam, in.3
𝑀𝑠 = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights, ft-kips
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the steel transformed section at final time, in.3
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 = prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of deck placement and final time, ksi
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between time of deck placement and final time, ksi
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 = prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands in the composite section between time
of deck placement and final time, ksi
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = prestressing gain due to shrinkage of the deck in the composite section, ksi
𝑒𝑡𝑓 = eccentricity of strands on the nontransformed composite section, in.
𝐴𝑐 = total area of the gross composite section, in.2
𝑆𝑏𝑐 = gross composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast concrete beam,
in.3
𝑀𝑏 = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
𝑀𝑤𝑠 = unfactored bending moment due to future wearing surface, ft-kips
γLL = live load factor
MLL+IM = live load bending moment per beam [lane load moment + (truck load moment times impact)],
ft-kips

9.1a - 34 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III/9.1a.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 = composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast concrete beam for the
steel transformed section at final time, in.3
∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 = restraining force due to deck shrinkage, kips (See Sect. 9.1.a.8.5)
𝑒𝑑 = eccentricity from center of the deck to the composite center, in.
in.
1 28.35 12 ( ) 1,438.2(ft-kips)
𝑓𝑏 = 202.5(7.344) ( + )− ft
803.1 16,367 16,367
in.
1 29.68 12 ( ) (1,659.6)(ft-kips)
− 7.344(6.164 + 15.252 + 1.281) ( + )− ft
767 14,915 16,303
1 48.66
− 7.344(2.482 + (−0.698) + 1.281 − 1.235) ( + )
1,474.98 20,244
in.
12 ( ) ((180.0 + 360.0) + (1.0)(1815 + 837))(ft-kips) 1 20.67
− ft + 779 ( − )
22,138 1,474.98 20,244
𝑓𝑏 = 4.428 – 1.054 – 0.549 – 1.222 – 0.041 – 1.731 + (−0.267) = −0.436 ksi (tension)
Tensile stress limit is −0.484 ksi OK
Note: The live load factor, γLL, is 1.0 because beam concrete stress is computed with transformed section
properties, which include elastic gains, and refined estimate of prestress losses.

9.1a.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

LRFD Article 5.5.3.1 states that in fully prestressed components other than segmentally constructed bridges, the
compressive stress due to Fatigue I load combination and one-half the sum of unfactored effective prestress and
permanent loads shall not exceed 0.40𝑓𝑐′ after losses.
From Table 9.1a.4-2, the unfactored fatigue bending moment at midspan, Mf, is 785.9 ft-kips. Therefore, stress at
the top fiber of the beam due to Fatigue 1 load combination is:
1.75(𝑀𝑓 ) 1.75 (785.9)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 = = = +0.240 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐 68,802
At midspan, the top compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress is:
ftg = 2.495 ksi (See Sect. 9.1a.8.2.1)
Therefore:
𝑓𝑡𝑔 2.495
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 + = 0.240 + = 1.488 < 0.40𝑓𝑐′
2 2 OK
= 0.40(6.50) = 2.6 ksi
This condition should be satisfied at all locations along the beam.

9.1a.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

The stresses calculated using the previous methods are summarized in Table 9.1a.8.4-1.
Table 9.1a.8.4-1
Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads
Top of Deck, ksi Top of Beam, ksi
Service I Service I Bottom of
Beam, ksi
Permanent Total Permanent Total
Service III
Loads Loads Loads Loads
+0.117 +0.691 +2.495 +2.958 −0.436

9.1a - 35 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.9.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage/9.1a.9 Strength Limit State

9.1a.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage

The calculations in Section 9.1a.8.2 comply with the LRFD Specifications. However, PCI believes that it is not
appropriate to include the prestressing gain caused by the deck shrinkage, ΔfpSS, in calculations of the prestress
losses. The effect of deck shrinkage is analyzed by considering it as an external force applied to the composite
nontransformed section, as illustrated in this section for load combination Service III. The nontransformed
section properties are used instead of the transformed section properties to provide a more conservative
approach.

9.1a.8.5.1 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam without Deck Shrinkage, Load Combination Service III
1 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠
𝑓𝑏 = 𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + )− − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( + )−
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 )
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 )𝑑𝑓 ( + )−
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
in.
1 28.35 12 ( ) 1,438.2(kip-ft)
= 202.5(7.344) ( + )− ft
803.1 16,367 16,367
in.
1 29.68 12 ( ) (1,659.6)(kip-ft)
− 7.344(6.164 + 15.252 + 1.281) ( + )− ft
767 14,915 16,303
1 48.66
− 7.344(2.482 + (−)0.698 + 1.281) ( + )
1,474.98 20,244
in.
12 ( ) ((180.0 + 360.0) + (1.0)(1815 + 837))(kip-ft)
− ft
22,138
= 4.428 – 1.054 – 0.549 – 1.222 – 0.069 – 1.731 = −0.196 ksi (tension)

9.1a.8.5.2 Stresses from Deck Shrinkage

The stress in the bottom fiber of the beam due to deck shrinkage is computed in 9.1a.5.1 as 𝑓𝑏𝑑𝑠 = −0.267 ksi
Under service load, Load Combination Service III:
fb = −0.196 + (−0.267) = −-0.464 ksi > −0.484 ksi OK
It is likely, however, that the full calculated force from deck shrinkage will not occur because of the presence of
deck cracking and deck reinforcement. Table 9.1a.8.5.4-1 summarizes the effect of applying 0%, 50%, or 100%
of the calculated deck shrinkage force on the stresses at load combination Service III.
Table 9.1a.8.5.2-1
Stresses at Midspan for Load Combination Service III,
Including the Effect of Deck Shrinkage Applied as an External Load Only
Deck Bottom of
Shrinkage Beam, ksi
Force, % Service III
0 −0.196
50 −0.330
100 −0.464

9.1a.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Using the values of unfactored bending moment given in Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2, the ultimate bending
moment at midspan is:
Mu = 1.25(1,438 + 1,660 + 180) + 1.5(360) + 1.75(1,815 + 836) = 9,278 ft-kips

9.1a - 36 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.9 Strength Limit State

Average stress in prestressing strands when fpe ≥ 0.5 fpu is:

𝑐
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 (1 − 𝑘 ) [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.1.1-1]
𝑑𝑝
where
fps = average stress in prestressing strand at the time for which the nominal
resistance of member is required, ksi
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing strand = 270.0 ksi
𝑓𝑝𝑦
k = 2 (1.04 − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.1.1-2]
𝑓𝑝𝑢
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strands [LRFD Table C5.6.3.1.1-1]
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing strands
= h − ybs = 80.00 − 6.92 = 73.08 in.
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis, in.
To compute c, assume rectangular section behavior and check whether the
depth of the equivalent compression stress block, a, is less than or equal to ts.
where a = 1c
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑠 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑠′
c = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.1.1-4]
𝛼1 𝑓𝑐′ β1 𝑏 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝
where
a = depth of the equivalent stress block
Aps = area of prestressing strand = 48(0.153) = 7.344 in.2
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement = 0 in.2
𝐴𝑠 ′
= area of compression reinforcement = 0 in.2
𝑓𝑐 ′
= specified compressive strength of deck concrete = 4.0 ksi
fs = stress in the nonprestressed tension reinforcement at
nominal resistance, ksi
𝑓𝑠′ = stress in the nonprestressed compression reinforcement
at nominal resistance, ksi
α1 = stress block factor [LRFD Art. 5.6.2.2]
= 0.85 for 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 10.0 ksi
β1 = stress factor of compression block [LRFD Art. 5.6.2.2]
= 0.85 for 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 4.0 ksi
= 0.85 − 0.05 (𝑓𝑐′ − 4.0) ≥ 0.65 for 𝑓𝑐′ > 4.0 ksi
= 0.85
b = effective width of compression flange = 108 in.
7.344(270.0) + 0 − 0
𝑐= = 6.20 in.
270.0
0.85(4.0)(0.85)(108) + 0.28(7.344) ( )
73.08
a = β1c = 0.85(6.20) = 5.27 in. ≤ ts OK
Therefore, the rectangular section behavior assumption is valid.
The average stress in prestressing strand at nominal flexural strength is:
6.20
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 270.0 (1 − 0.28 ) = 263.6 ksi
73.08
Nominal flexural resistance is: [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.2.3]
𝑎
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 (𝑑𝑝 − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.2.2-1]
2
The above equation is a simplified form of LRFD Eq. (5.6.3.2.2-1) because no compression reinforcement or
nonprestressed reinforcement is considered and the section behaves as a rectangular section.
5.27
𝑀𝑛 = (7.344)(263.6) (73.08 − )⁄12 = 11,364 ft- kips
2

9.1a - 37 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.9 Strength Limit State/9.1a.10.1 Minimum Reinforcement

Factored flexural resistance:

Mr = ϕMn [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.2.1-1]
Determine the ϕ factor for flexure based on the tension strain in the prestressing steel at nominal resistance:
0.25(𝜀𝑡 − 𝜀𝑐𝑙 )
0.75 ≤ ϕ = 0.75 + ≤1 [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2]
(𝜀𝑡𝑙 − 𝜀𝑐𝑙 )
In this equation, the compression control limit, εcl = 0.002, and the tension control limit, εtl = 0.005. The strain in
the prestressing steel at the nominal flexural moments is determined using a similar triangles relationship as
follows:
0.003 𝜀𝑡
=
𝑐 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑐
where dt = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the extreme tension steel = (80.0-2.0) = 78.0 in.
Substituting for dt and c yields the following:
0.003 𝜀𝑡
=
6.20 78.0 − 6.20
Therefore, εt = 0.035, which is significantly greater than the tension control limit of 0.005; therefore, ϕ = 1.0.
Mr = 11,364 ft-kips > Mu = 9,278 ft-kips OK

9.1a.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT

9.1a.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement
The check of maximum reinforcement limits was removed from the LRFD Specifications in 2005.
Adequate ductility of the beam is ensured by evaluating whether the member can be classified as tension
controlled, as was checked previously when computing the ϕ factor.

9.1a.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3]

At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement must be adequate to develop
a factored flexural resistance, Mr, greater than or equal to the lesser of:
• The cracking moment strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and
• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan:
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝛾3 [(𝛾1 𝑓𝑟 + 𝛾2 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 )𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 − 𝑀𝑑𝑛𝑐 ( − 1)] [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3-1]
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
where
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= 0.24λ√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.24(1)√6.5 = 0.612 ksi
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of the section where the tensile stress is caused by externally
applied loads, ksi
Mdnc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section
= Mg + Ms = 1,438.2 + 1,659.6 = 3,098 ft-kips
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section where the
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads
= 22,138 in.3
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed noncomposite section where
the tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads

9.1a - 38 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.10.1 Minimum Reinforcement/9.1a.11.1 Critical Section

= 16,303 in.3
𝛾1 = flexural cracking variability factor = 1.6 for structures other than precast segmental
𝛾2 = prestress variability factor = 1.1 for bonded tendons
𝛾3 = ratio of specified minimum yield strength to ultimate tensile strength of the nonprestressed
reinforcement =1.0 for prestressing steel
1 𝑒𝑡𝑖 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔
fcpe = 𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + ) − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( + ) − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏
1 𝑒𝑝𝑐
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 ( + )
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐

1 28.35 1 29.68
𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 = 202.5(7.344) ( + ) − 7.344(6.164 + 15.252 + 1.281) ( + )
803.1 16,367 767 14,915
1 48.66
− 7.344(2.482 + (−0.698) + 1.281 − (1.235)) ( + ) = 4.428 – 0.549 – 0.041
1,474.98 20,244
= 3.838 ksi
The calculation of fcpe includes the gain from deck shrinkage, 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 , in accordance with the LFRD Specifications,
However, PCI believes that it is not appropriate to include the prestressing gain caused by the deck shrinkage in
the calculation.

20,138
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 1.0 [[1.6(0.612) + 1.1(3.838)]22,138 − 3,098(12) ( − 1)] = 101,384 in.-kips = 8,486 ft-kips
16.303

At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is:
Mu = 9,278 ft-kips (as calculated in Sect. 9.1a.9)
Thus, 1.33Mu = 1.33(9,278) = 12,340 ft-kips
Since Mcr < 1.33Mu, the Mcr requirement controls.
Mr = 11,364 ft-kips > Mcr = 8,486 ft-kips OK
Note: The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at every section.

9.1a.11 SHEAR DESIGN

The area and spacing of shear reinforcement must be determined at regular intervals along the entire length of
the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design procedures are demonstrated by determining these
values at the critical section near the supports.
Transverse shear reinforcement is required when:
Vu > 0.5ϕ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.3-1]
where
Vu = total factored shear force, kips
Vc = nominal shear resistance of the concrete, kips
Vp = component of prestressing force in the direction of the applied shear force, kips
ϕ = resistance factor; 0.9 for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2]

9.1a.11.1 Critical Section [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.2]

The critical section near the supports is taken as the effective shear depth, dv, from the internal face of the
support.

9.1a - 39 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.11.1 Critical Section/9.1a.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

dv = distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (de − a/2), [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.8]
but not less than 0.9de or 0.72hc
where
de = the corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.8]
fiber to the centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement
a = depth of compression block
= 5.27 in. at midspan (assumed adequate)
hc = overall depth of the composite section
= 80.0 in.
Since some of the strands are harped, the effective depth, de, varies from point to point. However, de must be
calculated at the critical section in shear, which is not yet determined; therefore, for the first iteration, de is
calculated based on the center of gravity of the straight strand group at the end of the beam, ybs.
de = hc − ybs = 80.0 − 4.22 = 75.78 in.
dv = 75.78 − (5.27/2) = 73.14 in.
≥ 0.9 de = 0.9(75.78) = 68.20 in.
≥ 0.72hc = 0.72(80) = 57.60 in. OK
Therefore, dv = 73.14 in.
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is conservatively assumed to be zero. Therefore, the
critical section in shear is located at a distance of:
73.14 in. = 6.10 ft from centerline of support
(x/L) = 6.10/120 = 0.051L
The effective depth, de, and the position of the critical section in shear may be refined based on the position of the
critical section calculated previously. However, the difference is small. Therefore, no more refinement is
performed.

9.1a.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance

The contribution of the concrete to the nominal shear resistance is:
𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316βλ√𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-3]

where
β = factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension
(a value indicating concrete contribution)
λ = concrete density modification factor; 1 for normal weight concrete
Several quantities must be determined before this expression can be evaluated.

9.1a.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

Calculate the strain at the centroid of the tension reinforcement, εs:
|𝑀𝑢 |
+ 0.5𝑁𝑢 + |(𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 )| − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑜
𝑑 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.4.2-4]
ε𝑠 = 𝑣
(𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 )
where
Mu = applied factored bending moment at the specified section, 0.051L,
should not be taken less than |(𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 )|𝑑𝑣 [LRFD 5.7.3.4.2]
= 1.25(277.6 + 320.3 + 34.7) + 1.50(69.5) + 1.75(369.6 + 161.4) (Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2)
= 1,824 ft-kips
Nu = applied factored axial force at the specified section, 0.051L

9.1a - 40 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement/9.1a.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution

= 0 kips
Vu = applied factored shear force at the specified section, 0.051L
= 1.25(43.1 + 49.7 + 5.4) + 1.50(10.8) + 1.75(73.8 + 30.6) (Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2)
= 321.7 kips
Vp = (Area of strand)(Effective prestress without live load gains)
Aps = area of prestressing strands on the flexural tension side of the member
= 36(0.153) = 5.508 in.2
fpo = a parameter taken as the modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by the locked-in
difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the surrounding concrete, ksi. For
pretensioned members, LRFD Article 5.7.3.4.2 indicates that fpo can be taken as 0.7fpu. (Note: Use
this definition for both pretensioned and post-tensioned systems made with stress-relieved and
low-relaxation strands.)
= 0.7(270.0) = 189.0 ksi
𝑀𝑔 𝑒𝑡 𝐸𝑝𝑠 𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑝𝑠
𝑉𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 [(𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝑅1 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝑅2 + ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 ) + +
𝐼𝑡𝑔 𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑔 𝐸𝑐
(𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝𝑠
+ ] (sin ψ)
𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐
where ψ = angle of harped strands

𝑉𝑝 = (12)(0.153) [202.5 − 6.164 − 15.252 − 1.281 − 2.482 − (−0.698) − 1.281 + 1.235

(1438.2)(12)(28.35) 28,500 (1659.6)(12)(28.41) 28,500
+ +
577,233 4266 575,899 5008
(180 + 360)(12)(47.56) 28,500
+ ] (sin 4.91) = 1.836(177.9 + 5.66 + 5.59 + 1.454)(0.0856)
1,205,935 5008
= 29.9 kips
|(𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 )|𝑑𝑣 = |(321.7 − 29.9)|(73.14)/12 = 1778.5 < Mu = 1,824 ft-kips OK
|1,824(12)|
+ 0 + |(321.7 − 29.9)| − 5.508(189.0)
ε𝑠 = 73.14
[0 + 28,500(5.508)]
= −2.867 × 10−3
εs is less than zero. Use εs = 0.

9.1a.11.2.2 Values of β and θ

Assume the section contains at least the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement:
4.8 4.8
β= = = 4.8 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.4.2-1]
(1 + 750ε𝑠 ) (1 + 0)
Angle of diagonal compressive stresses is:
θ = 29 + 3,500εs = 29 + 3,500(0) = 29 degrees [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.4.2-3]

9.1a.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution

The nominal shear resisted by the concrete is:
𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316βλ√𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-3]

where bv = effective web width = 6 in.

𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316(4.8)(1)√6.5(6)(73.14) = 169.7 kips

9.1a - 41 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance/9.1a.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement

9.1a.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance

9.1a.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement

Check if Vu > 0.5ϕ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.3-1]
0.5ϕ (Vc + Vp) = 0.5(0.9)(169.7 + 29.9) = 89.8 kips < 321.7 kips
Therefore, transverse shear reinforcement must be provided.

9.1a.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement

Vu/ϕ ≤ Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-1]
where
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement
= (Vu/ϕ) − Vc − Vp = (321.7/0.9) − 169.7 − 29.9 = 157.8 kips
𝐴 𝑓 𝑑 (cot θ + cot α)(sin α)
Vs = 𝑣 𝑦 𝑣 𝜆𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-4]
𝑠
where
Av area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, in.2
=
s spacing of stirrups, in.
=
fy specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
=
α angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis
=
90 degrees for vertical stirrups
=
𝜆𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 shear strength reduction factor accounting for the reduction in the shear resistance provided
=
by transverse reinforcement due to the presence of a grouted post-tensioning duct
= 1.0 when ducts are not present
Therefore, area of shear reinforcement within a distance s is:
Av = (sVs)/[(fydvcot θ)λduct]
= [(s)(157.8)]/[60(73.14)(cot 29 degrees)(1.0)] = 0.020(s) in.2
If s = 12 in., required Av = 0.24 in.2/ft

9.1a.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement

Check maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement. [LRFD Art 5.7.2.6]
Check if vu < 0.125𝑓𝑐′
|𝑉𝑢 − ɸ𝑉𝑝 | |321.7 − (0.9)(29.9)|
𝑣𝑢 = = = 0.746 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.8-1]
ɸ𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 (0.9)(6)(73.14)
0.125𝑓𝑐′ = (0.125)(6.5) = 0.813 ksi
𝑣𝑢 < 0.125𝑓𝑐′ Therefore, s ≤ 24 in. [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.6-1]
s ≤ 0.8dv = 0.8(73.14) = 58.5 in.
Therefore, maximum s = 24 in. > s provided OK
Use No. 4 bar double legs at 12 in., Av = 0.40 in.2/ft > 0.24 in.2/ft
0.4(60)73.14cot 29 degrees
𝑉𝑠 = = 263.9 kips
12
A smaller amount of shear reinforcement could have been selected. However, calculations for minimum interface
shear reinforcement require more (See Sect. 9.1a.12.3.1).

9.1a.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement

The area of transverse reinforcement should not be less than: [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.5-1]
𝑏𝑣 𝑠 (6)(12)
0.0316λ√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.0316(1)√6.5 = 0.10 in.2 ⁄ft < 𝐴𝑣 provided OK
𝑓𝑦 60.0

9.1a - 42 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance/9.1a.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement

9.1a.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

To ensure that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush before yielding of the transverse reinforcement,
the LRFD Specifications gives an upper limit of Vn as follows:
𝑉𝑛 = 0.25𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑉𝑝 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with LRFD Eq. (5.7.3.3-1), it can be concluded that Vc + Vs must not be greater than
0.25𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 .
169.7 + 263.9 = 433.6 kips ≤ 0.25(6.5)(6)(73.14) + 29.9 = 743.0 kips OK
Using the above procedures, the transverse reinforcement can be determined at increments along the entire
length of the beam.

9.1a.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER

9.1a.12.1 Interface Shear Resistance [LRFD Art. 5.7.4]
At the strength limit state, the factored interface shear resistance, Vri, shall be taken as:
𝑉𝑟𝑖 = ϕ𝑉𝑛𝑖 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.4.3-1]
And the design shall satisfy
𝑉𝑟𝑖 ≥ 𝑉𝑢𝑖 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.4.3-2]
where
Vni = nominal interface shear resistance, kips
Vui = factored vertical shear due to total load, kips
ϕ = resistance factor for shear = 0.9
The LRFD Specifications does not identify the location of the critical section. For convenience, it will be assumed
here to be the same location as the critical section for vertical shear, at point 0.051L.
Using load combination Strength I:
Vu = 1.25(43.1 + 49.7 + 5.4) + 1.5(10.8) + 1.75(73.8 + 30.6) = 321.7 kips (Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2)
For a slab on a girder bridge, the factored interface shear stress is:
𝑉𝑢1 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.4.5-1]
𝑣𝑢𝑖 =
𝑏𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑣
where
Vu1 = factored vertical shear, kips
bvi = interface width, in.
dv = distance between centroid of tension steel and mid-thickness of the slab, in. = 72.03 in.
Or when converted to a force on a per-foot basis:
𝑉𝑢1
𝑉𝑢𝑖 = 𝑣𝑢𝑖 𝐴𝑐𝑣 = 𝑣𝑢𝑖 12𝑏𝑣𝑖 = 12 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.4.5-2]
𝑑𝑣

Therefore, the horizontal shear force demand on a per-foot basis is:

𝑉𝑢1 321.7
𝑉𝑢𝑖 = (12) = (12) = 53.6 kips/ft
𝑑𝑣 72.03

9.1a.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance

Required Vri = Vui/ϕ = 53.6/0.9 = 59.6 kips

9.1a.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement

The nominal shear resistance of the interface surface is:
Vni = cAcv + μ[Avffy + Pc] [LRFD Eq. 5.7.4.3-3]

9.1a - 43 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement/9.1a.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

where
c = cohesion factor, ksi
μ = coefficient of friction
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear transfer, in.2
Avf = area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane, in.2
Pc = permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane, kips
fy = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi

For cast-in-place concrete slabs placed on a clean, intentionally roughened [LRFD Art. 5.7.4.4]
concrete girder surface:
c = 0.28 ksi
μ = 1.0
The actual contact width, bv, between the slab and the beam is 42 in.
Acv = (42.0 in.)(12.0 in.) = 504 in.2 per foot of girder length
LRFD Eq. (5.7.4.3-3) can be solved for Avf as follows:
59.6 = 0.28(504) + 1.0[Avf (60) + 0]
In this example, Pc is taken as zero. The self weight of the deck could be considered as a permanent net
compressive force normal to the shear plane and used with a minimum load factor.
Solving for Avf:
Avf (required) < 0
Since the resistance provided by cohesion is greater than the applied force, provide the minimum required
interface reinforcement.

9.1a.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement

Avf ≥ (0.05Acv)/fy [LRFD Eq. 5.7.4.2-1]
From the design of vertical shear reinforcement, a No. 4 double-leg bar at 12-in. spacing is provided from the
beam extending into the deck. Therefore, Avf = 0.40 in.2/ft
Avf = (0.40 in.2/ft) < (0.05Acv)/fy = 0.05(504)/60 = 0.42 in.2/ft NG
However, LRFD Article 5.7.4.2 states that the minimum reinforcement need not exceed the amount needed to
resist 1.33Vui/ϕ as determined using LRFD Eq. (5.7.4.3-3).
1.33(53.6/0.9) = 0.28(504) + 1.0[Avf(60) + 0]
Solving for Avf:
Avf (required) < 0 OK to rely on No. 4 double-leg bars at 12-in. spacing for minimum reinforcement

9.1a.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

Vni ≤ K1𝑓𝑐′ Acv or Vni ≤ K2Acv [LRFD 5.7.4.3-4 and -5]
where
K1 = fraction of concrete strength available to resist interface shear = 0.3 [LRFD 5.7.4.4]
K2 = limiting interface shear resistance = 1.8 for normal weight concrete [LRFD 5.7.4.4]
Values for K1 and K2 are for cast-in-place concrete slab on clean concrete girder surfaces, free of laitance with
surface roughened to an amplitude of 0.25 in.
𝑉𝑛𝑖 provided = (0.28)(504) + 1.0(0.40(60.0) + 0) = 165.1 kips⁄ft
K1𝑓𝑐′ Acv = (0.3)(4.0)(504) = 604.8 kips/ft [LRFD Eq. 5.7.4.3-4]
K2Acv = 1.8(504) = 907.2 kips/ft [LRFD Eq. 5.7.4.3-5]
Since provided Vni = 165.1 kips/ft < 604.8 kips/ft OK

9.1a - 44 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement/9.1a.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing

9.1a.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.5]

Longitudinal reinforcement should be proportioned so that the following equation is satisfied at each section:
𝑀𝑢 𝑁𝑢 𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ + 0.5 + (| − 𝑉𝑝 | − 0.5𝑉𝑠 ) cot θ [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.5-1]
𝑑𝑣 ϕ𝑓 ϕc ϕ𝑣
where
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.2
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars, ksi
Aps = area of prestressing strand at the tension side of the section, in.2
fps = average stress in prestressing strand at the time for which the nominal resistance is required, ksi
Mu = factored moment at the section corresponding to the factored shear force, ft-kips
Nu = applied factored axial force, kips
Vu = factored shear force at the section, kips
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement ≤ Vu/ϕv, kips
Vp = component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the applied shear force, kips
dv = effective shear depth, in.
ϕ = resistance factor as appropriate for moment, shear, and axial resistance [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2]
[Note: Different ϕ factors will be used for the terms in LRFD (Eq. 5.7.3.5-1),
depending on the type of action being considered.]
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses

9.1a.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing

For simple end supports, the longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member at inside face
of bearing should satisfy:
𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ ( − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 ) cot θ [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.5-2]
ϕ
Mu = 0 ft-kips
Nu = 0 kips
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is assumed to be zero. This assumption is conservative
for these calculations. Therefore, the failure crack assumed for this analysis radiates from the centerline of the
bearing, 6 in. from the end of the beam.
From Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2 using load combination Strength I, the factored shear force at this section is:
Vu = 1.25(47.9 + 55.3 + 6.0) + 1.5(12.0) + 1.75(78.1 + 33.9) = 350.5 kips
𝑉𝑢 350.5
( − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 ) cot θ = ( − 0.5(263.9) − 29.9) cot 29 degrees = 410.9 kips
ϕ 0.9
As shown in Figure 9.1a.13.1-1, the assumed crack plane crosses the centroid of the 36 straight strands at a
distance of (6 + 4.22cot 29 degrees = 13.61 in.) from the end of the beam. Since the transfer length is 30 in. from
the end of the beam (60 times the strand diameter), the available prestress from the 36 straight strands is a
fraction of the effective prestress, fpe, in these strands. The 12 harped strands do not contribute to the tensile
capacity because they are not on the flexural tension side of the member.
Therefore, the available prestress force is:
13.61
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 = (36)(0.153) ((202.5 − 42.7) )+0
30
= 399.3 + 0 = 399.3 kips < 410.9 kips NG
Assume a bearing width of 6 in. The failure crack then extends from the edge of the bearing. The assumed crack
plane then crosses the centroid of the 36 straight strands at a distance of
6
6 + + 4.22 cot 29 degrees = 16.61 in. from the end of the beam.
2

9.1a - 45 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing/9.1a.14.1 Splitting Resistance

Therefore, the available prestressing force is: [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.3]

16.61
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 = (36)(0.153) ((202.5 − 42.7) )+0
30
= 487.3 + 0 = 487.3 kips > 410.9 kips OK
The value of Apsfps must be greater than the value of Asfy. [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.5]
Apsfps = 487.3 kips > Asfy = 0 OK
Note: An alternative approach for the calculation of available prestressing force that excludes the gains from deck
shrinkage is illustrated in Section 9.6.13.1
Figure 9.1a.13.1-1
Assumed Failure Crack

9.1a.14 Pretensioned Anchorage Zone [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.4]

9.1a.14.1 Splitting Resistance [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.4.1]

Design of the anchorage zone reinforcement is computed using the force in the strands just prior to transfer:
Force in the strands before transfer = Ppi = 48(0.153)(202.5) = 1,487 kips
The splitting resistance, Pr, should not be less than 4.0% of Ppi.
Pr = fsAs ≥ 0.04Ppi = 0.04(1,487) = 59.5 kips
where
As = total area of vertical reinforcement located within a distance h/4 from the end of the beam, in.2
fs = allowable stress in steel, but not to exceed 20 ksi
Solving for the required area of steel, As = 59.5/20 = 2.98 in.2
At least 2.98 in.2 of vertical transverse reinforcement should be provided within a distance of h/4 = 72/4 = 18.0
in. from the end of the beam.
Use five No. 5 double-leg bars at 4 in. spacing starting at 2 in. from the end of the beam.
The provided As = 5(2)(0.31) = 3.10 in.2 > 2.98 in.2 OK

9.1a - 46 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement/9.1a.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights

9.1a.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.4.2]

For a distance of 1.5h = 1.5(72) = 108 in. from the end of the beam, reinforcement is placed to confine the
prestressing steel in the bottom flange. The reinforcement may not be less than No. 3 deformed bars with spacing
not exceeding 6 in. The reinforcement should be of a shape that will confine (enclose) the strands.

9.1a.15 Deflection and Camber [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.5.2]

Deflections are calculated using the modulus of elasticity of concrete calculated in Section 9.1a.3.1, and the gross
section properties of the noncomposite precast concrete beam.

9.1a.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer

𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑐 𝐿2 𝑒 ′ 𝑎2
Δ𝑝 = ( − )
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔 8 6
where
Δp = camber due to prestressing force at transfer, in.
Ppt = total prestressing force after transfer
= 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝑓𝑝𝑖 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 ) = (0.153)(48)(202.5 − 18.2) = 1354 kips
ec = eccentricity of prestressing strand at midspan = 29.68 in.
𝑒′ = difference between the eccentricities of prestressing strand at midspan and at end of the beam
= ec − ee = 29.68 − (yb − ybs) = 29.68 − (36.6 − 19.42) = 12.50 in.
a = distance from end of the beam to the harp point = 48.5 ft
L = overall beam length = 121.0 ft
Eci = modulus of elasticity at transfer = 4,823 ksi
Ig = moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 545,894 in.4

1,354 29.68(121 × 12)2 12.50(48.5 × 12)2

Δ𝑝 = ( − ) = 3.66 in. ↑
(4,823)(545,894) 8 6

9.1a.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight

5𝑤𝑔 𝐿4
Δ𝑔 =
384𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δg = deflection due to beam self weight, in.
wg = beam self weight = 0.799 kips/ft (Sect. 9.1a.3.1)
Eci = modulus of elasticity of precast concrete beam at transfer = 4,823 ksi
Ig = gross moment of inertia of the precast concrete beam = 545,894 in.4
L = beam length = 121.0 ft at transfer = 120.0 ft at erection
Deflection due to beam self weight at transfer:
0.799
5( ) (121 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 1.46 in. ↓
(384)(4,823)(545,894)
Deflection due to beam self weight used to compute deflection at erection:
0.799
5( ) (120 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 1.42 in. ↓
(384)(4,823)(545,894)

9.1a.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights

5𝑤𝑠 𝐿4
Δ𝑠 =
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔

9.1a - 47 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights/9.1a.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

where
Δs = deflection due to slab and haunch weights, in.
ws = slab and haunch weight = 0.900 + 0.022 kips/ft = 0.922 kips/ft (Sect. 9.1a.4.1.1)
L = design span = 120.0 ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity of precast concrete beam at service loads = 5,008 ksi
Ig = gross moment of inertia of the precast concrete beam = 545,894 in.4
0.922
5( ) (120 × 12)4
Δ𝑠 = 12 = 1.57 in. ↓
(384)(5,008)(545,894)

9.1a.15.4 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface Weights

5(𝑤𝑏 + 𝑤𝑤𝑠 )𝐿4
Δ𝑏+𝑤𝑠 =
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
Δb + ws = deflection due to barrier and wearing surface weights, in.
wb = barrier weight =  kips/ft (Sect. 9.1a.4.1.1)
wws = wearing surface weight = 0.200 kips/ft
L = design span = 120.0 ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity of precast concrete beam at service loads
= 5,008 ksi
Ic = gross moment of inertia of the composite section = 1,125,244 in.4 (Table 9.1a.3.2.3-1)
0.300
(5) ( ) (120 × 12)4
Δ𝑏+𝑤𝑠 = 12 = 0.25 in. ↓
(384)(5,008)(1,125,244)

9.1a.15.5 Deflection and Camber Summary

After transfer:
(Δp + Δg) = 3.66 − 1.46 = 2.20 in. ↑
Total deflection at erection, using PCI multipliers (see PCI Design Handbook):
= 1.8(3.66) − 1.85(1.46) = 3.89 in. ↑
Long-term deflection:
It is recommended that the designer follow the guidelines of the owner agency for which the bridge is being
designed, or undertake a more rigorous, time-dependent analysis.

9.1a.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

Live load deflection limit (optional) = Span/800 [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
12
= (120 × ) = 1.80 in.
800
If the owner invokes the optional live load deflection criteria specified in LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2, the deflection is
the greater of:
• that resulting from the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, or [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3.2]
• that resulting from 25% of the design truck plus impact, ΔLT,
taken together with the design lane load, ΔLL.
Note: LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2 states that in the calculation of live load deflection, the live load portion of Load
Combination Service I should be used, including the dynamic load allowance .

9.1a - 48 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2 states that all the beams should be assumed to deflect equally under the applied live load
and impact. Therefore, the distribution factor for deflection, DFD, is calculated as follows:
DFD = number of lanes/number of beams [LRFD Art. C2.5.2.6.2]
= 4/7 = 0.571 lanes/beam
However, it is more conservative to use the distribution factor for moment, DFM.
Deflection due to lane load:
Design lane load, w = 0.64DFM = 0.64(0.726) = 0.465 kips/ft/beam
0.465
5𝑤𝐿4 5( ) (120 × 12)4
Δ𝐿𝐿 = = 12 = 0.39 in. ↓
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐 (384)(5,008)(1,125,244)
Deflection due to Design Truck Load and Impact:
To obtain maximum moment and deflection at midspan due to the truck load, let the centerline of the beam
coincide with the middle point of the distance between the inner 32-kip axle and the resultant of the truck load, as
shown in Figure 9.1a.15.6-1.
Figure 9.1a.15.6-1
Design Truck Axle Load Position for Maximum Bending Moment

Using the elastic moment area or influence lines, deflection at midspan is:
ΔLT = (0.766)(IM)(DFM) = (0.766)(1.33)(0.726) = 0.74 in. ↓
Therefore, live load deflection is the greater of:
ΔLT = 0.74 in. (controls)
0.25ΔLT + ΔLL = 0.25(0.74) + 0.39 = 0.57 in.
Therefore, live load deflection = 0.74 in. < allowable deflection = 1.8 in.

9.1a - 49 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a6 Transformed Sections; Refined Losses Using 0.6-in. Diameter Strand/9.1a6.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Part 2
Part 2 of this example repeats the flexural design of Design Example 9.1a using 0.6-in.-diameter prestressing
strands. See Section 9.1a.1 for background.

9.1a6 Transformed Sections; Refined Losses Using 0.6-in.-Diameter Strand

9.1a6.1 INTRODUCTION
This design example follows the design process of Example 9.1a with the following changes:
• Strand diameter is changed from 0.5 to 0.6 in. (strand area is changed from 0.153 to 0.217 in.2)
• Concrete strengths are increased to 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 6.5 ksi and 𝑓𝑐′ = 8.5 ksi
Only selected changes to the flexural design are presented and compared to the 9.1a basic example.
The section numbers in this example parallel those in Example 9.1a but begin with 9.1a6.

9.1a6.2 MATERIALS
Same as Example 9.1a except for strand properties and concrete strengths.

9.1a6.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM

Due to the change in concrete strength from Example 9.1a, small changes in terms such as the modular ratio and,
therefore, composite and transformed section properties occur. In the interest of only demonstrating the
important aspects of this design, the calculations of the various section properties are not presented. These
changes in the modulus of elasticity extend also to small changes in the shear and moment forces since the
calculation of distribution factors in the LRFD Specifications also depends on the A, E, and I values of the beam and
deck slab. Again, these small changes are not provided in detail in this example.

9.1a6.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

See Example 9.1a.

9.1a6.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

The required number of strands is usually governed by concrete tensile stresses at the bottom fiber for load
combination Service III at the section of maximum moment or at the harp points. For estimating the number of
strands, only the stresses at midspan are considered. For this preliminary estimate, nontransformed or gross
section properties are used with estimated prestress losses; therefore, the live load factor, γLL, is taken as 0.8.

9.1a6.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Bottom tensile stress due to applied dead and live loads using load combination Service III is:
𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + (0.8)(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 = + + 𝑓𝑏𝑑𝑠
𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑐
where
fb = concrete tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam, ksi
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight, ft-kips
Ms = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights, ft-kips
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
Mws = unfactored bending moment due to future wearing surface, ft-kips
MLT = unfactored bending moment due to truck load, ft-kips
MLL = unfactored bending moment due to lane load, ft-kips
fbds = tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam attributable to shrinkage of deck concrete, ksi

9.1a - 50 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a6.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan/9.1a6.5.3 Required Number of Strands

Using values of bending moments from Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2, bottom tensile stress at midspan is:
(1,438.2 + 1,659.6) (180 + 360) + (0.8)(1,815 + 837)
𝑓𝑏 = − (12) − (12) + (−0.267)
14,915 20,244
= (−2.493 − 1.578 − 0.267) = −4.338 ksi (tension)

9.1a6.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete

Tensile stress limit at service loads = −0.19λ√𝑓𝑐′ ≥ −0.6 ksi [LRFD Table 5.9.2.3.2b-1]
where
𝑓𝑐′ = specified concrete compressive strength of concrete beam for design, ksi
λ = 1 for normal weight concrete
Concrete tensile stress limit = −0.19(1)√8.50 = −0.554 ksi

9.1a6.5.3 Required Number of Strands

The required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam is the difference between the bottom tensile
stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress limit:
fpb = (4.338 − 0.554) = 3.784 ksi
The location of the strand center of gravity at midspan ranges from 5% to 15% of the beam depth, measured from
the bottom of the beam. A value of 5% is appropriate for newer efficient sections such as bulb-tee beams and 15%
is appropriate for less-efficient AASHTO standard shapes.
Assume the distance between the center of gravity of bottom strands and the bottom fiber of the beam:
ybs = 0.05h = 0.05(72) = 3.60 in.; use ybs = 4.0 in.
Therefore, strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = (yb − ybs) = (36.6 − 4.0) = 32.6 in.
If Ppe is the total prestressing force after all losses, the stress at the bottom fiber due to prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 (32.6)
𝑓𝑝𝑏 = + or 3.784 = +
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 767 14,915
Solving for Ppe, the required Ppe = 1.084 kips.
Final prestress force per strand = (area of strand)(fpbt)(1 − losses)
where fpbt = initial strand stress before transfer, ksi = 202.5 ksi (see Sect. 9.1a.2).
Assuming a final loss of 25% of fpbt, the prestress force per strand after all losses = (0.217)(202.5)(1 − 0.25) =
32.9 kips
Number of strands required = (1,084/32.9) = 32.9 strands
As an initial trial, thirty-two 0.6-in.-diameter, 270 ksi strands are selected. The center of gravity of the 32 strands
at midspan is 3.75 in. from the bottom of the concrete, which is close to the assumed value, 4.0 in. The strand
pattern at midspan for the 32 strands is shown in Figure 9.1a6.5.3-1.
Total area of prestressing strands, Aps = 32(0.217) = 6.944 in.2
Total prestressing force before transfer, Ppi, = 202.5(6.944) = 1,406 kips
Note: As a comparison, Design Example 9.1a uses forty-eight ½-in.-diameter strands and the center of gravity of
the strands is 6.92 in. above the bottom fiber. A lesser number of strands and a higher eccentricity are provided in
this design example.

9.1a - 51 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a6.5.3 Required Number of Strands/9.1a6.6 Prestress Losses

Figure 9.1a6.5.3-1
Assumed Strand Pattern at Midspan

9.1a6.5.4 Strand Pattern

The distance between the center of gravity of the bottom strands and the bottom concrete fiber of the beam at
midspan is:
ybs = [12(2) + 12(4) + 8(6)]/(32) = 3.75 in.
Strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = yb − ybs = 36.60 − 3.75 = 32.85 in. = epg

9.1a6.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES

A comparison of losses between the original Design Example. 9.1a and this design example is provided in Table
9.1a6.6-1.
Table 9.1a6.6-1
Comparison of Prestress Losses, ksi
Property Example Example 9.1a6
9.1a
Elastic Shortening 18.172 18.379
Between Transfer and Deck Placement
Shrinkage 6.164 5.718
Creep 15.252 14.311
Relaxation 1.281 1.275
Total Time-Dependent Losses 22.698 21.304
Between Deck Placement and Final Time
Shrinkage 2.482 2.168
Creep −0.698 −0.733
Relaxation 1.281 1.275
Shrinkage of Deck Concrete −1.235 −1.491
Total Time-Dependent Losses 1.830 1.219
Total Long-Term Losses 24.528 22.523
Total Loss Including Elastic Shortening 42.700 40.902

9.1a - 52 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a6.6 Prestress Losses/9.1a6.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

The losses in Examples 9.1a and 9.1a6 are comparable because each example has nearly the same prestressing
force; however, the beam in Example 9.1a6 has a different strand pattern and different concrete strengths than
those used in Example 9.1a. Each example was initially designed for similar assumed losses and with the same
goal in mind, to meet the Service III limits with assumed inputs and constraints being comparable.

9.1a6.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER

The total prestressing force before transfer, Ppi = 1,406 kips, from Section 9.1a6.5.3.

9.1a6.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3]

Compression:
• 0.65𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 0.65(6.5) = +4.225 ksi
where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = concrete strength at transfer = 6.500 ksi
Tension:
• without bonded auxiliary reinforcement:
−0.0948𝜆√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≥ −0.200 ksi = −0.0948(1)√6.500 = −0.242 ksi
Therefore, −0.200 ksi (controls)
• With bonded auxiliary reinforcement that is sufficient to resist the tension force in the concrete computed
assuming an uncracked section, where reinforcement is proportioned using a stress of 0.5fy, not to exceed 30.0
ksi:
−0.24λ√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = −0.24(1)√6.500 = −0.612 ksi
To use this limit the reinforcement on the tension side of the beam needs to be evaluated for adequacy per
LRFD Article 5.9.2.3.1b with the tension force calculation per C5.2.3.1b., The tension limit of −0.200 ksi
without top tension reinforcement is used in this example.

9.1a6.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

As with Example 9.1a, harping is required to control the stresses at release. Harp six strands at the 0.4L points, as
shown in Figures 9.1a6.7.2-1 and 9.1a6.7.2-2.
Figure 9.1a6.7.2-1
Strand Pattern

9.1a - 53 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a6.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Figure 9.1a6.7.2-2
Longitudinal Strand Profile

Compute the center of gravity of the prestressing strands at the transfer length section using the harped pattern.
The distance between the center of gravity of the six harped strands at the end of the beam and the bottom fiber
of the precast concrete beam is:
2(66 + 68 + 70)
= 68.0 in.
6
The distance between the center of gravity of the six harped strands at the harp point and the bottom fiber of the
beam is:
2(2 + 4 + 6)
= 4.0 in.
6
The distance between the center of gravity of the six harped strands and the bottom fiber of the beam at the
transfer length section is:
3.0
68 in. − (68 − 4 in. )( ft) = 64.04 in.
48.5
The distance between the center of gravity of the 26 straight bottom strands and the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam is:
10(2) + 10(4) + 6(6)
= 3.69 in.
26
Therefore, the distance between the center of gravity of the total number of strands measured to the bottom of
the precast concrete beam at transfer length is:
26(3.69) + 6(64.04)
= 15.01 in.
32
Eccentricity of the 32-strand group at transfer length, e, is 35.72 − 15.01 = 20.71 in.
The center of gravity of all prestressing strands with respect to the extreme bottom fiber at the end of the beam,
ybs, is:
26(3.69) + 6(68.00)
= 15.75 in.
32
At the harp point, ybs is 3.75 in. as calculated in Section 9.1a6.5.4.
Recompute top and bottom stresses at the transfer length section with harped strands. Note that the transformed
section properties here are different than those at midspan and have been recalculated in Table 9.1a6.7.2-1.

9.1a - 54 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a6.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.1a6.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points

Table 9.1a6.7.2-1
Properties of Transformed Beam and Strands at the Transfer Length Location at Transfer
No. of Aps Transformed y Ay Ad2 I0 I0 + Ad2
strands in.2 Area, in.2 in. in.3 in.4 in.4 in.4
Beam 767.00 36.60 28,072 594 545,894 546,488
Lumped 26 0.217 26.47 3.69 98 27,155 – 27,155
straight
strands
Lumped 6 0.217 6.11 64.04 391 4,899 – 4,899
harped
strands
∑ 800 28,561 578,542
Note: The moment of inertia of strand about its own centroid, I0, is neglected.

Noncomposite transformed section at transfer length location at transfer:

Ati = area of transformed section at transfer = 800 in.2
Iti = moment of inertia of the transformed section at transfer = 578,542 in.4
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to the transformed section at transfer = 20.71 in.
ybti = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam at
transfer = 35.72 in.
Sbti = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 16,196 in.3
Stti = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 15,947 in.3
Concrete stress in top of beam:
1,406 (1,406)(20.71) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.759 − 1.827 + 0.089 = +0.021 ksi
800 15,947 15,947
Compressive stress limit is + 4.225 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
1,406 (1,406)(20.71) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.759 + 1.798 − 0.088 = +3.469 ksi
800 16,196 16,196
Compressive stress limit is +4.225 ksi OK

9.1a6.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points

The strand eccentricity at the harp points is the same as at midspan, eti = 31.51 in.
Bending moment at the harp points (0.4L) due to the self-weight of the beam is:
(0.5)(0.799)(48.5)(121 − 48.5) = 1,404 ft-kips
Therefore, top and bottom stresses are:
Concrete stress in top of beam:
1,406 (1,406)(31.51) (1,404)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.759 − 2.808 + 1.068 = +0.019 ksi
800 15,779 15,779
Compressive stress limit is +4.225 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
1,406 (1,406)(31.51) (1,404)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.759 + 2.695 − 1.025 = +3.429 ksi
800 16,440 16,440
Compressive stress limit is +4.225 ksi OK

9.1a - 55 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a6.7.4 Stresses at Midspan/9.1a6.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

9.1a6.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

Bending moment at midspan due to the beam self-weight is:
Mg= 0.5(0.799)(60.5)(121 – 60.5) = 1,462 ft-kips
1,406 (1,406)(31.51) (1,462)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.759 − 2.808 + 1.112 = +0.063 ksi
800 15,779 15,779
Compressive stress limit is +4.225 ksi OK
1,406 (1,406)(31.51) (1,462)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.759 + 2.695 − 1.067 = +3.387 ksi
800 16,440 16,440
Compressive stress limit is +4.225 ksi OK

9.1a6.7.5 Hold-Down Forces

Assume that the stress in the strand at the time of prestressing, before seating losses, is:
0.80 fpu = 0.80(270) = 216 ksi
Thus, the prestress force per strand before seating losses is:
0.217(216) = 46.9 kips
From Figure 9.1a6.7.2-2, the harp angle is:
64
ψ = tan−1 ( ) = 6.28 degrees
48.5(12)
Therefore, hold-down force/strand = 1.05(force per strand)(sin ψ)
= 1.05(46.9)sin 6.28 degrees = 5.38 kips/strand
Note that the factor 1.05 is applied to account for friction.
Total hold-down force = 6 strands (5.38) = 32.3 kips
The hold-down force and the harp angle should be checked against maximum limits for local practices. Refer to
Chapter 3, Fabrication and Construction and Chapter 8, Design Theory and Procedures for additional details.

9.1a6.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

Table 9.1a6.7.6-1 compares the stresses at transfer from this example to those of Example 9.1a (in parentheses).
Due to this example’s strand pattern having a higher eccentricity, the top fiber stresses are less compressive and
the bottom fiber stresses are more compressive than in Example 9.1a.
Table 9.1a6.7.6-1
Comparison of Stresses from Example 9.1a6 and Example 9.1a
Top Fiber Bottom Fiber
Location Stresses Stresses
ft, ksi fb, ksi
+0.021 +3.469
At transfer length section
(+0.359) (+3.328)
+0.019 +3.429
At harp points
(+0.241) (+3.399)
+0.063 +3.387
At midspan
(+0.285) (+3.356)

9.1a - 56 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a6.8 Concrete Stresses At Service Loads/9.1a6.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam

9.1a6.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS

9.1a6.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3.2]
Compression:
Due to permanent loads (beam self-weight, weight of slab and haunch, weight of future wearing surface, and
weight of barriers), for load combination Service I:
for precast concrete beams: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(8.500) = +3.825 ksi
for deck: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(4.000) = +1.800 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads (all dead loads and live loads), for load combination Service I:
for precast concrete beams: 0.60ϕw𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(1)(8.500) = +5.100 ksi
for deck: 0.60ϕw𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(1)(4.000) = +2.400 ksi
Tension:
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III: −0.19λ√𝑓𝑐′
for precast concrete beam: −0.19(1)√8.500 = −0.554 ksi

9.1a6.8.2 Stresses at Midspan

9.1a6.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam

To check top compressive stresses, two cases are considered:
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
Using bending moment values given in Table 9.1a.4-1, compute the top-fiber stresses:
1 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = 𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( − )+ − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( − )+
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓
1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 ) 1 𝑒𝑑
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 ( − )+ + ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( + )
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑔
in.
1 31.35 12 ( ) 1,438.2(ft-kips)
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = 202.5(6.944) ( − )+ ft
800 15,779 15,779
in.
1 32.85 12 ( ) (1,659.6)(ft-kips)
− 6.944(5.718 + 14.311 + 1.275) ( − )+ ft
767 15,421 15,744
1 51.83
− 6.944(2.168 + (−0.733) + 1.275 − 1.491) ( − )
1,474.98 68,542
in.
12 ( ) (180.0 + 360.0)(ft-kips) 1 20.67
+ ft + 779 ( + )
64,025 1,474.98 68,542
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = −1.036 + 1.094 − (−0.122) + 1.264 − (−0.001) + 0.101 + 0.763 = 2.309 ksi
Compressive stress limit is +3.825 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
(𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = +2.310 +
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
(1.0)(1,815 + 837)(12)
= +2.310 +
64,025
= +2.310 + 0.497 = +2.807 ksi
Compressive stress limit is +5.100 ksi OK

9.1a - 57 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a6.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck/9.1a6.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

9.1a6.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck

Not included as they do not control.

9.1a6.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III

1 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠
𝑓𝑏 = 𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + )− − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 ( + )−
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
1 𝑒𝑝𝑠 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 )
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 ( + )−
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
1 𝑒𝑑
+ ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( − )
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐
in.
1 31.51 12 ( ) 1,438.2(ft-kips)
𝑓𝑏 = 202.5(6.944) ( + )− ft
800.0 16,440 16,440
in.
1 32.85 12 ( ) (1,659.6)(ft-kips)
− 6.944(5.718 + 14.311 + 1.275) ( + )− ft
767 14,915 16,284
1 51.83
− 6.944(2.168 + (−0.733) + 1.275 − 1.491) ( + )
1,474.98 20,078
in.
12 ( ) ((180.0 + 360.0) + (1.0)(1815 + 837))(ft-kips) 1 20.67
− ft + 779 ( − )
21,851 1,474.98 20,078
= 4.453 − 1.050 − 0.519 − 1.223 − 0.028 − 1.753 +(−0.267) = −0.387 ksi (tension)
Tensile stress limit is −0.554 ksi OK
Note: Example 9.1a results in a tensile stress in the bottom fiber of −0.436 ksi and a corresponding Service III
tensile stress limit of −0.484 ksi. In comparison, Example 9.1a6 has less tension (−0.387 ksi) and an even greater
tensile limit (−0.554 ksi).
The conservatism relative to the Service III Limit State is apparent in both Examples 9.1a and 9.1a6. This
conservatism is attributed to the initial selection of the strand pattern based on assumed lump-sum loss values
and gross section properties. A few iterations would result in several strands being removed from the design and
the design somewhat more optimized. A final strand pattern of 10-10-8 strands in the bottom three rows still
satisfies requirements in the LRFD Specifications. With any further reductions, both the Strength I and Service III
limit states are violated. However, this example was prepared simply to demonstrate a more contemporary
design with higher material strengths and larger-diameter strands.

9.1a6.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

Not included.

9.1a6.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

The stresses for 0.6-in.-diameter prestressing strands are calculated using the previous methods are summarized
in Table 9.1a6.8.4-1. The results from Example 9.1a using 0.5-in.-diameter prestressing strand (see 9.1a.8.5.2)
are shown in parentheses and are comparable to those obtained from this design.

9.1a - 58 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1a6.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads/9.1a6.10 Summary

Table 9.1a6.8.4-1
Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

Top of Deck, ksi Top of Beam, ksi

Service I Service I Bottom of
Permanent Total Loads Permanent Total Loads Beam, ksi
Loads Loads Service III

+0.113 +0.675 +2.309 +2.807 −0.387

(+0.117) (+0.691) (+2.495) (+2.958) (−0.436)

Table 9.1a6.8.4-2
Stresses at Midspan for Load Combination Service III,
Including the Effect of Deck Shrinkage Applied as an External Load Only

Deck Bottom of
Shrinkage Beam, ksi
Force, % Service III
0 −0.134
50 −0.271
100 −0.408

9.1a6.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Using the values of unfactored bending moment given in Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2, the ultimate bending
moment at midspan is:
Mu = 1.25(1,438 + 1,660 + 180) + 1.5(360) + 1.75(1,815 + 836) = 9,278 ft-kips
Calculations for Mr follow the same procedures as Example 9.1a:
Mr = 11,274 ft-kips > Mu = 9,278 ft-kips OK

9.1a6.10 SUMMARY
A comparison of Examples 9.1a and 9.1a6 demonstrates that each design achieves the same relative levels of
performance. They both satisfy the various limit states, each with some conservatism as the Service III and
Strength I limit states for flexure. Each example could have been further economized, and would be with the use
of various software tools available to the design community. The focus of this example was to simply show a
comparative and similarly safe and reasonable design using strand and concrete properties indicative of more
recent designs.

9.1a - 59 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1a
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK

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9.1a - 60 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Table of Contents

9.1b.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1b-3

9.1b.2 MATERIALS ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 9.1b-3
9.1b.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM ............................................................................ 9.1b-3
9.1b.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ......................................................................................................................... 9.1b-3
9.1b.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS ......................................................................................................................................... 9.1b-4
9.1b.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9.1b-4
9.1b.6.1 Elastic Shortening .................................................................................................................................................................. 9.1b-5
9.1b.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement .................................................................... 9.1b-5
9.1b.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ................................................................................................................................................. 9.1b-6
9.1b.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.1b-7
9.1b.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ....................................................................................................................... 9.1b-7
9.1b.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time ................................................................ 9.1b-7
9.1b.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ................................................................................................................................................. 9.1b-7
9.1b.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.1b-8
9.1b.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ....................................................................................................................... 9.1b-9
9.1b.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete ..................................................................................................................................... 9.1b-9
9.1b.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss ............................................................................................................................................9.1b-10
9.1b.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer ....................................................................................................................................................9.1b-10
9.1b.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads .........................................................................................................................................9.1b-10
9.1b.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER ..................................................................................................................................9.1b-11
9.1b.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ................................................................................................................................................9.1b-11
9.1b.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section .............................................................................................................................9.1b-11
9.1b.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points ......................................................................................................................................................9.1b-13
9.1b.7.4 Stresses at Midspan .............................................................................................................................................................9.1b-13
9.1b.7.5 Hold-Down Forces ...............................................................................................................................................................9.1b-14
9.1b.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer ..................................................................................................................................9.1b-14
9.1b.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS .......................................................................................................................9.1b-14
9.1b.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ................................................................................................................................................9.1b-14
9.1b.8.2 Stresses at Midspan .............................................................................................................................................................9.1b-15
9.1b.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam ........................................................................................................9.1b-15
9.1b.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck .................................................................................................9.1b-15
9.1b.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in the Bottom Fiber of the Beam, Load Combination Service III ..........................9.1b-16
9.1b.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit .............................................................................................................................................................9.1b-16
9.1b.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads ...............................................................................................9.1b-17
9.1b.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage....................................................................................................................................................9.1b-17
9.1b.8.5.1 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam without Deck Shrinkage, Load Combination Service III ...9.1b-17
9.1b.8.5.2 Stresses from Deck Shrinkage ...............................................................................................................................9.1b-17
9.1b.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE...........................................................................................................................................................9.1b-18
9.1b.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT ...............................................................................................................................................9.1b-18

9.1b - 1 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Table of Contents

9.1b.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement .............................................................................................................................................. 9.1b-18

9.1b.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................................... 9.1b-18
9.1b.11.1 Critical Section .................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1b-19
9.1b.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance ................................................................................... 9.1b-20
9.1b.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement .................................................................................................... 9.1b-20
9.1b.11.2.1.1 Calculation for Negative Strain ................................................................................................................. 9.1b-21
9.1b.11.2.1.2 Compute Shear Stress ................................................................................................................................... 9.1b-22
9.1b.11.2.2 Values of β and θ....................................................................................................................................................... 9.1b-22
9.1b.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution ....................................................................................................................... 9.1b-23
9.1b.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance ...................................................................... 9.1b-23
9.1b.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement ....................................................................................................................... 9.1b-23
9.1b.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement ...................................................................................................................... 9.1b-23
9.1b.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement ............................................................................................................. 9.1b-23
9.1b.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement ......................................................................................................... 9.1b-24
9.1b.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance ....................................................................................................................... 9.1b-24
9.1b.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER ........................................................................................................................................... 9.1b-24
9.1b.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement ................................................................................................ 9.1b-24
9.1b.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing.......................................................................................................... 9.1b-25
9.1b.14 Pretensioned Anchorage Zone ............................................................................................................................................. 9.1b-26
9.1b.15 Deflection and Camber ............................................................................................................................................................. 9.1b-26

9.1b - 2 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b Gross Sections, Shear Appendix B, Refined Losses/9.1b.4 Shear Forces and Bending Moments

9.1b Gross Sections, Shear Appendix B5, Refined Losses

9.1b.1 INTRODUCTION
This example illustrates in detail the design of a typical interior beam at the critical sections in positive flexure,
shear, and deflection due to prestress, dead loads, and live load. For completeness, this example includes the
design of all aspects of a typical beam bridge.
The purpose of design examples 9.1a, 9.1b and 9.1d is to illustrate the application and interpretation of the
AASHTO LRFD Specifications as written, even though the resulting complexity may imply a precision that is often
not achieved in practice. The examples demonstrate varying levels of rigor and detail that may not always be
necessary for typical bridge designs, where simplified analysis and approximate methods may be appropriate.
This example is simplified by using gross section properties in the calculations as distinct from transformed
sections used in Example 9.1a. The examples may be used by new and experienced designers as both an
educational reference and a design aid. It assumes that the reader is generally knowledgeable about prestressed
concrete beam design. The reader is referred to Chapters 7 and 8 for additional theory and guidance.
This design example demonstrates the design of a 120-ft, single-span, AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beam bridge with no
skew. The superstructure consists of six beams spaced at 9 ft 0 in. centers, as shown in Figure 9.1b.1-1. Beams
are designed to act compositely with the cast-in-place concrete deck to resist all superimposed dead loads, live
loads, and impact. The 8-in.-thick deck includes a ½-in.-thick sacrificial wearing surface that is not included in the
calculation of the composite section properties. Design live load is HL-93. The design is accomplished in
accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Ninth Edition (2020). Elastic stresses from
external loads are calculated using gross sections. Elastic gains are included in the calculation of losses and
stresses. Shear strength is calculated using the general procedure of Appendix B5 of the LRFD Specifications.
Time-dependent prestress losses are calculated using the refined estimates. In addition to these calculations,
checks for lateral stability should be made (See Chapter 8).

Figure 9.1b.1-1
Bridge Cross Section

9.1b.2 MATERIALS
See Section 9.1a.2.

9.1b.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM

See Section 9.1a.3.

9.1b.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

See Section 9.1a.4.

9.1b - 3 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.5 Estimate Required Prestress/9.1b.6 Prestress Losses

9.1b.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

See Section 9.1a.5.
For convenience, the section properties are shown in Table 9.1b.5-1.

Table 9.1b.5-1.
Summary of Section Properties at Transfer and at Final Time

Noncomposite Composite Gross

Property
Gross at Final
Area, in2 Ag 767 Ac 1,475.0
Total depth, in. h 72.00 hc 80.00
Moment of inertia, in.4 Ig 545,894 Ic 1,125,244
Eccentricity of the
strands with respect to
epg 29.68 epc 48.67
the centroid of the beam
section, in.
Distance from the
centroid of the section
yb 36.60 ybc 55.58
to the extreme bottom
fiber of the beam, in.
Distance from the
centroid of the section
yt 35.40 ytg 16.42
to the extreme top fiber
of the beam, in.
Distance from the
centroid of the
composite section to the ytc 24.42
extreme top fiber of the
deck, in.
Distance from the
centroid of the section
ed 20.67
to the centroid of the
deck, in.
Section modulus for the
extreme bottom fiber of
Sb 14,915 Sbc 20,244
the precast concrete
beam, in.3
Section modulus for the
extreme top fiber of the St 15,421 Stg 68,542
beam, in.3
Section modulus for the
extreme top fiber of the
deck, in.3 [includes Stc 54,093
(1/n) factor for stress
check of deck concrete]

9.1b.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES

Total prestress loss:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.1-1]

9.1b - 4 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.6 Prestress Losses/9.1b.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

where
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel after transfer. In
this design example, the refined estimates of time-dependent losses are used.

9.1b.6.1 Elastic Shortening

𝐸𝑝 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.2.3a-1]
∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
where
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing reinforcement = 28,500 ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete at transfer = 4,823 ksi
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons due to prestressing force at
transfer and the self weight of the member at sections of maximum moment
Common practice is to assume that the initial losses are a percentage of the prestressing stress before transfer, fpi.
Calculated losses are compared with the assumed initial losses, and if different from the assumed values, a second
iteration should be carried out. In this example, 9% fpi initial loss is assumed.
Force per strand after transfer = (area of strand)(prestress stress after transfer)
= (0.153)(202.5)(1 − 0.09) = 28.19 kips
𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑐2 𝑀𝑔 𝑒𝑐
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑔
where
ec = eccentricity of prestressing strands at midspan
Ppt = total prestressing force after transfer = (48 strands)(28.19) = 1,353.3 kips
Mg should be calculated based on the overall beam length of 121 ft. Since the elastic shortening loss is a part of the
total loss, fcgp will be conservatively computed based on Mg using the design span length of 120 ft.
1,353.3 (1,353.3)(29.68)2 [(1,438.2)(12)](29.68)
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
767 545,894 545,894
= 1.764 + 2.184 − 0.938 = 3.010 ksi
Therefore, the loss due to elastic shortening is:
28,500
∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = (3.010) = 17.8 ksi
4,823
17.8
Percent actual loss due to elastic shortening = (100) = 8.8%
202.5
Since the calculated loss of 8.8% is approximately equal to the initial loss assumption of 9%, a second iteration is
not necessary.

9.1b.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

The following construction schedule is assumed in calculating the time-dependent losses:
Concrete age at transfer: ti = 1 day
Concrete age at deck placement: td = 90 days
Concrete age at final stage: tf = 20,000 days

9.1b - 5 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement/9.1b.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The total time-dependent loss between time of transfer and deck placement is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of concrete, creep of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing strands.

9.1b.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is calculated by:
ΔfpSR = εbidEpKid [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2a-1]
where
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for the time period between transfer and deck placement
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kid = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between transfer and deck
placement
The concrete shrinkage strain, εbid, is taken as:
εbid = ks khs kf ktd 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
where
The factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam is:
ks = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13 × 3.01 = 1.059
The minimum value of ks is 1.0 OK
V/S is the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam in Table 2.5.7.1-1.
The humidity factor for shrinkage is:
khs = 2.00 − 0.014H = 2.00 − 0.014(70) = 1.020
where H = average annual mean relative humidity (assume 70%)
The factor for the effect of concrete strength is:
5 5
𝑘𝑓 = = = 0.735
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 1 + 5.8
The time development factor at deck placement, 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑 , is:
𝑡 89
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = ′ = = 0.714 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑
100 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 100 − 4(5.8)
12 ( ′ )+𝑡 12 ( ) + 89
𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 20 5.8 + 20
where t is the maturity of concrete (days) = td − ti = 90 − 1 = 89 days
εbid = (1.059)(1.020)(0.735)(0.714)(0.48 × 10−3) = 0.000272
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 𝑝𝑔 )
(𝑒 2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔
where
epg = eccentricity of the prestressing strand with respect to the centroid of the girder, in.
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced at transfer
For the time between transfer and final time:

Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = 1.9ks khc kf ktd ti −0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

khc = 1.56 − 0.008H = 1.56 − 0.008(70) = 1.000

9.1b - 6 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.1b.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

𝑡 20,000 − 1
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = = = 0.998 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓
100 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 100 − 4(5.8)
12 ( ′ )+𝑡 12 ( ) + (20,000 − 1)
𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 20 5.8 + 20
𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓 = time development factor at final time
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = 1.9(1.059)(1.000)(0.735)(0.998)(1)−0.118

= 1.476
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = = 0.795
28,500 7.344 767(29.68)2
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(1.476)]
4,823 767 545,894
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between the transfer and deck placement is:
ΔfpSR = (0.000272)(28,500)(0.795) = 6.164 ksi

9.1b.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of girder concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is determined as:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = 𝑓 Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 )𝐾 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖 𝑖𝑑
where
Ψ𝑏 ( 𝑡 𝑑 , 𝑡 𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at time of deck placement due to loading introduced at transfer

= 1.9ks khc kf ktdd ti −0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

= 1.9(1.059)(1.000)(0.735)(0.714)(1)−0.118 = 1.055
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = (3.010)(1.055)(0.795) = 14.932 ksi
4,823

9.1b.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck placement is
determined as:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑡
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.2c-1]
𝐾𝐿 𝑓𝑝𝑦
where
fpt = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer, taken not less than 0.55fy
KL = 30 for low-relaxation strands and 7 for other prestressing steel, unless more accurate
manufacturer’s data are available
(202.5 − 17.8) (202.5 − 17.8)
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) = 1.294 ksi
30 243
According to LRFD Article 5.9.3.4.2c, the relaxation loss may also be assumed to be equal to 1.2 ksi for low-
relaxation strands.

9.1b.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time

The total time-dependent loss between time of deck placement and final time is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of beam concrete, creep of beam concrete, relaxation of prestressing strands, and shrinkage of
deck concrete.

9.1b.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of deck placement and final time is calculated by:

9.1b - 7 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.1b.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

ΔfpSD = εbdf EpKdf [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3a-1]

where
εbdf = concrete shrinkage strain of the girder for time period between deck placement and final time
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kdf = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete and
bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between deck placement and final time
The total girder concrete shrinkage strain between transfer and final time is taken as:
εbif = ks khs kf ktdf 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
= (1.059)(1.020)(0.735)(0.998)(0.48 × 10−3) = 0.000380
The girder concrete shrinkage strain between deck placement and final time is:
εbdf = εbif – εbid = 0.000380 – 0.000272 = 0.000108
The beam concrete transformed section coefficient between deck placement and final time is:
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = 2
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐 𝑒𝑝𝑐 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐

where
Ac = area of the composite section = 1,475.0 in.2
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section = 1,125,244 in.4
epc = eccentricity of strands with respect to the centroid of the composite section
= 55.58 − 6.92 = 48.67 in.
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = = 0.803
28,500 7.344 1,475.0(48.67)2
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(1.476)]
4,823 1,475.0 1,125,244
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is:
ΔfpSD = (0.000108)(28,500)(0.803) = 2.482 ksi

9.1b.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between time of deck placement and final time is determined as:
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 [Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) − Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )]𝐾𝑑𝑓 + Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐸𝑐
where
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading at deck placement
= 1.9ks khc kf ktdf td−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
ktdf = 0.998 (previously determined)
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = 1.9(1.059)(1.000)(0.735)0.998)(90)−0.118 = 0.868
Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to long-term losses between
transfer and deck placement, combined with deck weight and superimposed loads, ksi
2
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑔 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑝𝑐
= −(Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 ) (1 + )−( + )
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑐

9.1b - 8 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete/9.1b.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

7.344 767(29.68)2
= −(6.164 + 14.932 + 1.294) (1 + )
767 545,894
1,660(12)(29.68) (180 + 360)(12)(48.67)
−( + )
545,894 1,125,244
= −1.843 ksi
28,500 28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = (3.010)(1.476 − 1.055)(0.803) + (−1.843)(0.868)(0.803)
4823 5008
= −1.298 ksi The negative sign indicates a prestress gain.

9.1b.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands in the composite section between time of deck
placement and final time is taken as:
ΔfpR2 = ΔfpR1 = 1.294 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3c-1]

9.1b.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

The prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete is calculated by:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = ∆𝑓 𝐾 [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )] [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3d-1]
𝐸𝑐 𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓

where Δfcdf = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to shrinkage of deck concrete, ksi:
ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑑 1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝑒𝑑
Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 = ( − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.3d-2]
𝐴
1 + 0.7Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) 𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
εddf = shrinkage strain of deck concrete between placement and final time by LRFD Eq.
(5.4.2.3.3-1)
Ad = area of deck concrete, in.2
Ecd = modulus of elasticity of deck concrete = 4.266 ksi (Sect. 9.1a.3.1)
Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = deck concrete creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced shortly after deck
placement
ed = eccentricity of the deck with respect to the gross composite section, in.
Assume the initial strength of concrete at deck placement is 0.8(4.0 ksi) = 3.2 ksi, and use a volume-to-surface
ratio, V/S, of 3.582 for the deck:
ks = 1.45 − 0.13(𝑉 ⁄𝑆) = 1.45 − 0.13 (3.582) = 0.984 < 1.0
Use ks = 1.000
5 5
kf = = = 1.190
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 1 + 3.2
𝑡 20,000 − 90
= = 0.998
ktd = 100 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 100 − 4(3.2)
12 ( ′ )+𝑡 12 ( ) + (20,000 − 90)
𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 20 3.2 + 20
εddf = ks khs kf ktd 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3−1]
= (1.000)(1.020)(1.190)(0.998)(0.48 × 10−3) = 0.000582

9.1b - 9 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete/9.1b.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads

Ψ𝑑 ( 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑑 ) = 1.9ks khc kf ktd ti−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

= 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(1.190)(0.998)(1)−0.118 = 2.258
Creep of the deck concrete is assumed to start at 1 day.
0.000582(108)(7.5)(4,266) 1 48.67(80 − 7.5⁄2 − 55.58)
Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 = ( − )
1 + 0.7(2.258) 1,475 1,125,244
= −0.168 ksi The negative sign indicates a prestress gain.
The prestress gain due to shrinkage of the deck in the composite section is:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = (−0.168)(0.803)[1 + 0.7(0.868)] = −1.235 ksi
5,008
Note: The effect of deck shrinkage on the calculation of prestress gain is discussed further in Section 9.1a.8.5.

9.1b.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss

The total time-dependent loss, ΔfpLT, is determined as follows:
ΔfpLT = (ΔfpSR + ΔfpCR + ΔfpR1) + (ΔfpSD + ΔfpCD + ΔfpR2 − ΔfpSS) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.4.1-1]
= (6.164 + 14.932 + 1.294) + (2.482 − 1.298 + 1.294 − 1.235)
= 22.389 + 1.242= 23.6 ksi

9.1b.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer

∆𝑓𝑝𝑖 = ∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 17.8 ksi
Effective stress in tendons immediately after transfer, fpt = fpi − Δfpi= (202.5 − 17.8) = 184.7 ksi
Force per strand = (fpt)(area of strand) = 184.7(0.153) = 28.26 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer, Ppt = 28.26(48) = 1,357 kips
Initial loss, % = (Total losses at transfer)/(fpi) = 17.8/202.5 = 8.8%
The first estimation of loss at transfer, 9%, is very close to the actual computed initial loss of 8.8%. Thus, there is
no need to perform a second iteration to refine the initial losses.

9.1b.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads

Total loss due to elastic shortening at transfer and long-term losses is:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT = 17.8 + 23.6= 41.4 ksi
The elastic gain due to deck weight, superimposed dead load, and live load is computed herein. The elastic gain is
the sum of permanent and transient gains. The Service I limit state combination is used to check the stress in the
strands against the LRFD Specifications stress limit of 0.8fpy:
𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑔 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝐸𝑝 (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝐸𝑝
( + ) + (1.0) ( )
𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐 𝐸𝑐
1,659.6(12)(29.68) (180 + 360)(12)(48.67) 28,500 (1,815 + 837)(12)(48.67) 28,500
=( + ) + (1.0) ( )
545,894 1,125,244 5,008 1,125,244 5,008
= 7.76 + 7.83 = 15.6 ksi
The effective stress in strands after all losses and all gains is:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 15.6 = 202.5 − 41.4 + 15.6 = 176.7 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.2.2-1]
fpe ≤ 0.8fpy = 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 176.7 ksi OK

9.1b - 10 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.7 Concrete Stresses at Transfer/9.1b.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

9.1b.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER

Because the gross section is used, the total prestressing force after transfer, Ppt = 1,357 kips (from Sect. 9.1b.6.5)
is used to compute beam concrete stresses.

9.1b.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3]

Compression:
• 0.65𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 0.65(5.8) = +3.770 ksi
where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = concrete strength at transfer = 5.800 ksi
Tension:
• without bonded auxiliary reinforcement:
−(0.0948λ√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≤ 0.200) ksi; −0.0948(1)√5.800 = −0.228 ksi
Therefore, −0.200 ksi (controls)
• With bonded auxiliary reinforcement that is sufficient to resist the tension force in the concrete computed
assuming an uncracked section, where reinforcement is proportioned using a stress of 0.5fy, not to exceed
30.0 ksi:
−0.24λ√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = −0.24(1)√5.800 = −0.578 ksi
To use this limit the reinforcement on the tension side of the beam needs to be evaluated for adequacy in
accordance with LRFD Article 5.9.2.3.1b with the tension force calculation per LRFD Article C5.2.3.1b. The tension
limit of −0.200 ksi without top tension reinforcement is used in this example.

9.1b.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Stresses at this location need only be checked at transfer since that stage almost always governs. Also, losses with
time will reduce the concrete stresses and concrete gains strength with time, making the stresses less critical.
Transfer length = 60(strand diameter) = 60(0.5) = 30 in. = 2.5 ft [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.3]
Due to camber of the beam at release, the beam self weight acts on the overall beam length, 121 ft. Therefore,
values for bending moment given in Table 9.1a.4-1 cannot be used because they are based on the design span of
120 ft. Using statics, bending moment at transfer length due to beam self weight is:
Mg = 0.5wgx(L − x) = (0.5)(0.799)(2.5)(121 − 2.5) = 118.4 ft-kips
Compute stress in the top of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑔 1,357 (1,357)(29.68) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡 767 15,421 15,421
= 1.769 − 2.611 + 0.092 = −0.750 ksi
Tensile stress limit for concrete without bonded reinforcement is −0.200 ksi NG
Compute stress in the bottom of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑔 1,357 (1,357)(29.68) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏 767 14,915 14,915
= 1.769 + 2.700 − 0.095 = +4.373 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete is +3.480 ksi NG
Since stresses at the top and bottom exceed the stress limits, harp strands to satisfy the specified limits. Harp 12
strands at the 0.4L points, as shown in Figures 9.1b.7.2-1 and 9.1b.7.2-2.

9.1b - 11 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Figure 9.1b.7.2-1
Strand Pattern

Figure 9.1b.7.2-2
Longitudinal Strand Profile

Compute the center of gravity of the prestressing strands at the transfer length section using the harped pattern.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped strands at the end of the beam and the bottom fiber
of the precast concrete beam is:
2(60 + 62 + 64 + 66 + 68 + 70)
= 65.0 in.
12
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped stands at the harp point and the bottom fiber of the
beam is:
2(10) + 2(12) + 2(14) + 2(16) + 2(18) + 2(20)
= 15.0 in.
12
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped strands and the bottom fiber of the beam at the
transfer length section is:
(65 in. −15 in. )
65 in. − (2.5 ft) = 62.42 in.
48.5 ft
The distance between the center of gravity of the 36 straight bottom strands and the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam is:

9.1b - 12 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.1b.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

12(2) + 12(4) + 8(6) + 4(8)

= 4.22 in.
36
Therefore, the distance between the center of gravity of the total number of 48 strands and the extreme bottom
fiber of the precast concrete beam at transfer length is:
36(4.22) + 12(62.42)
= 18.77 in.
48
The center of gravity of all prestressing strand with respect to the extreme bottom fiber at the end of the beam,
ybs, is:
36(4.22) + 12(65)
= 19.42 in.
48
Eccentricity of the 48-strand group at transfer length, e, is:
36.60 − 18.77 = 17.83 in.
Recompute the top and bottom stresses at the transfer length section with harped strands:
Concrete stress in top of beam:
1,357 (1,357)(17.83) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.769 − 1.568 + 0.092 = 0.292 ksi
767 15,421 15,421
Compressive stress limit is + 3.770 ksi OK
Tensile stress limit for concrete without bonded reinforcement is −0.200 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
1,357 (1,357)(17.83) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.769 + 1.622 − 0.095 = 3.295 ksi
767 14,915 14,915
Compressive stress limit is + 3.770 ksi OK
If desired, a second iteration using a different strand draping pattern could be performed to make the calculated
stresses closer to the stress limits.

9.1b.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points

The strand eccentricity at the harp points is the same as at midspan, epg = 29.68 in.
Bending moment at the harp points (0.4L) due to the self weight of the beam is:
(0.5)(0.799)(48.5)(121 − 48.5) = 1,404 ft-kips
Therefore, top and bottom stresses are as follows.
Concrete stress in top of beam:
1,357 (1,357)(29.68) (1,404)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.769 − 2.611 + 1.092 = +0.250 ksi
767 15,421 15,421
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK
Tensile stress limit for concrete without bonded reinforcement is −0.200 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
1,357 (1,357)(29.68) (1,404)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.769 + 2.700 − 1.130 = +3.339 ksi
767 14,915 14,915
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK

9.1b.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

Bending moment at midspan due to the beam self weight is:

9.1b - 13 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.7.4 Stresses at Midspan/9.1b.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

Mg = 0.5(0.799)(60.5)(121 − 60.5) = 1,462 ft-kips

1,357 (1,357)(29.68) (1,462)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.769 − 2.612 + 1.138 = +0.295 ksi
767 15,421 15,421
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK
Tensile stress limit for concrete without bonded reinforcement is −0.200 ksi OK
1,357 (1,357)(29.68) (1,462)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.769 + 2.700 − 1.176 = +3.293 ksi
767 14,915 14,915
Compressive stress limit is + 3.770 ksi OK

9.1b.7.5 Hold-Down Forces

Assume that the stress in the strand at the time of prestressing, before seating losses, is:
0.80fpu = 0.80(270) = 216 ksi LRFD Construction Art. 10.10.1
Thus, the prestress force per strand before seating losses is 0.153(216) = 33.0 kips
From Figure 9.1b.7.2-2, the harp angle is:
50
ψ = tan−1 ( ) = 4.91 degrees
48.5(12)
Therefore, hold-down force/strand = 1.05(force per strand)(sin ψ)
= 1.05(33.0) sin 4.91 degrees = 2.97 kips/strand
Note that the factor 1.05 is applied to account for friction.
Total hold-down force = 12 strands(2.97) = 35.6 kips
The hold-down force and the harp angle should be checked against maximum limits for local practices. Refer to
Chapter 3, Fabrication and Construction and Chapter 8, Design Theory and Procedures for additional details.

9.1b.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

Top Fiber Bottom Fiber
Stresses Stresses
ft, ksi fb, ksi
At transfer length section +0.292 +3.295
At harp points +0.250 +3.339
At midspan +0.295 +3.292

9.1b.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS

9.1b.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3.2]
Compression:
Due to permanent loads (beam self weight, weight of slab and haunch, weight of future wearing surface, and
weight of barriers), for load combination Service I:
for precast concrete beam: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(6.500) = +2.925 ksi
for deck: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(4.000) = +1.800 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads (all dead loads and live loads), for load combination Service I:
for precast concrete beam: 0.60ϕw𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(1)(6.500) = +3.900 ksi
for deck: 0.60ϕw𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(1)(4.000) = +2.400 ksi

9.1b - 14 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete/9.1b.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck

Tension:
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III: −(0.19λ√𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 0.600) ksi
where λ = concrete density modification factor
for precast concrete beam: −0.19(1)√6.500 = −0.484 ksi

9.1b.8.2 Stresses at Midspan

The calculations in Sections 9.1b.8.2.1 and 9.1b.8.2.3 consider all losses and all gains. The designer may choose to
use permanent gains instead of all gains to be a little more conservative.

9.1b.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam

To check top compressive stresses, two cases are considered:
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
Using bending moment values given in Table 9.1a.4-1, compute the top fiber stresses:
1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑔 𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝐸𝑝𝑠 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = (𝑓𝑝𝑖 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 )𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( − )+ − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 [(𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 − ]( − )+
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐼𝑔 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡
(𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝐸𝑝𝑠 1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 [(𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 − ]( − )+
𝐼𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑔
1 𝑒𝑑
+ ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( + )
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑔
in.
1 29.68 (12)( )1,438.2(ft-kips)
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = (202.5 − 17.8)(7.344) ( − )+ ft
767 15,421 15,421
(12)1,659.6(29.68) 28,500 1 29.68
− 7.344 [(6.164 + 14.932 + 1.294) − ]( − )
545,894 5,008 767 15,421
in.
12 ( ) 1,659.6(ft-kips)
+ ft
15,421
(12)(180 + 360)48.67 28,500 1
− 7.344 [(2.482 + (−1.298) + 1.294 − 1.235) − ](
1,125,244 5,008 1,475
48.67 (12)(180 + 360) 1 20.67
− )+ + 779 ( + )
68,542 68,542 1,475 68,542
= −0.842 + 1.119 − (−0.074) + 1.291 − 0.000 + 0.095 + 0.763 = 2.500 ksi
Compressive stress limit is +2.925 ksi OK

Although the Δfpss value calculated in Section 9.1b.6.3.4 is negative, it is substituted here as a positive value per
LRFD Article C5.9.3.4d to reflect the condition at the top of the beam.

2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:

(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 ) (1,815 + 837)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = +2.500 + = + 2.500 +
𝑆𝑡𝑔 68,542
= 2.500 + 0.464 = + 2.964 ksi
Compressive stress limit is +3.900 ksi OK

9.1b.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck

Note: Compressive stress in the deck slab at service loads never controls the design for typical applications. The
calculations shown herein are for illustration purposes and may not be necessary in most practical applications.

9.1b - 15 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck/9.1b.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:

𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 (360 + 180)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = = = +0.120 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑐 54,093
Compressive stress limit is +1.800 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 (1,815 + 837)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = + = 0.120 + = +0.708 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑐 54,093
Compressive stress limit is +2.400 ksi OK

9.1b.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in the Bottom Fiber of the Beam, Load Combination Service III
1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑔 𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝐸𝑝𝑠 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠
𝑓𝑏 = (𝑓𝑝𝑖 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 )𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + )− − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 [(𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 − ]( + )−
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏 𝐼𝑔 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏
(𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 )𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝐸𝑝𝑠 1 𝑒𝑝𝑐
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 [(𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 − 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )𝑑𝑓 − ]( + )
𝐼𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐
(𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 ) 1 𝑒𝑑
− + ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( − )
𝑆𝑏𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐
1 29.68 (12)1438.2
𝑓𝑏 = (202.5 − 17.8)7.344 ( + )−
767 14,915 14,915
(12)1659.6(29.68) 28,500 1 29.68
− 7.344 [(6.164 + 14.932 + 1.294) − ]( + )
545,894 5,008 767 14,915
(12)1659.6
−
14,915
− 7.344 [(2.482 + (−1.298) + 1.294 − 1.235)
(12)(180 + 360 + (1.0)(1815 + 837))48.67 28,500 1 48.67
− ]( + )
1,125,244 5,008 1,475 20,244
(12)(180 + 360 + (1.0)(1815 + 837)) 1 20.67
− + 779 ( − )
20,244 1,475 20,244

= 4.468 − 1.157 − 0.393 − 1.335 − (−0.185) − 1.892 + (−0.267) = −0.391 ksi (tension)
Tensile stress limit is −0.484 ksi OK

9.1b.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

LRFD Article 5.5.3.1 states that in fully prestressed components other than segmentally constructed bridges, the
compressive stress due to the Fatigue I load combination and one half the sum of effective prestress and
permanent loads shall not exceed 0.40𝑓𝑐′ after losses.
From Table 9.1a.4-2, the unfactored fatigue bending moment at midspan, Mf, is 785.9 ft-kips. Therefore, stress at
the top fiber of the beam due to the Fatigue I load combination is:
1.75(𝑀𝑓 ) 1.75 (785.9)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 = = = +0.241 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑔 68,542
At midspan, the top compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress is:
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = 2.500 (See Sect. 9.1b.8.2.1)
Therefore:
𝑓𝑡 2.500
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 + = 0.241 + = 1.491 < 0.40( 𝑓𝑐′ ) = 0.40(6.50) = 2.6 ksi OK
2 2

9.1b - 16 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit/9.1b.8.5.2 Stresses from Deck Shrinkage

This condition should be satisfied at all locations along the beam.

9.1b.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

The stresses calculated using the previous methods are summarized in Table 9.1b.8.4-1.
Table 9.1b.8.4-1
Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads
Top of Deck, ksi Top of Beam, ksi
Bottom of
Design Service I Service I
Beam, ksi
Example Permanent Permanent
Total Loads Total Loads Service III
Loads Loads
9.1b +0.120 +0.708 +2.500 +2.964 −0.391

9.1b.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage

The calculations in Section 9.1b.8.2 comply with the LRFD Specifications. However, PCI believes that it is not
appropriate to include the prestressing gain caused by the deck shrinkage, ΔfpSS, in calculating the prestress
losses. The effect of deck shrinkage is analyzed by considering it as an external force applied to the composite
nontransformed section, as illustrated in Section 9.1a.8.5.

9.1b.8.5.1 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam without Deck Shrinkage, Load Combination Service III
1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑔 𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝐸𝑝𝑠 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠
𝑓𝑏 = (𝑓𝑝𝑖 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 )𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + )− − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 [(𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅1 )𝑖𝑑 − ]( + )−
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏 𝐼𝑔 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏
(𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 )𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝐸𝑝𝑠 1 𝑒𝑝𝑐
− 𝐴𝑝𝑠 [(𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 + 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑅2 )𝑑𝑓 − ]( + )
𝐼𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐
(𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 )
−
𝑆𝑏𝑐

1 29.68 (12)1438.2
= (202.5 − 17.8)7.344 ( + )−
767 14,915 14,915
(12)1659.6(29.68) 28,500 1 29.68
− 7.344 [(6.164 + 14.932 + 1.294) − ]( + )
545,894 5,008 767 14,915
(12)1659.6
−
14,915
− 7.344 [(2.482 + (−1.298) + 1.294)
(12)(180 + 360 + (1.0)(1815 + 837))48.67 28,500 1 48.67
− ]( + )
1,125,244 5,008 1,475 20,244
(12)(180 + 360 + (1.0)(1815 + 837))
−
20,244
= 4.468 − 1.157 − 0.393 − 1.335 − (−0.157) − 1.892 = −0.152 ksi (tension)

9.1b.8.5.2 Stresses from Deck Shrinkage

The bottom of beam concrete stress attributable to shrinkage of the deck concrete is computed in 9.1a.6.3.4 is
𝑓𝑏𝑑𝑠 = −0.267 ksi
Under service load, Load Combination Service III:
fb = −0.152 + (−0.267) = −0.419 ksi > −0.484 ksi

9.1b - 17 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.8.5.2 Stresses from Deck Shrinkage/9.1b.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement

It is likely, however, that the full calculated force from deck shrinkage will not occur because of the presence of
deck cracking and deck reinforcement. Table 9.1b.8.5.2-1 summarizes the effect of applying 0%, 50%, or 100%
of the calculated deck force on the stresses at load combination Service III.
Table 9.1b.8.5.2-1
Stresses at Midspan for Load Combination Service III,
Including the Effect of Deck Shrinkage Applied as an External Load Only
Deck Bottom of
Shrinkage Beam, ksi
Force, % Service III
0 −0.152
50 −0.286
100 −0.419

9.1b.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

See Section 9.1a.9.

9.1b.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT

9.1b.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement
The check of maximum reinforcement limits in LRFD were removed from the LRFD Specifications in 2005.
Adequate ductility of the beam is ensured by evaluating whether the member can be classified as tension
controlled, as was checked in Section 9.1a.9 when computing the ϕ factor.

9.1b.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3]

At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement must be adequate to develop
a factored flexural resistance, Mr, greater than or equal to the lesser of:
• the cracking moment strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and
• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan:
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝛾3 [(𝛾1 𝑓𝑟 + 𝛾2 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 )𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 − 𝑀𝑑𝑛𝑐 ( − 1)] [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3-1]
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
where
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= 0.24λ√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.24(1)√6.5 = 0.612 ksi
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of the section where tensile stress is caused by externally
applied loads
Mdnc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section
= Mg + Ms = 1,438.2 + 1,659.6 = 3,098 ft-kips
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the composite gross section where the tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads = 20,244 in.3
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed noncomposite section where the
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 14,915 in.3
γ1 = flexural cracking variability factor = 1.6 for structures other than precast segmental
γ2 = prestress variability factor = 1.1 for bonded tendons
γ3 = ratio of specified minimum yield strength to ultimate tensile strength of the nonprestressed
reinforcement = 1.0 for prestressing steel

9.1b - 18 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.1b.11.1 Critical Section

1 29.68 1 29.68
𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 = (202.5 − 17.8)(7.344) ( + ) − 7.344(6.164 + 14.932 + 1.294) ( + )
767 14,915 767 14,915
1 48.66
− 7.344(2.482 + (−1.298) + 1.294 − 1.235) ( + ) = 4.468 − 0.542 − 0.028
1,474.98 20,244
= 3.898 ksi
The calculation of fcpe includes the gain from deck shrinkage, 𝛥𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 , in accordance with the LFRD Specifications,
However, PCI believes that it is not appropriate to include the prestressing gain caused by the deck shrinkage in
the calculation.
20,244
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 1.0 [[1.6(0.612) + 1.1(3.898)]20,244 − 3,098(12) ( − 1)] = 93,342 in.-kips = 7,778 ft-kips
14,915
At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is:
Mu = 9,278 ft-kips (as calculated in Sect. 9.1a.9)
Thus, 1.33Mu = 1.33(9,278) = 12,340 ft-kips
Since Mcr < 1.33Mu, the Mcr requirement controls.
Mr = 11,364 ft-kips > Mcr = 7,778 ft-kips OK
Note: The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at every section.9.1b.11 SHEAR DESIGN

9.1b.11 SHEAR DESIGN

The area and spacing of shear reinforcement must be determined at regular intervals along the entire length of
the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design procedures are demonstrated by determining these
values at the critical section near the supports.
Transverse shear reinforcement is required when:
Vu > 0.5ϕ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.3-1]
where
Vu = total factored shear force, kips
Vc = nominal shear resistance of the concrete, kips
Vp = component of the prestressing force in the direction of the applied shear force, kips
ϕ = resistance factor = 0.9 for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]

9.1b.11.1 Critical Section [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.2]

The critical section near the supports is taken as the effective shear depth, dv, from the internal face of the
support.
dv = distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (de − a/2), but [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.8]
not less than 0.9de or 0.72hc
where
de = corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.8]
the centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement
a = depth of compression block = 5.27 in. at midspan (assumed
adequate)
hc = total depth of the composite section = 80.0 in.
Since some of the strands are harped, the effective depth, de, varies from point to point. However, de must be
calculated at the critical section in shear, which is not yet determined; therefore, for the first iteration, de is
calculated based on the center of gravity of the straight strand group at the end of the beam, ybs.
de = hc − ybs = 80.0 − 4.22 = 75.78 in.

9.1b - 19 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.11.1 Critical Section /9.1b.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

dv = 75.78 − (5.27/2) = 73.14 in.

≥ 0.9 de = 0.9(75.78) = 68.20 in.
≥ 0.72 hc = 0.72(80) = 57.60 in. OK
Therefore, dv = 73.14 in.
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is conservatively assumed to be zero. Therefore, the
critical section in shear is located at a distance of:
73.14 in. = 6.10 ft from centerline of support
(x/L) = 6.10/120 = 0.051L
The effective depth, de, and the position of the critical section in shear may be refined based on the position of the
critical section calculated previously. However, the difference is small. Therefore, no more refinement is
performed.

9.1b.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance

The contribution of the concrete to the nominal shear resistance is:
𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316βλ√𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-3]

where
β = factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension
(a value indicating concrete contribution)
λ = concrete density modification factor; 1 for normal weight concrete
Several quantities must be determined before this expression can be evaluated.

9.1b.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

Calculate the strain at the centroid of the tension reinforcement, εx:
|𝑀𝑢 |
+ 0.5𝑁𝑢 + 0.5|𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 | cot θ − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑜
𝑑 [LRFD Eq. B5.2-3]
ε𝑥 = 𝑣
2(𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 )
where
Mu = applied factored bending moment at the specified section, 0.051L
should not be taken less than |(𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 )|𝑑𝑣 [LRFD 5.7.3.4.2]
= 1.25(277.6 + 320.3 + 34.7) + 1.50(69.5) + 1.75(369.6 + (Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2)
161.4)
= 1,824 ft-kips
Nu = applied factored normal force at the specified section, 0.051L
= 0 kips
Vu = applied factored shear force at the specified section, 0.051L
= 1.25(43.1 + 49.7 + 5.4) + 1.50(10.8) + 1.75(73.8 + 30.6) = 321.7 (Tables 9.1a.4-1 and
kips 9.1a.4-2)
Vp = component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the applied shear force, kips
Aps = area of prestressing strands on the flexural tension side of the member = 36(0.153) = 5.508 in.2
fpo = a parameter taken as the modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by the locked-
in difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the surrounding concrete, ksi. For
pretensioned members, LRFD Article B5.2 indicates that fpo can be taken as 0.7fpu. (Note: Use this

9.1b - 20 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement/9.1b.11.2.1.1 Calculation for Negative Strain

for both pretensioned and post-tensioned systems made with stress-relieved and low-relaxation
strands.)
= 0.7(270.0) = 189.0 ksi
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses; assume θ is 23 degrees (slope of
compression field)
𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝐸𝑝𝑠
𝑉𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 [(𝑓𝑝𝑏𝑡 − ∆𝑓𝐸𝑆 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝑅1 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝑅2 + ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 ) +
𝐼𝑔 𝐸𝑐
(𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝐸𝑝𝑠
+ ] (sin ψ)
𝐼𝑐 𝐸𝑐

𝑉𝑝 = (12)(0.153) [202.5 − 17.8 − 6.164 − 14.932 − 1.294 − 2.482 − (−1.298) − 1.294 + 1.235
(1,659.6)(12)(29.68) 28,500 (180 + 360)(12)(48.67) 28,500
+ + ] (sin 4.91 degrees)
575,899 5,008 1,125,244 5,008
= 1.836(161.0 + 5.84 + 1.60)(0.0856) = 26.5 kips
The shear design at any section depends on the angle of diagonal compressive stresses at the section. Shear
design is an iterative process that begins with assuming a value for θ. For this example, only the final cycle of
calculations is shown. As a guide, for areas that have high shear forces and low bending moments, the angle θ
ranges from 20 to 30 degrees. For areas of low shear forces and high bending moments, the angle θ ranges to up
to 45 degrees. Using the previously stated guidelines, two iterations are enough in most cases.
∣Mu∣ should not be taken less than ∣Vu − Vp∣dv: [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.4.2]
(Vu − Vp)dv = (321.7 − 26.5)(73.14)/12 = 1,799 ft-kips
(Vu − Vp)dv ≤ Mu = 1,824 ft-kips; therefore, Mu controls.
1,824(12)
+ 0 + 0.5(321.7 − 26.5)(cot 23 degrees) − 5.508(189.0) −394.0
ε𝑥 = 73.14 =
2[0 + 28,500(5.508)] 313,956
= −1.255 × 10−3

9.1b.11.2.1.1 Calculation for Negative Strain

Since the value of εx is negative, a different equation for εx must be used.
|𝑀𝑢 |
+ 0.5𝑁𝑢 + 0.5|𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 | cot θ − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑜
𝑑 [LRFD Eq. B5.2-5]
ε𝑥 = 𝑣
2(𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 )
where Ac = area of concrete (in.2) on the flexural tension side of the member, as shown in Figure 9.1b.11.2.1-1
(area of concrete below h/2 = 80/2 = 40 in.).

9.1b - 21 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.11.2.1.1 Calculation for Negative Strain/9.1b.11.2.2 Values of β and θ

Figure 9.1b.11.2.1-1
Illustration of Ac , Area of Concrete Below h/2

Ac = [26(6) + (2)(0.5)(10)(4.5) + 6(34)] = 405 in.2

Therefore:
−394.0
ε𝑥 = = −90.5 × 10−6
2[(5,008)(405) + 0 + (28,500)(5.508)]
Note that the negative sign of εx should be maintained.

9.1b.11.2.1.2 Compute Shear Stress

𝑉𝑢 − ϕ𝑉𝑝
𝑣𝑢 = [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.8-1]
ϕ𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣
where
vu = shear stress on the concrete, ksi
ϕ = resistance factor = 0.9 [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force (calculated in
Sect. 9.1b.11.2.1) = 26.1 kips
321.7 − (0.9)(26.5)
vu = = 0.754 ksi
(0.9)(6)(73.14)
(𝑣𝑢 ⁄𝑓𝑐′ ) = (0.754/6.5) = 0.116

9.1b.11.2.2 Values of β and θ

Having computed εx and vu/𝑓𝑐′ , find a better estimate of θ from LRFD Table B5.2-1. Since the computed value of
vu/𝑓𝑐′ is likely to fall between two rows in the table, a linear interpolation may be performed. However, for hand
calculations, interpolation is not recommended (LRFD Art. CB5.2). The values of θ in the lower row that bounds
the computed value may be used. Similarly, the values of θ in the first column to the right of the computed value
may be used. For this example, the applicable row and column are labeled “≤ 0.125” and “≤ −0.05,” respectively.
The values of θ and β contained in the cell at the intersection of that row and column are:
θ = 22.8 degrees ≅ assumed value of 23 degrees OK
Therefore, no further iteration is needed.

9.1b - 22 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.11.2.2 Values of β and θ/9.1b.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement

β = 2.94

9.1b.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution

The nominal shear resisted by the concrete is:
Vc = 0.0316βλ√𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-3]

where bv = effective web width = 6 in.

Vc = 0.0316(2.94)(1)√6.5(6)(73.14) = 103.9 kips

9.1b.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance

9.1b.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement

Check if Vu > 0.5ϕ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.3-1]
0.5ϕ(Vc + Vp) = 0.5(0.9)(103.9 + 26.5) = 58.4 kips < 321.7 kips
Therefore, transverse shear reinforcement must be provided.

9.1b.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement

Vu/ϕ ≤ Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-1]
where
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement
= (Vu/ϕ) − Vc − Vp = (321.7/0.9) − 103.9 − 26.5 = 227.0 kips
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦ℎ 𝑑𝑣 (cot θ + cot α)(sin α)
Vs = 𝜆𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-4]
𝑠
where
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, in.2
s = spacing of stirrups, in.
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to the longitudinal axis
= 90 degrees for vertical stirrups
𝜆𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = shear strength reduction factor accounting for the reduction in the shear resistance provided
by transverse reinforcement due to the presence of a grouted post-tensioning duct
= 1.0 when ducts are not present
Therefore, area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, is:
Av = (sVs)/(fyhdvcot θ)
= [(s)(227.0)]/[60(73.14)cot 23 degrees] = 0.022(s)
If s = 12 in., required Av = 0.26 in.2/ft

9.1b.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement

Check maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement. [LRFD Art 5.7.2.6]
Check if vu < 0.125𝑓𝑐′
vu = 0.755 ksi (calculated in Sect. 9.1b.11.2.1.2)
0.125𝑓𝑐′ = (0.125)(6.5) = 0.813 ksi
Since vu < 0.125𝑓𝑐′ then, s ≤ 24 in. [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.6-1]
s ≤ 0.8dv = 0.8(73.14) = 58.5 in.
Therefore, maximum s = 24 in. > s provided OK

9.1b - 23 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement/9.1b.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement

Use No. 4 bar double legs at 12 in., Av = 0.40 in.2/ft > 0.26 in.2/ft
0.4(60)73.14 cot 23 degrees
𝑉𝑠 = = 344.6 kips
12
9.1b.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement
The area of transverse reinforcement should not be less than: [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.5-1]
𝑏𝑣 𝑠 (6)(12)
0.0316λ√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.0316(1)√6.5 = 0.10 in.2 ⁄ft < 𝐴𝑣 provided OK
𝑓𝑦ℎ 60.0

9.1b.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

To ensure that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush before the transverse reinforcement yields, the
LRFD Specifications gives an upper limit of Vn as follows:
Vn = 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with LRFD Eq. (5.8.3.3-1), it can be concluded that Vc + Vs must not be greater than
0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv.
103.9 + 344.6 = 448.5 kips ≤ 0.25(6.5)(6)(73.14) + 26.5 = 739.6 kips OK
Using the above procedures, the transverse reinforcement can be determined at increments along the entire
length of the beam.

9.1b.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER

See Section 9.1a.12.

9.1b.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.5]

Longitudinal reinforcement should be proportioned so that the following equation is satisfied at each section:
𝑀𝑢 𝑁𝑢 𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ + 0.5 + (| − 𝑉𝑝 | − 0.5𝑉𝑠 ) cot θ [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.5-1]
𝑑𝑣 ϕ𝑓 ϕ𝑐 ϕ𝑣
where
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.2
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars, ksi
Aps = area of prestressing strand at the tension side of the section, in.2
fps = average stress in prestressing strand at the time for which the nominal resistance is required, ksi
Mu = factored moment at the section corresponding to the factored shear force, ft-kips
Nu = applied factored axial force, kips
Vu = factored shear force at section, kips
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement, ≤ Vu/ϕv, kips
Vp = component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the applied shear force, kips
dv = effective shear depth, in.
ϕ = resistance factor as appropriate for moment, shear, and axial resistance Note: [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2]
Different ϕ factors will be used for the terms in LRFD Eq. (5.8.3.5-1), depending
on the type of action being considered.
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses

9.1b - 24 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing

9.1b.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing

For simple end supports, the longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member at the inside
face of the bearing should satisfy:
𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ ( − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 ) cot θ [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.5-2]
ϕ
Mu = 0 ft-kips
Nu = 0 kips
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is assumed to be zero. This assumption is conservative
for these calculations. Therefore, the failure crack assumed for this analysis radiates from the centerline of the
bearing, 6 in. from the end of the beam.
From Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2, using load combination Strength I, the factored shear force at this section is:
Vu = 1.25(47.9 + 55.3 + 6.0) + 1.5(12.0) + 1.75(78.1 + 33.9) = 350.5 kips
𝑉𝑢 350.5
( − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 ) cot θ = ( − 0.5(344.6) − 26.5) cot 23 degrees = 449.1 kips
ϕ 0.9
As shown in Figure 9.1b.13.1-1, the assumed crack plane crosses the centroid of the 36 straight strands at a
distance from the end of the beam of (6 + 4.22 cot 23 degrees = 15.94 in.). Since the transfer length is 30 in. from
the end of the beam (60 times the strand diameter), the available prestress from the 36 straight strands is a
fraction of the effective prestress, fpe, in these strands. The 12 harped strands do not contribute to the tensile
capacity since they are not on the flexural tension side of the member.
Figure 9.1b.13.1-1
Assumed Failure Crack

Therefore, the available prestressing force is: [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.3]

15.94
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 = (36)(0.153) ((202.5 − 41.4) )+0
30

= 471.4 + 0 = 471.4 kips > 449.1 kips OK

The value of Apsfps must be greater than the value of Asfy. [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.5]
Apsfps = 471.4 kips > Asfy = 0 OK
No additional reinforcement is required.

9.1b - 25 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1b
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1b.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing/9.1b.15 Deflection and Camber

Note: An alternative approach for the calculation of available prestressing force excluding the gains from deck
shrinkage is illustrated in Section 9.6.13.1.

9.1b.14 Pretensioned Anchorage Zone

See Section 9.1a.14.

9.1b.15 Deflection and Camber

See Section 9.1a.15.

9.1b - 26 (2023)
 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Simplified Shear, Approximate Losses
Table of Contents
9.1c.1 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................................................................9.1c - 3
9.1c.2 MATERIALS .......................................................................................................................................................................................9.1c - 4
9.1c.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM............................................................................9.1c - 4
9.1c.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ........................................................................................................................9.1c - 4
9.1c.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS ........................................................................................................................................9.1c - 4
9.1c.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES .......................................................................................................................................................................9.1c - 4
9.1c.6.1 Elastic Shortening ............................................................................................................................................................9.1c - 5
9.1c.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement ..............................................................9.1c - 5
9.1c.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time ..........................................................9.1c - 5
9.1c.6.4 Approximate Estimate of Time-Dependent Losses ...........................................................................................9.1c - 5
9.1c.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer ................................................................................................................................................9.1c - 5
9.1c.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads .....................................................................................................................................9.1c - 6
9.1c.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER ...................................................................................................................................9.1c - 6
9.1c.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS .........................................................................................................................9.1c - 6
9.1c.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................9.1c - 6
9.1c.8.2 Stresses at Midspan .........................................................................................................................................................9.1c - 7
9.1c.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit .........................................................................................................................................................9.1c - 8
9.1c.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads ...........................................................................................9.1c - 8
9.1c.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage ..........................................................................................................................................................9.1c - 8
9.1c.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE ............................................................................................................................................................9.1c - 9
9.1c.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT.................................................................................................................................................9.1c - 9
9.1c.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement...........................................................................................................................................9.1c - 9
9.1c.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement ...........................................................................................................................................9.1c - 9
9.1c.11 SHEAR DESIGN ........................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1c - 10
9.1c.11.1 Critical Section ............................................................................................................................................................. 9.1c - 10
9.1c.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance ............................................................................ 9.1c - 10
9.1c.11.2.1 Calculate Vci .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.1c - 11
9.1c.11.2.2 Calculate Vcw ........................................................................................................................................................ 9.1c - 12
9.1c.11.2.3 Calculate Vc ........................................................................................................................................................... 9.1c - 12
9.1c.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance ................................................................ 9.1c - 12
9.1c.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement ................................................................................................................. 9.1c - 12
9.1c.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement ................................................................................................................ 9.1c - 13
9.1c.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement....................................................................................................... 9.1c - 13
9.1c.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement .................................................................................................. 9.1c - 14
9.1c.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance ................................................................................................................ 9.1c - 14
9.1c.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER .......................................................................................................................................... 9.1c - 14
9.1c.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear ...................................................................................................................................... 9.1c - 14
9.1c.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance ............................................................................................................................... 9.1c - 14
9.1c.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement ........................................................................................................ 9.1c - 14

9.1c - 1 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Simplified Shear, Approximate Losses
Table of Contents
9.1c.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement .............................................................................................. 9.1c - 15
9.1c.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance ................................................................................................................ 9.1c - 15
9.1c.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT ......................................................................... 9.1c - 15
9.1c.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE ............................................................................................................................... 9.1c - 16
9.1c.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER................................................................................................................................................. 9.1c - 16

9.1c - 2 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.1 Introduction/9.1c.1.1 Terminology

9.1c Transformed Sections, Simplified Shear, Approximate Losses

9.1c.1 INTRODUCTION
This design example demonstrates the design of a 120-ft, single span, AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beam bridge with no
skew. This example illustrates in detail the design of a typical interior beam at the critical sections in positive
flexure, shear, and deflection due to prestress, dead loads, and live load. The superstructure consists of six beams
spaced at 9 ft 0 in. centers, as shown in Figure 9.1c.1-1. Beams are designed to act compositely with the 8-in.-
thick cast-in-place concrete deck to resist all superimposed dead loads, live loads, and impact. A ½-in.-thick
wearing surface is considered to be an integral part of the 8-in.-thick deck. Design live load is HL-93. The design is
accomplished in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fifth Edition, 2010, and the 2011
Interim Revisions. Elastic stresses from external loads are calculated using transformed sections. Shear strength
is calculated using the simplified procedure for prestressed and nonprestressed sections of LRFD Article 5.8.3.4.3.
Time-dependent prestress losses are calculated using the approximate estimates of LRFD Article 5.9.5.3.
This design example is the same as Design Example 9.1a except for the calculation of time-dependent losses and
shear strength. Consequently, calculations common to both design examples are not repeated in this design
example and the reader is referred to Design Example 9.1a.
Figure 9.1c.1-1
Bridge Cross Section

9.1c.1.1 Terminology
The following terminology is used to describe cross sections in this design example:
noncomposite section—the concrete beam cross section.
noncomposite nontransformed section—the concrete beam cross section without the strands transformed. Also
called the gross section.
noncomposite transformed section—the concrete beam cross section with the strands transformed to provide
cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
composite section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch.
composite nontransformed section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch transformed to
provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete but without the strands transformed.
composite transformed section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch and the strands
transformed to provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
The term "composite" implicitly includes the transformation of the concrete deck and haunch.
The term "transformed" generally refers to transformation of the strands.

9.1c - 3 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.2 Materials/9.1c.6 Prestress Losses

9.1c.2 MATERIALS
See Section 9.1a.2.

9.1c.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM

See Section 9.1a.3.

9.1c.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

See Section 9.1a.4.

9.1c.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

See Section 9.1a.5.
For convenience, the section properties are shown in Table 9.1c.5-1.

Table 9.1c.5-1.
Summary of Section Properties at Transfer and at Final Time
Noncomposite Noncomposite Composite
Noncomposite Composite Gross
Property Transformed Transformed Transformed
Gross at Final
at Transfer at Final at Final
Area, in2 Ag 767 Ati 805.0 Atf 802.5 Ac 1,418.9 Atc 1,454.4
Total Depth, in. h 72.00 h 72.00 h 72.00 hc 80.00 hc 80.00
Moment of Inertia, in.4 Ig 545,894 Iti 578,827 Itf 576,757 Ic 1,100,320 Itc 1,180,561
Centroid of Section to
epg 29.68 eti 28.28 etf 28.37 epc 47.85 etc 46.68
Centroid of Prestress, in.
Centroid to Bottom Fiber
yb 36.60 ybti 35.20 ybtf 35.29 ybc 54.77 ybtc 53.60
of Beam, in.
Centroid of Section to
yt 35.40 ytti 36.80 yttf 36.71 ytg 17.23 18.40
Top Fiber of Beam, in.
Centroid of Section to
ytc 25.23 26.40
Top Fiber of Deck, in.
Centroid of Section to
ed 21.48
Centroid of Deck, in.
Section Modulus for
Sb 14,915 Sbti 16,444 Sbtf 16,343 Sbc 20,090 Sbtc 22,025
Beam Bottom Fiber,in.3
Section Modulus for
St 15,421 Stti 15,729 Sttf 15,711 Stg 63,861 Sttc 64,161
Beam Top Fiber, in.3
Section Modulus for
Stc 55,592 Sdtc 57,002
Deck Top Fiber, in.3

9.1c.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES

Total prestress loss:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
where
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel after transfer. In
this design example, the approximate estimate of time-dependent losses is used.

9.1c - 4 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.6.1 Elastic Shortening/9.1c.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer

9.1c.6.1 Elastic Shortening

See Section 9.1a.6.1.

9.1c.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

Not applicable.

9.1c.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time

Not applicable.

9.1c.6.4 Approximate Estimate of Time-Dependent Losses

The approximate estimate of time-dependent losses is valid if
• Members are made from normal weight concrete, OK
• The concrete is either steam- or moist-cured, OK
• Prestressing is by bars or strands with normal and low-relaxation properties, and OK
• Average exposure conditions and temperatures characterize the site. OK
The long-term prestress loss, Δ fpLT, due to creep of concrete, shrinkage of concrete, and relaxation of steel is
determined using the following equation:
𝑓𝑝𝑖 𝐴𝑝𝑠
∆𝑓𝑝𝐿𝑇 = 10.0 γ γ + 12γℎ γ𝑠𝑡 + ∆𝑓𝑝𝑅 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.3-1]
𝐴𝑔 ℎ 𝑠𝑡
where
fpi = prestressing steel stress immediately prior to transfer = 202.5 ksi
Aps = area for prestressing strand = 7.344 in.2
Ag = area of cross section of the precast concrete beam = 767 in.2
γh = correction factor for relative humidity of the ambient air
γst = correction factor for specified concrete strength at time of prestress transfer to the concrete
member
ΔfpR = an estimate of relaxation loss taken as 2.4 ksi for low-relaxation strand, 10.0 ksi for stress- relieved
strand, and in accordance with manufacturers recommendation for other types of strand, ksi
The correction factor for relative humidity:
γh = 1.7 − 0.01H [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.3-2]
where
H = the average annual ambient relative humidity (assume 70%)
γh = 1.7 – 0.01 (70) = 1.000
The correction factor for specified concrete strength:
5
γ𝑠𝑡 = [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.3-3]
(1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ )
5
= = 0.735
1 + 5.8
Long-term prestress loss:
10.0(202.5)(7.344)
∆𝑓𝑝𝐿𝑇 = (1.000)(0.735) + 12.0(1.000)(0.735) + 2.4
767
= 14.251 + 8.820 + 2.4 = 25.5 ksi

9.1c.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer

See Section 9.1a.6.5.

9.1c - 5 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads/9.1c.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

9.1c.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads

Total loss due to elastic shortening at transfer and long-term losses is:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT = 18.9 + 25.5 = 44.4 ksi
The elastic gain due to deck weight, superimposed dead load, and live load (Service III) is:
𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝 (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝
� + � + 0.8 � �
𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐
1,659.6(12)(28.37) (180 + 360)(12)(46.68) 28,500 (1830.2 + 843.3)(12)(46.68) 28,500
=� + � + 0.8 � �
576,757 1,180,561 4,888 1,180,561 4,888
= 7.2 + 5.9 = 13.1 ksi
The effective stress in strands after all losses and gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 13.1 = 202.5 − 44.4 + 13.1 = 171.2 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
fpe ≤ 0.8fpy = 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 171.2 ksi OK
The effective stress in strands after all losses and permanent gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 7.2 = 202.5 − 44.4 + 7.2 = 165.3 ksi
Force per strand without live load gains= (fpe)(area of strand) = 165.3 (0.153) = 25.29 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after all losses = 25.29 (48) = 1,214 kips
Final loss percentage = (total losses and gains)/(fpi ) = (202.5 − 165.3)/(202.5) = 18.4%
Without consideration of prestressing gains at deck placement, the final loss percentage = total losses/(fpi) =
(44.4)/(202.5) = 21.9%
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, all the elastic losses and gains are
implicitly accounted for.
Force per strand with only total time-dependent losses = (fpi − ΔfpLT)(area of strand) = (202.5 − 25.5)(0.153) =
27.08 kips
Total prestressing force Ppe = 27.08(48) = 1,300 kips

9.1c.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER

See Section 9.1a.7.

9.1c.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS

Using transformed section properties and approximate time-dependent losses, Ppe = 1,300 kips

9.1c.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]

Compression:
Due to permanent loads, (i.e. beam self weight, weight of slab and haunch, weight of future wearing surface, and
weight of barriers), for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(6.500) = +2.925 ksi
for deck: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(4.000) = +1.800 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads (i.e. all dead loads and live loads), for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.60 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(6.500) = +3.900 ksi
for deck: 0.60 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(4.000) = +2.400 ksi

9.1c - 6 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete/9.1c.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck

Tension:
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III: −0.19 

for precast beam: −0.19 −0.484 ksi

9.1c.8.2 Stresses at Midspan

9.1c.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam

To check top compressive stresses, two cases are considered:
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
Using bending moment values given in Table 9.1a.4-1, compute the top fiber stresses:

−
Compressive stress limit: +2.925 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:

Compressive stress limit: +3.900 ksi OK

9.1c.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck

Note: Compressive stress in the deck slab at service loads never controls the design for typical applications. The
calculations shown below are for illustration purposes and may not be necessary in most practical applications.
1. Under permanent loads, Service I:

Compressive stress limit: +1.800 ksi OK

2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:

Compressive stress limit: +2.400 ksi OK

9.1c - 7 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.8.2 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III/9.1c.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage

9.1c.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III

− −

− −

− −
Tensile stress limit: −0.484 ksi
The stress is in compression. OK

9.1c.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

From Table 9.1a.4-2, the unfactored fatigue bending moment at midspan, Mf, is 776.9 ft-kips. Therefore, stress at
the top fiber of the beam due to fatigue load combination I is:

At midspan, the top compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress is:

−
Therefore:

This condition should be satisfied at all locations along the beam.

9.1c.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

The stresses calculated using the above methods are summarized in Table 9.1c.8.4-1. For comparison, the
stresses calculated for the same design example using the previous method of calculating prestress losses are also
shown in the table (Example 9.4 in the previous edition of the manual).
Table 9.1a.8.4-1
Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads
Top of Deck, ksi Top of Beam, ksi
Bottom of
Design Service I Service I
Beam, ksi
Example Permanent Permanent
Total Loads Total Loads Service III
Loads Loads
9.1c +0.114 +0.677 +1.740 +2.240 +0.142
9.4 +0.117 +0.694 +1.833 +2.335 -0.487
9.1c.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage
The calculations in Section 9.1c.8.2 comply with the LRFD Specifications. However, PCI believes that it is not
appropriate to include the prestressing gain caused by the deck shrinkage, ΔfpSS, in calculating the prestress
losses. Alternatively, the effect of deck shrinkage should be analyzed by considering it as an external force applied
to the composite nontransformed section as illustrated in Section 9.1a.8.5.

9.1c - 8 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.9 Strength Limit State/9.1c.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement

9.1c.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

See Section 9.1a.9.

9.1c.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]

9.1c.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement

The check of maximum reinforcement in LRFD Article 5.7.3.3.1 was removed from the LRFD Specifications in
2005.
9.1c.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]
At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement must be adequate to develop
a factored flexural resistance, Mr, equal to the lesser of:
• 1.2 times the cracking strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and

• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan:
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 �𝑓𝑟 + 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 � − 𝑀𝑑𝑛𝑐 � − 1� ≥ 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 𝑓𝑟 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.2-1]
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
where
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= 0.37�𝑓𝑐′ = 0.37√6.500 = 0.943 ksi
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied
loads
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 1,300 1,300(28.37)
= + = + = 3.877 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 802.5 16,343
Mdnc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section
= Mg + Ms = 1,438.2 + 1,659.6 = 3,098 ft-kips
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section where the
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 22,025 in.3
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of transformed noncomposite section where the
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 16,343 in.3

22,025 22,025
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = (0.943 + 3.877) − (3,098) � − 1� = 7,770 ft-kips
12 16,343

1.2 Mcr = 1.2(7,770) = 9,324 ft-kips

At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is: Illustrated based on 2011
Mu = 9,316 ft-kips (as calculated in Section 9.1a.9) LRFD Specifications.

Thus, 1.33Mu = 1.33(9,316) = 12,390 ft-kips Editor’s Note: 2012 LRFD

Specifications changes will
Since 1.2Mcr < 1.33Mu, the 1.2Mcr requirement controls. revise minimum
Mr = 11,364 ft-kips > 1.2Mcr = 9,350 ft-kips OK reinforcement.

Note: The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at every section.

9.1c - 9 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.11 Shear Design/9.1c.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance

9.1c.11 SHEAR DESIGN

The area and spacing of shear reinforcement must be determined at regular intervals along the entire length of
the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design procedures are demonstrated below by determining
these values at the critical section near the supports and using the simplified procedure of LRFD Article 5.8.3.4.3.
Transverse shear reinforcement is required when:
Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
where
Vu = total factored shear force, kips
Vc = nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the concrete, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
ɸ = resistance factor = 0.9 for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]

9.1c.11.1 Critical Section [LRFD Art. 5.8.3.2]

The critical section near the supports is taken as the effective shear depth dv from the internal face of the support.
dv = distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (de − a/2), but [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
not less than (0.9de) or (0.72hc)
where
de = the corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.9]
centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement
a = depth of compression block = 5.27 in. at midspan (assumed adequate)
hc = overall depth of the composite section = 80.0 in.
Since some of the strands are harped, the effective depth, de, varies from point-to-point. However, de must be
calculated at the critical section in shear which is not yet determined; therefore, for the first iteration, de is
calculated based on the center of gravity of the straight strand group at the end of the beam, ybs.
de = hc − ybs = 80.0 − 4.22 = 75.78 in.
dv = 75.78 − (5.27/2) = 73.14 in.
≥ 0.9 de = 0.9(75.78) = 68.20 in.
≥ 0.72 hc = 0.72(80) = 57.60 in. OK
Therefore, dv = 73.14 in.
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it was conservatively assumed to be zero. Therefore the
critical section in shear is located at a distance of:
73.14 in. = 6.10 ft from centerline of support
(x/L) = 6.10/120 = 0.051L
The effective depth, de, and the position of the critical section in shear may be refined based on the position of the
critical section calculated above. However, the difference is small and on the conservative side. Therefore, no
more refinement is performed.
9.1c.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance
The contribution of the concrete, Vc, to the nominal shear resistance is taken as the lesser of Vci and Vcw:
𝑉𝑖 𝑀𝑐𝑟
𝑉𝑐𝑖 = 0.02�𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑉𝑑 + ≥ 0.06�𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.3-1]
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑐𝑤 = �0.06�𝑓𝑐′ + 0.30𝑓𝑝𝑐 �𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑉𝑝 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.3-3]

9.1c - 10 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance/9.1c.11.2.1 Calculate Vci

where
Vci = nominal shear resistance provided by concrete when inclined cracking results from combined shear and
moment, kips
Vcw = nominal shear resistance provided by concrete when inclined cracking results from excessive principal
tensions in web, kips
bv = effective web = 6 in.
dv = effective shear depth = 73.14 in.
Vd = shear force at section due to unfactored dead load and includes both DC and DW, kips
factored shear force at section due to externally applied loads occurring simultaneously with Mmax,
Vi =
kips
Mcr = moment causing flexural cracking at section due to externally applied loads, ft-kips
Mmax = maximum factored moment at section due to externally applied loads, ft-kips
fpc = compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all prestress losses) at centroid of cross section
resisting externally applied loads or at junction of web and flange when the centroid lies within the
flange (ksi). In a composite member, fpc is the resultant compressive stress at the centroid of the
composite section, or at junction of web and flange, due to both prestress and moments resisted by
precast member acting alone, ksi

9.1c.11.2.1 Calculate Vci

Vd = 43.1 + 49.7 + 5.4 + 10.8 = 109.0 kips (Table 9.1a.4-1)
𝑀𝑑𝑛𝑐
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 �𝑓𝑟 + 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 − � [LRFD Art. 5.8.3.4.3-2]
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
where
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete = 0.20√6.5 = 0.510 ksi
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress forces only (after allowance for all prestress
losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads, ksi
Mdnc = total unfactored dead load moment acting on the monolithic or noncomposite section, ft-kips
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section where the tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads = 22,025 in.3
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the monolithic of transformed noncomposite section
where tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 16,343 in.3
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓
𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 = +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
Note that the transformed properties, etf, Atf, and Sbtf are at the critical section and could be re-calculated. For
simplicity the values of Atf and Sbtf are assumed to be the same as those at midspan and the value of etf is calculated
to be 18.08 in.
1,300 (1,300)(18.08)
𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 = +
802.5 16,343
= 1.620 + 1.438 = 3.058 ksi
Mdnc = Mg + Ms = 277.6 + 320.3 (Table 9.1a.4-1)
= 598 ft-kips
22,025 598
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = �0.510 + 3.058 − (12)�
12 16,343
= 5,743 ft-kips

9.1c - 11 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.11.2.1 Calculate Vci/9.1c.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement

Mmax = Mu − Mdnc [LRFD C5.8.3.4.3]

Mu = 1.25 (Mg + Ms + Mb) + 1.5 (Mws) + 1.75(MLL+I + MLT)
= 1.25 (277.6 + 320.3 + 34.7) + 1.5 (69.5) + 1.75 (372.6 + 162.7)
= 1,832 ft-kips (Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2)
Mmax = 1,832 − 598 = 1,234 ft-kips
Vi = Vu − V d
Vu = 1.25 (Vg + Vs + Vb) + 1.50 (Vws) + 1.75 (VLL+I + VLT)
= 1.25 (43.1 + 49.7 + 5.4) + 1.50 (10.8) + 1.75 (73.8 + 30.6) (Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2)
= 321.7 kips
Vd = (43.1 + 49.7 + 5.4) + 10.8 = 109.0 kips
Vi = 321.7 − 109.0 = 212.7 kips
(212.7)(5,743)
𝑉𝑐𝑖 = 0.02√6.5(6.0)(73.14) + 109.0 +
1,234
= 1,121.3 kips ≥ 0.06√6.5(6.0)(73.14) = 67.1 kips

9.1c.11.2.2 Calculate Vcw

𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 𝑀𝑑𝑛𝑐 �𝑦𝑏𝑡𝑐 − 𝑦𝑏𝑡𝑓 �
𝑓𝑝𝑐 = − �𝑦𝑏𝑡𝑐 − 𝑦𝑏𝑡𝑓 � +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑓
where
etf = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at final time = 18.08 in.
ybtc = distance from the centroid of the composite transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam at final time = 53.60 in.
ybtf = distance from the centroid of the noncomposite transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of
the beam at final time = 35.29 in.

1,300 (1,300)(18.08) (598)(53.60 − 35.29)(12)

𝑓𝑝𝑐 = − (53.60 − 35.29) +
802.5 576,757 576,757
= 1.102 ksi
Vp (without live load gains) = (25.29)(12) sin 4.91° = 26.0 kips

𝑉𝑐𝑤 = �0.06√6.5 + (0.30)(1.102)� (6.0)(73.14) + 26.0

= 238.2 kips

9.1c.11.2.3 Calculate Vc
Vc = lesser of Vci and Vcw = 238.2 kips

9.1c.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance

9.1c.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement

Check if Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) = 0.5(0.9)(238.2 + 26.0) = 118.9 kips < 321.7 kips
Therefore, transverse shear reinforcement must be provided.

9.1c - 12 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement/9.1c.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement

9.1c.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement

V u/ ɸ ≤ V n = V c + V s + V p [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1]
where
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement
= (Vu/ɸ) − Vc − Vp = (321.7/0.9) − 238.2 − 0 = 119.2 kips
Vp is taken as zero in accordance with LRFD Article 5.8.3.4.3
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦ℎ 𝑑𝑣 (cot θ + cot α)(sin α)
Vs = [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4]
𝑠
where
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, in.2
s = spacing of stirrups, in.
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis
= 90° for vertical stirrups
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stress
Because Vci > Vcw
𝑓𝑝𝑐 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.3-4]
cot θ = 1.0 + 3 � � ≤ 1.8
�𝑓𝑐′
1.102
= 1.0 + 3 � � = 2.297
√6.5
Use cot θ = 1.8
Therefore, area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, is:
Av = (sVs)/(fyhdvcot θ)
= (s)(119.2)]/[60(73.14)(1.8) = 0.015(s) in.2
If s = 12 in., required Av = 0.18 in.2/ft

9.1c.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement

Check maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement. [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
Check if vu < 0.125𝑓𝑐′
�𝑉𝑢 − ɸ𝑉𝑝 � |321.7 − (0.9)(26.0)|
𝑣𝑢 = = = 0.755 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.9-1]
ɸ𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 (0.9)(6)(73.14)
0.125𝑓𝑐′ = (0.125)(6.5) = 0.813 ksi

Since 𝑣𝑢 < 0.125𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.7-1]

then, s ≤ 24 in.
s ≤ 0.8dv = 0.8(73.14) = 58.5 in.
Therefore, maximum s = 24 in. > s provided OK
Use No. 4 bar double legs at 12 in., Av = 0.40 in.2/ft > 0.18 in.2/ft

9.1c - 13 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement/9.1c.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement

0.4(60)(73.14)(1.8)
𝑉𝑠 = = 263.3 kips
12
A smaller amount of shear reinforcement could have been selected. However, calculations for minimum interface
shear reinforcement require more. (See Sect. 9.1c.12.3.1)
9.1c.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement
The area of transverse reinforcement should not be less than:
𝑏𝑣 𝑠 (6)(12)
0.0316�𝑓𝑐′ = 0.0316√6.5 = 0.10 in.2 ⁄ft < 𝐴𝑣 provided OK [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5-1]
𝑓𝑦ℎ 60

9.1c.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

In order to ensure that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush prior to yielding of the transverse
reinforcement, the LRFD Specifications gives an upper limit of Vn as follows:
𝑉𝑛 = 0.25𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑉𝑝 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1, it can be concluded that
Vc + Vs must not be greater than 0.25𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣
238.2 + 263.3 = 501.5 kips ≤ 0.25(6.5)(6)(73.14) = 713.1 kips OK
Using the above procedures, the transverse reinforcement can be determined at increments along the entire
length of the beam.

9.1c.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER

9.1c.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear [LRFD Art. 5.8.4]
At the strength limit state, the horizontal shear at a section on a per unit basis can be taken as:
𝑉𝑢
𝑉ℎ𝑖 = [LRFD Eq. C5.8.4.2-7]
𝑑𝑣
where
Vhi = horizontal factored shear force per unit length of the beam, kips/in.
Vu = factored shear force at specified section due to superimposed loads after the deck is cast, kips
dv = the distance between the centroid of the tension steel and the mid-thickness of the slab = (de − ts/2)
= 75.78 − 7.5/2 = 72.03 in.
The LRFD Specifications does not identify the location of the critical section. For convenience, it will be
assumed here to be the same location as the critical section for vertical shear, at point 0.051L.
Using load combination Strength I:
Vu = 1.25(43.1+49+5.4) + 1.5(10.8) + 1.75(73.8 + 30.6) = 321.7 (Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2)
kips
Therefore, the applied factored horizontal shear is:
321.7
𝑉ℎ𝑖 = = 4.40 kips⁄in.
73.14
9.1c.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance
Required Vni = Vhi/ɸ = 4.40/0.9 = 4.89 kips/in. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-1]

9.1c.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement

The nominal shear resistance of the interface surface is:

9.1c - 14 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement/9.1c.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement

Vni = cAcv + μ(Avf fyh + Pc ) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3]

where
c = cohesion factor, ksi
μ = coefficient of friction
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear transfer, in.2
Avf = area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane, in.2
Pc = permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane, kips
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
For cast-in-place concrete slabs placed on clean, concrete girder surface intentionally
roughened: [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.3
c = 0.28 ksi
μ = 1.0
The actual contact width, bv, between the slab and the beam is 42 in.
Acv = (42.0 in.)(1.0 in.) = 42.0 in.2
LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3 can be solved for Avf as follows:
4.89 = 0.28(42.0) + 1.0(Avf(60) + 0)
Solving for Avf,
Avf (req’d) < 0
Since the resistance provided by cohesion is greater than the applied force, provide the minimum required
interface reinforcement.
9.1c.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement
Avf (0.05Acv)/fyh [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.4-1]
From the design of vertical shear reinforcement, a No. 4 double-leg bar at 12-in. spacing is provided from the
beam extending into the deck. Therefore, Avf = 0.40 in.2/ft
Avf = 0.40 in.2/ft) < (0.05Acv)/fyh = 0.05(42)/60 = 0.035 in.2/in. = 0.42 in.2/ft NG
However, LRFD Article 5.8.4.4 states that the minimum reinforcement need not exceed the amount needed to
resist 1.33Vhi/ɸ as determined using Eq. 5.8.4.1-3.
1.33(4.40/0.9) = 0.28(42.0) + 1.0(Avf(60) + 0)
solving for Avf,
Avf (req’d) < 0 OK

9.1c.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

Vni ≤ K1 Acv or K2Acv

K1 Acv = (0.3)(4.0)(42) = 50.4 kips/in. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-4]

K2Acv = 1.8(42) = 75.6 kips/in. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-5]
Since provided Vn = 13.76 kips/in. < 50.4 kips/in. OK

9.1c.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT

See Section 9.1a.13. Although the values of Vs and cot θ are slightly different in Example 9.1c.13, the calculations
and end result are essentially the same.

9.1c - 15 (Nov 11 w/errata date April 12)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1c

BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1c.14 Pretensioned Anchorage Zone/9.1c.15 Deflection and Camber

9.1c.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE

See Section 9.1a.14.

9.1c.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER

See Section 9.1a.15.

9.1c - 16 (Nov 11)

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Table of Contents

9.1d.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................... 9.1d-3

9.1d.2 MATERIALS ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 9.1d-3
9.1d.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR .......................................................................................... 9.1d-3
9.1d.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ......................................................................................................................... 9.1d-3
9.1d.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS ......................................................................................................................................... 9.1d-3
9.1d.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES........................................................................................................................................................................ 9.1d-4
9.1d.6.1 Elastic Shortening .................................................................................................................................................................. 9.1d-5
9.1d.6.2 Approximate Estimate of Time-Dependent (Long-Term) Losses .................................................................... 9.1d-5
9.1d.6.3 Total Losses at Transfer ...................................................................................................................................................... 9.1d-6
9.1d.6.4 Total Losses at Service Loads ........................................................................................................................................... 9.1d-6
9.1d.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER .................................................................................................................................... 9.1d-7
9.1d.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete .................................................................................................................................................. 9.1d-7
9.1d.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section ............................................................................................................................... 9.1d-7
9.1d.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points ........................................................................................................................................................ 9.1d-9
9.1d.7.4 Stresses at Midspan .............................................................................................................................................................9.1d-10
9.1d.7.5 Hold-Down Forces ...............................................................................................................................................................9.1d-10
9.1d.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer ..................................................................................................................................9.1d-10
9.1d.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS .......................................................................................................................9.1d-10
9.1d.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ................................................................................................................................................9.1d-10
9.1d.8.2 Stresses at Midspan .............................................................................................................................................................9.1d-11
9.1d.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam ........................................................................................................9.1d-11
9.1d.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck .................................................................................................9.1d-11
9.1d.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom Fiber of the Beam, Load Combination Service III ..................................9.1d-12
9.1d.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit .............................................................................................................................................................9.1d-12
9.1d.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads ...............................................................................................9.1d-12
9.1d.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage....................................................................................................................................................9.1d-13
9.1d.8.5.1 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam without Deck Shrinkage, Load Combination Service III ...9.1d-13
9.1d.8.5.2 Stresses from Deck Shrinkage ...............................................................................................................................9.1d-13
9.1d.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE...........................................................................................................................................................9.1d-13
9.1d.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT ...............................................................................................................................................9.1d-14
9.1d.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement ..............................................................................................................................................9.1d-14
9.1d.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement ...............................................................................................................................................9.1d-14
9.1d.11 SHEAR DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................................................9.1d-15
9.1d.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER ...........................................................................................................................................9.1d-15
9.1d.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT ...........................................................................9.1d-15
9.1d.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE ................................................................................................................................9.1d-15
9.1d.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER ..................................................................................................................................................9.1d-15

9.1d - 1 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK

This page intentionally left blank

9.1d - 2 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d Gross Sections, Approximate Losses/9.1d.5 Estimate Required Prestress

9.1d Gross Sections, Approximate Losses

9.1d.1 INTRODUCTION
This example illustrates in detail the design of a typical interior beam at the critical sections in positive flexure
and deflection due to prestress, dead loads, and live load. Please note, this example includes the design of specific
aspects of a typical beam bridge.
The purpose of design examples 9.1a, 9.1b and 9.1d is to illustrate the application and interpretation of the
AASHTO LRFD Specifications as written, even though the resulting complexity may imply a precision that is often
not achieved in practice. The examples demonstrate varying levels of rigor and detail that may not always be
necessary for typical bridge designs, where simplified analysis and approximate methods may be appropriate.
This example is simplified by using gross section properties and approximate estimates of prestress losses in the
calculations as distinct from transformed sections and refined estimates of prestress losses used in Example 9.1a.
Furthermore, elastic gains are not included. The examples may be used by new and experienced designers as both
an educational reference and a design aid. It assumes that the reader is generally knowledgeable about
prestressed concrete beam design. The reader is referred to Chapters 7 and 8 for additional theory and guidance.
This design example demonstrates the design of a 120-ft, single-span, AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beam bridge with no
skew. The superstructure consists of six beams spaced at 9 ft 0 in. centers, as shown in Figure 9.1d.1-1. Beams
are designed to act compositely with the cast-in-place concrete deck to resist all superimposed dead loads, live
loads, and impact. The 8-in.-thick deck includes a ½-in.-thick sacrificial wearing surface that is not included in the
calculation of the composite section properties. The design live load is HL-93. The design is accomplished in
accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Ninth Edition (2020). Elastic stresses from
external loads are calculated using gross sections. Elastic gains are not included in the calculation of losses and
stresses. Shear strength calculations are not included. Prestress losses are calculated using approximate
estimates. In addition to these calculations, checks for lateral stability should be made (See Chapter 8)..
Figure 9.1d.1-1
Bridge Cross Section

9.1d.2 MATERIALS
See Section 9.1a.2.

9.1d.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR

See Section 9.1a.3.

9.1d.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

See Section 9.1a.4.

9.1d.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

See Section 9.1a.5.
For convenience, the section properties are shown in Table 9.1d.5-1.

9.1d - 3 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d.5 Estimate Required Prestress/9.1d.6 Prestress Losses

Table 9.1d.5-1.
Summary of Section Properties at Transfer and at Final
Time
Noncomposite Composite Gross
Property
Gross at Final
Area, in2 Ag 767 Ac 1,475.0
Total depth, in. h 72.00 hc 80.00
Moment of inertia, in.4 Ig 545,894 Ic 1,125,244
Eccentricity of the
strands with respect to
epg 29.68 epc 48.67
the centroid of beam
section, in.
Distance from the
centroid of the section
yb 36.60 ybc 55.58
to the extreme bottom
fiber of the beam, in.
Distance from the
centroid of the section
yt 35.40 ytg 16.42
to the extreme top fiber
of the beam, in.
Distance from the
centroid of the
composite section to the ytc 24.42
extreme top fiber of the
deck, in.
Distance from the
centroid of the section
ed 20.67
to the centroid of the
deck, in.
Section modulus for the
extreme bottom fiber of
Sb 14,915 Sbc 20,244
the precast concrete
beam, in.3
Section modulus for the
extreme top fiber of the St 15,421 Stg 68,542
beam, in.3
Section modulus for the
extreme top fiber of the
deck, in.3 [includes (1/n) Stc 54,093
factor for stress check of
deck concrete]

9.1d.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES

Total prestress loss:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.1-1]
Where
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel after transfer. In
this design example, the refined estimates of time-dependent losses are used.

9.1d - 4 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d.6.1 Elastic Shortening/9.1d.6.2 Approximate Estimate of Time Dependent (Long-Term) Losses

9.1d.6.1 Elastic Shortening

𝐸𝑝 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.2.3a-1]
∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
where
Ep = modulus of elasticity of the prestressing reinforcement = 28,500 ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at transfer = 4,823 ksi
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of the prestressing tendons due to prestressing force at
transfer and the self weight of the member at sections of maximum moment.
Common practice is to assume that the initial losses are a percentage of the prestressing stress before transfer, fpi.
Calculated losses are compared with the assumed initial losses, and if different from the assumed values, a second
iteration should be carried out. In this example, 9% fpi initial loss is assumed.
Force per strand after transfer = (area of strand)(prestress stress after transfer)
= (0.153)(202.5)(1 − 0.09) = 28.19 kips
𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑐2 𝑀𝑔 𝑒𝑐
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑔
where
ec = eccentricity of prestressing strands at midspan
Ppt = total prestressing force after transfer = (48 strands)(28.19) = 1,353.3 kips
Mg should be calculated based on the overall beam length of 121 ft. Since the elastic shortening loss is a part of the
total loss, fcgp will be conservatively computed based on Mg using the design span length of 120 ft.
1,353.3 (1,353.3)(29.68)2 [(1,438.2)(12)](29.68)
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
767 545,894 545,894
= 1.764 + 2.184 − 0.938 = 3.010 ksi
Therefore, the loss due to elastic shortening is:
28,500
∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = (3.010) = 17.8 ksi
4,823
17.8
Percent actual loss due to elastic shortening = (100) = 8.8%
202.5
Since the calculated loss of 8.8% is approximately equal to the initial loss assumption of 9%, a second iteration is
not necessary.

9.1d.6.2 Approximate Estimate of Time-Dependent (Long-Term) Losses

The approximate estimate of time-dependent (long-term) loss, ΔfpLT, is determined as follows:
ΔfpLT = 10.0 𝑓𝑝𝑖 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝛾 𝛾 + 12.0𝛾 𝛾 + ∆𝑓 in which [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.3 -1]
𝐴𝑔 ℎ 𝑠𝑡 ℎ 𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑅

𝛾ℎ = 1.7 − 0.01𝐻
𝛾𝑠𝑡 = 5/(1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ )

where
𝑓𝑝𝑖 = prestressing steel stress immediately prior to transfer, ksi
𝐴𝑝𝑠 = area of prestressing steel, in.2

9.1d - 5 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d.6.2 Approximate Estimate of Time Dependent (Long-Term) Losses/9.1d.6.4 Total Losses at Service Loads

𝐴𝑔 = gross area of section, in.2

𝛾ℎ = correction factor for relative humidity of the ambient air
𝛾𝑠𝑡 = correction factor for specified concrete strength at time of prestress transfer to the concrete
member
∆𝑓𝑝𝑅 = estimate of relaxation loss; taken as 2.4 ksi for low-relaxation strand and in accordance with
manufacturer’s recommendation for other types of strand, ksi
H = average annual ambient relative humidity
The correction factor for relative humidity is:
𝛾ℎ = 1.7 − 0.01𝐻
where
H = 70% (assumed)
𝛾ℎ = 1.7 − 0.01(70) = 1.000
The correction factor for specified concrete strength is:
𝛾𝑠𝑡 = 5/(1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ )
= 5/(1 + 5.8) = 0.735
Long-term prestress loss is:
ΔfpLT = 202.5(7.344)
10.0 (1.000)(0.735) + 12.0(1.000)(0.735) + 2.4
767
= 14.251 + 8.820 + 2.4 = 25.5 ksi

9.1d.6.3 Total Losses at Transfer

∆𝑓𝑝𝑖 = ∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 17.8 ksi
Effective stress in tendons immediately after transfer, fpt = fpi − Δfpi = (202.5 − 17.8) = 184.7 ksi
Force per strand = (fpt)(area of strand) = 184.7(0.153) = 28.26 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer, Ppt = 28.26(48) = 1,357 kips

9.1d.6.4 Total Losses at Service Loads

Total loss due to elastic shortening at transfer and long-term losses is:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT = 17.8 + 25.5 = 43.3ksi
The elastic gain due to deck weight, superimposed dead load, and live load is computed herein. The elastic gain is
the sum of permanent and transient gains. The Service I limit state combination is used to check the stress in the
strands against the LRFD Specifications stress limit of 0.8fpy.
The elastic gain due to deck weight, superimposed dead load, and live load is:
𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑔 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝐸𝑝 (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝐸𝑝
( + ) + 1.0 ( )
𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐
1,659.6(12)(29.68) (180 + 360)(12)(48.67) 28,500 (1815 + 837)(12)(48.67) 28,500
=( + ) + 1.0 ( )
545,894 1,125,244 5,008 1,125,244 5,008
= 7.76 + 7.83= 15.6 ksi

9.1d - 6 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d.6.4 Total Losses at Service Loads/9.1d.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

The effective prestress at the Service I limit state is:

fpe = fpi − ΔfpT = 202.5 − 43.3 = 159.2 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.2.2-1]
fpe ≤ 0.8fpy = 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 159.2 ksi OK
The effective stress in the strands after all losses without permanent gains is:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT = 202.5 − 43.3 + 15.6 = 174.8 ksi
The above calculation of the effective prestressing force without including the effects of permanent gains is
consistent with the future use of γLL = 0.8 for live load when applying the Service III Limit State checks for bottom
flange tension.

9.1d.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER

Because the gross section is used, the total prestressing force after transfer, Ppt = 1,357 kips (see Sect. 9.1d.6.5).

9.1d.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3]

Compression:
• 0.65𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 0.65(5.8) = +3.770 ksi
where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = concrete strength at transfer = 5.8 ksi
Tension:
• without bonded auxiliary reinforcement:
−(0.0948λ√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≤ 0.200) ksi; −0.0948(1)√5.8 = −0.228 ksi
Therefore, −0.200 ksi (controls)
• with bonded auxiliary reinforcement that is sufficient to resist the tension force in the concrete computed
assuming an uncracked section, where reinforcement is proportioned using a stress of 0.5fy, not to exceed
30.0 ksi:
−0.24λ√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = −0.24(1)√5.8 = −0.578 ksi
To use this limit, the reinforcement on the tension side of the beam needs to be evaluated for adequacy in
accordance with LRFD Article 5.9.2.3.1b with the tension force calculation per LRFD Article C5.2.3.1b. The tension
limit of 0.200 ksi without top tension reinforcement is used in this example.

9.1d.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Stresses at this location need only be checked at transfer since that stage almost always governs. Also, losses with
time will reduce the concrete stresses and concrete gains strength with time, making the stresses less critical.
Transfer length = 60(strand diameter) = 60(0.5) = 30 in. = 2.5 ft [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.3]
Due to camber of the beam at release, the beam self weight acts on the overall beam length, 121 ft. Therefore,
values for bending moment given in Table 9.1a.4-1 cannot be used because they are based on the design span of
120 ft. Using statics, bending moment at transfer length due to beam self weight is:
Mg = 0.5wgx(L − x) = (0.5)(0.799)(2.5)(121 − 2.5) = 118.4 ft-kips
Compute stress in top of the beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑔 1,357 (1,357)(29.68) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡 767 15,421 15,421
= 1.769 − 2.611 + 0.092 = −0.750 ksi
Tensile stress limit for concrete without bonded reinforcement is −0. 200 ksi NG

9.1d - 7 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Compute stress in bottom of beam:

𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑔 1,357 (1,357)(29.68) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏 767 14,915 14,915
= 1.769 + 2.700 − 0.095 = +4.374 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete is +3.480 ksi NG
Since stresses at the top and bottom exceed the stress limits, harp strands to satisfy the specified limits. Harp 12
strands at the 0.4L points, as shown in Figures 9.1d.7.2-1 and 9.1d.7.2-2.
Figure 9.1d.7.2-1
Strand Pattern

Figure 9.1d.7.2-2
Longitudinal Strand Profile

Compute the center of gravity of the prestressing strands at the transfer length section using the harped pattern.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped strands at the end of the beam and the bottom fiber
of the precast concrete beam is:
2(60 + 62 + 64 + 66 + 68 + 70)
= 65.0 in.
12
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped stands at the harp point and the bottom fiber of the
beam is:
2(10) + 2(12) + 2(14) + 2(16) + 2(18) + 2(20)
= 15.0 in.
12

9.1d - 8 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.1d.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points

The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped strands and the bottom fiber of the beam at the
transfer length section is:
(65 in. −15 in. )
65 in. − (2.5 ft) = 62.42 in.
48.5 ft
The distance between the center of gravity of the 36 straight bottom strands and the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam is:
12(2) + 12(4) + 8(6) + 4(8)
= 4.22 in.
36
Therefore, the distance between the center of gravity of the total number of 48 strands and the extreme bottom
fiber of the precast concrete beam at transfer length is:
36(4.22) + 12(62.42)
= 18.77 in.
48
The center of gravity of all prestressing strand with respect to the extreme bottom fiber at the end of the beam,
ybs, is:
36(4.22) + 12(65)
= 19.42 in.
48
Eccentricity of the 48-strand group at transfer length, e, is:
36.60 − 18.77 = 17.83 in.
Recompute the top and bottom stresses at the transfer length section with harped strands.
Concrete stress in top of beam:
1,357 (1,357)(17.83) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.769 − 1.568 + 0.092 = 0.292 ksi
767 15,421 15,421
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK
Tensile stress limit for concrete without bonded reinforcement is −0.200 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
1,357 (1,357)(17.83) (118.4)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.769 + 1.622 − 0.095 = 3.295 ksi
767 14,915 14,915
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK
If desired, a second iteration using a different strand draping pattern could be performed to make the calculated
stresses closer to the stress limits.

9.1d.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points

The strand eccentricity at the harp points is the same as at midspan, epg = 29.68 in.
Bending moment at the harp points (0.4L) due to the self weight of the beam is:
(0.5)(0.799)(48.5)(121 − 48.5) = 1,404 ft-kips
Therefore, top and bottom stresses are:
Concrete stress in top of beam:
1,357 (1,357)(29.68) (1,404)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.769 − 2.611 + 1.092 = +0.250 ksi
767 15,421 15,421
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK
Tensile stress limit for concrete without bonded reinforcement is −0.200 ksi OK

9.1d - 9 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points/9.1d.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

Concrete stress in bottom of beam:

1,357 (1,357)(29.68) (1,404)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.769 + 2.700 − 1.130 = +3.339 ksi
767 14,915 14,915
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK

9.1d.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

Bending moment at midspan due to the beam self weight is:
Mg = 0.5(0.799)(60.5)(121 − 60.5) = 1,462 ft-kips
1,357 (1,357)(29.68) (1,462)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.769 − 2.612 + 1.138 = +0.295 ksi
767 15,421 15,421
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK
Tensile stress limit for concrete without bonded reinforcement is −0.200 ksi OK
1,357 (1,357)(29.68) (1,462)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.769 + 2.700 − 1.176 = +3.293 ksi
767 14,915 14,915
Compressive stress limit is +3.770 ksi OK

9.1d.7.5 Hold-Down Forces

Assume that the stress in the strand at the time of prestressing, before seating losses, is:
0.80fpu = 0.80(270) = 216 ksi [LRFD Construction Art. 10.10.1]
Thus, the prestress force per strand before seating losses is 0.153(216) = 33.0 kips
From Figure 9.1d.7.2-2, the harp angle is:
50
ψ = tan−1 ( ) = 4.91 degrees
48.5(12)
Therefore, hold-down force/strand = 1.05(force per strand)(sin ψ)
= 1.05(33.0) sin 4.91 degrees = 2.97 kips/strand
Note that the factor 1.05 is applied to account for friction.
Total hold-down force = 12 strands(2.97) = 35.6 kips
The hold-down force and the harp angle should be checked against maximum limits for local practices. Refer to
Chapter 3, Fabrication and Construction and Chapter 8, Design Theory and Procedures for additional details.

9.1d.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

Top Fiber Bottom Fiber
Stresses Stresses
ft, ksi fb, ksi
At transfer length section +0.292 +3.295
At harp points +0.250 +3.339
At midspan +0.295 +3.292

9.1d.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS

9.1d.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3.2]
Compression:

9.1d - 10 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete/9.1d.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Decks

Due to permanent loads (beam self weight, weight of slab and haunch, weight of future wearing surface, and
weight of barriers) for load combination Service I:
for precast concrete beams: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(6.500) = +2.925 ksi
for deck: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(4.000) = +1.800 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads (all dead loads and live loads) for load combination Service I:
for precast concrete beams: 0.60ϕw𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(1)(6.500) = +3.900 ksi
for deck: 0.60ϕw𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(1)(4.000) = +2.400 ksi
Tension:
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III: −(0.19λ√𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 0.600) ksi
where 𝜆 = concrete density modification factor
for precast concrete beam: −0.19(1)√6.500 = −0.484 ksi

9.1d.8.2 Stresses at Midspan

9.1d.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam

To check top compressive stresses, two cases are considered:
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
Using bending moment values given in Table 9.1a.4-1, compute the top-fiber stresses:
1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑔 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 ) 1 𝑒𝑑
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = (𝑓𝑝𝑖 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 )𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( − )+ − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (∆𝑓𝑝𝐿𝑇 ) ( − )+ + + ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( + )
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑔 𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑔
1 29.68 (12)1,438.2 1 29.68 (12)1,659.6
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = (202.5 − 17.8)7.344 ( − )+ − 7.344(25.5) ( − )+
767 15,421 15,421 767 15,421 15,421
(12)(180.0 + 360.0) 1 20.67
+ + 779 ( + )
68,542 1,475 68,542
= −0.842 + 1.119 − (−0.116) + 1.291 + 0.095 + 0.763 = 2.542 ksi
Compressive stress limit is +2.925 ksi OK
Note: The beam concrete stress attributable to shrinkage of deck concrete is computed by treating the shrinkage
as an external force, ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 . The force ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 = 779 kip is computed in 9.1a.5.1
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
𝛾 (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = +2.542 + 𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑡𝑐
(1.0)(1,815 + 837)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = +2.542 +
68,542
= 2.542 + 0.464 = +3.006 ksi
Compressive stress limit is +3.900 ksi OK

9.1d.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck

Note: Compressive stress in the deck slab at service loads never controls the design for typical applications. The
calculations shown herein are for illustration purposes and may not be necessary in most practical applications.
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 (360 + 180)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = = = +0.120 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑐 54,093
Compressive stress limit is +1.800 ksi OK

9.1d - 11 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Decks/9.1d.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:

𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 (1,815 + 837)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = + = 0.120 + = +0.708 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑐 54,093
Compressive stress limit is +2.400 ksi OK

9.1d.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom Fiber of the Beam, Load Combination Service III

1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑔 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 )

𝑓𝑏 = (𝑓𝑝𝑖 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 )𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + )− − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (∆𝑓𝑝𝐿𝑇 ) ( + )− −
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑐
1 𝑒𝑑
+ ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( − )
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐
1 29.68 (12)1,438.2 1 29.68 (12)1,659.6
𝑓𝑏 = (202.5 − 17.8)7.344 ( + )− − 7.344(25.5) ( + )−
767 14,915 14,915 767 14,915 14,915
(12)[180.0 + 360 + 0.8(1815 + 837)] 1 20.67
+ + 779 ( − )
20,244 1,475 20,244
= 4.468 − 1.157 − 0.617 − 1.335 − 1.578 + (−0.267) = −0.486 ksi (tension)
Tensile stress limit is −0.484 ksi say OK

9.1d.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

LRFD Article 5.5.3.1 states that in fully prestressed components other than segmentally constructed bridges, the
compressive stress due to Fatigue I load combination and one half the sum of effective prestress and permanent
loads shall not exceed 0.40𝑓𝑐′ after losses.
From Table 9.1a.4-2, the unfactored fatigue bending moment at midspan, Mf, is 785.9 ft-kips. Therefore, stress at
the top fiber of the beam due to Fatigue I load combination is:
1.75(𝑀𝑓 ) 1.75 (785.9)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 = = = +0.241 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑔 68,542
At midspan, the top compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress is:
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = 2.542 ksi (See Sect. 9.1d.8.2.1.)
Therefore:
𝑓𝑡𝑔 2.542
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 + = 0.241 + = 1.512 < 0.40𝑓𝑐′ = 0.40(6.50) = 2.6 ksi OK
2 2

This condition should be satisfied at all locations along the beam.

9.1d.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

The stresses calculated using the previous methods are summarized in Table 9.1d.8.4-1.

Table 9.1d.8.4-1
Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads
Top of Deck, ksi Top of Beam, ksi
Bottom of
Design Service I Service I
Beam, ksi
Example Permanent Permanent
Total Loads Total Loads Service III
Loads Loads
9.1d +0.120 +0.708 +2.542 +3.006 −0.486

9.1d - 12 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage/9.1d.9 Strength Limit State

9.1d.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage

The calculations in Section 9.1d.8.2 comply with the LRFD Specifications. However, PCI believes that it is not
appropriate to include the prestressing gain caused by the deck shrinkage, ΔfpSS, in calculating the prestress
losses, as is the case with the approximate method. The effect of deck shrinkage should be analyzed by
considering it as an external force applied to the composite section, as illustrated herein.

9.1d.8.5.1 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam without Deck Shrinkage, Load Combination Service III
1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑔 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼𝑀 )
𝑓𝑏 = (𝑓𝑝𝑖 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 )𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + )− − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 (∆𝑓𝑝𝐿𝑇 ) ( + )− −
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑐
1 𝑒𝑑
+ ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ( − )
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐
1 29.68 (12)1,438.2 1 29.68
= (202.5 − 17.8)7.344 ( + )− − 7.344(25.5) ( + )
767 14,915 14,915 767 14,915
(12)1659.6 (12)[180.0 + 360 + 0.8(1815 + 837)]
− +
14,915 20,244
= 4.468 − 1.157 − 0.617 − 1.335 − 1.578 = −0.219 ksi (tension)

9.1d.8.5.2 Stresses from Deck Shrinkage

Restraining force due to deck shrinkage, Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 , is calculated as shown in Section 9.1a.6.3.4:
ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑑 0.000582(108)(7.5)(4,266)
Δ𝑃𝑑𝑠 = = = 779 kips
1 + 0.7Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) 1 + 0.7(2.258)
This force is applied at the center of the deck with an eccentricity from the center the deck to the composite
center, ed = 20.67 in.
Using the composite nontransformed section properties and assuming the force is 100% effective, the
corresponding bottom fiber stress, fbds, is:
∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 ∆𝑃𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑑 779 (779)(20.67)
𝑓𝑏𝑑𝑠 = − = − = 0.528 − 0.795 = −0.267 ksi
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐 1,475 20,244
Under service load, load combination Service III:
fb = −0.219 + (−0.267) = −0.486 ksi The tension limit is −0.484 ksi say OK
It is likely, however, that the full calculated force from deck shrinkage will not occur because of the presence of
deck cracking and deck reinforcement. Table 9.1a.8.5.4-1 summarizes the effect of applying 0%, 50%, or 100%
of the calculated deck force on the stresses at load combination Service III.
Table 9.1d.8.5.2-1
Stresses at Midspan for Load Combination Service III,
Including the Effect of Deck Shrinkage Applied as an External Load Only
Deck Shrinkage Bottom of Beam, ksi
Force, % Service III
0 −0.219
50 −0.352
100 −0.486
It should be noted that when using approximate losses, there is no difference between this example presented
here at 100% deck shrinkage force and the previous results determined in Section 9.1d.8.2.3 because the
prestress gain due to deck shrinkage, ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 , is not included in the estimate of long-term losses, ∆𝑓𝑝𝐿𝑇 .

9.1d.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

See Section 9.1a.9.

9.1d - 13 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d.10 Limits of Reinforcement/9.1d.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement

9.1d.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT

9.1d.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement
The check of maximum reinforcement limits in LRFD were removed from the LRFD Specifications in 2005.
Adequate ductility of the beam is ensured by evaluating whether the member can be classified as tension
controlled, as was checked in Section 9.1a.9 when computing the ϕ factor.

9.1d.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3]

At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement must be adequate to develop
a factored flexural resistance, Mr, greater than or equal to the lesser of:
• the cracking moment strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and
• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan:
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝛾3 [(𝛾1 𝑓𝑟 + 𝛾2 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 )𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 − 𝑀𝑑𝑛𝑐 ( − 1)] [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3-1]
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
where
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= 0.24λ√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.24(1)√6.5 = 0.612 ksi
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of the section where tensile stress is caused by externally
applied loads
1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔 1 𝑒𝑝𝑔
= (𝑓𝑝𝑖 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 )𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + ) − (𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐿𝑇 )𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + ) = (𝑓𝑝𝑖 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐿𝑇 )𝐴𝑝𝑠 ( + )
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏
1 29.68
= (202.5 − 17.8 − 25.5)(7.344) ( + ) = 3.851 ksi
767 14,915
Mdnc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section
= Mg + Ms = 1,438.2 + 1,659.6 = 3,098 ft-kips
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the composite gross section where the tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads = 20,244 in.3
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the gross noncomposite section where the
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 14,915 in.3
γ1 = flexural cracking variability factor = 1.6 for structures other than precast segmental
γ2 = prestress variability factor = 1.1 for bonded tendons
γ3 = ratio of specified minimum yield strength to ultimate tensile strength of the nonprestressed
reinforcement = 1.0 for prestressing steel
20,244
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 1.0[1.6(0.612) + 1.1(3.851)](20,244) − 3,098(12) ( − 1) = 92,295 in.-kips = 7,691 ft-kips
14,915
At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is:
Mu = 9,278 ft-kips (as calculated in Sect. 9.1a.9)
Thus, 1.33Mu = 1.33(9,278) = 12,340 ft-kips
Since Mcr < 1.33Mu, the Mcr requirement controls.
Mr = 11,364 ft-kips > Mcr = 7,691 ft-kips OK
Note: The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at every section.

9.1d - 14 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.1d.11 Shear Design/9.1d.15 Deflection and Camber

9.1d.11 SHEAR DESIGN

See Sections 9.1a.11 or 9.1b.11.

9.1d.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER

See Section 9.1a.12.

9.1d.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT

See Section 9.1a.13.

9.1d.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE

See Section 9.1a.14.

9.1d.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER

See Section 9.1a.15.

9.1d - 15 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1d
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK

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9.1d - 16 (2023)
 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 5
9.2.1.1 Terminology............................................................................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 6
9.2.2 MATERIALS ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 6
9.2.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM .......................................................................... 9.2 - 8
9.2.3.1 Noncomposite Nontransformed Beam Section ....................................................................................................... 9.2 - 8
9.2.3.2 Composite Section ................................................................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 8
9.2.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width .............................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 8
9.2.3.2.2 Modular Ratio between Slab and Beam Concrete ......................................................................................... 9.2 - 8
9.2.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties .......................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 8
9.2.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS .................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 10
9.2.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads ................................................................................ 9.2 - 10
9.2.4.1.1 Dead Loads .................................................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 10
9.2.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments ....................................................................................... 9.2 - 11
9.2.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads .................................................................................. 9.2 - 11
9.2.4.2.1 Live Loads .................................................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 11
9.2.4.2.2 Distribution Factor for a Typical Interior Beam ......................................................................................... 9.2 - 12
9.2.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment ............................................................................................. 9.2 - 12
9.2.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force ........................................................................................................ 9.2 - 13
9.2.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance ................................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 14
9.2.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments ....................................................................................... 9.2 - 14
9.2.4.2.4.2 Due To Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL .................................................................................................. 9.2 - 14
9.2.4.3 Load Combinations ........................................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 14
9.2.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS .................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 17
9.2.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan .............................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 17
9.2.5.3 Required Number of Strands ........................................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 17
9.2.5.4 Strand Pattern ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 18
9.2.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES ................................................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 20
9.2.6.1 Elastic Shortening.............................................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 20
9.2.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement................................................................ 9.2 - 21
9.2.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 21
9.2.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 22
9.2.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 23
9.2.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time ........................................................... 9.2 - 23
9.2.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 23
9.2.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 24
9.2.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 24
9.2.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete ................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 24
9.2.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss .......................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 25
9.2.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer ................................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 26

9.2 - 1 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.2.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads ...................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 26
9.2.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER ............................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 27
9.2.7.1 Stress Limits For Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 27
9.2.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section .......................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 27
9.2.7.3 Stresses at the Harp Points ........................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 29
9.2.7.4 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 29
9.2.7.5 Hold-Down Forces ............................................................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 30
9.2.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer ............................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 30
9.2.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS .................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 30
9.2.8.1 Stress Limits For Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 30
9.2.8.2 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 31
9.2.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 32
9.2.8.3.1 Positive Moment Section ...................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 32
9.2.8.3.2 Negative Moment Section ..................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 32
9.2.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Service Loads ..................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 32
9.2.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage................................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 32
9.2.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE ........................................................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 32
9.2.9.1 Positive Moment Section ................................................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 32
9.2.9.2 Negative Moment Section .............................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 34
9.2.9.2.1 Design of the Section .............................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 34
9.2.9.2.2 Fatigue Stress Limit and Crack Control .......................................................................................................... 9.2 - 35
9.2.10.1 Positive Moment Section ............................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 35
9.2.10.1.1 Maximum Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 35
9.2.10.1.2 Minimum Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 35
9.2.10.2 Negative Moment Section ........................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 36
9.2.10.2.1 Maximum Reinforcement .................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 36
9.2.10.2.2 Minimum Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 36
9.2.11 SHEAR DESIGN ......................................................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 36
9.2.11.1 Critical Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 37
9.2.11.1.1 Effective Shear Depth .......................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 37
9.2.11.1.2 Calculation of Critical Section .......................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 37
9.2.11.1.3 Forces at the Critical Section ............................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 38
9.2.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance ................................................................................ 9.2 - 38
9.2.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement ................................................................................................. 9.2 - 39
9.2.11.2.2 Values of β and θ .................................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 39
9.2.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution ..................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 39
9.2.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................... 9.2 - 39
9.2.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement ..................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 39
9.2.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement .................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 40

9.2 - 2 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.2.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement ........................................................................................................... 9.2 - 40
9.2.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement ....................................................................................................... 9.2 - 40
9.2.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 40
9.2.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER ......................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 41
9.2.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear .......................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 41
9.2.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance ................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 41
9.2.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement ............................................................................................................ 9.2 - 41
9.2.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement .................................................................................................. 9.2 - 42
9.2.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 42
9.2.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE .............................................................................................................................. 9.2 - 43
9.2.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 43
9.2.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement ...................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 43
9.2.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER ............................................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 43
9.2.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer ............................................................................................ 9.2 - 43
9.2.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight ....................................................................................................................... 9.2 - 44
9.2.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch and Deck Weights .................................................................................. 9.2 - 44
9.2.15.4 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface Weights .............................................................. 9.2 - 45
9.2.15.5 Deflection and Camber Summary ............................................................................................................................ 9.2 - 45
9.2.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact ............................................................................................................... 9.2 - 45

9.2 - 3 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK

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9.2 - 4 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.1 Introduction

9.2 Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses

9.2.1 INTRODUCTION
This design example demonstrates the design of a three-span, AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beam bridge with span
lengths of 110, 120, and 110 ft and no skew, as shown in Figure 9.2.1-1. This example illustrates in detail the
design of a typical interior beam in the center span at the critical sections in positive flexure, negative flexure,
shear, and deflection due to prestress, dead loads, and live load. The superstructure consists of four beams spaced
at 12 ft 0 in. centers as shown in Figure 9.2.1-2. Beams are designed to act compositely with the 8-in.-thick cast-
in-place concrete deck slab to resist all superimposed dead loads, live loads, and impact. A ½-in.-thick wearing
surface is considered to be an integral part of the 8-in.-thick deck. Design live load is AASHTO LRFD HL-93. The
design is accomplished in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fifth Edition, 2010 and
the 2011 Interim Revisions. Elastic stresses from external loads are calculated using transformed sections. Shear
strength is calculated using the general procedure. Time-dependent prestress losses are calculated using the
refined estimates.

Figure 9.2.1-1
Longitudinal Section

Figure 9.2.1-2
Bridge Cross Section

9.2 - 5 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.1.1 Terminology/9.2.2 Materials

9.2.1.1 Terminology
The following terminology is used to describe cross sections in this design example:
noncomposite section—the concrete beam cross section.
noncomposite nontransformed section—the concrete beam cross section without the strands transformed. Also
called the gross section.
noncomposite transformed section—the concrete beam cross section with the strands transformed to provide
cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
composite section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch.
composite nontransformed section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch transformed to
provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete but without the strands transformed.
composite transformed section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch and the strands
transformed to provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
The term "composite" implicitly includes the transformation of the concrete deck and haunch.
The term "transformed" generally refers to transformation of the strands.

9.2.2 MATERIALS
Cast-in-place concrete slab: Actual thickness, = 8.0 in.
Structural thickness ts = 7.5 in.
Note that a ½-in.-thick wearing surface is considered to be an integral part of the 8-in.-thick deck.
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 4.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight, wc = 0.150 kcf
Precast concrete beams: AASHTO-PCI BT-72 bulb-tee beams as shown in Figure 9.2.2-1.
Required concrete compressive strength at transfer, 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 5.5 ksi
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 7.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight, wc = 0.150 kcf
Overall beam length (Figure 9.2.1-1) = 110.0 ft (end spans) and 119.0 ft (center span)
Design spans (Figure 9.2.1-1):
For noncomposite beam: 109.0 ft (end spans) and 118.0 ft (center span)
For composite beam: 110.0 ft (end spans) and 120.0 ft (center span)

9.2 - 6 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.2 Materials

Figure 9.2.2-1
AASHTO-PCI BT-72 Dimensions

Prestressing strands: ½-in.-dia., seven wire, low-relaxation

Area of one strand = 0.153 in.2
Specified tensile strength, fpu = 270.0 ksi
Yield strength, fpy = 0.9fpu = 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Stress limits for prestressing strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
• before transfer, fpi ≤ 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi
• at service limit state (after all losses), fpe ≤ 0.80fpy = 194.4 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Ep = 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
Reinforcing bars:
Yield strength, fy = 60.0 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Es = 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Future wearing surface: 2 in. additional concrete, unit weight = 0.150 kcf
New Jersey-type barrier: Unit weight = 0.300 kips/ft/side

9.2 - 7 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Beam/9.2.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties

9.2.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM

9.2.3.1 Noncomposite Nontransformed Beam Section
Ag = area of cross section of beam = 767 in.2
h = overall depth of beam = 72 in.
Ig = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast beam = 545,894 in.4
yb = distance from centroid to extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 36.60 in.
yt = distance from centroid to extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 35.40 in.
Sb = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yb = 14,915 in.3
St = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yt = 15,421 in.3
wg = beam weight per unit length = (767/144)(0.150) = 0.799 kips/ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, ksi = 33,000𝐾1 (𝑤c )1.5 √𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]

where
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate taken as 1.0
wc = unit weight of concrete = 0.150 kcf
LRFD Table 3.5.1-1 states that, in the absence of more precise data, the unit weight of concrete may
be taken as 0.140 + 0.001𝑓𝑐′ for 5.0 < 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 15.0 ksi. For 𝑓𝑐′ = 6.5 ksi, the unit weight would be
0.1465 kcf. However, precast concrete mixes typically have a relatively low water-cementitious
materials ratio and high density. Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150 kcf is used in this example. For
high-strength concrete, this value may need to be increased based on test results. For simplicity, a
value of 0.150 kcf is also used for the cast-in-place concrete.
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity for:
cast-in-place slab, Ec =33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5 √4.0 = 3,834 ksi
precast beam at transfer, 𝐸𝑐𝑖 = 33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5 √5.5 = 4,496 ksi
precast beam at service loads, 𝐸𝑐 = 33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5 √7.0 = 5,072 ksi
9.2.3.2 Composite Section

9.2.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.6.1]

Effective flange width is taken as the tributary width perpendicular to the axis of the beam. For the interior beam,
the effective flange width is calculated as one-half the distance to the adjacent beam on each side.
Therefore, the effective flange width is (2)(6)(12) = 144 in.
9.2.3.2.2 Modular Ratio between Slab and Beam Concrete
𝐸𝑐 (slab) 3,834
Modular ratio between slab and beam concrete, 𝑛 = = = 0.7559
𝐸𝑐 (beam) 5,072

9.2.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties

The effective flange width must be transformed by the modular ratio to provide cross-sectional properties
equivalent to the beam concrete.
Transformed flange width = n (effective flange width) = (0.7559)(144) = 108.85 in.
Transformed flange area = n (effective flange width)(ts)
= (0.7559)(144)(7.5) = 816.37 in.2

9.2 - 8 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties

Transformed flange area moment of inertia = (108.85)(7.5)3/12 = 3826.76 in.4

Note: only the structural thickness of the deck, 7.50 in., is considered.
Due to camber of the precast, prestressed beam, a minimum haunch thickness of ½ in., at midspan, is considered
in the structural properties of the composite section. Also, the width of haunch must be transformed by the
modular ratio.
Transformed haunch width = (0.7559)(42) = 31.75 in.
Transformed area of haunch = (0.7559)(42)(0.5) = 15.87 in.2
Transformed moment of inertia of haunch = (31.75)(0.5)3/12 = 0.33 in.4

Note that the haunch should only be considered to contribute to section properties if it is required to be provided
in the completed structure. Some designers neglect its contribution to the section properties.
Figure 9.2.3.2.3-1 shows the dimensions of the composite section.
Figure 9.2.3.2.3-1
Dimensions of the Composite Section

Table 9.2.3.2.3-1
Properties of Composite SectionDAC Line weights revised
yb Ayb A(ybc − yb)2 I I + A(ybc − yb)2
Area, in.2 in. in.3 in.4 in.4 in.4
Beam 767.00 36.60 28,072 325,484 545,894 871,378
Haunch 15.87 72.25 1,147 3,595 0.3 3,595
Deck 816.37 76.25 62,248 296,263 3,827 300,090
∑ 1,599.24 91,467 1,175,063

9.2 - 9 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties/9.2.4.1.1 Dead Loads

Ac = total area of composite section = 1,599 in.2

hc = overall depth of the composite section = 80.00 in.
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section = 1,175,063 in.4
ybc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
= 91,467
= 57.20 in.
1,599
ytg = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the precast beam
= 72.00 − 57.20 = 14.80 in.
ytc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the structural deck
= 80.00 − 57.20 = 22.80 in.
Sbc = composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
= 1,175,063
(𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑏𝑐 ) = ( ) = 20,543 in.3
57.20
Stg = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast beam
1,175,063
= (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑡𝑔 ) = ( ) = 79,396 in.3
14.80
Stc = composite section modulus for extreme top fiber of the structural deck slab
= 1 1 1,175,063
( ) (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑡𝑐 ) = ( )( ) = 68,181 in.3
𝑛 0.7559 22.80

9.2.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

The self weight of the beam and the weight of the slab and haunch act on the noncomposite, simple-span
structure, while the weight of barriers, future wearing surface, and live loads with impact act on the composite,
continuous structure. Refer to Table 9.2.4-1, which follows Section 9.2.4.3 for a summary of unfactored values
calculated below.

9.2.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads [LRFD Art. 3.3.2]

9.2.4.1.1 Dead Loads

DC = Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
Dead loads acting on the simple-span structure, noncomposite section:
Beam self weight, wg = 0.799 kips/ft
8-in.-thick deck weight = (8/12 ft)(12 ft)(0.150 kcf ) = 1.200 kips/ft
½-in.-thick haunch weight = (0.5)(42/144)(0.150) = 0.022 kips/ft
ws = 1.200 + 0.022 = 1.222 kips/ft
Notes:
1. Actual slab thickness (8 in.) is used for computing dead load.
2. A ½-in.-minimum haunch thickness is assumed in the computations of dead load. If a deeper haunch
will be used because of final beam camber, the weight of the actual haunch should be used.
3. For this design example, the unit weight of the reinforced concrete is taken as 0.150 kcf. Some
designers use a higher unit weight to account for the weight of the reinforcement.
4. The weight of cross-diaphragms is ignored since most agencies are changing from cast-in-place
concrete diaphragms to lightweight steel diaphragms.

9.2 - 10 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.4.1.1 Dead Loads/9.2.4.2.1 Live Loads

Dead loads placed on the continuous structure, composite section:

LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1 states that permanent loads (curbs and future wearing surface) may be distributed
uniformly among all beams if the following conditions are met:
• Width of the deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb, is not less than four (Nb = 4) OK
• Beams are parallel and have the same stiffness OK
• Roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft
6
𝑑𝑒 = 3.0 − 0.5 ( ) = 2.75 ft OK
12
• Curvature in plan is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (curvature = 0.0°) OK
• Cross section of the bridge is consistent with one of the cross sections given in
LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 OK
Since these criteria are satisfied, the barrier and wearing surface loads are distributed equally among the
four beams.
Barrier weight = (2 barriers)(0.300 kips/ft)/(4 beams) = 0.150 kips/ft/beam = wb
DW = Dead load of future wearing surface
= (2/12)(0.150) = 0.0250ksf
= (0.025 ksf )(42.0 ft)/(4 beams) = 0.263 kips/ft/beam = wws
9.2.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments
For a simply supported beam with a span length (L) loaded with a uniformly distributed load (w), the shear force
(Vx) and bending moment (Mx) at any distance (x) from the support are given by:
Vx = w(0.5L − x) (Eq. 9.2.4.1.2-1)
Mx = 0.5wx(L − x) (Eq. 9.2.4.1.2-2)
Using the above equations, values of shear forces and bending moments for a typical interior beam, under self
weight of beam and weight of slab and haunch are computed and shown in Table 9.2.4-1 that is located at the
end of Section 9.2.4.3. The span length for each span to be considered depends on the construction stage:
• overall length immediately after prestress transfer = 110.0 and 119.0 ft
• centerline-to-centerline distance between beam bearings at the time of deck placement = 109.0 and
118.0 ft
• centerline-to-centerline distance between supports after beams are made continuous = 110.0 and
120.0 ft
Shear forces and bending moments due to barrier weight and future wearing surface are calculated based on the
continuous span lengths, 110, 120, and 110 ft. The three-span structure was analyzed using a continuous beam
program. The shear forces and bending moments are given in Table 9.2.4-1 that is located at the end of
Section 9.2.4.3.
9.2.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads

9.2.4.2.1 Live Loads

Design live load is HL-93, which consists of a combination of: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.1]
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance. [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.2]
The design truck consists of 8.0-, 32.0-, and 32.0-kip axles with the first pair spaced at 14.0 ft and the second
pair spaced at 14.0 to 30.0 ft. The design tandem consists of a pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced 4.0 ft apart.
[LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.3]
Spans in the range used in this example are much larger than those controlled by the tandem loading. For this
reason, tandem loading effects are not included.

9.2 - 11 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.4.2.1 Live Loads/9.2.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment

2. Design lane load of 0.64 kips/ft without dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.4]
Art. 3.6.1.3.1 in the LRFD Specifications requires that for negative moment between points of dead load
contraflexure and for reactions at interior piers only, 90% of the effect of two design trucks spaced at a minimum
of 50.0 ft between the lead axle of one truck and the rear axle of the other truck, combined with 90% of the effect
of the design lane load be considered. The distance between the 32-kip axles of each truck should be taken as
14 ft.
This three-span structure was analyzed using a continuous beam program that has the ability to generate live
load shear force and bending moment envelopes in accordance with the LRFD Specifications on a per-lane basis.
The span lengths used are the continuous span lengths, 110, 120, and 110 ft.

9.2.4.2.2 Distribution Factor for a Typical Interior Beam

The live load bending moments and shear forces are determined by using the
simplified distribution factor formulas. To use the simplified live load distribution [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]
factor formulas, the following conditions must be met. [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2.1]
• Width of deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb not less than four (Nb = 4) OK
• Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness OK
• Roadway part of overhang, 𝑑𝑒 ≤ 3.0 ft 𝑑𝑒 = 3.0 − 0.5(6/12) = 2.75 ft OK
• Curvature is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (Curvature = 0.0°) OK
For precast concrete I- or bulb-tee beams with cast-in-place concrete deck slab,
the bridge type is (k). [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]
The number of design lanes is computed as:
Number of design lanes = the integer part of the ratio of (w/12), where (w) is the
clear roadway width, in ft, between the curbs. [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.1]
From Figure 9.2.1-2, w = 42 ft
Number of design lanes = integer part of (42/12) = 3 lanes

9.2.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment

• For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
For two or more lanes loaded:
𝑆 0.6 𝑆 0.2 𝐾𝑔 0.1
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 0.075 + ( ) ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
9.5 𝐿 12.0𝐿𝑡𝑠3
Provided that: 3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16.0; S = 12.0 ft OK
4.5 ≤ ts ≤ 12.0; ts = 7.5 in. OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 240; L = 120 ft OK
Nb ≥ 4; Nb = 4 OK
10,000 ≤ Kg ≤ 7,000,000 OK (see below)
where
DFM = distribution factor for bending moment for interior beam
S = beams spacing, ft
L = beam span, ft
ts = structural depth of concrete deck, in.
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter, in.4 = 𝑛(𝐼𝑔 + 𝐴𝑔 𝑒𝑔2 ) [LRFD Eq. 4.6.2.2.1-1]

9.2 - 12 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment/9.2.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force

where
n = modular ratio between beam and deck slab concrete
𝐸𝑐 (beam) 5,072
= = = 1.323
𝐸𝑐 (slab) 3,834
Ag = cross-section area of the precast beam (noncomposite section), in.2
Ig = moment of inertia of the precast beam (noncomposite section), in.4
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the beam and deck, in.
= (7.5/2 + 0.5 + 35.4) = 39.65 in.
Therefore,
Kg = (1.323)[545,894 + 767(39.65)2] = 2,317,515 in.4
At center span:
0.1
12 0.6 12 0.2 2,317,515
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 0.075 + ( ) ( ) ( )
9.5 120 (12.0)(120)(7.5)3
= 0.075 + (1.150)(0.631)(1.143) = 0.904 lanes/beam
For one design lane loaded:
𝑆 0.4 𝑆 0.3 𝐾𝑔 0.1 [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 0.06 + ( ) ( ) ( )
14 𝐿 12.0L𝑡𝑠3
0.1
12 0.4 12 0.3 2,317,515
= 0.06 + ( ) ( ) ( )
14 120 (12.0)(120)(7.5)3
= 0.06 + (0.940)(0.501)(1.143) = 0.598 lanes/beam
Thus, the case of the two design lanes loaded controls, DFM = 0.904 lanes/beam.
• For fatigue limit state:
Fatigue limit state is not checked in this example. The live load moment that would be used to compute the
fatigue stress range is the moment due to a truck load with a constant spacing of 30 ft between the 32.0-kip
axles plus a dynamic load allowance.

9.2.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force

For two or more lanes loaded:
𝑆 𝑆 2
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = 0.2 + ( ) − ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
12 35
Provided that: 3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16.0; S = 12.0 ft OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 240; L = 120 ft OK
4.5 ≤ ts ≤ 12.0; ts = 7.5 in. OK
Nb ≥ 4; Nb = 4 OK
where
DFV = distribution factor for shear force for interior beam
S = beam spacing, ft
Therefore, the distribution factor for shear force for both end spans and center span is:
12 12 2
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = 0.2 + ( ) − ( ) = 1.082 lanes⁄beam
12 35

9.2 - 13 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force/9.2.4.3 Load Combinations

For one design lane loaded:

𝑆 12
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = 0.36 + ( ) = 0.36 + ( ) = 0.840 lanes⁄beam
25.0 25.0
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls, DFV = 1.082 lanes/beam.
9.2.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance
IM = % for fatigue limit state
IM = 33% for all other limit states [LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]
where IM = dynamic load allowance, applied to design truck load only
9.2.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments
9.2.4.2.4.1 Due To Truck Load; VLT and MLT
• For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
Shear force and bending moment envelopes on a per-lane-basis are calculated at tenth-points of the span using
the equations given in Chapter 8 of this manual. However, this is generally done by means of commercially
available computer software that has the ability to deal with moving loads. Therefore, truck load shear force and
bending moments per beam are:
VLT = (shear force per lane)(DFV)(1 + IM) = (shear force per lane)(1.082)(1 + 0.33)
= (shear force per lane)(1.439) kips
MLT = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane) (0.904)(1+ 0.33)
= (bending moment per lane)(1.202) ft-kips
9.2.4.2.4.2 Due To Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL
VLL = (lane load shear force)(DFV)
= (lane load shear force)(1.082) kips
MLL = (lane load bending moment)(DFM)
= (lane load bending moment)(0.904) ft-kips
Note that the dynamic allowance is not applied to the design lane loading.
Values of VLL+LT = VLL + VLT and MLL+LT = MLL + VLT at different points are given in Table 9.2.4-1.

9.2.4.3 Load Combinations [LRFD Art. 3.4]

Total factored load is taken as:
Q = ΣηiγiQi [LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]
where
ηi = a load multiplier relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational [LRFD Art. 1.3.2]
importance. (Here, ηi is considered to be 1.0 for typical bridges)
γi = load factors
Qi = force effects from specified loads [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Investigating different limit states given in LRFD Article 3.4.1, the following limit states are applicable:
Service I: check compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 1.00(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is the general combination for service limit state stress checks and applies to all conditions
other than Service III.

9.2 - 14 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.4.3 Load Combinations

Service III: check tensile stresses in prestressed concrete components:

Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 0.80(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for the service limit state stress check that applies only to tension
in prestressed concrete structures to control cracks.
Strength I: check ultimate strength: [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1 and 2]
Maximum Q = 1.25(DC) + 1.50(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Minimum Q = 0.90(DC) + 0.65(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
This load combination is the general load combination for strength limit state design. The minimum load factors
for dead load (DC) and future wearing surface (DW) are used when dead load and future wearing surface stresses
are of an opposite sign to that of the live load.
Fatigue I: check stress range in strands: [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Q = (LL + IM)
This load combination is a special load to check the tensile stress range in the strands due to live load and
dynamic allowance.
Note: The live load used in the above equation results from a single design truck only with a 30-ft constant
spacing between the 32.0-kip axles with the special dynamic allowance, (IM) for fatigue.

9.2 - 15 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.4.3 Load Combinations

9.2 - 16 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.5 Estimate Required Prestress/9.2.5.3 Required Number of Strands

9.2.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

The required number of strands is usually governed by concrete tensile stresses at the bottom fiber for the load
combination Service III at the section of maximum moment or at the harp points. For estimating the number of
strands, only the stresses at midspan are considered.

9.2.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Bottom tensile stress due to applied dead and live loads using load combination Service III, is:
𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + (0.8)(𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐿𝑇 )
𝑓𝑏 = +
𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑐
where
fb = concrete tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam, ksi
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight, ft-kips
Ms = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights, ft-kips
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
Mws = unfactored bending moment due to weight of future wearing surface, ft-kips
MLL+LT = unfactored bending moment due to truck load plus impact and lane load, ft-kips
Using values of bending moments from Tables 9.2.4-1 and 9.2.4-2, the bottom tensile stress at midspan of the
center span (point 0.5, centerspan), is:
(1,390.7 + 2,126.9)(12) (73.0 + 128.0 + 0.8 × 2,115.0)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = +
14,915 20,543
= 2.830 + 1.106 = 3.936 ksi
9.2.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Table 5.9.4.2.2-1]
The tensile stress limit at service loads = 0.19√𝑓𝑐′
where 𝑓𝑐′ = specified concrete compressive strength for design, ksi
Concrete tensile stress limit = −0.19√7.0 = −0.503 ksi

9.2.5.3 Required Number of Strands

The required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam is the difference between bottom tensile
stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress limit:
fpb = (3.936 − 0.503) = 3.433 ksi.
The location of the strand center of gravity at midspan ranges from 5 to 15% of the beam depth, measured from
the bottom of the beam. A value of 5% is appropriate for newer efficient sections like the bulb-tee beams and 15%
for less efficient AASHTO standard shapes.
Assume the distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom fiber of the beam, ybs , is equal to 7% of
the beam depth.
ybs = 0.07h = 0.07(72) = 5.04 in.
Then, the strand eccentricity at midspan, ec , is = (yb − ybs) = (36.60 − 5.04) = 31.56 in.
If Ppe is the total prestressing force after all losses, the stress at the bottom fiber due to prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 (31.56)
𝑓𝑝𝑏 = + or 3.433 = +
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 767.0 14,915
Solving for Ppe , the required Ppe = 1,003.9 kips

9.2 - 17 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.5.3 Required Number of Strands/9.2.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

Final prestress force per strand = (area of strand)(fpi)(1 − losses)

where fpi = initial strand stress before transfer (see Section 9.2.2) = 202.5 ksi
Assuming final loss of 25% of fpi, the prestress force per strand after all losses
= (0.153)(202.5)(1 − 0.25) = 23.2 kips
Number of strands required = (1,003.9/23.2) = 43.3 strands
Try forty four ½- in.-diameter, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands
Total area of prestressing stands, Aps = 44(0.153) = 6.732 in.2
Note: This is a conservative estimate of the number of strands because nontransformed section properties are
used in lieu of transformed section properties. The number of strands can be refined later in the design process as
more accurate section properties and prestress losses are determined.
9.2.5.4 Strand Pattern
The assumed strand pattern for the 44 strands at midspan is shown in Figure 9.2.5.4-1. Each available
position is filled beginning with the bottom row.
Figure 9.2.5.4-1
Assumed Strand Pattern at Midspan

The distance between the center of gravity of strands and the bottom concrete fiber of the beam at midspan is:
ybs = [(12(2) + 12(4) + 8(6) + 4(8) + 2(10) + 2(12) + 2(14) + 2(16)]/44 = 5.82 in.
Strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = yb − ybs = 36.60 − 5.82 = 30.78 in. = epg
9.2.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties
From the earliest years of prestressed concrete design, the gross section was conservatively used in analysis since
the prestressing forces were smaller and computer programs were not widely used. However, the use of
transformed section, which is obtained from the gross section by adding transformed steel area, yields more
accurate results than the gross section analysis.

9.2 - 18 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

For each row of the prestressing strands shown in Figure 9.2.5.4-1, the steel area is multiplied by (n − 1) to
calculate the transformed section properties, where n is the modular ratio between prestressing strand and
concrete. Since the modulus of elasticity of concrete is different at transfer and final time, the transformed section
properties should be calculated separately for the two stages. Using the similar procedures as in Section 9.2.3.2.3,
the transformed composite section properties at final time are calculated in Table 9.2.5.5-1.
At transfer:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 5.339
4,496
At final:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 4.619
5,072

Table 9.2.5.5-1
Properties of Composite Transformed Section at Final Time
Transformed yb Ayb I I + A(ybtc − yb)2
A(ybtc − yb)2 in.4
Area, in.2 in. in.3 in.4 in.4
Deck 816.37 76.25 62,248 327,528 3,826.75 331,355
Haunch 15.87 72.25 1147 4078 0.34 4078
Beam 767.00 36.60 28,072 295,252 545,894 841,146
Row 1 8.48 2.00 16.96 24,930 24,930
Row2 8.48 4.00 33.92 23,124 23,124
Row 3 5.65 6.00 33.90 14,244 14,224
Row 4 2.83 8.00 22.64 6,580 6,580
Row 5 1.41 10.00 14.10 3,012 3,012
Row 6 1.41 12.00 16.92 2,757 2,757
Row 7 1.41 14.00 19.74 2,513 2,513
Row 8 1.41 16.00 22.56 2,281 2,281
Σ 1,630.3 91,648 1,256,000
Note: The moment of inertia of strand about its own centroid is neglected.
The transformed section properties are calculated as follows:
Noncomposite transformed section at transfer:
Ati = area of transformed section at transfer = 802.9 in.2
Iti = moment of inertia of the transformed section at transfer = 578,964 in.4
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at transfer = 29.40 in.
ybti = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom of the beam at transfer
= 35.22 in.
Sbti = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 16,439 in.3
Stti = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 15,741 in.3

Noncomposite transformed section at final time:

Atf = area of transformed section at final time = 798.1 in.2
Itf = moment of inertia of the transformed section at final time = 574,703 in.4
etf = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at final time = 29.58 in.

9.2 - 19 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.5.5 Steel Transformed section Properties/9.2.6.1 Elastic Shortening

ybtf = distance from the centroid of the noncomposite transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam at final time = 35.4 in.
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at final time = 16,235 in.3
Sttf = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at final time = 15,702 in.3

Composite transformed section at final time:

Atc = area of transformed composite section at final time = 1,630.3 in.2
Itc = moment of inertia of the transformed composite section at final time = 1,256,000 in.4
etc = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed composite section at final time = 50.40 in.
ybtc = distance from the centroid of the composite transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam at final time = 56.22 in.
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section at final time
= 22,341 in.3
Sttc = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast beam for transformed section at
final time = 79,594 in.3
Sdtc = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the deck for transformed section at final time
= 69,874 in.3

9.2.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES

Total prestress loss:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
where
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel after transfer. In
this design example, the refined estimates of time-dependent losses are used.

9.2.6.1 Elastic Shortening

𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.3a-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
where
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands = 28,500 ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete at transfer = 4,496 ksi
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons due to prestressing force
at transfer and the self weight of the member at sections of maximum moment.
If the gross (or net) cross-section properties are used, it is necessary to perform numerical iterations. The elastic
loss ΔfpES is usually assumed to be 10% of the initial prestress to calculate fcgp, which is then used in the equation
above to calculate a refined ΔfpES. The process is repeated until the assumed ΔfpES and refined ΔfpES converge.
However, when transformed section properties are used to calculate the concrete stress, the effects of losses and
gains due to elastic deformations are implicitly accounted for. Therefore, ΔfpES should not be included in
calculating fcgp.

9.2 - 20 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.6.1 Elastic Shortening/9.2.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

Force per strand before transfer = (area of strand)(prestress stress before transfer)
= (0.153)(202.5) = 30.98 kips
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖2
𝑀𝑔 𝑒𝑡𝑖
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖
where
Ppi = total prestressing force before transfer = (44 strands)(30.98) = 1,363.1 kips
eti = eccentricity of strands at midspan with respect to the transformed section at transfer = 29.40 in.
Mg is calculated based on the overall beam length of 119 ft.
1,363.1 (1,363.1)(29.40)2 (1,414.3)(12)(29.40)
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + − = 2.871 ksi
802.9 578,964 578,964
Therefore, loss due to elastic shortening:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑒𝑠 = (2.871) = 18.2 ksi
4,496
AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.3 indicates that the loss due to elastic shortening at transfer should be added to the time-
dependent losses to determine total losses. However, this loss at transfer is directly accounted for if transformed
section properties are used in stress analysis.

9.2.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

The following construction schedule is assumed in calculating the time-dependent losses:
Concrete age at transfer: ti = 1 day
Concrete age at deck placement: td = 90 days
Concrete age at final stage: tf = 20,000 days
The total time-dependent loss between time of transfer and deck placement is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of concrete, creep of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing strands.

9.2.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between transfer and deck placement is calculated by:
ΔfpSR = εbidEpKid [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-1]
where
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between transfer and deck placement
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kid = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between transfer and deck
placement
The concrete shrinkage strain εbid is taken as:
εbid = kvskhskfktd0.48 × 10-3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
where
The factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam:
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13 × 3.01 = 1.059
The minimum value of ks is 1.0 OK
V/S is the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam from Table 2.5.7.1-1.

9.2 - 21 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.2.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete

The humidity factor for shrinkage:

khs = 2.00 − 0.014H = 2.00 − 0.014(70) = 1.020
where H = average annual mean relative humidity (assume 70%)
The factor for the effect of concrete strength:
5 5
𝑘𝑓 = = = 0.769
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 1 + 5.5
The time development factor at deck placement:
𝑡 89
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = ′ = = 0.695 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − 4(5.5) + 89
where t is the maturity of concrete (days) = td − ti = 90 − 1 = 89 days
εbid = (1.059)(1.020)(0.769)(0.695)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000277
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 (𝑒𝑝𝑔 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔
where
epg = eccentricity of prestressing strand with respect to centroid of girder in. = 30.78 in.
Ψb(tf, ti) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced at transfer
For the time between transfer and final time:
Ψb(tf, ti) = 1.9kvskhckfktdti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
khc = 1.56 − 0.008H = 1.56 − 0.008(70) = 1.000
𝑡 20,000 − 1
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = = = 0.998 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ + 𝑡 61 − 4(5.5) + (20,000 − 1)
Ψb(tf, ti) = 1.9(1.059) (1.000)(0.769)(0.998)(1)-0.118 = 1.544
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = = 0.787
28,500 6.732 767(30.78)2
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(1.544)]
4,496 767 545,894
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between transfer and deck placement is:
ΔfpSR = (0.000277)(28,500)(0.787) = 6.213 ksi

9.2.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is determined as:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = 𝑓 Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 )𝐾 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖 𝑖𝑑
where
Ψb(td, ti) = girder creep coefficient at time of deck placement due to loading introduced at transfer
= 1.9kvskhckfktdti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
= 1.9(1.059) (1.000)(0.769)(0.695)(1)-0.118 = 1.075
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = (2.871)(1.075)(0.787) = 15.397 ksi
4,496

9.2 - 22 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands/9.2.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

9.2.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck placement is
determined as:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑡
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2c-1]
𝐾𝐿 𝑓𝑝𝑦
where
fpt = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer, taken not less than 0.55fy
KL = 30 for low relaxation strands and 7 for other prestressing steel, unless more accurate
manufacturer's data are available
(202.5 − 18.2) (202.5 − 18.2)
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) = 1.281 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2c-1]
30 243
According to LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.2c, the relaxation loss may also be assumed equal to 1.2 ksi for low-relaxation
strands.

9.2.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time

The total time-dependent loss between time of deck placement and final time is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of beam concrete, creep of beam concrete, relaxation of prestressing strands, and shrinkage of
deck concrete.

9.2.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is calculated by:
ΔfpSD = εbdfEpKdf [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-1]
where
εbdf = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for the time period between deck placement and final time
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kdf = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between deck placement and final
time
The total girder concrete shrinkage strain between transfer and final time is taken as:
εbif = kvskhskfktdf0.48 × 10-3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
= (1.059)(1.020)(0.769)(0.998)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000398
The girder concrete shrinkage strain between deck placement and final time is:
εbdf = εbif − εbid = 0.000398 − 0.000277 = 0.000121
The girder concrete transformed section coefficient between deck placement and final time is:
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐 (𝑒𝑝𝑐 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
Ac = area of the composite section = 1,599 in.2
epc = eccentricity of strands with respect to centroid of composite section
= 57.20 − 5.82 = 51.38 in.
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section = 1,175,063 in.4

9.2 - 23 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.2.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = = 0.797
28,500 6.732 1,599(51.38)2
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(1.544)]
4,496 1,599 1,175,063
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is:
ΔfpSD = (0.000121)(28,500)(0.797) = 2.748 ksi

9.2.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between time of deck placement and final time is determined as:
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓 [Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 ) − Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )]𝐾𝑑𝑓 + Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑓 𝑖 𝐸𝑐
where
Ψb(tf, td) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading at deck placement
= 1.9kvskhckfktdftd-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
𝑡 (20,000 − 90)
ktdf = ′ = = 0.998
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − 4(5.5) + (20,000 − 90)
Ψb(tf, td) = 1.9(1.059) (1.000)(0.769)(0.998)(90)-0.118 = 0.908
Δfcd = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to long-term losses between
transfer and deck placement, combined with deck weight and superimposed loads, ksi
2
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐
= −(Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 ) (1 + )−( + )
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐
6.732 767(30.78)2
= −(6.213 + 15.397 + 1.281) (1 + )
767 545,894
2,126.9(12)(29.58) (73 + 128)(12)(50.40)
−( + )
574,703 1,256,000
= −1.879 ksi

The gross section properties are used in the equation to calculate Δfcd for the long-term losses since the
transformed section effect has already been included in the factor Kid when calculating the losses between initial
time and deck placement.
28,500 28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = (2.871)(1.544 − 1.075)(0.797) + (−1.879)(0.908)(0.797)
4,496 5,072
= −0.838 ksi The negative sign indicates a prestressing gain.

9.2.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands in composite section between time of deck placement
and final time is taken as:
ΔfpR2 = ΔfpR1 = 1.281 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3c-1]

9.2.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

The prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete is calculated by:
𝐸𝑝 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3d-1]
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = ∆𝑓 𝐾 [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )]
𝐸𝑐 𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
where Δfcdf = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to shrinkage of deck concrete,
ksi

9.2 - 24 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete/9.6.2.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss

ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑑 1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝑒𝑑

Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 = ( − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3d-2]
1 + 0.7Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
εddf = shrinkage strain of deck concrete between placement and final time
Ad = area of deck concrete, in.2
Ecd = modulus of elasticity of deck concrete, ksi
Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = deck concrete creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced shortly after deck
placement
ed = eccentricity of deck with respect to the gross composite section, in.
Assume the initial strength of concrete at deck placement is 0.8(4.0 ksi) = 3.2 ksi, and use a volume-to-surface
(V/S) ratio of 3.622 for the deck:
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13 (3.622) = 0.979 < 1.0
Use kvs = 1.000
5 5
kf = = = 1.190
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 1 + 3.2
𝑡 20,000 − 90
ktd = = = 0.998
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ + 𝑡 61 − 4(3.2) + (20,000 − 90)
εddf = kvskhskfktd0.48 × 10-3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
= (1.000)(1.020)(1.190)(0.998)(0.48 × 10-3)
= 0.000581
Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = 1.9kvskhckfktdti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

= 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(1.190)(0.998)(1)-0.118
= 2.256
Creep of the deck concrete is assumed to start at 1 day
0.000581(144)(7.5)(3,834) 1 51.38(80 − 7.5⁄2 − 57.20)
Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑𝑓 = ( − )
1 + 0.7(2.256) 1,599 1,175,063
= −0.194 ksi The negative sign indicates a prestressing gain.
The prestress gain due to shrinkage of the deck in the composite section:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = (−0.194)(0.797)[1 + 0.7(0.908)] = −1.421 ksi
5,072
Note: The effect of deck shrinkage on the calculation of prestress gain is discussed further in Section 9.1a.8.5

9.2.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss

The total time-dependent loss, ΔfpLT , is determined as:
ΔfpLT = (ΔfpSR + ΔfpCR + ΔfpR1) + (ΔfpSD + ΔfpCD + ΔfpR2 + ΔfpSS) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.1-1]
= (6.213 + 15.397 + 1.281) + (2.748 − 0.838 + 1.281 − 1.421)
= 22.891 + 1.770 = 24.7 ksi

9.2 - 25 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer/9.2.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads

9.2.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer

AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.2.3a and C5.9.5.3 indicate that the losses or gains due to elastic deformation must be taken
equal to zero if transformed section properties are used in stress analysis. However, the losses or gains due to
elastic deformation must be included in determining the total prestress losses and effective stress in the
prestressing strands.
Δfpi = ΔfpES = 18.2 ksi
Effective stress in tendons immediately after transfer, fpt = fpi − Δfpi = (202.5 − 18.2) = 184.3 ksi
Force per strand = (fpt)(area of strand) = 184.3(0.153) = 28.20 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer, Ppt = 28.20(44) = 1,240.8 kips
Initial loss, % = (Total losses at transfer)/(fpi) = 18.2/(202.5) = 9.0 %
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties,the strand force is that before
transfer:
Force per strand = (202.5)(0.153) = 30.98 kips
The total prestressing force before transfer, Ppi = 30.98(44) = 1,363.1 kips

9.2.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads

Total loss due to elastic shortening at transfer and long-term losses is:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT = 18.2 + 24.7 = 42.9 ksi
The elastic gain due to deck weight, superimposed dead load, and live load (Service III) is:
𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝 (𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐿𝑇 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝
( + ) + 0.8 ( )
𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐
2,126.9(12)(29.58) (73 + 128)(12)(50.40) 28,500 (2,115.0)(12)(50.4) 28,500
=( + ) + 0.8 ( )
574,703 1,256,000 5,072 1,256,000 5,072
= 7.9 + 4.6 = 12.5 ksi
The effective stress in strands after all losses and gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 7.9 = 202.5 − 42.9 + 12.5 = 172.1 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
fpe = ≤ 0.8fpy = 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 172.1 ksi OK
The effective stress in strands after all losses and permanent gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 7.9 = 202.5 – 42.9 + 7.9 = 167.5 ksi
Force per strand without live load gains= (fpe)(area of strand) = 167.5 (0.153) = 25.63 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after all losses = 25.63(44) = 1127.7 kips
Final losspercentage = (total losses and gains)/(fpi) = (42.9 − 7.9)/(202.5) = 17.3%
Without consideration of prestressing gains at deck placement, the final loss percentage = total losses/(fpi)
= (42.9)/202.5) = 21.2%
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, all the elastic gains and losses are
implicitly accounted for:
Force per strand with only total time-dependent losses = (fpi − ΔfpLT)(area of strand) = (202.5 − 24.7)(0.153) =
27.20 kips
Total prestressing force, Ppe = 27.20(44) = 1,196.8 kips

9.2 - 26 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.7 Concrete Stresses at Transfer/9.2.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

9.2.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER

Because the transformed section is used, the total prestressing force before and after transfer Ppi = 1,363.1 kips

9.2.7.1 Stress Limits For Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.4]

Compression:
• 0.6𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 0.6(5.5) = +3.300 ksi
where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = concrete strength at transfer
Tension:
• without bonded auxiliary reinforcement:
−0.0948√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≤ −0.200 ksi; −0.0948√5.500 = −0.222 ksi < –0.200 ksi
Therefore, −0.200 ksi (Controls)
• with bonded auxiliary reinforcement that is sufficient to resist 120% of the tension force in the cracked
concrete:
−0.24√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = −0.24√5.500 = −0.563 ksi

9.2.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Stresses at this location need only be checked at transfer because this stage almost always governs. Also, losses
with time will reduce the concrete stresses making them less critical.
Transfer length = 60(strand diameter) = 60(0.5) = 30 in. = 2.5 ft [LRFD Art. 5.11.4]
Due to the camber of the beam at transfer, the beam self weight acts on the overall beam length (119 ft).
Therefore, values of bending moment given in Table 9.2.4-1 cannot be used since they are based on the span
between centerlines of bearings (118 ft). Using Equation Eq. 9.2.4.1.2-2 given previously, the bending moment at
a distance 2.5 ft from the end of the beam is calculated due to beam self weight:
Mg = (0.5)(0.799)(2.5)(119 − 2.5) = 116.4 ft-kips
Compute stress in the top of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1,363.1 (1,363.1)(29.40) (116.4)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 802.9 15,741 15,741
= 1.698 − 2.546 + 0.089 = −0.759 ksi
Tensile stress limit for concrete with bonded reinforcement: −0.563 ksi NG
Compute stress in the bottom fiber of the beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1,363.1 (1,363.1)(29.40) (116.4)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 802.9 16,439 16,439
= 1.698 + 2.438 − 0.085 = +4.051 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.300 ksi NG
Since the stresses at the top and bottom exceed the stress limits, harp strands to make stresses fall within the
specified limits. Harp 12 strands at the 0.3L points, as shown in Figures 9.2.7.2-1 and 9.2.7.2-2. This harp
location is more appropriate for the end spans of multi-span continuous bridges because the maximum positive
moment is closer to the abutment than in the interior spans. For simple spans, it is more common to use a harp
point at least 0.4L from the ends.

9.2 - 27 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Figure 9.2.7.2-1
Strand Pattern

Figure 9.2.7.2-2
Longitudinal Strand Profile

Compute the center of gravity of the prestressing strands at the transfer length using the harped pattern.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped strands at the end of the beam and the top fiber of the
precast beam is:
2(2) + 2(4) + 2(6) + 2(8) + 2(10) + 2(12)
= 7.00 in.
12
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped stands at the harp point and the bottom fiber of the
beam is:
2(6) + 2(8) + 2(10) + 2(12) + 2(14) + 2(16)
= 11.0 in.
12
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped strands and the top fiber of the beam at the transfer
length section is:
(72 − 11 − 7)in.
7 in. + (2.5) ft = 10.80 in.
35.5 ft

9.2 - 28 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.2.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

The distance between the center of gravity of the 32 straight bottom strands and the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam is:
12(2) + 12(4) + 6(6) + 2(8)
= 3.88 in.
32
Therefore, the distance between the center of gravity of the total number of the strands and the bottom fiber of
the precast beam at transfer length is:
12(72 − 10.80) + 32(3.88)
= 19.51 in.
44
Eccentricity of the 44 strand group at transfer length, e, is: 35.84 − 19.51 = 16.33 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of the total number of the strands and the bottom fiber of the precast
beam at the end of the beam is:
12(72 − 7) + 32(3.88)
= 20.55 in. = 𝑦𝑏𝑠
44
Recompute top and bottom stresses at the transfer length section using the harped strands. Note that the
transformed section properties are now different than those at midspan and have been re-calculated.
Concrete stress at top of the beam:
1, 363.1 (1, 363.1)(16.33) (116.4)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.698 − 1.389 + 0.087 = +0.396 ksi
802.9 16,027 16,027
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.300 ksi OK
Concrete stress at bottom of the beam,
1, 363.1 (1, 363.1)(16.33) (116.4)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.698 + 1.377 − 0.086 = +2.989 ksi
802.9 16,170 16,170
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.300 ksi OK

9.2.7.3 Stresses at the Harp Points

The strand eccentricity at the harp points is the same as at midspan, eti = 29.40 in.
Bending moment due to beam self weight at a distance 35.5 ft (0.3L) from the end of the beam is:
Mg = (0.5)(0.799)(35.5)(119 − 35.5) = 1,184.2 ft-kips
Concrete stress at top of the beam,
1, 363.1 (1, 363.1)(29.40) (1,184.2)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.698 − 2.546 + 0.903 = +0.055 ksi
802.9 15,741 15,741
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.300 ksi OK
Concrete stress at bottom of the beam:
1, 363.1 (1, 363.1)(29.40) (1,184.2)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.698 + 2.438 − 0.864 = +3.272 ksi
802.9 16,439 16,439
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.300 ksi OK

9.2.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

The bending moment due to beam self weight at a distance 59.5 feet from the end of the beam is:
Mg = (0.5)(0.799)(59.5)(119 − 59.5) = 1,414.3 ft-kips
Concrete stress at top of the beam:
1, 363.1 (1, 363.1)(29.40) (1,414.3)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.698 − 2.546 + 1.078 = +0.230 ksi
802.9 15,741 15,741

9.2 - 29 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.7.4 Stresses at Midspan/9.2.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.300 ksi OK

Concrete stress at bottom of the beam,
1, 363.1 (1, 363.1)(29.40) (1,414.3)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.698 + 2.438 − 1.032 = +3.104 ksi
802.9 16,439 16,439
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.300 ksi OK

9.2.7.5 Hold-Down Forces

Assume that the stress in the strand at the time of prestressing, before any losses, is:
0.80fpu = 0.80(270) = 216 ksi
Then, the prestress force per strand before any losses is: 0.153(216) = 33.0 kips
From Figure 9.2.7.2-2, the harp angle,
72 − 7 − 11
ψ = tan−1 ( ) = 7.2°
35.5(12)
Therefore, hold-down force/strand = 1.05 (force per strand)(sin ψ)
= 1.05(33.0) sin 7.2° = 4.34 kips/strand
Note that the factor 1.05 is applied to account for friction.
Total hold-down force = 12 strands (4.34) = 52.08 kips
The hold-down force and the harp angle should be checked against maximum limits for local practices. Refer to
Chapter 3, Fabrication and Construction, and Chapter 8, Design Theory and Procedures, for additional details.

9.2.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

Top Fiber Bottom Fiber
Stresses Stresses
ft, ksi fb, ksi
At transfer length section +0.396 +2.989
At harp points +0.055 +3.272
At midspan +0.230 +3.104
Note that the bottom stresses at the harp points are now more critical than the ones at midspan.

9.2.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS

Using transformed section properties and refined losses, Ppe = 1,196.8 kips

9.2.8.1 Stress Limits For Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]

Compression:
Due to permanent loads, (i.e., beam self weight, weight of slab and haunch, weight of future wearing surface, and
weight of barriers), for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.45𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(7.000) = +3.150 ksi
for deck: 0.45𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(4.000) = +1.800 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads (i.e., all dead loads and live loads), for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.60𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(7.000) = +4.200 ksi
for deck: 0.60𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(4.000) = +2.400 ksi

9.2 - 30 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete/9.2.8.2.3 Concrete Stress at the Bottom Fiber of Beam, Load Combination Service III

Tension:
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III: −0.19√𝑓𝑐′
for precast beam: −0.19√7.000 = −0.503 ksi

9.2.8.2 Stresses at Midspan

9.2.8.2.1 Concrete Stresses at the Top Fiber of the Beam
To check top compressive stress, two cases are considered:
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
Using bending moment values given in Table 9.2.4-1, concrete stress at top fiber of the beam is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑐 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 ) (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − + +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
1,196.8 (1,196.8)(29.58) (1,390.7 + 2,126.9)(12) (128.0 + 73.0)(12)
= − + +
798.1 15,702 15,702 79,594
= 1.500 − 2.255 + 2.688 + 0.030 = +.963 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.150 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
(𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐿𝑇 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = +1.963 +
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
(2,115.0)(12)
= +1.963 +
79,594
= 1.963 + 0.319 = +2.282 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +4.200 ksi OK
9.2.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck, Load Combination Service I
Note: Compression stress in the deck slab at service loads never controls the design for typical applications. The
calculations shown below are for illustration and may not be necessary in most practical applications.
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service 1:
(𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 ) (128.0 + 73.0)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = = = +0.035 ksi
𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 69,874
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +1.800 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
(𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐿𝑇 ) (128.0 + 73.0 + 2,115.0)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = = = +0.398 ksi
𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 69,874
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +2.400 ksi OK
9.2.8.2.3 Concrete Stress at the Bottom Fiber of Beam, Load Combination Service III
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 ) (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 ) + 0.8(𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐿𝑇 )
𝑓𝑏 = + − −
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
1,196.8 (1,196.8)(29.58) (1,390.7 + 2,126.9)(12) (128.0 + +73.0)(12) + +(0.8)(2,115.0)(12)
= + − −
798.1 16,235 16,235 22,341
= 1.500 + 2.181 − 2.600 − 1.017 = −+0.064 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.300 ksi OK

9.2 - 31 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit/9.2.9.1 Positive Moment Section

9.2.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

9.2.8.3.1 Positive Moment Section

Fatigue limit state is not checked in this example. For an example of this calculation, refer to Example 9.1a, Section
9.1a.8.3.

9.2.8.3.2 Negative Moment Section

In order to perform the fatigue check, the reinforcement of the section should be determined. Therefore, the
fatigue check for the negative moment section is addressed in Section 9.2.9.2.2.

9.2.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Service Loads

The stresses calculated using the above methods are summarized in Table 9.2.8.4-1. For comparison, the
stresses calculated for the same design example using the previous method of calculating prestress losses are also
shown in the table (Example 9.6 in the previous edition of the manual).
Table 9.2.8.4-1
Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads
Top of Deck, ksi Top of Beam, ksi
Bottom of
Design Service I Service I
Beam, ksi
Example Permanent Permanent
Total Loads Total Loads Service III
Loads Loads
9.1b +0.035 +0.398 +1.963 +2.282 + 0.064
9.6 +0.042 +0.485 +2.062 +2.463 −0.495

9.2.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage

The calculations in Section 9.2.8.2 comply with the LRFD Specifications. However, PCI believes that it is not
appropriate to include the prestressing gain caused by the deck shrinkage, ΔfpSS, in calculating the prestress
losses. Alternatively, the effect of deck shrinkage should be analyzed by considering it as an external force applied
to the composite nontransformed section as illustrated in Section 9.1a.8.5.

9.2.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

9.2.9.1 Positive Moment Section
Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM) [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1&2]
Using the values of unfactored bending moment given in Table 9.2.4-1, the ultimate bending moment at midspan
of the center span is:
Mu = 1.25(1,390.7 + 2,126.9 + 73.0) + 1.5(128.0) + 1.75(2,115.0)
= 4,488.3 + 192.0 + 3,701.3 = 8,381.6 ft-kips
Average stress in prestressing strands when fpe ≥ 0.5 fpu:
𝑐
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 (1 − 𝑘 ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1]
𝑑𝑝
where
fps = average stress in prestressing strand, ksi
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing strand = 270.0 ksi
𝑓𝑝𝑦
k = 2 (1.04 − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-2]
𝑓𝑝𝑢
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strands [LRFD Table C5.7.3.1.1-1]

9.2 - 32 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.9.1 Positive Moment Section

c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis, in. [LRFD 5.7.3.2.2]
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing strands
= hc − ybs = 80.00 − 5.82 = 74.18 in.
To compute c, assume rectangular section behavior, and check if the depth of the equivalent
compression block, a, is equal to or less than ts:
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′
𝑐 =
𝑓𝑝𝑢 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-4]
0.85𝑓𝑐′ β1 𝑏 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝
where
𝐴𝑝𝑠 = area of prestressing strand = 44(0.153) = 6.732 in.2
𝐴𝑠 = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement = 0.0 in.2
𝑓𝑦 = specified yield strength of tension reinforcement = 60.0 ksi
𝐴′𝑠 = area of compression reinforcement = 0.0 in.2
𝑓𝑦′ = specified yield strength of compression reinforcement = 60.0 ksi
𝑓𝑐′ = compressive strength of deck concrete = 4.0 ksi
β1 = stress factor of compression block [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.2]
= 0.85 for 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 4.0 ksi
= 0.85 − 0.05(𝑓𝑐′ − 4.0) ≥ 0.65 for 𝑓𝑐′ > 4.0 ksi
= 0.85
𝑏 = effective width of compression flange = 144 in.
(6.732)(270.0) + 0.0 − 0.0
c = = 4.30 in. < 𝑡𝑠 = 7.5 in. OK
270.0
(0.85)(4.0)(0.85)(144) + 0.28(6.732)
74.18
a = depth of the equivalent stress block = βc [LRFD Eq. 9.6.9.1-1]
= 0.85(4.30) =  in.
Therefore, the assumption of rectangular section behavior is valid.
The average stress in prestressing strand is:
4.30
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 270.0 (1 − 0.28 ) = 265.6 ksi
74.18
Nominal flexural resistance: [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.2.3]
𝑎
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 (𝑑𝑝 − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.2-1]
2
The above equation is a simplified form of LRFD Equation 5.7.3.2.2-1 because no compression reinforcement or
nonprestressed reinforcement is considered and the section behaves as a rectangular section.
3.66
𝑀𝑛 = (6.732)(265.6) (74.18 − )⁄12 = 10,780 ft‐kips
2
Factored flexural resistance:
Mr = ɸMn [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where ɸ = resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
= 1.00, for tension controlled prestressed concrete sections
Mr = 0,780 ft-kips > Mu = 8,381.6 ft-kips OK

9.2 - 33 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.9.2 Negative Moment Section/9.2.9.2.1 Design of the Section

9.2.9.2 Negative Moment Section

9.2.9.2.1 Design of the Section

Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM) [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1&2]
At the pier section:
Mu = 1.25(−197) + 1.5(−345) + 1.75(−2,327.7) = −4,837.2 ft-kips
Notes:
1. At the negative moment section, the compression face is the bottom flange of the beam and is 26 in. wide.
Therefore, the design strength of the concrete is 7.0 ksi.
2. This section is a nonprestressed reinforced concrete section, thus ɸ = 0.9 for flexure.
Assume the deck reinforcement is at mid-height of the deck. The effective depth:
de = 72 + 0.5 + 0.5(7.5) = 76.25 in.
𝑀𝑢 4,837.2 (12)
𝑅𝑢 = = = 0.427 ksi
ɸ𝑏𝑑𝑒 2
(0.9)(26)(76.25)2
𝑓𝑦 60.0
𝑚= = = 10.084
0.85𝑓𝑐′ (0.85)(7.0)

1 2𝑅𝑢 𝑚 1 2(0.427)(10.084)
ρ= [1 − √1 − ]= [1 − √1 − ] = 0.00739
𝑚 𝑓𝑦 10.084 60.0

As = (ρbde) = (0.00739)(26)(76.25) = 14.65 in.2

This is the amount of nonprestressed reinforcement required in the slab to resist the negative moment. Assume
that the typical deck reinforcement consists of a bottom mat of No. 5 bars @ 12 in. and a top mat of No. 4 bars @
12 in. for a total As = 0.20 + 0.31 = 0.51 in.2/ft.
Since the LRFD Specifications does not provide guidance on the width over which this reinforcement is to be
distributed, it is assumed here to be the same as the effective compression flange width which was determined
earlier to be 144 in.
The typical reinforcement provided over this width is equal to (144 × 0.51/12) = .12 in.2 Therefore, the required
additional reinforcement at the negative moment section = 14.65 − 6.12 = .53 in.2
Provide twelve No. 8 bars additional reinforcement at 12-in. spacing (one No. 8 bar in each space between the No.
4 bars).
As = 12(0.79) = .48 in.2
Therefore, the total As provided = .48 + .12 = 15.60 in.2 >14.65 in.2 OK
Compute the capacity of the section in flexure at the pier:
Compute the depth of the compression block:
𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 15.60(60.0)
𝑎= ′
= = 6.05 in.
0.85 𝑏𝑓𝑐 (0.85)(26)(7.0)
Note that this value is slightly larger than the flange thickness of 6.0 in. However, the adjustment in the moment
capacity, ɸMn, when using a more accurate nonrectangular section analysis, is extremely small.
𝑎
ɸ𝑀𝑛 = ɸ𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 (𝑑 − )
2

9.2 - 34 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.9.2.1 Design of the Section/9.2.10.1.2 Minimum Reinforcement

6.05
ɸ𝑀𝑛 = 0.9(15.60)(60.0) (76.25 − )⁄12 = 5,140.4 ft‐kips > 4,837.2 ft‐kips OK
2
With time, creep of concrete members heavily pretensioned may cause camber growth. Because this bridge is
designed to have rigid connections between beams at the piers, camber growth is restrained. As a result, time-
dependent positive moments at the piers will develop. Therefore, it is recommended that a nominal amount of
positive moment continuity reinforcement be used over the piers to control potential cracking in this region. A
common way to provide this reinforcement is to extend approximately 25% of the strands from the bottom flange
and bend them up into the diaphragm. Another common detail is the addition of a quantity of nonprestressed
reinforcement required to resist a moment equal to 1.2Mcr. This reinforcement is also extended from the ends of
the beam and bent up into the diaphragm. This topic is addressed in Article 5.14.1.4 of the LRFD Specifications,
which requires that connections between girders at the continuity diaphragm be designed for all effects that
cause moment at the connection.

9.2.9.2.2 Fatigue Stress Limit and Crack Control

The fatigue limit state and crack control for the negative moment zone over the piers are important design
criteria that must be checked. This zone is expected to be cracked due to service loads and the steel stress range is
expected to be high.
For moment calculations, the fatigue truck loading must be introduced to the three-span continuous structure.
The resulting moments are then used to determine whether or not the stress range in the longitudinal
reinforcement is within the acceptable limits.
In order to control flexural cracking, the spacing of the nonprestressed steel reinforcement at service limit state,
should not exceed the value given by LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.4-1 for the exposure condition required by the owner.

9.2.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT

9.2.10.1 Positive Moment Section
This section is a prestressed concrete section.

9.2.10.1.1 Maximum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]

The check of maximum reinforcement limits was removed from the LRFD Specifications in 2005.

9.2.10.1.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]

At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement must be adequate to develop
a factored flexural resistance, Mr, equal to the lesser of:
• 1.2 times the cracking strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and
• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan:
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 (𝑓𝑟 + 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 ) − 𝑀𝑑𝑛𝑐 ( − 1) ≥ 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 𝑓𝑟 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.2-1]
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
where
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= 0.37√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.37√7.000 = 0.979 ksi
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied
loads

9.2 - 35 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.10.1.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.2.11 Shear Design

𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 1,196.8 (1,196.8)(29.58)

= + = + = 1.500 + + 2.181 = 3.681 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 798.1 16,235

Mdnc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section

= Mg + Ms = 1,390.7 + 2,126.9 = 3,517.6 ft-kips
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section where the
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 22,341 in.3
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed noncomposite section where the
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 16,235 in.3
22,341 22,341
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = (0.979 + 3.681) ( ) − (3,517.6) ( − 1) = 7,352.8 ft‐kips
12 16,235
1.2𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 1.2(7,352.8) = 8,823.4 ft‐kips
At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is: Illustrated based on 2011
Mu = 8,381.6 ft-kips (as calculated in Section 9.2.9.1) LRFD Specifications.

Therefore, 1.33Mu = 1.33(8,381.6) = 11,147.5 ft-kips Editor’s Note: 2012 LRFD

Specifications changes will
Since 1.2Mcr < 1.33Mu, 1.2Mcr requirement controls revise minimum
Mr = 10,780 ft-kips > 1.2Mcr = 8,823.4 ft-kips OK reinforcement.

The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at every section.

9.2.10.2 Negative Moment Section

9.2.10.2.1 Maximum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]

The check of maximum reinforcement was removed from the LRFD Specifications in 2005.

9.2.10.2.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]

For negative moment sections, the LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.2-1 can be reduced to:
Mcr = Stcfr
where
Stc = 68,181 in.3
fr = 0.37√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.37√4.0 = 0.740 ksi
Note: Gross section properties are used here for the negative moment section.
Mcr = 0.740(68,181)/12 = 4,204.5 ft-kips
1.2Mcr = 1.2(4,204.5) = 5,045.4 ft-kips
Mu = −4,837.2 ft-kips as calculated in Section 9.2.9.2.1
Thus, 1.33Mu = 1.33(4,837.2) = 6,433.5 ft-kips
Since 1.2Mcr < 1.33Mu, the 1.2Mcr requirement controls
Mr = 5,140.4 ft-kips > 1.2Mcr = 5,045.4 ft-kips OK

9.2.11 SHEAR DESIGN

The area and spacing of shear reinforcement must be determined at regular intervals along the entire length of
the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design procedures are demonstrated below by determining
these values for the center span at the critical section near the supports.

9.2 - 36 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.11 Shear Design/9.2.11.1.2 Calculation of Critical Section

Transverse shear reinforcement is required when:

Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
where
Vu = total factored shear force, kips
Vc = nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the concrete, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
ɸ = resistance factor = 0.9 for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]

9.2.11.1 Critical Section

The critical section near the supports is taken as the effective shear depth, dv, from the [LRFD Art. 5.8.3.2]
internal face of the support.
dv = distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (de − a/2) but not [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
less than 0.9de or 0.72hc
where
de = the corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the (Sect. 9.2.9.2.1)
centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement = 76.25 in.
(Note: de is calculated considering the nonprestressed reinforcement in the slab
as the main reinforcement and neglecting the prestressing strand. This is
because this section lies in the negative moment zone.)
a = equivalent depth of the compression block = 6.05 in. (Sect. 9.2.9.2.1)
hc = overall depth of the composite section = 80.0 in.

9.2.11.1.1 Effective Shear Depth

dv = 76.25 − 0.5(6.05) = 73.23 in.
≥ 0.9de = 0.9(76.25) = 68.63 in.
≥ 0.72hc = 0.72(80.0) = 57.60 in.
Therefore, dv = 73.23 in.

9.2.11.1.2 Calculation of Critical Section

The critical section is taken as dv from the face of the support:
dv = 73.23 in.
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, the width of bearing was conservatively assumed to be
equal to zero for the computation of the critical section of shear, as shown in Figure 9.2.11.1.2-1. Therefore the
critical section in shear is at a distance of 0.5 + 0.5 + 73.23/12 = 7.10 ft from the centerline of the first interior
support (pier).
x/L = 7.10/120 = 0.059L from the centerline of the first interior support (pier)

9.2 - 37 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.11.1.2 Calculation of Critical Section/9.2.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance

Figure 9.2.11.1.2-1
Critical Section in Shear of the Center Span

9.2.11.1.3 Forces at the Critical Section

Using values from Table 9.2.4-1, compute the factored shear force and bending moment at the critical section for
shear (center span point 0.059L), according to Strength I load combination.
Vu = 1.25(42.3 + 64.6 + 7.8) + 1.50(14.2) + 1.75(137.3) = 405.0 kips
Mu = 1.25(272.7 + 417.1 − 139.6) + 1.50(−44.4) + 1.75(−717.8) = −2,685.0 ft-kips
or
Vu = 0.9(42.3 + 64.6 + 7.8) + 1.50(14.2) + 1.75(137.3) = 364.8 kips
Mu = 0.9(272.7 + 417.1 − 139.6) + 1.50(−44.4) + 1.75(−1,717.8) = −2,877.6 ft-kips
When determining Mu at a particular section, it is conservative to take Mu as the highest factored moment that will
occur at that section, rather than the moment corresponding to maximum Vu. [LRFD Art. C5.8.3.4.2]
Therefore,
Vu = 405.0 kips
Mu = −2,877.6 ft-kips

9.2.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance

The contribution of the concrete to the nominal shear resistance is:
𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316β√𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
where β = a factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension (a value indicating
concrete contribution)
Several quantities must be determined before this expression can be evaluated.

9.2 - 38 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement/9.2.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement

9.2.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

Calculate strain at the centroid of the tension reinforcement, εs:
|𝑀𝑢 |
+ 0.5𝑁𝑢 + |𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 | − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑜
𝑑 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-4]
ε𝑠 = 𝑣
(𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 )

where
Nu = applied factored normal force at the specified section, 0.59L = 0 kips
Vp = (Force per strand without live loads gains)(Number of harped strands)(sin ψ)
= (25.63)(12)sin 7.2° = 38.5 kips is a conservative resistance
fpo = a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by the locked-in
difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the surrounding concrete (ksi). For
pretensioned members, LRFD Article 5.8.3.4.2 indicates that fpo can be taken as 0.7fpu. (Note: use this
for both pretensioned and post-tensioned systems made with stress relieved and low relaxation
strands).
= 0.70(270.0) = .0 ksi
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement on the flexural side of the member = 15.60 in.2
Aps = area of prestressing strands on the flexural tension side of the member. The flexural tension side of
the member should be taken as the half-depth containing the flexural tension zone as illustrated in
LRFD Figure 5.8.3.4.2-1.
= 12(0.153) = 1.836 in.2
2,877.6 (12)
| | + 0 + (405.0 − 38.5) − 1.836(189.0)
73.23
ε𝑠 = = +0.973 × 10−3
29,000(15.60) + 28,500(1.836)

9.2.11.2.2 Values of β and θ

Assume the section contains at least the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement:
4.8 4.8 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-1]
β= = = 2.775
(1 + 750ε𝑠 ) (1 + 750(0.973 × 10−3 ))
Angle of diagonal compressive stresses is:
θ = 29 + 3,500εs = 29 + 3,500(0.973 × 10-3) = 32.4° [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-3]

9.2.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution

The nominal shear resisted by the concrete is:
𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316β√𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
where bv = effective web width = 6 in.
𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316(2.775)√7.0(6)(73.23) = 101.9 kips
9.2.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance

9.2.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement

Check if Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
0.5ɸ (Vc + Vp) = 0.5(0.9)(101.9 + 38.5) = 63.2 kips < 405.0 kips
Therefore, transverse reinforcement must be provided.

9.2 - 39 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement/9.2.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

9.2.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement

𝑉𝑢 ⁄ɸ ≤ 𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑝 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1]
where
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement
= (𝑉𝑢 ⁄ɸ) − 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑝 = 405.0⁄0.9 − 101.9 − 38.5 = 309.6 kips
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦ℎ 𝑑𝑣 (cot θ + cot α)(sin α)
Vs = [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4]
𝑠
where
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, in.2
s = spacing of stirrups, in.
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
α= angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis
= 90° for vertical stirrups
Therefore, area of shear reinforcement within a spacing, s, is:
Av = (sVs)/(fyhdv cot θ)
= s(309.6)/(60)(73.23cot 32.4°) = 0.045(s) in.2
if s = 12 in., required Av = 0.54 in.2

9.2.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement

Check maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement: [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
Check if vu  0.125𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.7-1]
𝑉𝑢 − ɸ𝑉𝑝 405.0 − 0.9(38.5)
𝑣𝑢 = = = 0.937 ksi
ɸ𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 (0.9)(6)(73.23)
0.125𝑓𝑐′ =(0.125)(7.0) = 0.875 ksi
Since vu > 0.125𝑓𝑐′
Then s ≤ 12 in. ≤ 0.4dv = 0.4(73.23) = 29.3 in.
Therefore, s ≤ 12 in.
Use No. 5 double leg bars at 12 in., Av = 0.62 in.2/ft > 0.54 in.2/ft
(0.62)(60)(73.23)cot 32.4°
𝑉𝑠 = = 357.7 kips
12
9.2.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement
The area of transverse reinforcement should not be less than:
𝑏𝑣 𝑠 6(12)
0.0316√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.0316√7.0 ( ) = 0.10 in.2 < 𝐴𝑣 provided OK [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5-1]
𝑓𝑦ℎ 60.0

9.2.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

In order to ensure that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush prior to yielding of the transverse
reinforcement, the LRFD Specifications specifies an upper limit of Vn as follows:
Vn = 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1, it can be concluded that,

9.2 - 40 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance/9.2.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement

Vc +Vs must not be greater than 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv

101.9 + 357.7 = 459.6 kips ≤ 0.25(7.0)(6)(73.23) = 768.9 kips OK
Using the above procedures, the transverse reinforcement can be determined at increments along the entire
length of the beam.

[LRFD Art. 5.8.4]

9.2.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER
9.2.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear
At the strength limit state, the horizontal shear at a section on a per unit basis can be taken as:
𝑉𝑢
𝑉ℎ𝑖 = [LRFD Eq. C5.8.4.2-7]
𝑑𝑣
where
Vhi = horizontal factored shear force per unit length of the beam, kips/in.
Vu = factored shear force at specified section due to superimposed loads after the deck is cast, kips
dv = distance between the centroid of the tension steel and the mid-thickness of the slab = (de − ts/2)
= 76.25 − 7.5/2 = 72.50 in.
The LRFD Specifications does not identify the location of the critical section. For convenience, it will be assumed
here to be the same location as the critical section for vertical shear, at point 0.059L of the center span.
Using load combination Strength I:
Vu = 1.25(42.3+64.6+7.8) + 1.50(14.2) + 1.75(137.3) = 405.0 kips (Table 9.2.4-1)
Therefore, the applied factored horizontal shear is:
405.0
𝑉ℎ𝑖 = = 5.59 kips⁄in.
72.50
9.2.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance
Required Vni = Vhi/0.9 = 5.59/0.9 = 6.21 kips/in. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-1]

9.2.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement

The nominal shear resistance of the interface plane is:
Vni = c Acv + μ[Avf fyh + Pc] [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3]
where
c = cohesion factor, ksi [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.2]
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear transfer, in.2
μ = coefficient of friction [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.2]
Avf = area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane, in.2
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
Pc = permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane, kips
For a cast-in-place concrete slabs placed on clean concrete girder surface intentionally [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.3]
roughened:
c = 0.28 ksi
μ = 1.0

9.2 - 41 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement/9.2.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement

The actual contact width, bv, between the deck and the beam is 42 in. Therefore,
Acv = (42 in.)(1 in.) = 42 in.2/in.
LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3 can be solved for Avf as follows:
6.21 = 0.28(42) + 1.0[Avf (60.0) + 0]
Avf (req'd) < 0
Since the resistance provided by cohesion is greater than the applied force, provide the minimum required
interface reinforcement.

9.2.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement

Minimum shear reinforcement, Avf ≥ (0.05Acv)/fyh [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.4-1]
From the design of vertical shear reinforcement, a No. 5 double-leg bar at 12-in. spacing is provided from the
beam extending into the deck. Therefore, Avf = 0.62 in.2/ft
Avf = (0.62 in.2/ft) >(0.05 Acv)/fyh = 0.05(42)/60 = 0.035 in.2/in. = 0.42 in.2/ft OK
Consider further that LRFD Article 5.8.4.4 states that the minimum reinforcement requirement may be waived if
Vhi/Acv < 0.210 ksi with surface roughened to an amplitude of 0.25 in.
4.16 kips/in./42.0 in. = 0.099 ksi < 0.210 ksi
Therefore, the minimum reinforcement requirement could be waived had it governed.

9.2.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

Vni ≤ K1𝑓𝑐′ Acv or K2Acv
0.62
𝑉𝑛𝑖 provided = (0.28)(42) + 1.0 ( (60.0) + 0) = 14.9 kips⁄in.
12
K1𝑓𝑐′ Acv = (0.3)(4.0)(42) = 50.4 kips/in. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-4]
K2Acv = 1.8(42) = 75.6 kips/in. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-5]
Vni provided ≤ 0.3𝑓𝑐′ cv OK
≤ 1.8Acv OK

9.2.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT [LRFD Art. 5.8.3.5]

REQUIREMENT
The LRFD Specifications states that if the reaction force or the load at the maximum moment location introduces
direct compression into the flexural compression face of the member, the area of longitudinal reinforcement on
the flexural tension side of the member need not exceed the area required to resist the maximum moment acting
alone.
This reason that the longitudinal reinforcement requirement is relaxed for this condition, is based on the
following explanation. At maximum moment locations, the shear force changes sign and, hence, the inclination of
the diagonal compressive stresses also changes. At direct supports and point loads, this change of inclination is
associated with a fan-shaped pattern of compressive stresses radiating from the point load or the direct support.
This fanning of the diagonal stresses reduces the tension in the longitudinal reinforcement caused by the shear,
i.e., angle θ becomes steeper.
The conditions mentioned above exist at the interior supports. Directly over the support, the angle θ becomes 90°
and the contribution of shear to the longitudinal reinforcement requirement is zero. Therefore, at this location,
the longitudinal reinforcement is sized only for the moment applied to the section and there is no need to check
the minimum longitudinal reinforcement requirement.
However, for sections within a distance of (dvcot θ)/2 from the interior supports, the shear will again affect the
required longitudinal reinforcement and the requirement must be checked. It should be noted that at locations

9.2 - 42 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement/9.2.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer

near the interior supports of continuous members, the minimum longitudinal reinforcement requirement is used
to check the quantity of reinforcement in the deck. The longitudinal reinforcement requirement must also be
checked for the prestressing strands at the simply-supported ends of continuous span units. Refer to Design
Example 9.1a, Section 9.1a.13.

[LRFD Art. 5.10.10]

9.2.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE
[LRFD Art. 5.10.10.1]
9.2.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement
Design of the anchorage zone reinforcement is computed using the force in the strands just before transfer.
Force in the strands before transfer = Ppi = = 1,363.1 kips
The bursting resistance, Pr, should not be less than 4.0% of Ppi.
Pr = fsAs ≥ 0.04Ppi = 0.04(1,363.1) = 54.5 kips
where
fs = allowable stress in steel, but taken not greater than 20 ksi
As = total area of vertical reinforcement located within a distance h/4 from the end of the beam, in.2
Solving for the required area of steel, As = 54.5/(20) = 2.73 in.2
At least 2.73 in.2 of vertical transverse reinforcement should be provided at the end of the beam for a distance
equal to one-fourth of the depth of the beam, h/4 = 72/4 = 18.0 in.
The shear reinforcement was determined in Section 9.2.11 to be No. 5 (double legs) @ 12 in. However, the
minimum vertical reinforcement criteria controls.
Use five No. 5 double leg bars at 4 in. spacing starting at 2 in. from the end of the beam
Provided As = 5(2)(0.31) = 3.1 in.2 > 2.73 in.2 OK

9.2.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.10.10.2]

For a distance of 1.5h = 1.5(72) = 108 in., from the end of the beam, reinforcement is placed to confine the
prestressing steel in the bottom flange. The reinforcement should not be less than No. 3 deformed bars, with
spacing not exceeding 6.0 in., and shaped to enclose the strands.

9.2.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.6.2]

Deflections are calculated using the modulus of elasticity of concrete calculated in Section 9.2.2 and the gross
moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast beam.

9.2.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer

Force per strand at transfer = 28.20 kips
𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑐 𝐿2 𝑒 ′ 𝑎2
Δ𝑝 = ( − )
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔 8 6
where
Δp = camber due to prestressing force at transfer, in.
Ppt = total prestressing force at transfer = 44(28.20) = 1,240.8 kips
Eci = modulus of elasticity at transfer = 4,496 ksi
Ig = moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast beam = 545,894 in.4
ec = eccentricity of prestressing strand at midspan = 30.78 in.

9.2 - 43 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.15.1Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer/9.2.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch and Deck Weights

L = overall beam length = 119.0 ft

e’ = difference between eccentricity of prestressing strand at midspan and at end of the beam, as shown
in Figure 9.2.15.1-1
= ec − ee = 30.78 − (yb − ybs) = 30.78 − (36.60 − 20.55) = 14.73 in.
a = distance from end of beam to the harp point = 35.5 ft

Figure 9.2.15.1-1
Strand Eccentricity

1, 240.8 30.78(119 × 12)2 14.73 (35.5 × 12)2

Δ𝑝 = ( − ) = 3.74 in. ↑
4, 496(545,894) 8 6

9.2.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight

5𝑤𝑔 𝐿4
Δ𝑔 =
384𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δg = deflection due to beam self weight, in.
wg = beam self weight, = 0.799 kips/ft
Deflection due to beam self weight after transfer:
L = overall beam length = 119 ft
0.799
5( ) (119 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 1.47 in. ↓
(384)(4, 496)(545,894)
Deflection due to beam self weight at erection:
L = span length between centerlines of bearings = 118 ft
0.799
5( ) (118 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 1.42 in. ↓
(384)(4, 496)(545,894)

9.2.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch and Deck Weights

5𝑤𝑠 𝐿4
Δs =
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔
where
Δs = deflection due to slab and haunch weights, in.
ws = slab and haunch weight = 1.200 + 0.022 = 1.222, kips/ft

9.2 - 44 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch and Deck Weights/9.2.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

L= design span = 118.0 ft

Ec = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at service loads = 5,072 ksi
1.222
5( ) (118 × 12)4
Δ𝑠 = 12 = 1.93 in. ↓
(384)(5,072)(545,894)

9.2.15.4 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface Weights

Δb+ws = 0.048 in. 
(This value was calculated using a continuous beam program.)

9.2.15.5 Deflection and Camber Summary

For midspan:
At transfer, (Δp + Δg) = 3.74 − 1.47 = 2.27 in. 
Total deflection at erection, using PCI multipliers (see the PCI Design Handbook)
= 1.8(3.74) − 1.85(1.42) = 4.19 in. 
Long-Term Deflection
LRFD Article 5.7.3.6.2 states that the long-term deflection may be taken as the instantaneous deflection multiplied
by a factor of 4.0, if the instantaneous deflection is based on the gross moment of inertia. However, a factor of 4.0
is not appropriate for this type of precast construction. Therefore, it is recommended that the designer follow the
guidelines of the owner agency for whom the bridge is being designed, or undertake a more rigorous time-
dependent analysis.

9.2.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

Live load deflection is not a required check, according to the provisions of the LRFD Specifications. Further, live
load deflections are usually not a problem for prestressed concrete I- and bulb-tee shapes especially when they
are constructed to act as a continuous structure under superimposed loads. If the designer chooses to check
deflection, the following recommendations are from the LRFD Specifications.
Live load deflection limit: Span/800 = 120)(12)/800 = 1.80 in. [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
If the owner invokes the optional live load deflection criteria specified in LRFD Article [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3.2]
2.5.2.6.2, the deflection is the greater of:
• that resulting from the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, or
• that resulting from 25% of the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, taken together with the design lane load, ΔLL.
Note: LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2 states that the dynamic load allowance be included in the calculation of live load
deflection.
The LRFD Specifications states that all beams may be assumed to be deflecting equally [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
under the applied live load and impact.
Therefore, the distribution factor for deflection, DFD, is calculated as follows:
DFD = (number of lanes/number of beams) [LRFD Art. C2.5.2.6.2]
= 3/4 = 0.75 lanes/beams
However, it is more conservative to use the distribution factor for moment, DFM.
The live load deflection may be conservatively estimated using the following formula:
5𝐿2
∆𝐿𝐿 = [𝑀 − 0.1(𝑀𝑎 + 𝑀𝑏 )] (Eq. 9.2.15.6-1)
48𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐 𝑠

9.2 - 45 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.2

BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.2.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

where
Ms = the maximum positive moment
Ma and Mb = the corresponding negative moments at the ends of the span being considered.
The live load combination specified in LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.2 calls for the greater of design truck with impact alone
or 0.25 design truck with impact plus lane load.
In this example, a conservative approximation may be made by using the positive moment for Service III load
combination, 0.8 truck plus lane load, and by ignoring the effect of Ma and Mb.
5(120 × 12)2
Δ𝐿𝐿 = [0.8 × 2,115.0 × 12] = 0.74 in. ↓ < 1.80 in. OK
48(5,072)(1,175,063)

9.2 - 46 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 3
9.3.1.1 Terminology............................................................................................................................................................................ 9.3 - 3
9.3.2 MATERIALS ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 3
9.3.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM ................................................................................ 9.3 - 4
9.3.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ............................................................................................................................ 9.3 - 5
9.3.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads ................................................................................... 9.3 - 5
9.3.4.1.1 Dead Loads ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 5
9.3.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments .......................................................................................... 9.3 - 6
9.3.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments due to Live Loads ...................................................................................... 9.3 - 6
9.3.4.2.1 Live Loads ....................................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 6
9.3.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam .................................................................... 9.3 - 6
9.3.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments .............................................................................................. 9.3 - 6
9.3.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force ........................................................................................................... 9.3 - 7
9.3.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance .................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 8
9.3.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments .......................................................................................... 9.3 - 9
9.3.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT ................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 9
9.3.4.2.4.2 Due To Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL ..................................................................................................... 9.3 - 9
9.3.4.3 Load Combinations ........................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 10
9.3.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS .......................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 11
9.3.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan .............................................................................................................................. 9.3 - 11
9.3.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete.............................................................................................................................................. 9.3 - 12
9.3.5.3 Required Number of Strands........................................................................................................................................ 9.3 - 12
9.3.5.4 Strand Pattern ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 12
9.3.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties ..................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 13
9.3.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9.3 - 14
9.3.6.1 Elastic Shortening.............................................................................................................................................................. 9.3 - 14
9.3.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement................................................................ 9.3 - 15
9.3.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.3 - 15
9.3.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 16
9.3.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 16
9.3.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time ........................................................... 9.3 - 17
9.3.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.3 - 17
9.3.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 17
9.3.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 18
9.3.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete ................................................................................................................................. 9.3 - 18
9.3.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss .......................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 18
9.3.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer ................................................................................................................................................. 9.3 - 18
9.3.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads....................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 19
9.3.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER..................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 19

9.3 - 1 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.3.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 9.3 - 19
9.3.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section .......................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 20
9.3.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points ................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 22
9.3.7.4 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 22
9.3.7.5 Hold-Down Forces ............................................................................................................................................................ 9.3 - 23
9.3.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer ............................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 23
9.3.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS.......................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 23
9.3.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 9.3 - 23
9.3.8.2 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 23
9.3.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 24
9.3.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads ............................................................................................ 9.3 - 25
9.3.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE ............................................................................................................................................................. 9.3 - 25
9.3.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT.................................................................................................................................................. 9.3 - 26
9.3.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 26
9.3.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................................ 9.3 - 26
9.3.11 SHEAR DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 27
9.3.11.1 Critical Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 9.3 - 27
9.3.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance ................................................................................ 9.3 - 28
9.3.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement ................................................................................................. 9.3 - 28
9.3.11.2.2 Values of β and θ .................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 29
9.3.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution ..................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 29
9.3.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................... 9.3 - 29
9.3.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement ..................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 29
9.3.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement .................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 29
9.3.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement........................................................................................................... 9.3 - 29
9.3.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement....................................................................................................... 9.3 - 30
9.3.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 30
9.3.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER .............................................................................................................................................. 9.3 - 30
9.3.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT ............................................................................. 9.3 - 30
9.3.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing ....................................................................................................... 9.3 - 31
9.3.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE ................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 32
9.3.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement............................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 32
9.3.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement...................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 32
9.3.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 32
9.3.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer ............................................................................................ 9.3 - 33
9.3.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight ....................................................................................................................... 9.3 - 33
9.3.15.3 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface Weights .............................................................. 9.3 - 33
9.3.15.4 Deflection and Camber Summary ............................................................................................................................ 9.3 - 34
9.3.15.5 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact............................................................................................................... 9.3 - 34

9.3 - 2 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.1 Introduction/9.3.2 Materials

9.3 Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses

9.3.1 INTRODUCTION
This design example demonstrates the design of a 95-ft, single span, AASHTO Type DBT-53 bulb-tee beam bridge
with no skew. This example illustrates in detail the design of a typical interior beam at the critical sections in
positive flexure, shear, and deflection due to prestress, dead loads, and live load. The superstructure consists of
nine beams spaced at 6 ft 0 in. centers, as shown in Figure 9.3.1-1. Beams are designed with a noncomposite
wearing surface and are transversely connected by shear keys. Design live load is HL-93. The design is
accomplished in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fifth Edition, 2010, and the 2011
Interim Revisions. Elastic stresses from external loads are calculated using transformed sections. Shear strength
is calculated using the general procedure. Time-dependent prestress losses are calculated using the refined
estimates.

Figure 9.3.1-1
Bridge Cross Section
54'-0 "
1'-6" 51'-0" 1'-6"

3" wearing surface

3'-0" 8 spaces @ 6'-0" = 48'-0" 3'-0"

9.3.1.1 Terminology
The following terminology is used to describe cross sections in this design example:
noncomposite section—the concrete beam cross section.
noncomposite nontransformed section—the concrete beam cross section without the strands transformed. Also
called the gross section.
noncomposite transformed section—the concrete beam cross section with the strands transformed to provide
cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
The term "transformed" refers to transformation of the strands.

9.3.2 MATERIALS
Precast concrete beams: AASHTO deck bulb-tee beam, Type DBT-53 as shown in Figure 9.3.2-1.
Required concrete compressive strength at transfer, 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 5.5 ksi
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 7.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight, wc = 0.150 kcf
Overall beam length = 96.0 ft
Design span = 95.0 ft
Prestressing strands: 0.6-in.-dia., seven-wire, low-relaxation
Area of one strand = 0.217 in.2
Specified tensile strength, fpu = 270.0 ksi
Yield strength, fpy = 0.9 fpu = 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]

9.3 - 3 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.2 Materials/9.3.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Beam

Stress limits for prestressing strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]

• before transfer, fpi ≤ 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi
• at service limit state (after all losses), fpe ≤ 0.80fpy = 194.4 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Ep = 28,500 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.2]
Reinforcing bars:
Yield strength, fy = 60.0 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Modulus of elasticity, Es = 29,000 ksi
Bituminous surfacing 3-in. thick: unit weight = 0.140 kcf [LRFD Table 3.5.1-1]
New Jersey-type barrier: unit weight = 0.300 kips/ft/side
Figure 9.3.2-1
AASHTO Deck Bulb-Tee Beam Type DBT-53 Dimensions

72"

6"
3"
2"
19.5"

2"
6"
33" 53"

3"
6"

25"

9.3.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM

Ag = area of cross section of beam = 931 in.2
h = overall depth of beam = 53 in.
Ig = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast beam = 335,679 in.4
Jg = St. Venant’s torsional inertia = 34,697in.4
yb = distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 34.56 in.
yt = distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 18.44 in.
Sb = section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yb = 9,713 in.3
St = section modulus for extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yt = 18,204 in.3
wg = beam weight per unit length = (931/144)(0.150) = 0.970 kips/ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity, ksi = 33,000K1(wc)1.5�𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]

9.3 - 4 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Beam/9.3.4.1.1 Dead Loads

where
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate taken as 1.00
wc = unit weight of concrete, = 0.150 kcf
LRFD Table 3.5.1-1 states that, in the absence of more precise data, the unit weight of concrete may be
taken as 0.140 + 0.001𝑓𝑐′ for 5.0 < 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 15.0 ksi. For 𝑓𝑐′ = 6.5 ksi, the unit weight would be 0.1465 kcf.
However, precast concrete mixes typically have a relatively low water-cementitious materials ratio and
high density. Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150 kcf is used in this example. For high-strength concrete,
this value may need to be increased based on test results. For simplicity, a value of 0.150 kcf is also
used for the cast-in-place concrete.
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity for:
precast beam at transfer, Eci = 33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5√5.50 = 4,496 ksi
precast beam at service loads, Ec = 33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5√7.00 = 5,072 ksi

9.3.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

Refer to Tables 9.3.4-1 and 9.3.4-2, which follow Section 9.3.4.3 for a summary of unfactored values calculated
below.

9.3.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads

9.3.4.1.1 Dead Loads [LRFD Art. 3.3.2]

DC = Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
Beam self weight, wg = 0.970 kips/ft
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1 states that permanent loads (barrier and wearing surface loads) may be
distributed uniformly among the beams if the following conditions are met:
• Width of the deck is constant. OK
• Number of beams, Nb, is not less than four (Nb = 9) OK
• Beams are parallel and have the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft
de = (54 − 51)/2 = 1.5 ft OK
• Curvature in plan is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (curvature = 0.0°) OK
• Cross section of the bridge is consistent with one of the cross sections given in LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-
1OK
Since these criteria are satisfied, the barrier and wearing surface loads are distributed equally among the
nine beams.
Barrier weight = (2 barriers)(0.300 kips/ft)/9 beams = 0.067 kips/ft = wb
DW = Dead load of wearing surface (weight of 3 in. bituminous wearing surface at 0.140 kcf)
= (3/12)(0.140) = 0.035 ksf
= (0.035)(51.0 ft)/9 beams = 0.198 kips/ft/beam = wws
DW load should be kept separately from DC because of a higher load factor is applied to it.

9.3 - 5 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.3.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments

9.3.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments

For a simply supported beam with a span length (L) loaded with a uniformly distributed load (w), the shear force
(Vx) and bending moment (Mx) at any distance (x) from the support are given by:
Vx = w(0.5L − x) (Eq. 9.3.4.1.2-1)
Mx = 0.5wx(L − x) (Eq. 9.3.4.1.2-2)
Using the above equations, values of shear forces and bending moments for a typical interior beam under the self
weight of beam, barriers, and wearing surface are computed and given in Table 9.3.4-1 that is located at the end
of Section 9.3.4.3. For these calculations, the span length (L) is the design span, 95 ft. However, for calculations of
stresses and deformations at the time the prestress is transferred, the overall length of the precast member, 96 ft,
is used as illustrated later in this example.

9.3.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments due to Live Loads

9.3.4.2.1 Live Loads

Design live load is HL-93, which consists of a combination of: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.1]
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.2]
The design truck consists of 8.0-, 32.0-, and 32.0-kip axles with the first pair spaced at 14.0 ft and the second
pair spaced at 14.0 to 30.0 ft. The design tandem consists of a pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced at 4.0 ft apart.
[LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.3]
2. Design lane load of 0.64 kips/ft without dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.4]

9.3.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam

The live load bending moments and shear forces are determined by using the simplified [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]
distribution factor formulas. To use the simplified live load distribution factor formulas, [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2.1]
the following conditions must be met:
• Width of deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb not less than four (Nb = 9) OK
• Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft (de = 1.5 ft) OK
• Curvature is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications, (curvature = 0.0°) OK
For a precast deck bulb-tee beam, the bridge type is (j). [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]
The number of design lanes is computed as:
Number of design lanes = the integer part of the ratio w/12, where (w) is the clear [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.1]
roadway width, in ft, between the curbs.
From Figure 9.3.1-1, w = 51 ft
Number of design lanes = integer part of (51/12) = 4 lanes

9.3.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments

• For all limit states except fatigue limit state:
Assume the beams are connected only enough to prevent relative vertical displacement at the interface.
Regardless of number of loaded lanes:
𝑆
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
𝐷

9.3 - 6 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments/9.3.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force

where
DFM = distribution factor for bending moment for interior beam
S = beam spacing = 6 ft
D = width of distribution per lane, ft
The stiffness parameter, C, needs to be determined first in order to calculate D.
𝑊
𝐶 = 𝐾� � ≤ 𝐾 [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
𝐿

Provided that: skew ≤ 45°; no skew OK

NL ≤ 6; NL = 4 OK
where
W = edge-to-edge width of the bridge = 54 ft
L = span length of the bridge = 95 ft
NL = number of design lanes = 4 lanes

(1 + μ)𝐼𝑔
K = � [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
𝐽𝑔

where
μ = Poisson's ratio = 0.2 for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.5]
Ig = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast beam, in.4
Jg = St. Venant's torsional inertia = 34,697 in.4

(1 + 0.2)(335,679)
K = � = 3.41
(34,697)

Using the equations above,

54
𝐶 = 3.41 � � = 1.94 ≤ 3.41 OK
95
Since C ≤ 5, use the following equation to calculate D:
D = 11.5 − 𝑁𝐿 + 1.4𝑁𝐿 (1 − 0.2𝐶)2 [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
= 11.5 − 4 + 1.4(4)[1 − 0.2(1.94)]2 = 9.60
DFM = (6/9.60) = 0.625 lanes/beam
• For fatigue limit state:
The LRFD Specifications, Art. C3.4.1, states that for Fatigue Limit State, a single design truck should be used.
However, live load distribution factors given in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 take into consideration the multiple
presence factor, m. LRFD Article 3.6.1.1.2 states that the multiple presence factor, m, for one design lane loaded
is 1.2. Therefore, the distribution factor for one design lane loaded with the multiple presence factor removed,
should be used. The distribution factor for fatigue limit state is: 0.625/1.2 = 0.521 lanes/beam.

9.3.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force

For Type (j) bridge connected only enough to prevent relative vertical displacement at the interface, DFV (Shear
distribution factor) for interior beam is determined using the Lever Rule. Refer to Figures 9.3.4.2.2.2-1 and
9.3.4.2.2.2-2.

9.3 - 7 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force/9.3.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance

Figure 9.3.4.2.2.2-1
Lever Rule for one lane loaded

For one lane loaded:

R = reaction at support = 0.5
DFV = (multiple presence factor)(R) = (1.2)(0.5) = 0.6

Figure 9.3.4.2.2.2-2
Lever rule for two lanes loaded
For two lanes loaded:

∑M at support = R(6) − 0.5(6) − 0.5(2) = 0

Therefore, R = 0.667
DFV = (multiple presence factor)(R) = (1.0)(0.667) = 0.667
Thus the case of two lanes loaded controls,
DFV = 0.667 lanes/beam

9.3.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance

IM = 15% for fatigue limit state
IM = 33% for all other limit states
where IM = dynamic load allowance, applied to design truck load only [LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]

9.3 - 8 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.3.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Land Load; VLL and MLL

9.3.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments

9.3.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT

• For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
Shear force and bending moment envelopes on a per-lane-basis are calculated at tenth-points of the span using
the equations given in Chapter 8 of this manual. However, this is generally done by means of commercially
available computer software that has the ability to deal with moving loads. Therefore, truck load shear force and
bending moments per beam are:
VLT = (shear force per lane) (DFV) (1 + IM)
= (shear force per lane) (0.667) (1 + 0.33)
= (shear force per lane) (0.887) kips
MLT = (bending moment per lane) (DFM) (1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane) (0.625) (1 + 0.33)
= (bending moment per lane) (0.831) ft-kips
Values for VLT and MLT at different points are given in Table 9.3.4-2.
• For fatigue limit state:
Article 3.6.1.4.1 in the LRFD Specifications states that fatigue load is a single design truck which has the same axle
weight used in all other limit states but with a constant spacing of 30.0 ft between the 32.0-kip axles. Bending
moment envelope on a per-lane-basis is calculated using the equation given in Chapter 8 of this manual.
Therefore, bending moment of the fatigue truck load is:
Mf = (bending moment per lane) (DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane) (0.521 ) (1 + 0.15)
= (bending moment per lane) (0.599) ft-kips
Values of Mf at different points are given in Table 9.3.4-2.

9.3.4.2.4.2 Due To Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL

To obtain the maximum shear force at a section located at a distance (x) from the left support under a uniformly
distributed load of 0.64 kips/ft, load the member to the right of the section under consideration as shown in
Figure 9.3.4.2.4.2-1. Therefore, the maximum shear force per lane is:
0.32(𝐿 − 𝑥)2
𝑉𝑥 = for 𝑥 ≤ 0.5𝐿 (Eq. 9.3.4.2.4.2-1)
𝐿
where Vx is in kips/lane and L and x are in ft
Figure 9.3.4.2.4.2-1
Maximum Shear Force due to Design Lane Load

9.3 - 9 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Land Load; VLL and MLL/9.3.4.3 Load Combinations

To calculate the maximum bending moment at any sections, use Eq. (9.3.4.1.2-2).
Lane Load shear force and bending moment per typical interior beam are as follows:
VLL = (lane load shear force)(DFV)
= (lane load shear force)(0.667) kips
For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
MLL = (lane load bending moment)(DFM)
(lane load bending moment)(0.625) ft-kips
Note that dynamic allowance is not applied to the design lane loading.
Values of shear forces and bending moments, VLL and MLL, are given in Table 9.3.4-2.

9.3.4.3 Load Combinations

Total factored load is taken as:

𝑄 = � η𝑖 γ𝑖 𝑄𝑖 [LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]

where
ηi = a load modifier relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance [LRFD Art. 1.3.2]
(Here, ηi is considered to be 1.0 for typical bridges.)
γi = loads factors [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Qi = force effects from specified loads
Investigating different limit states given in LRFD Article 3.4.1, the following limit states are applicable:
Service I: check compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 1.00(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress checks and applies to all conditions
other than Service III.
Service III: check tensile stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 0.80(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress checks that applies only to tension in
prestressed concrete structures to control cracks.
Strength I: check ultimate strength: [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and 2]
Maximum Q = 1.25(DC) + 1.50(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Minimum Q = 0.90(DC) + 0.65(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
This load combination is the general load combination for strength limit state design.
Note: For simple-span bridges, the maximum load factors produce maximum effects. However, use minimum load
factors for dead load (DC), and wearing surface (DW) when the dead load and wearing surface stresses are
opposite to those of the live load.
Fatigue I: check stress range in strands: [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Q = 1.50(LL + IM)
This load combination is a special load combination to check the tensile stress range in the strands due to live
load and dynamic allowance.
Note: The LL used in the above equation results only from a single design truck with a 30-ft constant spacing
between 32.0-kip axles with the special dynamic allowance, (IM) for fatigue.

9.3 - 10 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.4.3 Load Combinations/9.3.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Table 9.3.4-1
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads for a Typical Interior Beam
Wearing Surface
Beam Weight Barrier Weight
Weight
Distance Section
Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment
x, ft x/L
Vg Mg Vb Mb Vws Mws
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips
0 0.0 46.1 0.0 3.2 0.0 9.4 0.0
*4.04 0.043 42.2 178.2 2.9 12.3 8.6 36.4
9.5 0.1 36.9 393.9 2.5 27.2 7.5 80.4
19.0 0.2 27.6 700.3 1.9 48.4 5.7 143.0
28.5 0.3 18.4 919.2 1.3 63.5 3.8 187.6
38.0 0.4 9.2 1,050.5 0.6 72.6 1.9 214.4
47.5 0.5 0.0 1,094.3 0.0 75.6 0.0 223.4
*Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.3.11)

Table 9.3.4-2
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads for a Typical Interior Beam
Truck Load with Fatigue Truck
Lane load
Impact with Impact
Distance Section
Shear Moment Shear Moment Moment
x, ft x/L
VLT MLT VLL MLL Mf
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips ft-kips
0 0.0 57.6 0.0 20.3 0.0 0.0
*4.04 0.043 54.9 207.8 18.6 73.5 133.4
9.50 0.1 51.2 455.9 16.4 162.5 290.2
19.0 0.2 44.8 798.0 13.0 288.8 498.5
28.50 0.3 38.4 1,026.5 9.9 379.1 641.1
38.00 0.4 32.1 1,159.7 7.3 433.2 713.2
47.50 0.5 25.7 1,188.6 5.1 451.3 703.4
*Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.3.11)

9.3.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

The required number of strands is usually governed by concrete tensile stresses at the bottom fiber for load
combination Service III at the section of maximum moment and in some cases at Strength Limit State (Strength I).
For estimating the number of strands, only the stresses at midspan are considered.

9.3.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Bottom tensile stresses due to applied dead and live loads using load combination Service III is:
𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + (0.8)(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 =
𝑆𝑏
where
fb = concrete tensile stresses at bottom fiber of the beam, ksi
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight, ft-kips
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
Mws = unfactored bending moment due to wearing surface, ft-kips
MLT = unfactored bending moment due to truck load, ft-kips
MLL = unfactored bending moment due to lane load, ft-kips

9.3 - 11 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan/9.3.5.4 Strand Pattern

Using values of bending moments from Tables 9.3.4-1 and 9.3.4-2, bottom tensile stress at midspan is:
1,094.3 + 75.6 + 223.4 + (0.8)(1,188.6 + 451.3)
𝑓𝑏 = (12) = 3.342 ksi
9,713

9.3.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete

Tensile stress limit at service loads = 0.19�𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Table 5.9.4.2.2-1]
where 𝑓𝑐′ = specified concrete compressive strength for design, ksi
Concrete tensile stress limit = −0.19√7.00 = −0.503 ksi

9.3.5.3 Required Number of Strands

The required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam is the difference between the bottom tensile
stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress limit:
fpb = (3.342 − 0.503) = 2.839 ksi
The location of the strand center of gravity at midspan ranges from 5 to 15% of the beam depth, measured from
the bottom of the beam. A value of 5% is appropriate for newer efficient sections like the bulb-tee beams and 15%
for less efficient AASHTO standard shapes.
Assume the distance between the center of gravity of strands and the bottom fiber of the beam:
ybs = 0.05h = 0.05(53) = 2.65 in., use ybs = 3.00 in.
Therefore, strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = (yb − ybs) = (34.56 − 3.00) = 31.56 in.
If Ppe is the total prestress force after all losses, the stress at the bottom fiber due to prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 (31.56)
𝑓𝑝𝑏 = + or 2.839 = +
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 931 9,713
Solving for Ppe , the required Ppe = 656.7 kips
Final prestress force per strand = (area of strand)(fpi)(1 − final losses)
where fpi = initial stress before transfer, ksi (see Section 9.3.2) = 202.5 ksi
Assuming final loss of 25% of fpi, prestress force per strand after all losses
= (0.217)(202.5)(1 − 0.25) = 33.0 kips
Number of strands required = (656.7/33.0) = 19.9 strands
Try twenty two 0.6-in.-diameter, 270 ksi low-relaxation strands
Total area of prestressing strands, Aps = 22(0.217) = 4.774 in.2
Note: This is a conservative estimate of the number of strands because nontransformed section properties are
used in lieu of transformed section properties. The number of strands can be refined later in the design process as
more accurate section properties and prestress losses are determined.

9.3.5.4 Strand Pattern

The assumed strand pattern for the 22 strands at midspan is shown in Figure 9.3.5.4-1. Each available position is
filled beginning with the bottom row.
The distance between the center of gravity of strands and the bottom concrete fiber of the beam at midspan is:
ybs = [10(2) + 10(4) + 2(6)]/(22) = 3.27 in.
Strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = yb − ybs = 34.56 − 3.27 = 31.29 in. = epg

9.3 - 12 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.5.4 Strand Pattern/9.3.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

Figure 9.3.5.4-1
Assumed Strand Pattern at Midspan

No. of Strands Distance from

bottom (in.)
2 6
10 4
10 2

9.3.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

From the earliest years of prestressed concrete design, the gross section was conservatively used in analysis since
the prestressing forces were smaller and computer programs were not widely used. However, the use of
transformed section, which is obtained from the gross section by adding transformed steel area, yields more
accurate results than the gross section analysis.
For each row of prestressing strands shown in Figure 9.3.5.4-1, the steel area is multiplied by (n – 1) to calculate
the transformed section properties, where n is the modular ratio between prestressing strand and concrete. Since
the modulus of elasticity of concrete is different at transfer and final time, the transformed section properties
should be calculated separately for the two stages. A sample calculation is shown in Table 9.3.5.5-1 below.
At transfer:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 5.339
4,496
At final:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 4.619
5,072
Table 9.3.5.5-1
Properties of Transformed Section at Final Time
Transformed yb Ayb A(ybtf − yb)2 I, I + A(ybtf − yb)2
Area, in.2 in. in.3 in.4 in.4 in.4
Beam 931 34.56 32,175 483 335,679 336,162
Row 1 10.02 2.00 20.04 10,158 10,158
Row 2 10.02 4.00 40.08 8,922 8,922
Row 3 2.00 6.00 12.00 1,550 1,550
∑ 953.0 32,247 356,792
Note: The moment of inertia of strand about its own centroid is neglected.

Noncomposite transformed section at transfer:

Ati = area of transformed section at transfer = 956.5 in.2
Iti = moment of inertia of the transformed section at transfer = 360,017 in.4
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at transfer = 30.46 in.
ybti = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam at transfer
= 33.73 in.
Sbti = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 10,673 in.3
Stti = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 18,683 in.3

9.3 - 13 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties/9.3.6.1 Elastic Shortening

Noncomposite transformed section at final time:

Atf = area of transformed section at final time = 953.0 in.2
Itf = moment of inertia of the transformed section at final time = 356,792 in.4
etf = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at final time = 30.57 in.
ybtf = distance from the centroid of the noncomposite transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam at final time =33.84 in.
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at final time = 10,543 in.3
Sttf = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at final time = 18,622 in.3

9.3.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES

Total prestress loss:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
where
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel after transfer. In
this design example, the refined estimates of time-dependent losses are used.
9.3.6.1 Elastic Shortening
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.3a-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
where
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands = 28,500 ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete at transfer = 4,496 ksi
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons due to prestressing force
at transfer and the self weight of the member at sections of maximum moment.
If the gross (or net) cross-section properties are used, it is necessary to perform numerical iterations. The elastic
loss ΔfpES is usually assumed to be 10% of the initial prestress to calculate fcgp, which is then used in the equation
above to calculate a refined ΔfpES. The process is repeated until the assumed ΔfpES and refined ΔfpES
converge.However, when transformed section properties are used to calculate concrete stress, the effects of
losses and gains due to elastic deformations are implicitly accounted for. Therefore, ΔfpES should not be included
in calculating fcgp.
Force per strand at transfer = (area of strand)(prestress stress at transfer)
= (0.217)(202.5) = 43.94 ksi
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖2
𝑀𝑔 𝑒𝑡𝑖
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖
where
Ppi = total prestressing force before transfer = (22 strands)(43.94) = 966.7 kips
eti = eccentricity of strands at midspan with respect to the transformed section at transfer = 30.46 in.
Mg should be calculated based on the overall beam length of 96 ft. Since the elastic shortening loss is a part of
the total loss, fcgp will be conservatively computed based on Mg using the design span length of 95 ft.
966.7 (966.7)(30.46)2 (1,094.3)(12)(30.46)
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + − = 2.391 ksi
956.5 360,017 360,017

9.3 - 14 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.6.1 Elastic Shortening/9.3.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

Therefore, loss due to elastic shortening:

28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = � � (2.391) = 15.2 ksi
4,496
AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.3 indicates that the loss due to elastic shortening at transfer should be added to the time-
dependent losses to determine total losses. However, this loss at transfer is directly accounted for if transformed
section properties are used in stress analysis.
9.3.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement
AASHTO LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.4 indicates that the time of "deck placement" may be taken as (LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.4)
time of noncomposite deck placement. In this example the term "deck placement" is
interchangeable with topping placement.
The following construction schedule is assumed in calculating the time-dependent losses:
Concrete age at transfer: ti = 1 day
Concrete age at deck placement: td = 90 days
Concrete age at final stage: tf = 20,000 days
The total time-dependent loss between time of transfer and deck placement is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of concrete, creep of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing strands.

9.3.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is calculated by:
ΔfpSR = ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 𝐸𝑝 𝐾𝑖𝑑 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-1]
where
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between transfer and deck placement
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kid = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between transfer and deck
placement
The concrete shrinkage strain εbid is taken as:
εbid = 𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑠 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3.-1]
where
The factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam:
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13 × 3.51 = 0.994
The minimum value of kvs is 1.0, therefore use kvs = 1.0
V/S is the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam.
The humidity factor for shrinkage:
khs = 2.00 − 0.14H = 2.00 − 0.14(70) = 1.020
where H = average annual mean relative humidity (assume 70%)
The factor for the effect of the concrete strength:
5 5
𝑘𝑓 = = = 0.769
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 1 + 5.5
The time development factor at deck placement:
𝑡 89
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = ′ = = 0.695 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − (4)(5.5) + 89
where t is the maturity of concrete(days) = td − ti = 90 −1 = 89 days

9.3 - 15 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.3.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

εbid = (1.000)(1.020)(0.769)(0.695)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000262

1
Kid = 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 (𝑒𝑝𝑔 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-2]
1+ �1 + � �1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )�
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔
where
epg = eccentricity of prestressing force with respect to centroid of girder, in.
Ψ𝑏 �𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 � = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced at transfer
For the time between transfer and final time:
Ψ �𝑡 , 𝑡 � = 1.9kvskhckfktdti [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
-0.118
𝑏 𝑓 𝑖

khc = 1.56 − 0.008H = 1.56 − 0.008(70) = 1.000

𝑘𝑡𝑑 = 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 20,000 − 1
= = 0.998 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ + �𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 � 61 − 4(5.5) + (20,000 − 1)

Ψ𝑏 � 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑖 � = 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(0.769)(0.998)(1.000)-0.118

= 1.458
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = = 0.804
28,500 4.774 931(31.29)2
1+ �1 + � [1 + 0.7(1.458)]
4,496 931 335,679
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between transfer and deck placement is:
ΔfpSR = (0.000262)(28,500)(0.804) = 6.003 ksi

9.3.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of girder concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is determined as:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = 𝑓 Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 )𝐾 [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.2b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖 𝑖𝑑
where
Ψ𝑏 (td, ti) = girder creep coefficient at time of deck placement due to loading introduced at transfer
= 1.9kvskhckfktddti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
= 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(0.769)(0.695)(1)-0.118
= 1.015
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = (2.391)(1.015)(0.804) = 12.369 ksi
4,496

9.3.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck placement is
determined as:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑡
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = � − 0.55� [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2c-1]
𝐾𝐿 𝑓𝑝𝑦
where
fpt = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer, taken not less than 0.55fy
KL = 30 for low-relaxation strands and 7 for other prestressing steel, unless more accurate
manufacturer's data are available

9.3 - 16 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands/9.3.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

(202.5 − 15.2) (202.5 − 15.2)

Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = � − 0.55� = 1.378 ksi
30 243
According to LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.2c, the relaxation loss may also be assumed equal to 1.2 ksi for low-relaxation
strands.

9.3.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time

The total time-dependent loss between time of deck placement and final time is the summation of prestress loss
due to shrinkage of beam concrete, creep of beam concrete, and relaxation of prestressing strands.

9.3.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of deck placement and final time is calculated by:
ΔfpSD = ε𝑏𝑑𝑓 𝐸𝑝 𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-1]
where
εbdf = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between the deck placement and final time
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kdf = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between deck placement and final
time
The total girder concrete shrinkage strain between transfer and final time is taken as:
εbif = kvskhskfktdf(0.48 × 10-3) [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
= (1.000)(1.020)(0.769)(0.998)(0.48 × 10-3)
= 0.000376
The girder concrete shrinkage strain between deck placement and final time is:
εbdf = εbif − εbid = 0.000376 − 0.000262 = 0.000114
The beam concrete transformed section coefficient between deck placement and final time is:
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐 (𝑒𝑝𝑐 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-2]
1+ �1 + � �1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )�
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐
As there is no composite deck in this example, the composite section properties are taken as:
Ac = Ag = area of the precast beam section = 931 in.2
epc = epg = eccentricity of strands with respect to centroid of beam = 31.29 in.
Ic = Ig = moment of inertia of the beam = 335,679 in.4
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = = 0.804
28,500 4.774 (931)(31.29)2
1+ �1 + � [1 + 0.7(1.458)]
4,496 931 335,679
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is:
ΔfpSD = (0.000114)(28,500)(0.804) = 2.612 ksi

9.3.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of girder concrete between time of deck placement and final time is determined
as:
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓 �Ψ �𝑡 , 𝑡 � − Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )�𝐾𝑑𝑓 + Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑝𝑔 𝑏 𝑓 𝑖 𝐸𝑐

9.3 - 17 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete/9.3.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer

where
Ψ𝑏 (tf , td) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading at deck placement

= 1.9kvskhckfktdftd-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

𝑡 (20,000 − 90)
ktdf = 61 − 4𝑓 ′ + 𝑡 = 61 − 4(5.5) + (20,000 − 90) = 0.998
𝑐𝑖

Ψ𝑏 (tf , td) = 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(0.769)(0.998)(90)-0.118 = 0.857

Δfcd = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to long term losses between
transfer and deck placement, combined with deck weight and superimposed loads, ksi
2
= 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 𝑒𝑝𝑔 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑓
−�Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 � �1 + �−� �
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑡𝑓
= 4.774 (931)(31.29)2 (75.6 + 223.4)(12)(30.57)
−(6.003 + 12.369 + 1.378) �1 + �−� �
931 335,679 356,792
= −0.684 ksi

The gross section properties are used in the equation to calculate Δfpcd for the long-term losses since the
transformed section effect has already been included in the factor Kid when calculating the losses between initial
time and deck placement.
28,500 28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 2.391[1.458 − 1.015](0.804) + (−0.684)(0.857)(0.804) = 2.750 ksi
4,496 5,072

9.3.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of deck placement and final time is
taken as:
ΔfpR2 = ΔfpR1 = 1.378 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3c-1]

9.3.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

The prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete is taken as zero for this bridge because there is no composite
deck.
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = 0.0 ksi

9.3.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss

The total time-dependent loss, ΔfpLT, is determined as:
ΔfpLT = (ΔfpSR + ΔfpCR + ΔfpR1) + (ΔfpSD + ΔfpCD + ΔfpR2 + ΔfpSS) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.1-1]
= (6.003 + 12.369 + 1.378) + (2.612 + 2.750 + 1.378 + 0.0)
= 26.5 ksi

9.3.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer

AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.2.3a and C5.9.5.3 indicate that the losses or gains due to elastic deformation must be taken
equal to zero if transformed section properties are used in stress analysis. However, the losses or gains due to
elastic deformation must be included in determining the total prestress losses and the effective stress in the
prestressing strands.
Δfpi = ΔfpES = 15.2 ksi
Effective stress in tendons immediately after transfer, fpt = fpi − Δfpi = (202.5 − 15.2) = 187.3 ksi

9.3 - 18 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer/9.3.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

Force per strand = (fpt)(area of strand) = (187.3)(0.217) = 40.64 kips

Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer, Ppt = 40.64(22) = 894.1 kips
Initial loss, % = (Total losses at transfer)/(fpi) = 15.2/202.5 = 7.5%
When determining the concrete stresses using transformed section properties, the strand force is that before
transfer:
Force per strand = (202.5)(0.217) = 43.94 kips
The total prestressing force before transfer, Ppi = 43.94(22) = 967 kips
9.3.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads
Total loss due to elastic shortening at transfer and long-term losses is:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT = 15.2 + 26.5 = 41.7 ksi
The elastic gain due to deck weight, superimposed dead load, and live load (Service III) is:
(𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑝 (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )𝑒𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑝
� � + 0.8 � �
𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑐
(75.6 + 223.4)(12)(30.57) 28,500 (1,188.6 + 451.3)(12)(30.57) 28,500
=� � + 0.8 � �
356,792 5,072 356,792 5,072
= 1.7 + 7.6 = 9.3 ksi
The effective stress in tendons after all losses and gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 9.3 = 202.5 − 41.7 + 9.3 = 170.1 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
fpe ≤ 0.8 fpy = 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 170.1 ksi OK
The effective stress in strands after all losses and permanent gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 1.7= 202.5 – 41.7+ 1.7 = 162.5 ksi
Force per strand without live load gains = (fpe)(area of strand) = (162.5)(0.217) = 35.26 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after all losses = 35.26(22) = 775.7 kips
Final loss percentage = (total losses and gains)/( fpi) = (41.7−1.7)/(202.5) = 19.8 %
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, all the elastic losses and gains are
implicitly accounted for:
Force per strand with only total time-dependent losses = (fpi − ΔfpLT)(area of strand) = (202.5 − 26.5)(0.217) =
38.19 kips
Total prestressing force, Ppe = (38.19)(22) = 840.2 kips

9.3.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER

Because the transformed section is used, the total prestressing force before and after transfer, Ppi = 967 kips
9.3.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art.5.9.4]
Compression:
• 0.6𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 0.6(5.5) = +3.300 ksi
where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = concrete strength at transfer = 5.500 ksi
Tension:
• without bonded auxiliary reinforcement
−0.0948 �𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≤ 0.200 ksi = −0.0948 √5.500 = −0.222 ksi
Therefore, −0.200 ksi (Controls)

9.3 - 19 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete/9.3.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

• with bonded auxiliary reinforcement that is sufficient to resist 120% of the tension force in the cracked
concrete:
−0.24 �𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = −0.24 √5.500 = −0.563 ksi

9.3.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Stresses at this location need only be checked at transfer since this stage almost always governs. Also, losses with
time will reduce the concrete stresses making them less critical.
Transfer length = 60(strand diameter) = 60(0.6) = 36 in. = 3.0 ft [LRFD Art. 5.11.4]
Due to camber of the beam at transfer, the beam self weight acts on the overall beam length, 96 ft. Therefore, the
values for bending moment given in Table 9.3.4-1 cannot be used because they are based on the design span
length of 95 ft. Using statics, bending moment at transfer length due to beam self weight is:
0.5wgx(L − x) = (0.5)( 0.970)(3.0)(96.0 – 3.0) = 135.3 ft-kips
Compute stress in the top of the beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 967 (967)(30.46) (135.3)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − + = −0.479 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 956.5 18,683 18,683
Tensile stress limit for concrete with bonded reinforcement: −0.563 ksi OK
Compute stress in the bottom of the beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 967 (967)(30.46) (135.3)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + − = +3.619 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 956.5 10,673 10,673
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.300 ksi NG
Since the stress at the bottom exceeds the stress limit, harp strands to satisfy the specified limits. Harp six strands
at the 0.4L points, as shown in Figures 9.3.7.2-1 and 9.3.7.2-2.

Figure 9.3.7.2-1
Strand Pattern

No. of Distance from bottom

Strands in.
2 6
10 4
10 2

Midspan View

9.3 - 20 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Figure 9.3.7.2-1 (cont.)

Strand Pattern

No. of Distance from bottom

Strands in.
2 51
2 49
2 47
8 4
8 2

End View

Figure 9.3.7.2-2
Longitudinal Strand Profile

Compute the center of gravity of the prestressing strands at the transfer length section using the harped pattern.
The distance between the center of gravity of the six harped strands at the end of the beam and the top fiber of the
precast beam is:
2(2) + 2(4) + 2(6)
= 4.0 in.
6
The distance between the center of gravity of the six harped strands at the harp point and the bottom fiber of the
beam is:
2(2) + 2(4) + 2(6)
= 4.0 in.
6
The distance between the center of gravity of the six harped strands and the top fiber of the beam at the transfer
length section:
(53 − 4 − 4)in.
4 in. + (3 ft) = 7.46 in.
39 ft
The distance between the center of gravity of the bottom straight 16 strands and the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam is:
8(2) + 8(4)
= 3.0 in.
16

9.3 - 21 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.3.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

Therefore, the distance between the center of gravity of the total number of strands measured to the bottom of
the precast beam at transfer length:
16(3) + 6(53 − 7.46)
= 14.60 in.
22
Eccentricity of the strand group at transfer length, e, is: 34.05 − 14.60 = 19.45 in.
The center of gravity of all prestressing strands with respect to the extreme bottom fiber at the end of the beam,
ybs, is:
16(3) + 6(53 − 4)
= 15.55 in.
22
Recompute top and bottom stresses at the transfer length section with harped strands. Note that the transformed
section properties here are different than those at midspan and have been re-calculated.
Concrete stress in top of the beam:
967 (967)(19.45) (135.3)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = +0.095 ksi
956.5 18,754 18,754
Compressive stress limit: +3.300 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
967 (967)(19.45) (135.3)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = +2.657 ksi
956.5 10,437 10,437
Compressive stress limit: +3.300 ksi OK
9.3.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points
The strand eccentricity at the harp points is the same as at midspan, eti = 30.46 in.
Bending moment at the harp points (0.4L) due to the self weight of the beam is:
(0.5)(0.970)(39)(96−39) = 1078.2 ft-kips
Therefore, the top and bottom stresses are:
Concrete stress in top of beam:
967 (967)(30.46) (1,078.2)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = +0.127 ksi
956.5 18,683 18,683
Compressive stress limit is: +3.300 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
967 (967)(30.46) (1,078.2)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = +2.558 ksi
956.5 10,673 10,673
Compressive stress limit: +3.300 ksi OK

9.3.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

Bending moment at midspan due to the beam self weight is:
Mg = 0.5(0.970)(48)(96-48) = 1,117.4 ft-kips
967 (967)(30.46) (1,117.4)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = +0.152 ksi
956.5 18,683 18,683
Compressive stress limit: +3.300 ksi OK
967 (967)(30.46) (1,117.4)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = +2.514 ksi
956.5 10,673 10,673
Compressive stress limit: +3.300 ksi OK

9.3 - 22 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.7.5 Hold-Down Forces/9.3.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam

9.3.7.5 Hold-Down Forces

Assume that the stress in the strand at the time of prestressing, before seating losses, is:
0.8 fpu = 0.8(270) = 216 ksi
Thus, the prestress force per strand before seating losses is: 0.217 (216) = 46.9 kips
From Figure 9.3.7.2-2, the harp angle,
45
ψ = tan−1 � � = 5.49°
39(12)
Therefore, hold-down force/strand = 1.05(force per strand)(sin ψ)
= 1.05(46.9)sin 5.49° = 4.71 kips/strand
Note the factor 1.05 is applied to account for friction.
Total hold-down force = 6 strands(4.71) = 28.3 kips
The hold-down force and the harp angle should be checked against maximum limits for local practices. Refer to
Chapter 3, Fabrication and Construction and Chapter 8, Design Theory and Procedures for additional details.

9.3.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

Top Fiber Bottom Fiber
Stresses Stresses
ft , ksi fb, ksi
At transfer length section +0.095 +2.657
At harp points +0.127 +2.558
At midspan +0.152 +2.514

9.3.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS

Using transformed section properties and refined losses, Ppe = 840.2 kips

9.3.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]

Compression:
Due to permanent loads, (i.e. beam self weight, weight of wearing surface, and weight of barriers), for load
combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.45𝑓𝑐′ = (0.45)(7.000) = +3.150 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads (i.e. all dead loads and live loads), for load combination Service I:
for precast beam: 0.6𝑓𝑐′ = 0.6(7.000) = +4.200 ksi
Tension:
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III: −0.19 �𝑓𝑐′

for precast beam: −0.19 √7.000 = −0.503 ksi

9.3.8.2 Stresses at Midspan

9.3.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam

To check top compressive stresses, two cases are considered:

9.3 - 23 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam/9.3.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:

Using bending moment values given in Table 9.3.4-1, compute the top fiber stresses:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓
840.2 (840.2)(30.57) (1,094.3 + 223.4 + 75.6))(12)
= − +
953.0 18,622 18,622
= 0.882 − 1.379 + 0.898 = +0.401 ksi
Compressive stress limit: +3.150 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = +0. .401 +
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓
(1,188.6 + 451.3)(12)
= +0.401 + = +1.458 ksi
18,622
Compressive stress limit: +4.200 ksi OK
9.3.8.2.2 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 �𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 � + 0.8(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
840.2 (840.2)(30.57) [(1,094.3 + 223.4 + 75.6) + 0.8(1,188.6 + 451.3)](12)
= + −
953.0 10,543 10,543
= 0.882 + 2.436 − 3.079 = +0.239 ksi
Tensile stress limit: −0.503 ksi
The stress is in compression. OK
9.3.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit
LRFD Article 5.5.3.1 states that in fully prestressed components other than segmentally constructed bridges, the
compressive stress due to Fatigue I load combination and one half the sum of effective prestress and permanent
loads shall not exceed 0.40𝑓𝑐′ , after losses.
From Table 9.3.4-2, the unfactored fatigue bending moment at midspan, Mf, is 703.4 ft-kips. Therefore, stress at
the top fiber of the beam due to fatigue load combination I is:
1.50(𝑀𝑓 ) 1.50 (703.4)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 = = = +0.680 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 18,622
At midspan, the top compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 ) (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − + +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓
840.2 (840.2)(30.57) (1,094.3)(12) (223.4 + 75.6)(12)
= − + +
953 18,622 18,622 18,622
= 0.882 − ��1.379 + �0.705 + 0.193 = ��0.401 ksi
Therefore:
𝑓𝑡𝑔 0.401
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 + = 0.680 + = 0.881 < 0.40( 𝑓𝑐′ ) = 0.40(7.00) = 2.8 ksi OK
2 2
This condition should be satisfied at all locations along the beam.

9.3 - 24 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads/9.3.9 Strength Limit State

9.3.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

Top of Beam, ksi
Service I Bottom of Beam, ksi
Permanent Service III
Total Loads
Loads
At midspan +0.401 +1.458 +0.239

9.3.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Using values of unfactored bending moment given in Tables 9.3.4-1 and 9.3.4-2, the ultimate bending moment at
midspan is:
Mu = 1.25(1,094.3 + 75.6) + 1.5(223.4) + 1.75(1,188.6 + 451.3) = 4,667.3 ft-kips
Average stress in prestressing steel when fpe ≥ 0.5fpu:
𝑐
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 �1 − 𝑘 � [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1]
𝑑𝑝
where
fps = average stress in prestressing strand, ksi
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing strand = 270.0 ksi
𝑓𝑝𝑦
k = 2 �1.04 − � [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-2]
𝑓𝑝𝑢
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strands [LRFD Table C5.7.3.1.1-1]
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis, in.
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing tendons
= h − ybs = 53.00 − 3.27 = 49.73 in.
To compute c, assume rectangular section behavior and check if the depth of [LRFD C5.7.3.2.2]
the equivalent compression stress block, a, is less than or equal to ts:
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′
𝑐=
𝑓𝑝𝑢 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-4]
0.85𝑓𝑐′ β1 𝑏 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝
where
Aps = area of prestressing strand = (22)(0.217) = 4.774 in.2
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement = 0 in.2
fy = specified yield strength of tension reinforcement = 60.0 ksi
𝐴′𝑠 = area of compression reinforcement = 0 in.2
𝑓𝑦′ = specified yield strength of compression reinforcement, ksi
𝑓𝑐′ = compressive strength of concrete = 7.0 ksi
β1 = stress factor of compression block [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.2]
= 0.85 for 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 4.0 ksi
= 0.85 − 0.05(𝑓𝑐′ − 4.0) for 𝑓𝑐′ > 4.0 ksi
= 0.85 − 0.05(7.0 − 4.0) = 0.70
b = effective width of compression flange = 72 in.

9.3 - 25 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.9 Strength Limit State/9.3.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement

4.774(270.0) + 0 − 0
𝑐= = 4.197 in.
270.0
0.85(7.0)(0.7)(72) + 0.28(4.774)
49.73
a = depth of the equivalent stress block = β1c = (0.7)(4.197) = 2.94 in. < 𝑡𝑠 = 6.0 in. OK
Therefore, the rectangular section behavior is valid.
The average stress in prestressing strand is:
4.197
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 270.0 �1 − 0.28 � = 263.6 ksi [LRFD Art.5.7.3.2.3]
49.73
Nominal flexural resistance:
𝑎
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 �𝑑𝑝 − � [LRFD Eq.5.7.3.2.2-1]
2
The above equation is a simplified form of LRFD Equation 5.7.3.2.2-1 because no compression reinforcement or
nonprestressed reinforcement is considered and the section behaves as a rectangular section.
2.94
𝑀𝑛 = (4.774)(263.6) �49.73 − ��12 = 5,061.0 ft- kips
2
Factored flexural resistance:
Mr = ɸMn [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where
ɸ = resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
= 1.00, for tension controlled prestressed concrete sections
Mr = 5,061.0 ft-kips > Mu = 4,667.3 ft-kips OK

9.3.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT

9.3.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
The check of maximum reinforcement limits in LRFD Article 5.7.3.3.1 was removed from the LRFD Specifications
in 2005.
9.3.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]
At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement must be adequate to
developed a factored flexural resistance, Mr, equal to the lesser of:
• 1.2 times the cracking strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and
• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan:
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 �𝑓𝑟 + 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 � [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.2-1]
The above equation is a simplified form of LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.2-1 because a composite section does not exist.
Therefore, the composite section modulus and noncomposite section modulus are the same.
where
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= 0.37�𝑓𝑐′ = 0.37√7.000 = 0.979 ksi

fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied
loads

9.3 - 26 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.3.11.1 Critical Section

𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 840.2 (840.2)(30.57)

= + = + = 3.318 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 953.0 10,543
10,543
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = (0.979 + 3.318) = 3,775 ft- kips
12
1.2 Mcr =1.2(3,775) = 4,530 ft-kips
At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is: Illustrated based on 2011
Mu = 4,667.3 ft-kips (as calculated in Section 9.3.9) LRFD Specifications.

Thus, 1.33Mu = 1.33(4,667.3) = 6,208 ft-kips Editor’s Note: 2012 LRFD

Specifications changes will
Since 1.2Mcr < 1.33Mu, the 1.2Mcr requirement controls. revise minimum
Mr = 5,061.0 ft-kips > 1.2Mcr = 4,530 ft-kips OK reinforcement.

Note: The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at every section.

9.3.11 SHEAR DESIGN

The area and spacing of shear reinforcement must be determined at regular intervals along the entire length of
the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design procedures are demonstrated below by determining
these values at the critical section near the supports.
Transverse shear reinforcement is required when:
Vu > 0.5 ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
where
Vu = total factored shear force, kips
Vc = nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the concrete, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
ɸ = resistance factor = 0.9 for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]

9.3.11.1 Critical Section [LRFD Art.5.8.3.2]

The critical section near the supports is taken as the effective shear depth, dv, from the internal face of the
support.
dv = distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (de − a/2), but [LRFD Art.5.8.2.7]
not less than (0.9de) or (0.72h)
where
de = the corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the [LRFD Art.5.8.2.9]
centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement
a = depth of compression block = 2.94 in. at midspan (assumed adequate)
h = overall depth of the section = 53.00 in.
Since some of the strands are harped, the effective depth, de, varies from point-to-point. However, de must be
calculated at the critical section in shear which is not yet determined; therefore, for the first iteration, de, is
calculated based on the center of gravity of the straight strand group at the end of the beam, ybs.
de = h − ybs = 53.00 − 3.00 = 50.00 in.
dv = 50.00 − (2.94/2) = 48.53 in.
≥ 0.9de = 0.9(50.00) = 45.00 in.
≥ 0.72h = 0.72(53) = 38.16 in. OK
Therefore, dv = 48.53 in.

9.3 - 27 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.11.1 Critical Section/9.3.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it was conservatively assumed to be zero. Therefore, the
critical section in shear is located at a distance of:
48.53 in. = 4.04 ft from centerline of support
(x/L) = 4.04/95 = 0.043L
The effective depth, de, and the position of the critical section in shear may be refined based on the position of the
critical section calculated above. However, the difference is small and on the conservative side. Therefore, no
more refinement is performed.

9.3.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance

The contribution of the concrete to the nominal shear resistance is:
𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316β�𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-3]

where β = a factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension (a value indicating
concrete contribution).
Several quantities must be determined before this expression can be evaluated.

9.3.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

Calculate the strain at the centroid of the tension reinforcement, εs:
|𝑀𝑢 |
+ 0.5𝑁𝑢 + �(𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 � − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑜
𝑑 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-4]
ε𝑠 = 𝑣
(𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 )
where
Nu = applied factored normal force at the specified section, 0.043L = 0 kips
Vu = applied factored shear force at the specified section, 0.043L
= 1.25(42.2 + 2.9) + 1.5(8.6) + 1.75(54.9 + 18.6) = 197.9 kips
Vp = component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the applied shear
= (Force per strand without live load gains)(Number of harped strands)(sin Ψ)
= (35.26)(6)sin 5.49° = 20.2 kips is a conservative resistance.
Mu = applied factored bending moment at the specified section, 0.043L
= 1.25(178.2 + 12.3) + 1.5(36.4) + 1.75(207.8 + 73.5)
= 785.0 ft-kips
Mu should not be taken less than (Vu − Vp) dv.
(Vu − Vp)dv = (197.9 − 20.2)(48.53)/12 = 718.6 ft-kips
Since 785.0 ft-kips > 718.6 ft-kips, use Mu = 785.0 ft-kips.
Aps = area of prestressing strands on the flexural tension side of the member = (0.217)(16) = 3.472 in.2
fpo = a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by the locked-in
difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the surrounding concrete (ksi). For pre-
tensioned members, LRFD Article 5.8.3.4.2 indicates that fpo can be taken as 0.7fpu. (Note: use this
for both pretensioned and post-tensioned systems made with stress relieved and low relaxation
strands).
= 0.7(270) = 189.0 ksi
|785.0(12)|
+ 0 + |(197.9 − 20.2| − (3.472)(189.0)
ε𝑠 = 48.53 = −2.87 × 10−3
(0 + (28,500)(3.472))
εs is less than zero. Use εs =0.

9.3 - 28 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.11.2.2 Values of β and θ/9.3.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement

9.3.11.2.2 Values of β and θ

Assume the section contains at least the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement:
4.8 4.8
β= = = 4.8 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-1]
(1 + 750ε𝑠 ) (1 + 0)
Angle of diagonal compressive stresses is:
θ = 29+3,500(εs) = 29+ 3,500(0) = 29° [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.4.2-3]

9.3.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution

The nominal shear resisted by the concrete is:
𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316 β�𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-3]

where bv = effective web width = 6 in.

𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316 (4.8)√7.000(6)(48.53) = 116.9 kips

9.3.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance

9.3.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement

Check if Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) = 0.5(0.9)(116.9 + 20.2) = 61.7 kips < 197.9 kips
Therefore, transverse shear reinforcement must be provided.

9.3.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement

Vu/ɸ ≤ Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-1]
where
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement
= (Vu/ɸ) − Vc − Vp = (197.9/0.9) − 116.9 − 20.2 = 82.8 kips
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦ℎ 𝑑𝑣 (cot θ + cot α)(sin α)
Vs = [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4]
𝑠
where
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance, s , in.2
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis
= 90° for vertical stirrups
s = spacing of stirrups, in.
Therefore, area of shear reinforcement within a distance, s, is:
Av = (sVs)/(fyhdv cot θ)
= [(s)(82.8)]/[(60(48.53)cot 29°] = 0.016(s) in.2
If s = 12 in., required Av = 0.19 in.2/ft

9.3.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement

Check maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement. [LRFD Art 5.8.2.7]
Check if vu < 0.125𝑓𝑐′

9.3 - 29 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement/9.3.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement

�𝑉𝑢 − ɸ𝑉𝑝 � |(197.9) − (0.9)(20.2)|

𝑣𝑢 = = = 0.686 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.9-1]
ɸ𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 (0.9)(6)(48.53)

0.125𝑓𝑐′ = (0.125)(7) = 0.875 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.7-1]

Since vu < 0.125 f'c

then, s ≤ 24 in. (Controls)
s ≤ 0.8dv = 0.8(48.53) = 38.8 in.
Therefore, maximum s = 24 in. > s provided OK
Use double legs of W20 or D20 welded wire reinforcement at 12 in., centers
Av provided = 0.40 in.2/ft. > 0.19 in.2/ft
0.4(60)48.53 (cot 29°)
𝑉𝑠 = = 175.1 kips
12

9.3.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5-1]

The area of transverse reinforcement should not be less than:
𝑏𝑣 𝑠 (6)(12)
0.0316�𝑓𝑐′ = 0.0316√7.000 = 0.10 in.2 ⁄ft < 𝐴𝑣 provided OK
𝑓𝑦ℎ 60.0

9.3.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

In order to ensure that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush prior to yielding of the transverse
reinforcement, the LRFD Specifications gives an upper limit of Vn as follows:
Vn = 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with Eq. 5.8.3.3-1, it can be concluded that
Vc + Vs must not be greater than 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv
116.9 + 175.1 = 292.0 kips ≤ 0.25(7)(6)(48.53) = 509.6 kips OK
Using the above procedures, the transverse reinforcement can be determined at increments along the entire
length of the beam.

9.3.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER

Because there is no cast-in-place composite deck, calculations for interface shear transfer are not required.

9.3.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT

Longitudinal reinforcement should be proportioned so that at each section the following equation is satisfied:
𝑀𝑢 𝑁𝑢 𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ + 0.5 + �� − 𝑉𝑝 � − 0.5𝑉𝑠 � cot θ [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.5-1]
𝑑𝑣 ɸ𝑓 ɸ𝑐 ɸ𝑣

where
Aps = area of prestressing strand at the tension side of the section, in.2
fps = average stress in prestressing strand at the time for which the nominal resistance is required, ksi
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.2
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars, ksi
Mu = factored moment at the section corresponding to the factored shear force, ft-kips
dv = effective shear depth, in.

9.3 - 30 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement/9.3.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing

ɸ = resistance factor as appropriate for moment, shear, and axial resistance.

Therefore, different ɸ factors will be used for the terms in LRFD Equation [LRFD Art.5.5.4.2]
(5.8.3.5-1), depending on the type of action being considered.
Nu = applied factored axial force, kips
Vu = factored shear force at section, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement, kips
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses

9.3.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing [LRFD Art.5.8.3.5]

For simple end supports, the longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member at inside face
of bearing should satisfy:
𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ � − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 � cot θ [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.5-2]
ɸ
Mu = 0 ft-kips
Nu = 0 kips
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is assumed to be zero. This assumption is conservative
for these calculations. Therefore, the failure crack assumed for this analysis radiates from the centerline of the
bearing, 6 in. from the end of the beam.
From Tables 9.3.4-1 and 9.3.4-2, using load combination Strength I, the factored shear force at this section is:
Vu = 1.25(46.1 + 3.2) + 1.5(9.4) + 1.75(57.6 + 20.3) = 212.1 kips
𝑉𝑢 212.1
� − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 � cot θ = � − 0.5(175.1) − 20.2� cot 29° = 230.8 kips
ɸ 0.9
As shown in Figure 9.3.13.1-1, the assumed crack plane crosses the centroid of the 16 straight strands at a
distance of (6 + 3.0 cot 29° = 11.41 in.) from the end of the beam. Since the transfer length is 36 in. from the end
of the beam (60 times the strand diameter), the available prestress from the 16 straight strands is a fraction of the
effective prestress, fpe, in these strands. The six harped strands do not contribute to the tensile capacity since they
are not on the flexural tension side of the member.
Therefore, the available prestress force is:
11.41
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 = (16)(0.217) �(202.5 − 41.7) � + 0 = 176.9 + 0
36
= 176.9 kips < 230.8 kips NG
The strands are not adequate to resist the longitudinal force. Therefore, provide additional nonprestressed
reinforcement to carry the difference.
Force to be resisted by additional reinforcement = 230.8 – 176.9 = 53.9 kips
Additional reinforcement required = (53.9 kips)/(60 ksi) = 0.90 in.2
Use three No. 5 bars. The area of steel provided = (3)(0.31) = 0.93 in.2
Note: An alternative approach for the calculation of available prestressing force excluding the gains from deck
shrinkage is illustrated in Section 9.6.13.1.

9.3 - 31 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing/9.3.15 Deflection and Camber

Figure 9.3.13.1-1
Assumed Failure Crack

c.g. of the 16 bonded bottom strands

9.3.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE [LRFD Art. 5.10.10]

9.3.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement

Design of the anchorage zone reinforcement is computed using the force in the strands just prior to transfer:
Force in the strands before transfer = Ppi = 22(0.217)(202.5) = 966.7 kips
The bursting resistance, Pr, should not be less than 4.0% of Ppi. [LRFD Arts 5.10.10.1]
Pr = fsAs ≥ 0.04Ppi = 0.04(966.7) = 38.7 kips
where
fs = allowable stress in steel, but taken not greater than 20 ksi
As = total area of vertical reinforcement located within a distance h/4 from the end of the beam, in.2
Solving for the required area of steel, As = 38.7/20 = 1.94 in.2
At least 1.94 in.2 of vertical transverse reinforcement should be provided within a distance of (h/4 = 53/4 = 13.3
in.) from the end of the beam.
Use double leg bars of W18 or D18 welded wire reinforcement at 2 in. spacing, starting at 2 in. from the
end of the beam.
The provided As = 6(2)(0.18) = 2.16 in.2 > 1.94 in.2 OK
9.3.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.10.10.2]
For a distance of 1.5h = 1.5(53) = 79.5 in., from the end of the beam, reinforcement is placed to confine the
prestressing steel in the bottom flange. The reinforcement may not be less than No. 3 deformed bars with spacing
not exceeding 6 in. The reinforcement should be of a shape that will confine (enclose) the strands.

9.3.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.6.2]

Deflections are calculated using the modulus of elasticity of concrete calculated in Section 9.4.3.1, and the gross
section properties of the noncomposite precast beam.

9.3 - 32 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer/9.3.15.3 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface Weights

9.3.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer

Force per strand at transfer = 40.6 kips
𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑐 𝐿2 𝑒 ′ 𝑎2
Δ𝑝 = � − �
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔 8 6
where
Δp = camber due to prestressing force at transfer, in.
Ppt = total prestressing force after transfer = 22(40.6) = 893.2 kips
Eci = modulus of elasticity at transfer = 4,496 ksi
Ig = gross moment of inertia of the precast beam = 335,679 in.4
ec = eccentricity of prestressing strand at midspan = 31.29 in.
L = overall beam length = 96.0 ft
e’ = difference between eccentricity of prestressing strand at midspan and at end of the beam
= ec − ee = 31.29 – (yb − ybs) = 31.29 − (34.56 − 15.55) = 12.28 in.
a = distance from end of the beam to the harp point = 39 ft
893.2 (31.29)(96 × 12)2 (12.28)(39 × 12)2
Δ𝑝 = � − � = 2.81 in. ↑
(4,496)(335,679) 8 6

9.3.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight

5𝑤𝑔 𝐿4
Δ𝑔 =
384𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δg = deflection due to beam self weight, in.
wg = beam self weight = 0.970 kips/ft
L = beam length = 96.0 ft at transfer = 95.0 ft at erection
Eci = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at transfer = 4,496 ksi
Ig = gross moment of inertia of the precast beam = 335,679 in.4
Deflection due to beam self weight after transfer:
0.970
5� � (96 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 1.23 in. ↓
384(4,496)(335,679)
Deflection due to beam self weight at erection:
0.970
5� � (95 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 1.18 in. ↓
384(4,496)(335,679)
9.3.15.3 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface Weights
5(𝑤𝑏 + 𝑤𝑤𝑠 )𝐿4
Δ𝑏+𝑤𝑠 =
384𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δb+ws = deflection due to barrier and wearing surface, in.
wb = barrier weight = 0.067 kips/ft
wws = wearing surface weight = 0.198 kips/ft

9.3 - 33 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.15.3 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface Weights/9.3.15.5 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

L = design span = 95.0 ft

Ec = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at service loads = 5,072 ksi
Ig = gross moment of inertia = 335,679 in.4

0.067 + 0.198
5� � (95 × 12)4
Δ𝑏+𝑤𝑠 = 12 = 0.29 in. ↓
384(5,072)(335,679)

9.3.15.4 Deflection and Camber Summary

After transfer, (Δp + Δg) = 2.81 − 1.23 = 1.58 in. 
Total deflection at erection, using PCI multipliers (see PCI Design Handbook)
= 1.8(2.81) − 1.85(1.18) = 2.88 in. 
Long-Term Deflection:
LRFD Article 5.7.3.6.2 states that the long-time deflection may be taken as the instantaneous deflection multiplied
by a factor of 4.0, if the instantaneous deflection is based on the gross moment of inertia. However, a factor of 4.0
is not appropriate for this type of precast construction. Therefore, it is recommended that the designer follow the
guidelines of the owner agency for whom the bridge is being designed, or undertake a more rigorous, time-
dependent analysis.

9.3.15.5 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

Live load deflection limit (optional) = Span⁄800 [LRFD Art.2.5.2.6.2]
12
= �95 × � = 1.43 in.
800
If the owner invokes the optional live load deflection criteria specified in LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2, the deflection is the
greater of:
• that resulting from the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, or
• that resulting from 25% of the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, taken together with the design lane load, ΔLL.
Note: LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2 states that the dynamic load allowance be included in the calculation of live load
deflection.
The LRFD Specifications states that all beams should be assumed to deflect equally under [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
the applied live load and impact.
Therefore, the distribution factor for deflection, DFD, is calculated as follows:
DFD = (number of lanes/number of beams) [LRFD Art. C2.5.2.6.2]
= 4/9 = 0.444 lanes/beam
However, it is more conservative to use the distribution factor for moment, DFM.
Deflection due to lane load
Design lane load, w = 0.64 (DFM) = 0.64(0.625) = 0.400 kips/ft/beam
0.400
5𝑤𝐿4 5� � (95 × 12)4
Δ𝐿𝐿 = = 12 = 0.43 in.
384𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔 384(5,072)(335,679)
Deflection due to Design Truck Load and Impact:
To obtain the maximum moment and deflection at midspan due to truck load, let the centerline of the beam
coincide with the middle point of the distance between the inner 32-kip axle and the resultant of the truck load, as
shown in Figure 9.3.15.5-1.

9.3 - 34 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.3

DECK BULB-TEE (DBT-53), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.3.15.5 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

Figure 9.3.15.5-1
Design Truck Axle Load Position for Maximum Bending Moment

Using the elastic moment area or influence lines, deflection at midspan is:
ΔLT = (1.25)(IM)(DFM) = (1.25)(1.33)(0.625) = 1.04 in. 
Therefore, live load deflection is the greater of:
ΔLT = 1.04 in. (Controls)
0.25ΔLT + ΔLL = 0.25(1.04) + 0.43 = 0.69 in.
Therefore, live load deflection = 1.04 in. < allowable deflection = 1.43 in. OK

9.3 - 35 (Nov 11)

Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

This page intentionally left blank

9.3 - 36 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 3
9.4.1.1 Terminology............................................................................................................................................................................ 9.4 - 3
9.4.2 MATERIALS ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 3
9.4.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM ................................................................................ 9.4 - 4
9.4.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ............................................................................................................................ 9.4 - 5
9.4.4.1. Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads .................................................................................. 9.4 - 5
9.4.4.1.1 Dead Loads ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 5
9.4.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments .......................................................................................... 9.4 - 6
9.4.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads ..................................................................................... 9.4 - 6
9.4.4.2.1 Live Loads ....................................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 6
9.4.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam .................................................................... 9.4 - 7
9.4.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments .............................................................................................. 9.4 - 7
9.4.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Forces ......................................................................................................... 9.4 - 8
9.4.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance ......................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 8
9.4.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments .......................................................................................... 9.4 - 8
9.4.4.2.4.1 Due to Design Truck Load; VLT and MLT ................................................................................................... 9.4 - 8
9.4.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL ...................................................................................................... 9.4 - 9
9.4.4.3 Load Combinations ........................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 10
9.4.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS .......................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 11
9.4.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan .............................................................................................................................. 9.4 - 11
9.4.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete.............................................................................................................................................. 9.4 - 12
9.4.5.3 Required Number of Strands ........................................................................................................................................ 9.4 - 12
9.4.5.4 Strand Pattern ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 12
9.4.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties ..................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 13
9.4.6 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE ............................................................................................................................................................. 9.4 - 14
9.4.7 PRESTRESS LOSSES ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9.4 - 16
9.4.7.1 Elastic Shortening.............................................................................................................................................................. 9.4 - 16
9.4.7.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement................................................................ 9.4 - 17
9.4.7.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.4 - 17
9.4.7.2.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 18
9.4.7.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 18
9.4.7.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time ........................................................... 9.4 - 19
9.4.7.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.4 - 19
9.4.7.3.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 19
9.4.7.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 20
9.4.7.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete ................................................................................................................................. 9.4 - 20
9.4.7.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss .......................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 20
9.4.7.5 Total Losses at Transfer ................................................................................................................................................. 9.4 - 20
9.4.7.6 Total Losses at Service Loads....................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 21

9.4 - 1 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.4.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER .................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 21
9.4.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 9.4 - 22
9.4.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Bonded Strands .................................................................................. 9.4 - 22
9.4.8.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands ............................................................................. 9.4 - 23
9.4.8.4 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 24
9.4.8.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer ............................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 24
9.4.9 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS .......................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 24
9.4.9.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 9.4 - 24
9.4.9.2 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 25
9.4.9.3 Fatigue Stress Limit .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 25
9.4.9.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads ............................................................................................ 9.4 - 26
9.4.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT .................................................................................................................................................. 9.4 - 26
9.4.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 26
9.4.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................................ 9.4 - 26
9.4.11 SHEAR DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 27
9.4.11.1 Critical Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 9.4 - 27
9.4.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance ................................................................................ 9.4 - 28
9.4.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement ................................................................................................. 9.4 - 28
9.4.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution ..................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 29
9.4.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................... 9.4 - 29
9.4.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement ..................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 29
9.4.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement .................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 29
9.4.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement ........................................................................................................... 9.4 - 30
9.4.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement....................................................................................................... 9.4 - 30
9.4.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 30
9.4.12 interface shear transfer .............................................................................................................................................................. 9.4 - 32
9.4.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT ............................................................................. 9.4 - 32
9.4.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing ....................................................................................................... 9.4 - 32
9.4.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE ................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 33
9.4.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement............................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 33
9.4.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement...................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 34
9.4.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 34
9.4.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer ............................................................................................ 9.4 - 34
9.4.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight ....................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 34
9.4.15.3 Deflection Due to Diaphragm Weight .................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 35
9.4.15.4 Deflection Due to Barrier and Wearing Surface Weights ............................................................................. 9.4 - 35
9.4.15.5 Deflection and Camber Summary ............................................................................................................................ 9.4 - 35
9.4.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact............................................................................................................... 9.4 - 35
9.4.16 TRANSVERSE POST-TENSIONING ......................................................................................................................................... 9.4 - 37

9.4 - 2 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.1 Introduction/9.4.2 Materials

9.4 Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses

9.4.1 INTRODUCTION
This design example demonstrates the design of a 95-ft, single-span, AASHTO Type BIII-48 box beam bridge with
no skew. This example illustrates in detail the design of a typical interior beam at the critical sections in positive
flexure, shear, and deflection due to prestress, dead loads, and live loads. The superstructure consists of seven
beams abutted as shown in Figure 9.4.1-1. A 3-in.-thick bituminous surfacing will be placed on the beams as a
wearing surface. Beams are transversely post-tensioned through 8-in.-thick full-depth diaphragms located at the
quarter-points. Design live load is HL-93. The design is accomplished in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications, Fifth Edition, 2010, and the 2011 Interim Revisions. Elastic stresses from external loads are
calculated using transformed sections. Shear strength is calculated using the general procedure. Time-dependent
prestress losses are calculated using the refined estimates.
Figure 9.4.1-1
Bridge Cross Section
1’-6” 25’-0” 1’-6”

(2) 7/8 in. dia. - 150 ksi bars through 2 in. dia.
hole in each diaphragm
3” Bituminous wearing surface

7 Beams @ 4’-0’ = 28’-0

9.4.1.1 Terminology
The following terminology is used to describe cross sections in this design example:
noncomposite section—the concrete beam cross section.
noncomposite nontransformed section—the concrete beam cross section without the strands transformed. Also
called the gross section.
noncomposite transformed section—the concrete beam cross section with the strands transformed to provide
cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
The term "transformed" refers to transformation of the strands.

9.4.2 MATERIALS
Precast concrete beams: AASHTO Box Beams, Type BIII-48, as shown in Figure 9.4.2-1
Required concrete compressive strength at transfer, 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 4.0 ksi
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 5.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight, 𝑤𝑐 = 0.150 kcf
Overall beam length = 96.0 ft
Design span = 95.0 ft

9.4 - 3 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.2 Materials/9.4.3.1 Nontransformed Beam Section

Prestressing strands: ½-in.-dia., seven-wire, low-relaxation

Area of one strand = 0.153 in.2
Specified tensile strength, fpu = 270.0 ksi
Yield strength, fpy = 0.9fpu = 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Stress limits for prestressing strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
• before transfer, fpi ≤ 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi
• at service limit state (after all losses), fpe ≤ 0.8fpy = 194.4 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Ep = 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
Reinforcing bars:
Yield strength, fy = 60.0 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Es = 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Bituminous surfacing, 3 in. thick: unit weight = 0.140 kcf [LRFD Table 3.5.1-1]
New Jersey-type barrier: unit weight = 0.300 kips/ft/side
Figure 9.4.2-1
AASHTO Box Beam Type BIII-48

3/8” (TYP)

5 1/2” 6” (TYP)

6” (TYP)

3/4”
39” 28”

3”

3”

5 1/2”

5” 38” 5”

48”

9.4.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM

9.4.3.1 Nontransformed Beam Section
Ag = area of cross section of precast beam = 813 in.2
h = overall depth of precast beam = 39 in.
Ig = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast beam = 168,367 in.4
yb = distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 19.29 in.
yt = distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 19.71 in.

9.4 - 4 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.3.1 Nontransformed Beam Section/9.4.4.1.1 Dead Loads

Sb = section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yb = 8,728 in.3
St = section modulus for extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yt = 8,542 in.3
wg = beam weight per unit length = (813/144)0.150 = .847 kips/ft
𝐸𝑐 = modulus of elasticity of concrete, ksi, = 33,000𝐾1 (𝑤𝑐 )1.5 √𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]

where
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate taken as 1.0
𝑤𝑐 = unit weight of concrete = 0.150 kcf
LRFD Table 3.5.1-1 states that, in the absence of more precise data, the unit weight of concrete may be
taken as 0.140 + 0.001𝑓𝑐′ for 5.0 < 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 15.0 ksi. For 𝑓𝑐′ = 5.0 ksi, the unit weight would be 0.0.1450 kcf.
However, precast concrete mixes typically have a relatively low water-cementitious materials ratio and
high density. Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150 kcf is used in this example. For high-strength concrete, this
value may need to be increased based on test results. For simplicity, a value of 0.150 kcf is also used for
the cast-in-place concrete.
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity for:
precast beam at transfer, 𝐸𝑐𝑖 = 33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5 √4.0 = 3,834 ksi
precast beam at service loads, 𝐸c = 33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5 √5.0 = 4,287 ksi

9.4.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

9.4.4.1. Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads
[LRFD Art. 3.3.2]
9.4.4.1.1 Dead Loads
Refer to Tables 9.4.4-1 and 9.4.4-2, which follow Section 9.4.4.3 for a summary of unfactored values calculated
below.
DC = Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
Dead loads acting on the noncomposite structure:
Beam self weight, wg = 0.847 kip/ft
8 (48 − 10) (39 − 11) 1 3 3
Diaphragm weight = ( ) [ × − 4 ( ) ( ) ( )] (0.150) = 0.73 kips/diaphragm
12 12 12 2 12 12
Generally, the unit weight of reinforced concrete should be slightly greater than the unit weight of
concrete alone because of the added weight of reinforcement. However, in this example, the difference is
considered negligible. The weights of the diaphragms are considered concentrated loads acting at quarter
points as shown in Figure 9.4.4.1.1-1.
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1 states that permanent loads (barrier and wearing surface) may be distributed uniformly
among the beams if the following conditions are met:
• Width of the deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb, is not less than four (Nb = 7) OK
• Beams are parallel and have the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft (de = 0.0) OK
• Curvature in plan is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (curvature = 0.0°) OK
• Cross section of the bridge is consistent with one of the cross sections given in LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1
OK

9.4 - 5 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.4.1.1 Dead Loads/9.4.4.2.1 Live Loads

Since these criteria are satisfied, the barrier and wearing surface loads are distributed equally among the
seven beams.
Barrier weight = (2 barriers)(0.300 kips/ft)/(7 beams) = 0.086 kips/ft/beam = wb
DW = Dead load of wearing surface (weight of 3 in. bituminous wearing surface [LRFD Table 3.5.1-1]
= 0.140 kcf)
= (3/12)(0.140) = 0.035 ksf
= (0.035 ksf)(25.0 ft)/7beams = 0.125 kips/ft/beam = wws
The DW load should be kept separately from DC loads because a higher load factor is applied to it.

Figure 9.4.4.1.1-1
Diaphragm Loads per Beam
0.73 kip 0.73 kip 0.73 kip 0.73 kip 0.73 kip

23.75 ft 23.75 ft 23.75 ft 23.75 ft

95.00 ft

9.4.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments

For a simply supported beam with a span length (L) loaded with a uniformly distributed load (w), the shear force
(Vx) and the bending moment (Mx) at a distance (x) from the support are given by:
𝑉𝑥 = 𝑤(0.5𝐿 − 𝑥) (Eq. 9.4.4.1.2-1)
𝑀𝑥 = 0.5𝑤𝑥(𝐿 − 𝑥) (Eq. 9.4.4.1.2-2)
Using the above equations, values of shear forces and bending moments for a typical interior beam under the self
weight of beam, diaphragms, barriers, and wearing surface are computed and given in Table 9.4.4-1 that is
located at the end of Section 9.4.4.3. Using statics, values of shear forces and bending moments due to diaphragm
weight are calculated and given in Table 9.4.4-1. For these calculations, the span length (L) is the design span, 95
ft. However, for calculation of stresses and deformations at the time prestress is transferred, the overall length of
the precast member, 96 ft, is used as illustrated later in this example.

9.4.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads

9.4.4.2.1 Live Loads

Design live load is HL-93, which consists of a combination of [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.1]
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance. [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.2]
The design truck consists of 8.0-, 32.0-, and 32.0-kip axles with the first pair [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.3]
spaced at 14.0 ft and the second pair spaced at 14.0 to 30.0 ft. The design tandem
consists of a pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced at 4.0 ft apart.
2. Design lane load of 0.64 kips/ft without dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.4]

9.4 - 6 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam/9.4.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments

9.4.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam

The live load bending moments and shear forces are determined by using the simplified distribution factor
formulas [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]. To use the simplified live load distribution factor formulas, the following conditions
must be met: [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2.1]
• Width of deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb not less than four (Nb = 7) OK
• Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft. (de = 0.0) OK
• Curvature is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (Curvature = 0.0°) OK
For a precast cellular concrete box with shear keys and with or without transverse [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]
post-tensioning, the bridge type is (g) and is sufficiently connected to act as a unit.
The number of lanes design lanes is computed as:
Number of design lanes = the integer part of the ratio of (w/12), where (w) is the [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.1]
clear roadway width, in ft, between the curbs
From Figure 9.4.1-1, w = 25 ft
Number of design lanes = Integer part of (25/12) = 2 lanes

9.4.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments

• For all limit states except fatigue limit state
For two or more lanes loaded
0.06
𝑏 0.6 𝑏 0.2 𝐼𝑔
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 𝑘 ( ) ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
305 12.0𝐿 𝐽𝑔
Provided that: 35 ≤ b ≤ 60; b = 48 in OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 120; L = 95 ft OK
5 ≤ Nb ≤ 20; Nb = 7 OK
where
DFM = distribution factor for moment for interior beam
𝑘 = 2.5(𝑁𝑏 )−0.2 ≥ 1.5 = 2.5(7)−0.2 = 1.694 > 1.5 OK
Nb = number of beams
b = beam width, in.
L = beam span, ft
Ig = moment of inertia of the beam, in4
Jg = St. Venant torsional inertia, in.4
4𝐴2o
𝐽𝑔 ~ 𝑠 [LRFD Eq. C4.6.2.2.1-3]
∑
𝑡
where
Ao= area enclosed by centerlines of the elements of the beam
= (48 − 5)(39 − 5.5) = 1,440.5 in.2
s = length of a side element
t = thickness of an element
4(1,440.5)2
𝐽𝑔 = = 285,854 in.2
48 − 5 39 − 5.5
2( ) + 2( )
5.5 5

9.4 - 7 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments/9.4.4.2.4.1 Due to Design Truck Load, V LT and MLT

Therefore:
48 0.6 48 0.2
168,367 0.06
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 1.694 ( ) ( ) ( ) = 0.287 lanes/beam
305 12.0 × 95 285,854
For one design lane loaded, if sufficiently connected to act as a unit:
0.25
𝑏 0.5 𝐼𝑔 48 0.5
168,367 0.25
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 𝑘 ( ) ( ) = 1.694 ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
33.3𝐿 𝐽𝑔 33.3 × 95 285,854
= 0.183 lanes/beam
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls and DFM = 0.287 lanes/beam.
• For fatigue limit state:
The LRFD Specifications, Art. C3.4.1, states that for Fatigue Limit State, a single design truck should be used.
However, live load distribution factors given in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 take into consideration the multiple presence
factor, m. LRFD Article 3.6.1.1.2 states that the multiple presence factor, m, for one design lane loaded is 1.2.
Therefore, the distribution factor for one design lane loaded with the multiple presence factor removed, should be
used. The distribution factor for fatigue limit state is: 0.183/1.2 = 0.153 lanes/beam

9.4.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Forces

For two or more lanes loaded:
0.05
𝑏 0.4 𝑏 0.1 𝐼𝑔 𝑏
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
156 12.0𝐿 𝐽𝑔 48
Provided that: 35 ≤ b ≤ 60; b = 48 in OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 120; L = 95 ft OK
5 ≤ Nb ≤ 20; Nb = 7 OK
25,000 ≤ Jg ≤ 610,000; Jg = 285,854 in.4 OK
40,000 ≤ Ig ≤ 610,000; Ig = 168,367 in.4 OK
where DFV = distribution factor for shear for interior beam
48 0.4 48 0.1
168,367 0.05 48
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = 0.443 lanes/beam
156 12.0 × 95 285,854 48
For one design lane loaded:
0.05
𝑏 0.15 𝐼𝑔 48 0.15
168,367 0.05
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = ( ) ( ) =( ) ( ) = 0.424 lanes/beam [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
130𝐿 𝐽𝑔 130 × 95 285,854
Thus, the case of two lanes loaded controls and DFV = 0.443 lanes/beam.

9.4.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.2]

IM = 15% for fatigue limit state
IM = 33% for all other limit states [LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]
where IM = dynamic load allowance, applied to design truck load only

9.4.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments

9.4.4.2.4.1 Due to Design Truck Load; VLT and MLT

• For all limit states except fatigue limit state:
Shear force and bending moment envelopes on a per-lane-basis are calculated at tenth-points of the span using
the equations given in Chapter 8 of this manual. However, this is generally done by means of commercially

9.4 - 8 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.4.2.4.1 Due to Design Truck Load; VLT and MLT/9.4.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Load; VLL and MLL

available computer software that has the ability to deal with moving loads. Therefore, truck load shear forces and
bending moments per beam are:
VLT = (shear force per lane)(DFV)(1 + IM)
= (shear force per lane)(0.443)(1 + 0.33)
= (shear force per lane)(0.589) kips
MLT = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1+ IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.287)(1 + 0.33)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.382) ft-kips
Values of VLT and MLT at different points are given in Table 9.4.4-2.
• For fatigue limit state:
Article 3.6.1.4.1 in the LRFD Specifications states that the fatigue load is a single design truck which has the same
axle weight used in all other limit states but with a constant spacing of 30.0 ft between the 32.0-kip axles. Bending
moment envelope on a per-lane-basis is calculated using the equation given in Chapter 8 of this manual.
Therefore, bending moment of fatigue truck load is:
Mf = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.153)(1 + 0.15)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.176) ft-kips
Values of Mf at different points are given in Table 9.4.4-2.

9.4.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL

To obtain the maximum shear force at a section located at a distance (x) from the left support under a uniformly
distributed load of 0.64 kips/ft, load the member to the right of the section under consideration as shown in
Figure 9.4.4.2.4.2-1. Therefore, the maximum shear force per lane is:
0.32(𝐿 − 𝑥)2
𝑉𝑥 = for 𝑥 ≤ 0.5𝐿 (Eq. 9.4.4.2.4.2-1)
𝐿
where 𝑉𝑥 is in kips/lane and L and x are in ft
Figure 9.4.4.2.4.2-1
Maximum Shear Force due to Design Lane Load

To calculate the maximum bending moment at any section, use Eq. (9.4.4.1.2-2).
Lane load shear force and bending moment per typical interior beam are as follows:
VLL = (lane load shear force)(DFV)
= (lane load shear force)(0.443) kips

9.4 - 9 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Load; VLL and MLL/9.4.4.3 Load Combinations

For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:

MLL = (lane load bending moment)(DFM)
= (lane load bending moment)(0.287) ft-kips
Note that the dynamic allowance is not applied to the design lane loading. [LRFD Art. 3.4]
Values of shear forces and bending moments, VLL and MLL, are given in Table 9.4.4-1.

9.4.4.3 Load Combinations

Total factored load, Q, is taken as:
𝑄 = ∑η𝑖 γ𝑖 𝑄𝑖 [LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]
where
ηi = a load modifier relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance [LRFD Art. 1.3.2.1]
(Here, ηi is considered to be 1.0 for typical bridges.)
γ𝑖 = load factors [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
𝑄𝑖 = force effects from specified loads
Investigating different limit states given in LRFD Article 3.4.1, the following limit states are applicable:
Service I: check compressive stress in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 1.00(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is the general combination for service limit state stress checks and applies to all conditions
other than Service III.
Service III: check tensile stress in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC+ DW) + 0.80(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress checks that applies only to tension in
prestressed concrete structures to control cracks.
Strength I: check ultimate strength: [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and -2]
Maximum Q = 1.25(DC) + 1.50(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Minimum Q = 0.90(DC) + 0.65(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
This load combination is the general load combination for strength limit state design.
Note: For simple-span bridges, the maximum load factors produce maximum effects. However, use minimum load
factors for dead load (DC), and wearing surface (DW) when dead load and wearing surface stresses are opposite
to those of the live load.
Fatigue I: check stress range in strands: [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Q = .5(LL + IM)
This load combination is a special load combination to check the tensile stress range in the strands due to live
load and dynamic allowance.

9.4 - 10 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.4.3 Load Combinations/9.4.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Table 9.4.4-1
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads for a Typical Interior Beam
Wearing Surface
Beam Weight Diaphragm Weight Barrier Weight
Weight
Distance Section
Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment
x, ft x/L
Vg Mg Vd Md Vb Mb Vws Mws
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips
0 0.0 40.2 0.0 1.1 0.0 4.1 0.0 5.9 0.0
*2.80 0.029 37.9 109.3 1.1 3.1 3.8 11.1 5.6 16.1
9.5 0.1 32.2 344.0 1.1 10.4 3.3 34.9 4.8 50.8
19.0 0.2 24.1 611.5 1.1 20.8 2.5 62.1 3.6 90.3
28.5 0.3 16.1 802.6 0.4 27.7 1.6 81.5 2.4 118.5
38.0 0.4 8.0 917.3 0.4 31.2 0.8 93.1 1.2 135.4
47.5 0.5 0.0 955.5 0.4 34.7 0.0 97.0 0.0 141.0
* Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.4.11)

Table 9.4.4-2
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Load for a
Typical Interior Beam
Fatigue
Design Truck with
Lane Load Truck with
Impact
Distance Section Impact
x, ft x/L Shear Moment Shear Moment Moment
VLT MLT VLL MLL Mf
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips ft-kips
0 0.0 38.3 0.0 13.5 0.0 0.0
*2.80 0.029 37.0 67.1 12.7 23.7 27.6
9.5 0.1 34.0 209.3 10.9 74.6 85.2
19.0 0.2 29.8 366.5 8.6 132.6 146.4
28.5 0.3 25.5 471.4 6.6 174.1 188.3
38.0 0.4 21.3 532.5 4.8 198.9 209.4
47.5 0.5 17.0 545.8 3.4 207.2 206.6
*Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.4.11)

9.4.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

The required number of strands is usually governed by concrete tensile stresses at the bottom fiber for load
combination Service III at the section of maximum moment. For estimating the number of strands, only the
stresses at midspan are considered.

9.4.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Bottom tensile stress due to applied loads using load combination Service III is:
𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 + 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + (0.8)(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 =
𝑆𝑏
where
fb = concrete tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam, ksi
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight, ft-kips
Md = unfactored bending moment due to diaphragm weight, ft-kips
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
Mws = unfactored bending moment due to wearing surface, ft-kips
MLT = unfactored bending moment due to truck load, ft-kips

9.4 - 11 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.4.3 Load Combinations/9.4.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

MLL = unfactored bending moment due to lane load, ft-kips

Using values of bending moments from Tables 9.4.4-1 and 9.4.4-2, bottom tensile stress at midspan is:
(955.5 + 34.7) + (97.0 + 141.0) + (0.8)(545.8 + 207.2)
𝑓𝑏 = (12) = 2.517 ksi
8,728

9.4.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete

Tensile stress limit at service loads = 0.19√𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Table. 5.9.4.2.2-1]
where 𝑓𝑐′ = specified concrete compressive strength for design, ksi
Concrete tensile stress limit = −0.19 √5.00 = −0.425 ksi
9.4.5.3 Required Number of Strands
The required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam is the difference between bottom tensile
stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress limit:
fpb = (2.517 − 0.425) = 2.092 ksi
Assume the distance between the center of gravity of bottom strands and the bottom fiber of the beam, ybs, = 4.5
in. at midspan.
Therefore, strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = yb − ybs = 19.29 − 4.5 = 14.79 in.
If Ppe is the total prestressing force after all losses, the stress at the bottom fiber due to prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 (14.79)
𝑓𝑝𝑏 = + or 2.092 = +
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 813 8,728
Solving for Ppe, the required Ppe = 715.3 kips.
Final prestress force per strand = (area of strand)(fpi)(1 − losses)
where fpi = initial stress before transfer = 202.5 ksi (Sect. 9.2.2)
Assuming final loss of 20% of fpi, the final prestress force per strand after all losses
= ( 0.153)(202.5)(1 − 0.20) = 24.8 kips
Number of strands required = 715.3/24.8 = 28.84 strands
Try (31) ½-in.-diameter, 270 ksi strands
Total area of prestressing strands, Aps = 31(0.153) = 4.743 in.2
Note: This is a conservative estimate of the number of strands because nontransformed section properties are
used in lieu of transformed section properties. The number of strands can be refined later in the design process as
more accurate section properties and prestress losses are determined.

9.4.5.4 Strand Pattern

Figure 9.4.5.4-1 shows the assumed strand pattern for the 31 strands at midspan of the beam. All strands are
straight.
The distance between the center of gravity of the strands and the bottom concrete fiber of the beam at midspan is:
23(2) + 6(4) + 2(36)
𝑦𝑏𝑠 = = 4.58 in.
31
Strand eccentricity at midspan:
𝑒𝑐 = 𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑏𝑠 = 19.29 − 4.58 = 14.71 in. = 𝑒𝑝𝑔

9.4 - 12 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.5.4 Strand Pattern/9.4.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

Figure 9.4.5.4-1
Strand Pattern at Midspan

9.4.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

From the earliest years of prestressed concrete design, the gross section was conservatively used in analysis since
the prestressing forces were smaller and computer programs were not widely used. However, the use of
transformed section, which is obtained from the gross section by adding transformed steel area, yields more
accurate results than the gross section analysis.
For each row of the prestressing strands shown in Figure 9.4.5.4-1, the steel area is multiplied by (n − 1) to
calculate the transformed section properties, where n is the modular ratio between prestressing strand and
concrete. Since the modulus of elasticity of concrete is different at transfer and final time, the transformed section
properties should be calculated separately for the two stages. The transformed section properties are calculated
as shown in Table 9.4.5.5-1.
At transfer:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 6.433
3,834
At final:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 5.648
4,287
Table 9.4.5.5-1
Properties of Transformed Section at Final Time
Transformed yb Ayb A(ybtf − yb)2 I I + A(ybtf − yb)2
Area, in.2 in. in.3 in.3 in.4 in.4
Beam 813.00 19.29 15,683 180 168,367 168,547
Row 1 19.88 2.00 39.76 5,624 5,624
Row 2 5.18 4.00 20.72 1,138 1,138
Row 3 1.73 36.00 62.28 511 511
Σ 839.8 15,806 175,820
Note: The moment of inertia of strand about its own centroid is neglected.
The transformed section properties are calculated as:
Transformed section at transfer:
Ati = area of transformed section at transfer = 843.5 in.2
Iti = moment of inertia of the transformed section at transfer = 176,829 in.4
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at transfer = 14.18 in.

9.4 - 13 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties/9.4.6 Strength Limit State

ybti = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam at transfer
= 18.76 in.
Sbti = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 9,426 in.3
Stti = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 8,737 in.3
Transformed section at final time:
Atf = area of transformed section at final time = 839.8 in.2
Itf = moment of inertia of the transformed section at final time = 175,820 in.4
etf = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at final time = 14.24 in.
ybtf = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam at final
time = 18.82 in.
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at final time = 9,342 in.3
Sttf = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at final time = 8,713 in.3

9.4.6 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

For box sections, it is common that the flexural strength controls design. It is therefore recommended that the
strength calculations be conducted prior to the stress check. As the state-of-the-art continues to develop into the
use of high-strength concrete and emphasis continues to be placed on the importance of member strength, it is
possible that future designs using other cross sections will be controlled by the strength limit state.
Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Using the values of unfactored bending moment given in Tables 9.4.4-1 and 9.4.4-2, the ultimate bending
moment at midspan is:
Mu = 1.25(955.5 + 34.7 + 97.0) + 1.5(141.0) + 1.75(545.8 + 207.2 ) = 2,888.3 ft-kips
Average stress in prestressing strands when fpe ≥ 0.5 fpu:
𝑐
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 (1 − 𝑘 ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1]
𝑑𝑝
where
fps = average stress in prestressing strand, ksi
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing strand = 270.0 ksi
𝑓𝑝𝑦 243
k = 2 (1.04 − ) = 2 (1.04 − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-2]
𝑓𝑝𝑢 270
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strands [LRFD Table C5.7.3.1.1-1]
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing strands, in.
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis, in.
To compute c, assume rectangular section behavior and check if the depth [LRFD Art. C5.7.3.2.2]
of the equivalent compression stress block, a, is less than or equal to
compression flange depth, ts.
where a = β1c
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′
𝑐=
𝑓𝑝𝑢 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-4]
0.85𝑓𝑐′ β1 𝑏 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝

9.4 - 14 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.6 Strength Limit State

where
a = depth of the equivalent stress block
Aps = area of prestressing strand = 29(0.153) = 4.437 in.2
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement = 0 in.2
fy = specified yield strength of tension reinforcement = 60.0ksi
𝐴′𝑠 = area of compression reinforcement = 0 in.2
𝑓𝑦′ = specified yield strength of compression reinforcement
β1 = stress factor of compression block [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.2]
= 0.85 for 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 4.0 ksi
= 0.85 − 0.05(𝑓𝑐′ − 4.0) ≥ 0.65 for 𝑓𝑐′ > 4.0 ksi
= 0.85 − 0.05(5.0 − 4.0) = 0.80
b = width of compression flange = 48 in.
Note: In computing the flexural strength of members with strands placed near the compression face of the
member, it is not correct to use the combined centroid of the entire strand group for establishing the effective
depth, dp, and the area of prestressing steel, Aps. This is because the top strands will have different strain from that
of the bottom strands. An accurate solution can be achieved using the detailed strain compatibility approach,
which accounts for the steel strain at various distances from the neutral axis. However, a reasonable
approximation is to ignore all strands placed on the compression side.
For the 29 bottom strands, the distance between the center of gravity of the strands and the bottom fiber of the
beam, ybs, is:
23(2) + 6(4)
= 2.41 in.
29
Thus, dp = 39 − 2.41 = 36.59 in.
4.437(270.0) + 0 − 0
𝑐= = 6.95 in.
270.0
(0.85)(5.0)(0.80)(48) + 0.28(4.437) ( )
36.59
a = β1 c = 0.80(6.95) = 5.56 in. > ts = 5.5 in. NG
Therefore, compute c using T-section behavior.
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′ − 0.85𝑓𝑐′ (𝑏 − 𝑏𝑤 )ℎ𝑓
𝑐=
𝑓𝑝𝑢 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-3]
0.85𝑓𝑐′ β1 𝑏𝑤 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝
where
hf = compression flange depth = ts = 5.5 in.
bw = width of web = 2(5) = 10 in.
4.437(270) + 0 − 0 − 0.85(5.0)(48 − 10)(5.5)
𝑐= = 7.18 in.
270
(0.85)(5.0)(0.80)(10) + 0.28(4.437) ( )
36.59
a = β1c = 0.80(7.18) = 5.74 in. > ts = 5.5 in. OK
Therefore, the average stress in the prestressing strand:
7.18
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 270.0 (1 − 0.28 ) = 255.2 ksi
36.59

9.4 - 15 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.6 Strength Limit State/9.4.7.1 Elastic Shortening

Nominal flexural resistance: [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.2.2]

𝑎 𝑎 ℎ𝑓
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 (𝑑𝑝 − ) + 0.85𝑓𝑐′ (𝑏 − 𝑏𝑤 )ℎ𝑓 ( − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.2-1]
2 2 2
5.74 5.74 5.5
𝑀𝑛 = (4.437)(255.2) (36.59 − ) /12 + 0.85(5.0)(48 − 10)(5.5) ( − ) /12 = 3,190.7 ft-kips
2 2 2
Factored flexural resistance, Mr:
Mr = ɸ Mn [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where ɸ = resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
= 1.00 for tension controlled prestressed concrete sections
Mr = 3,190.7 ft-kips > Mu = 2,888.3 ft-kips OK

9.4.7 PRESTRESS LOSSES

Total prestress loss:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
where
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel after transfer. In
this design example, the refined estimates of time-dependent losses are used.
9.4.7.1 Elastic Shortening
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.3a-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
where
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands = 28,500 ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete at transfer = 3,834 ksi
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons due to prestressing force at
transfer and the self weight of the member at sections of maximum moment.
If the gross (or net) cross-section properties are used, it is necessary to perform numerical iterations. The
elastic loss ΔfpES is usually assumed to be 10% of the initial prestress to calculate fcgp, which is then used in
the equation above to calculate a refined ΔfpES. The process is repeated until the assumed ΔfpES and refined
ΔfpES converge.
However, when transformed section properties are used to calculate the concrete stress, the effects of losses
and gains due to elastic deformations are implicitly account for. Therefore, ΔfpES should not be included in
calculating fcgp.
Force per strand before transfer = (area of strand)(prestress stress before transfer)
= (0.153)(202.5) = 30.98 kips
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖2
(𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 )𝑒𝑡𝑖
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖
where
Pp = total prestressing force before transfer = (31 strands)(30.98) = 960.4 kips
eti = eccentricity of strands at midspan with respect to the transformed section at transfer
=14.18 in.

9.4 - 16 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.7.1 Elastic Shortening/9.4.7.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

Mg and Md should be calculated based on the overall beam length of 96 ft. However, since the elastic
shortening loss is a part of the total loss, fcgp will be conservatively computed based on Mg using the design
span length of 95 ft
960.4 (960.4)(14.18)2 (955.5 + 34.7)(12)(14.18)
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + − = 1.278 ksi
843.5 176,829 176,829
herefore, loss due to elastic shortening:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = (1.278) = 9.5 ksi
3,834
AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.3 indicates that the loss due to elastic shortening at transfer should be added to the time-
dependent losses to determine total losses. However, this loss is directly accounted for if transformed section
properties are used in the stress analysis.

9.4.7.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

AASHTO LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.4 indicates that the time of "deck placement" may be taken as [LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.4]
time of noncomposite topping placement. In this example, the term "deck placement" is
interchangeable with topping placement.
The following construction schedule is assumed in calculating the time-dependent losses:
Concrete age at transfer: ti = 1 day
Concrete age at deck placement: td = 90 days
Concrete age at final stage: tf = 20,000 days
The total time-dependent loss between time of transfer and deck placement is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of concrete, creep of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing strands.
9.4.7.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between transfer and deck placement is calculated by:
ΔfpSR = εbidEpKid [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-1]
where
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between transfer and deck placement
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strand, ksi
Kid = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete and
bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between transfer and deck placement
The concrete shrinkage strain εbid is taken as:
εbid = kvskhskfktd 0.48 × 10-3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
where
The factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam:
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13 × 2.72 = 1.096
The minimum value of kvs is 1.0. OK
V/S is the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam.
The humidity factor for shrinkage:
khs = 2.00 − 0.014H = 2.00 − 0.014(70) = 1.020
where H = average annual relative humidity (assume 70%)
The factor for the effect of concrete strength:
5 5
𝑘𝑓 = ′ = = 1.000
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖 1 + 4.0

9.4 - 17 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.7.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.4.7.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The time development factor:

𝑡 89
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = ′ = = 0.664 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − 4(4.0) + 89
where t is the maturity of concrete (days) = td – ti = 90 – 1 = 89 days
εbid = (1.096)(1.020)(1.0000)(0.664)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000356
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 (𝑒𝑝𝑔 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔
where
epg = eccentricity of prestressing strand with respect to centroid of girder, in.
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced at transfer
For the time between transfer and final time:
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = 1.9kvskhckfktdti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
khc = 1.56 − 0.008H = 1.56 − 0.008(70) = 1.000
𝑡 20000 − 1
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = ′ = = 0.998 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − 4(4.0) + (20000 − 1)
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = 1.9(1.096)(1.000)(1.000)(0.998)(1)−0.118 = 2.078
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = = 0.821
28,500 4.743 813(14.71)2
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(2.078)]
3,834 813 168,367
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between transfer and deck placement is:
ΔpSR = (0.000356)(28,500)(0.821) = 8.330 ksi
9.4.7.2.2 Creep of Concrete
The prestress loss due to creep of girder concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = 𝑓 Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 )𝐾 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖 𝑖𝑑
where
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at time of deck placement due to loading introduced at transfer
= 1.9kvskhckfktddti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
= 1.9(1.096)(1.000)(1.000)(0.664)(1) −0.118
= 1.383
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = (1.278)(1.383)(0.821) = 10.787 ksi
3,834
9.4.7.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands
The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck placement is
determined as:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑡
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2c-1]
𝐾𝐿 𝑓𝑝𝑦
where
fpt = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer, taken not less than 0.55fy
KL = 30 for low-relaxation strands and 7 for other prestressing steel, unless more accurate
manufacturer's data are available

9.4 - 18 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.7.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands/9.4.7.3.2 Creep of Concrete

(202.5 − 9.5) (202.5 − 9.5)

Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) = 1.571 ksi
30 243
According to LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.2c, the relaxation loss may also be assumed equal to 1.2 ksi for low-relaxation
strands.

9.4.7.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time

The total time-dependent loss between time of deck placement and final time is the summation of prestress loss
due to shrinkage of beam concrete, creep of beam concrete, relaxation of prestressing strands.

9.4.7.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is calculated by:
ΔfpSD = εbdf Ep Kdf [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-1]
where
εbdf = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between deck placement and final time
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kdf = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between deck placement and
final time
The total girder concrete shrinkage strain between transfer and final time is taken as:
εbif = kvskhskfktdf 0.48 × 10-3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
= (1.096)(1.020)(1.000)(0.998)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000536
The girder concrete shrinkage strain between deck placement and final time is:
εbdf = εbif − εbid = 0.000536 − 0.000356 = 0.000180
The beam concrete transformed section coefficient between deck placement and final time is:
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐 (𝑒𝑝𝑐 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
Ac = Ag = area of the precast beam = 813 in.2
Ic = Ig = moment of inertia of the precast beam = 168,367 in.4
epc = epg = eccentricity of prestressing strands with respect to centroid of precast beam = 14.71 in.
Because there is no composite deck, the noncomposite beam section properties are used in the calculation.
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = = 0.821
28,500 4.743 813(14.71)2
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(2.078)]
3,834 813 168,367
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is:
ΔfpSD = (0.000180)(28,500)(0.821) = 4.212 ksi

9.4.7.3.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between time of deck placement and final time is determined as:
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 [Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) − Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )]𝐾𝑑𝑓 + Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐸𝑐

9.4 - 19 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.7.3.2 Creep of Concrete/9.4.7.5 Total Losses at Transfer

where
Ψ𝑏 (tf , td) = beam creep coefficient at final time due to loading at deck placement

= 1.9kvskhckfktdftd-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

𝑡 (20,000 − 90)
ktdf = = = 0.998
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ + 𝑡 61 − 4(4.0) + (20,000 − 90)
Ψ𝑏 (tf , td) = 1.9(1.096)(1.000)(1.000)(0.998)(90)-0.118 = 1.222

Δfcd = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to long-term losses between
transfer and deck placement, combined with deck weight and superimposed loads, ksi
2
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 𝑒𝑝𝑔 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑓
= −(Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 ) (1 + )−( )
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑡𝑓
4.743 813(14.71)2 (97.0 + 141.0)(12)(14.24)
= −(8.330 + 10.787 + 1.571) (1 + )−( )
813 168,367 175,820
= −0.478 ksi

The gross section properties are used in the equation to calculate Δfcd for the long-term losses since the
transformed section effect has already been included in the factor Kid when calculating the losses between
initial time and deck placement.
28,500 28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = (1.278)(2.078 − 1.383)(0.821) + (−0.478)(1.222)(0.821) = 2.233 ksi
3,834 4,287

9.4.7.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of deck placement and final time is
taken as:
ΔfpR2 = ΔfpR1 = 1.571 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3c-1]

9.4.7.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

The prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete is taken as zero for this bridge because there is no composite
deck.
ΔfpSS = 0.0 ksi

9.4.7.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss

The total time-dependent loss, ΔfpLT, is determined as:
ΔfpLT = (ΔfpSR + ΔfpCR + ΔfpR1) + (ΔfpSD + ΔfpCD + ΔfpR2 + ΔfpSS) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.1-1]
= (8.330 + 10.787 + 1.571) + (4.212 + 2.233 + 1.571 + 0.0)
= 28.7 ksi

9.4.7.5 Total Losses at Transfer

AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.2.3a and C5.9.5.3 indicate that the losses or gains due to elastic deformation must be taken
equal to zero if transformed section properties are used in stress analysis. However, the losses or gains due to
elastic deformation must be included in determining the total prestress losses and effective stress in the
prestressing strands.

9.4 - 20 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.7.5 Total Losses at Transfer/9.4.8 Concrete Stresses at Transfer

Δfpi = ΔfpES = 9.5 ksi

Effective stress in tendons immediately after transfer, fpt = fpi − Δfpi = (202.5 − 9.5) = 193.0 ksi
Force per strand = (fpt)(area of strand) = 193.0(0.153) = 29.5 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer, Ppt = 29.5(31) = 914.5 kips
Initial loss percentage = (Total losses at transfer)/(fpi) = 9.5/(202.5) = 4.7%
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, the strand force is that before
transfer:
Force per strand = (202.5)(0.153) = 30.98 kips
The total prestressing force before transfer, Ppi = (30.98)(31) = 960.4 kips

9.4.7.6 Total Losses at Service Loads

Total loss due to elastic shortening at transfer and long-term losses is:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT = 9.5 + 28.7 = 38.2 ksi
The elastic gain due to deck weight, superimposed dead load and live load (Service III) is:
(𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑝 (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )𝑒𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑝
( ) + 0.8 ( )
𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑐
(97.0 + 141.0)(12)(14.24) 28,500 (545.8 + 207.2)(12)(14.24) 28,500
=( ) + 0.8 ( )
175,820 4,287 175,820 4,287
= 1.5 + 3.9 = 5.4 ksi
The effective stress in strands after all losses and gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 5.4 = 202.5 − 38.2 + 5.4 = 169.7 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
fpe ≤ 0.8fpy = 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 169.7 ksi OK
The effective stress in strands after all losses and permanent gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 1.5= 202.5 –38.2 + 1.5 = 165.8 ksi
Force per strand without live load gains= (fpe)(area of strand) = 165.8 (0.153) = 25.4 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after all losses = 25.4(31) = 787.4 kips
Final loss percentage = (total losses and gains)/(fpi) = (38.2-1.5)/(202.5) = 18.1%
The initial estimate of final losses of 20%, which was used to determine the number of strands, is conservative.
Because the assumed initial loss and final loss are close, there is no need to perform a second iteration with the
computed total losses.
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, all the elastic gains and losses are
implicitly accounted for:
Force per strand with only total time-dependent losses = (fpi − ΔfpLT)(area of strand) = (202.5 − 28.7)(0.153) =
26.59 kips
Total prestressing force, Ppe = 26.59(31) = 824.3 kips

9.4.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER

Because the transformed section is used, total prestressing force before and after transfer, Ppi = 960.4 kips

9.4 - 21 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete/9.4.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Bonded Strands

9.4.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.4]

Compression:
• 0.6𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 0.6(4.0) = +2.400 ksi
where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = concrete strength at transfer = 4.000 ksi
Tension:
• without bonded auxiliary reinforcement
−0.0948 √𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≤ −0.200 ksi = −0.0948 √4.000 = −0.190 ksi ≤ −0.200 ksi OK
• with bonded auxiliary reinforcement that is sufficient to resist 120% of the tension force in the cracked
concrete
−0.24 √𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = −0. 24 √4.000 = −0.480 ksi

9.4.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Bonded Strands

Stresses at this location need only be checked at transfer, because this stage almost always governs. Also, losses
with time will reduce the concrete stresses making them less critical.
Transfer length = 60(strand diameter) = 60(0.5) = 30 in. = 2.5 ft [LRFD Art. 5.11.4]
The transfer length extends to approximately 2.5 ft from the end of the beam or 2.0 ft from centerline of the
bearing. Due to the camber of the beam at transfer, the self weight of the beam and diaphragms act on the overall
beam length, 96 ft. Therefore, the values of bending moment given in Table 9.4.4-1 cannot be used at transfer
because they are based on the design span, 95 ft. Using statics, bending moments at the end of the transfer length
due to beam and diaphragm weights, are
Mg = 0.5wgx(L − x) = 0.5(0.847)(2.5)(96 − 2.5) = 99.0 ft-kips, and
Md = (0.73 + 0.73/2)(2.5) = 2.7 ft-kips
Compute stress in top of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 960.4 (960.4)(14.18) (99.0 + 2.7)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 843.5 8,737 8,737
= 1.139 − 1.559 + 0.140 = −0.280 ksi
Tensile stress limit for concrete with no bonded reinforcement: −0.190 ksi NG
Tensile stress limit for concrete with bonded reinforcement: −0.480 ksi OK
Compute stress in bottom of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 960.4 (960.4)(14.18) (99.0 + 2.7)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 843.5 9,426 9,426
= 1.139 + 1.445 − 0.129 = 2.455 ksi
Compression stress limit for concrete: 2.400 ksi NG
Therefore, try debonding seven strands from the strand group at 2 in. from bottom for a distance of 5 ft 0 in. from
the end of the beam or 4 ft 6 in. from centerline of bearing.
To minimize the shock impact of detensioning and cracks at corners and bottom, assume the strand pattern
shown in Figure 9.4.8.2-1. LRFD Article 5.11.4.3 requires that the following conditions be satisfied if debonding
is used:
• Percentage debonded of total = 7/31 = 22.6% < 25% OK
• Percentage debonded of row = 7/23 = 30.4% < 40% OK
• All limit states should be satisfied OK
• Debonded strands should be symmetrically distributed OK
• Exterior strands in each horizontal line are fully bonded OK

9.4 - 22 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Bonded Strands /9.4.8.3 Stresses at Transfer length Section of Debonded Strands

Recompute the stresses at the transfer length section. Note that the transformed section properties here are
different than those at midspan after debonding. Using the same method as described in Sect. 9.4.5.5, the
transformed section properties at end of beam are computed as:
Ati = 836.6 in.2 ybti = 18.90 in. Sbti = 9,253 in.3 Stti = 8,700 in.3
Figure 9.4.8.2-1
Strand Pattern at End of Beam

The distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom fiber of the beam is:
ybs = [16(2) + 6(4) + 2(36)]/(24) = 5.33 in.
and the strand eccentricity for the transformed section at end of beam is:
eeti = 18.90 − 5.33 = 13.57 in.
Total prestressing force before transfer at end section = 24(30.98) = 743.5 kips
Concrete stress in top of beam:
743.5 743.5(13.57) (99.0 + 2.7)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 0.889 − 1.160 + 0.140 = −0.131 ksi
836.6 8,700 8,700
Tension stress limit for concrete with no bonded reinforcement: −0.190 ksi OK
Thus, there is no need for additional bonded reinforcement.
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
743.5 743.5(13.57) (99.0 + 2.7)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 0.889 + 1.090 − 0.132 = +1.847 ksi
836.6 9,253 9,253
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +2.400 ksi OK

9.4.8.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands

All strands are effective at this location, therefore, use the full value of Ppi. Bending moments due to the self weight
of the beam and diaphragm, at (5 ft + 2.5 ft = 7.5 ft) from the end of the beam, based on overall length, are: 𝑀𝑔 =
0.5𝑤𝑔 𝑥(𝐿 − 𝑥) = 0.5 (0.847)(7.5)(96 − 7.5) = 281.1 ft-kips
𝑀𝑑 = (0.73 + 0.73/2)7.5 = 8.2 ft-kips
Concrete stress in top of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 960.4 (960.4)(14.18) (281.1 + 8.2)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 843.5 8,737 8,737
= 1.139 − 1.559 + 0.397 = −0.023 ksi
Tension stress limit for concrete with no bonded reinforcement: −0.190 ksi OK

9.4 - 23 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.8.3 Stresses at Transfer length Section of Debonded Strands/9.4.9.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

Concrete stress in bottom of beam:

𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 960.4 (960.4)(14.18) (281.1 + 8.2)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 843.5 9,426 9,426
= 1.139 + 1.445 − 0.368 = 2.216 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +2.400 ksi OK

9.4.8.4 Stresses at Midspan

Bending moments due to beam self weight and diaphragm weight at midspan are
𝑀𝑔 = 0.5𝑤𝑔 𝑥(𝐿 − 𝑥) = 0.5 (0.847)(48)(96 − 48) = 975.7 ft-kips
0.73
𝑀𝑑 = (0.73 + ) (48) − 0.73(23.75) = 35.2 ft-kips
2
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 960.4 (960.4)(14.18) (975.7 + 35.2)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 843.5 8,737 8,737
= 1.139 − 1.559 + 1.388 = +0.968 ksi
Tension stress limit for concrete with no bonded reinforcement: −0.190 ksi OK
and,
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 960.4 (960.4)(14.18) (975.7 + 35.2)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 843.5 9,426 9,426
= 1.139 + 1.445 − 1.287 = +1.297 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +2.400 ksi OK

9.4.8.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

Top Fiber Bottom Fiber
Stresses Stresses
ft, ksi fb, ksi
At transfer length section of bonded strands −0.131 +1.847
At transfer length section of debonded strands −0.023 +2.216
At midspan +0.968 +1.297

9.4.9 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]

Using transformed section properties and refined losses, Ppe = 824.3 kips
9.4.9.1 Stress Limits for Concrete
Compression:
Due to permanent loads, i.e., beam self weight, diaphragm weight, wearing surface, and barrier load, for load
combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.45𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(5.000) = 2.250 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads, i.e., all dead loads and live loads, for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.60𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(5.000) = 3.000 ksi
Tension:
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III:
for precast beams: −0.19√𝑓𝑐′ = −0.19√5.000 = −0.425 ksi

9.4 - 24 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.9.2 Stresses at Midspan/9.4.9.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

9.4.9.2 Stresses at Midspan

9.4.9.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam

To check compressive stresses at the top of the beam, two cases are considered.
1: Under permanent load, load combination Service I:
Using values in Tables 9.4.4-1 and 9.4.4-2, compute the top fiber stresses:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 + 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓
824.3 824.3(14.24) (955.5 + 34.7 + 97.0 + 141.0)(12)
= − +
839.8 8,713 8,713
= 0.982 − 1.347 + 1.692 = +1.327 ksi
Compression stress limit for concrete: +2.250 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )(12)
𝑓𝑡 = +1.327 +
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓
(545.8 + 207.2)(12)
= +1.327 +
8,713
= +1.327 + 1.037 = +2.364 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.000 ksi OK
9.4.9.2.2 Concrete Stress in Bottom ofBbeam, Load Combination Service III
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 + 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 ) + 0.8(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
824.3 824.3(14.24) [(955.5 + 34.7 + 97.0 + 141.0) + 0.8(545.8 + 207.2)](12)
= + −
839.8 9,342 9,342
= +0.982 + 1.256 − 2.351 = −0.113 ksi
Tension stress limit for concrete: −0.425 ksi OK
9.4.9.3 Fatigue Stress Limit
LRFD Article 5.5.3.1 also states that in fully prestressed components other than segmentally constructed bridges,
the compressive stress due to the Fatigue I load combination and one-half the sum of effective prestress and
permanent loads shall not exceed 0.40𝑓𝑐′ after losses.
From Table 9.4.4-2, the unfactored fatigue bending moment at midspan, Mf, is 206.6 ft-kips. Therefore, stress at
the top fiber of the beam due to fatigue load combination I is:
1.50(𝑀𝑓 ) 1.50 (206.6)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 = = = +0.427 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 8,713
At midspan, the top compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − + +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓
824.3 (824.3)(14.24) (955.5 + 34.7)(12) (141 + 97)(12)
= − + +
839.8 8,713 8,713 8,713
= 0.982 − 1.347 + 1.364 + 0.328 = 1.327 ksi

9.4 - 25 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.9.3 Fatigue Stress Limit/9.4.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement

Therefore:
𝑓𝑡𝑔 1.327
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 + = 0.427 + = 1.091 < 0.40( 𝑓𝑐′ ) = 0.40(5.000) = 2.0 ksi OK
2 2
This condition should be satisfied at all locations along the beam.
9.4.9.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads
The stresses calculated using the above methods are summarized in Table 9.4.9.4 -1. For comparison, the
stresses calculated for the same design example using the previous method of calculating prestress losses are also
shown in the table (Example 9.2 in the previous edition of the manual).
Table 9.4.9.4-1
Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads
Top of Beam, ksi
Bottom of
Design Service I
Beam, ksi
Example Permanent
Total Loads Service III
Loads
9.4 +1.327 +2.364 −0.113
9.2 +1.328 +2.386 −0.168

9.4.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT

9.4.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement
The check of maximum reinforcement in LRFD Article 5.7.3.3.1 was removed from the LRFD Specifications in
2005.

9.4.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]

At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement must be adequate to develop
a factored flexural resistance, Mr, equal to the lesser of:
• 1.2 times the cracking strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and

• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan:
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 (𝑓𝑟 + 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.2-1]
The above equation is a simplified form of LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.2-1 because a composite section does not exist.
Therefore, the composite section modulus and noncomposite section modulus are the same.
where
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= 0.37√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.37√5.000 = 0.827 ksi

fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all prestress
losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 824.3 824.3(14.24)
= + = + = 2.238 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 839.8 9,342
Mcr = (0.827 + 2.238)9,342/12 = 2,386 ft-kips
1.2Mcr = 1.2(2,386) = 2,863 ft-kips

9.4 - 26 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.4.11.1 Critical Section

At midspan, the factored moment required by Strength I load combination is:

Illustrated based on 2011
Mu = 2,888.3 ft-kips (as calculated in Sect. 9.4.6)
LRFD Specifications.
Thus, 1.33Mu = 1.33(2,888.3) = 3,841.4 ft-kips
Editor’s Note: 2012 LRFD
Since 1.2Mcr < 1.33Mu, the 1.2Mcr requirement controls. Specifications changes will
revise minimum
Mr = 3,190.7 ft-kips > 1.2Mcr OK
reinforcement.
Note: The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at every section.

9.4.11 SHEAR DESIGN

The area and spacing of shear reinforcement must be determined at regular intervals along the entire length of
the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design procedures are demonstrated below by determining
these values at the critical section near the supports.
Transverse shear reinforcement is required when:
Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
where
Vu = total factored shear force, kips
Vc = nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the concrete, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
ɸ = resistance factor = 0.9 for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]

9.4.11.1 Critical Section [LRFD Art. 5.8.3.2]

The critical section near the supports is taken as the effective shear depth dv from the internal face of the support.
dv = distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (de − a/2), but [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
not less than (0.9de) or (0.72h)
where
de = the corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the
centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement
a = depth of compression block = 5.74 in. (assumed adequate)
h = overall depth = 39.00 in.
Note: Only 22 strands (16 at 2 in. and 6 at 4 in.) are effective at the critical section for shear, because seven
strands are debonded for a distance equal to 5 ft from the end of the beam and the top level of strands is ignored.
Because the beam is a flanged section, the effective shear depth, dv, should be determined using LRFD Eq. C5.8.2.9-
1. However, dv can be conservatively approximated as de − a/2 using a as determined in the midspan flexural
analysis in Sect. 9.4.6.
ybs = [16(2) + 6(4)]/(22) = 2.55 in.
de = h − ybs = 39.00 − 2.55 = 36.45 in.
dv = de − a/2 = [36.45 − (5.74/2)] = 33.58 in.
0.9de = 0.9(36.45) = 32.81 in.
0.72h = 0.72(39) = 28.08 in.
Therefore, dv = 33.58 in.

9.4 - 27 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.11.1 Critical Section/9.4.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is conservatively assumed to be zero for determining
the critical section for shear, as shown in Figure 9.4.11.1-1. Therefore, the critical section for shear is at a
distance of:
33.58 in. = 2.80 ft from centerline of support
x/L = 2.80/95 = 0.029L
Figure 9.4.11.1-1
Critical Section in Shear

6” 33.58” Critical Section In Shear

9.4.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance

The contribution of the concrete to the nominal shear resistance is:
Vc = 0.031β√𝑓𝑐′ bvdv [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
where β = factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension (a value indicating
concrete contribution).
Several quantities must be determined before this expression can be evaluated.

9.4.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

Calculate the strain at the centroid of the tension reinforcement, εs :
|𝑀𝑢 |
+ 0.5𝑁𝑢 + |(𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 )| − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑜
𝑑 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-4]
ε𝑠 = 𝑣
(𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 )
where
Nu = applied factored axial force at the specified section, 0.029L = 0 kips
Vu = applied factored shear force at the specified section, 0.029L
= 1.25(37.9 + 1.1 + 3.8) + 1.50(5.6) + 1.75(37.0 + 12.7) (Tables 9.4.4-1 and 9.4.4-2)
= 148.9 kips
Vp = component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the applied shear
= 0 kips since strand pattern is straight
Mu = applied factored bending moment at the specified section, 0.029L, or, conservatively taken as the
maximum Mu.
= 1.25(109.3 + 3.1 + 11.1) + 1.50(16.1) + 1.75(67.1 + 23.7) (Tables 9.4.4-1 and 9.4.4-2)
= 337.4ft-kips

9.4 - 28 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement/9.4.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement

Mu need not to be taken less than (Vu − Vp)dv = (148.9− 0)( 33.58)/12 = 416.7ft-kips. Controls.
Aps = area of prestressing strands on the flexural tension side of the member = 22(0.153) = 3.366 in.2
fpo = a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by the locked in
difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the surrounding concrete (ksi). For
pretensioned members, LRFD Article C5.8.3.4.2 indicates that fpo can be taken as 0.70fpu. (Note:
use this for both pretensioned and post-tensioned systems made with stress relieved and low
relaxation strands).
= 0.70(270.0) = 189.0 ksi
|416.7(12)|
+ 0 + |(149.0 − 0)| − 3.366(189.0)
εs = 33.58 = −3.526 × 10−3
(0 + 28,500(3.366))
εs is less than zero. Use εs = 0.

9.4.11.2.2 Values of β and θ

Assume the section contains at least the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement:
4.8 4.8
β= = = 4.8 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-1]
(1 + 750ε𝑠 ) (1 + 0)
Angle of diagonal compressive stresses is:
θ = 29 + 3,500εs = 29 + 3,500(0) = 29° [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-3]

9.4.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution

The nominal shear resisted by the concrete is:
Vc = 0.0316β√𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
= 0.0316(4.8)√5.0 (10)(33.58 ) = 113.9 kips

9.4.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance

9.4.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement

Check if Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
Vu = 148.9 kips > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) = [0.5(0.9)](113.9 + 0) = 51.3 kips
Therefore, transverse shear reinforcement must be provided.
9.4.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement
Vu/ɸ ≤ Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1]
where
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement
= (Vu/ɸ) − Vc − Vp = (148.9/0.9) − 113.9 – 0 = 51.5kips
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦ℎ 𝑑𝑣 (cot θ + cot α)(sin α)
Vs = [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4]
𝑠
where
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, in.2
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis
= 90° for vertical stirrups
s = spacing of stirrups, in.

9.4 - 29 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement/9.4.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

Therefore, area of shear reinforcement within a spacing, s, is:

Av = (sVs)/(fyhdv cot θ)
= s(51.5)/[(60)( 33.58)cot 29°] = 0.0142(s) in.2
If s = 12 in., then Av = 0.17 in.2/ft
9.4.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement
Check maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement: [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
Check if 𝑣𝑢 < 0.125𝑓𝑐′
|𝑉𝑢 − ɸ𝑉𝑝 | |148.9 − 0|
𝑣𝑢 = = = 0.493 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.9-1]
ɸ𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 (0.9)(10)(33.58 )
0.125𝑓𝑐′ = 0.125(5.0) = 0.625 ksi
Since 𝑣𝑢 < 0.125𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.7-1]
s ≤ 24 in. (Controls)
s ≤ 0.8dv = (0.8)( 33.58) = 26.86 in.
s provided = 12 in. < 24 in. OK
Use No. 3 single leg in each web at 12 in. spacing
Av provided = 0.22 in.2/ft > Av required = 0.17 in.2 OK
0.22(60)(33.58 )(cot 29°)
𝑉𝑠 = = 66.6 kips
12

9.4.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.5]

The area of transverse reinforcement should not be less than:
𝑏𝑣 𝑠 (10)(12)
0.0316√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.0316√5 = 0.14 in.2 ⁄ft < 0.22 in.2 ⁄ft OK [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5-1]
𝑓𝑦ℎ 60.0

9.4.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

In order to assure that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush prior to yield of the transverse
reinforcement, the LRFD Specifications gives an upper limit for Vn as follows:
Vn = 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1], it can be concluded that
Vc + Vs must not be greater than 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv
113.9 + 66.6 = 180.5 kips ≤ 0.25(5.0)(10)( 33.58) = 419.8 kips OK
Using the above procedures, shear design was carried out at tenth points along the span. The results are shown
below in Table 9.4.11.4-1.

9.4 - 30 (Nov 11)

 PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Table 9.4.11.4-1 [Changes highlighted]

Design for Vertical Shear
Shear Moment Strain Maximum Minimum
Distance Section dv Aps Actual θ Vc Vs Av
Vu Mu εs β Spacing Av
x, ft x/L in. in.2 deg kips kips in.2/ft
kips ft -kips in./in. × 10-3 in. in.2/ft
2.80[1] 0.029 148.9 416.7 33.58 3.366 −3.526 29.0 4.8 113.9 51.5 24 0.17 0.14
9.5 0.1 131.0 1,060 33.59 4.437 −2.601 29.0 4.8 113.9 31.7 24 0.07 0.14

9.4 - 31
19.0 0.2 106.7 1,877 33.41 4.437 −0.457 29.0 4.8 113.3 5.3 24 0.01 0.14
28.5 0.3 82.0 2,448 33.41 4.437 0.970 32.4 2.8 66.1 25.0 24 0.06 0.14
38.0 0.4 58.7 2,771 33.41 4.437 1.703 35.0 2.1 49.6 15.6 24 0.04 0.14
47.5 0.5 35.9 2,889 33.41 4.437 1.858 35.5 2.0 47.2 — 24 — 0.14
[1] Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.4.11.1)
Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

9.4.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE

(Nov 11)
 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.12 Interface Shear Transfer/9.4.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing

9.4.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER

Because there is no cast-in-place composite deck, calculations for interface shear transfer are not required.

9.4.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT [LRFD ART. 5.8.3.5]

Longitudinal reinforcement should be proportioned so that at each section the following equation is satisfied:
𝑀𝑢 𝑁𝑢 𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ + 0.5 + (| − 𝑉𝑝 | − 0.5𝑉𝑠 ) cot θ [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.5-1]
𝑑𝑣 ɸ𝑓 ɸ𝑐 ɸ𝑣

where
Aps = area of prestressing strand at the tension side of the section, in.2
fps = average stress in prestressing strand at the time for which nominal resistance is required, ksi
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.2
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars, ksi
Mu = factored moment at the section corresponding to the factored shear force, ft-kips
dv = effective shear depth, in.
ϕ = resistance factor as appropriate for moment, shear, and axial resistance. Therefore, different
ϕ factors will be used for the terms in LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.5-1, depending on the type of action
considered.
Nu = applied factored axial force = 0 kips
Vu = factored shear force at section, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement, kips
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses

9.4.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing

For simple end supports, the longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member at inside face
of bearing should satisfy:
𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ (| − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 |) cot θ [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.5-2]
ɸ𝑣
Mu = 0 ft-kips
Nu = 0 kips
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is assumed to be zero. This assumption is conservative
for these calculations. Therefore, the failure crack assumed for this analysis radiates from the centerline of the
bearing, 6 in. from the end of the beam.
From Tables 9.4.4-1 and 9.4.4-2, using load combination Strength I, the factored shear force at this section is:
Vu = 1.25(40.2 + 1.1 + 4.1) + 1.5(5.9) + 1.75(38.3 + 13.5) = 156.3 kips
𝑉𝑢 156.3
( − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 ) cot θ = ( − 0.5(66.6) − 0) cot 29° = 253.2 kips
ɸ 0.9
As shown in Figure 9.4.13.1-1, the assumed crack plane crosses the centroid of the 22 bonded bottom strands at
a distance of (6 + ybccot θ) from the end of the beam. Since the transfer length is 30 in. from the end of the beam
(60 times the strand diameter), the available prestress from the 22 straight strands is a fraction of the effective
prestress, fpe, in these strands.

9.4 - 32 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing/9.4.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement

Note: This crack is quite unlikely because it would form in the end block, which is a large solid section of concrete.
However, the analysis does not account for the area of concrete involved. It simply assumes a crack.
2(16) + 6(4)
For the 22 bonded bottom strands, 𝑦𝑏𝑐 = = 2.55 in.
22
Therefore, 6 + ybc cot θ = 6 + 2.55(cot 29°) = 10.60 in. < 30 in.
Since the location is within the transfer length, the available prestressing force is less than the effective
prestressing force. The prestressing force at the center line of bearing is:
10.60
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 = (22)(0.153) ((202.5 − 38.2) ) + 0 = 195.4 kips < 253.2 kips NG
30
The strands are not adequate to resist the required longitudinal force. Therefore, provide additional
nonprestressed reinforcement to carry the difference.
Force to be resisted by additional reinforcement = 253.2 – 195.4 = 57.8 kips
Additional nonprestressed reinforcement required = (57.8 kips)/(60 ksi) = 0.96 in.2
Use five No. 4 bars
The area of steel provided = 5 × 0.20 = 1.00 in.2
This reinforcement could be eliminated by using a 7-in. wide bearing:
10.60 + 3.5
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑠 = 22(0.153) [(202.5 − 38.2) ( )] = 259.9 kips > 253.2 kips OK
30
Note: An alternative approach for the calculation of available prestressing force excluding the gains from deck
shrinkage is illustrated in Section 9.6.13.1.
Figure 9.4.13.1-1
Assumed Failure Crack

9.4.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE [LRFD Art. 5.10.10]

9.4.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement
Design of the anchorage zone reinforcement is computed using the force in the strands just before transfer. Since
seven strands are debonded at the ends of the beam, the force in the remaining strands before transfer is:
Ppi = 24(0.153)(202.5) = 743.6 kips
The bursting resistance, Pr, should not be less than 4.0% of Ppi
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠 ≥ 0.04𝑃𝑝𝑖 = 0.04(743.6) = 29.7 kips
where
As = total area of vertical reinforcement located within the distance h/4 from the end of the beam, in.2

9.4 - 33 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement/9.4.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight

fs = allowable stress in steel, but taken not greater than 20 ksi

Solving for the required area of steel, As = 29.7/(20) = 1.49 in.2
At least 1.49 in.2 of vertical transverse reinforcement should be provided within a distance of h/4 = 39/4 = 9.75
in. from the end of the beam.
Use orthogonal welded wire reinforcement (WWR) of W20 or D20 wires at 12 in. centers vertically and
horizontally.
Space two layers of WWR at 3 in. starting at 2 in. from, and parallel to the end of the beam in the diaphragm. The
layers of WWR each provide four vertical and three horizontal wires. Area of steel provided is 2(4 + 3)(0.2) = 2.80
in.2 Alternatively, a reinforcing bar cage could be used. Provide adequate embedment for bars.

9.4.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement

LRFD Article 5.10.10.2 requires that transverse reinforcement be provided in the bottom flange and anchored by
extending the leg of the stirrup into the web of the girder. The article does not state how much transverse
reinforcement should be provided in box beams.

9.4.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.6.2]

Deflections are calculated using the modulus of elasticity of concrete calculated in Section 9.4.3, and the gross
section properties of the noncomposite precast beam.
9.4.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer
𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑐 𝐿2
Δ𝑝 =
8𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δp = camber due to prestressing force after transfer, in.
Ppt = total prestressing force after transfer = 31(29.5) = 914.5 kips
ec = eccentricity of prestressing strand at midspan = 14.71 in.
L = overall beam length = 96.0 ft
Eci = modulus of elasticity at transfer = 3,834 ksi
Ig = moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast beam = 168,367 in.4
(914.5)(14.71)(96 × 12)2
Δ𝑝 = = 3.46 in. ↑
(8)(3,834)(168,367)

9.4.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight

5𝑤𝑔 𝐿4
Δ𝑔 =
384𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δg = deflection due to beam self weight, in.
wg = beam self weight = 0.847 kips/ft
Deflection due to beam self weight at transfer:
L = overall beam length = 96.0 ft
0.847
5( ) (96 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 2.51 in. ↓
(384)(3,834)(168,367)
Deflection due to beam self weight at erection:
L = design span = 95.0 ft

9.4 - 34 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight/9.4.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

0.847
5( ) (95 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 2.40 in. ↓
(384)(3,834)(168,367)
9.4.15.3 Deflection Due to Diaphragm Weight
19𝑃𝑑 𝐿3
Δ𝑑 =
384𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δd = deflection due to diaphragm weight, in.
Pd = diaphragm weight concentrated at quarter points = 0.73 kips
Deflection due to diaphragm weight at transfer:
L = overall beam length = 96.0 ft
19(0.73)(96 × 12)3
Δ𝑑 = = 0.09 in. ↓
(384)(3,834)(168,367)
Deflection due to diaphragm weight at erection:
L = design span = 95.0 ft
19(0.73)(95 × 12)3
Δ𝑑 = = 0.08 in. ↓
(384)(3,834)(168,367)

9.4.15.4 Deflection Due to Barrier and Wearing Surface Weights

5(𝑤𝑏 + 𝑤𝑤𝑠 )𝐿4
Δ𝑏+𝑤𝑠 =
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔
where
Δb+ws = deflection due to barrier and wearing surface weights, in.
wb = barrier weight = 0.086 kips/ft
wws = wearing surface weight = 0.125 kips/ft
L = design span = 95.0 ft because these loads are applied to the structure in its final location
0.211
5( ) (95 × 12)4
Δ𝑏+𝑤𝑠 = 12 = 0.54 in. ↓
(384)(4,287)(168,367)

9.4.15.5 Deflection and Camber Summary

At transfer: (Δp + Δg + Δd) = 3.46 − 2.51 − 0.09 = 0.86 in. 
Total deflection at erection using PCI multipliers (see PCI Design Handbook):
1.8(3.46) − 1.85(2.51 + 0.09) = 1.42 in. 
Long-Term Deflection:
LRFD Article 5.7.3.6.2, states that the long-time deflection may be taken as the instantaneous deflection multiplied
by a factor, 4.0, if the instantaneous deflection is based on gross moment of inertia. However, a factor of 4.0 is not
appropriate for this type of precast construction. Therefore, it is recommended that the designer follow the
guidelines of the owner agency for which the bridge is being designed, or undertake a more rigorous time-
dependent analysis.

9.4.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

Live load deflection limit (optional) = Span/800 [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]

9.4 - 35 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

12
= (95 × ) = 1.43 in.
800
If the owner invokes the optional live load deflection criteria specified in Art. 2.5.2.6.2, the deflection is the
greater of
• that resulting from the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, or
• that resulting from 25% of the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, taken together with the design lane load, ΔLL.
Note: LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2 states that the dynamic load allowance be included in the calculation of live load
deflection.
The LRFD Specifications state that all the beams should be assumed to deflect equally [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
under the applied live load and impact.
Therefore, the distribution factor for deflection, DFD, is calculated as follows:
DFD = (number of lanes/number of beams) [LRFD Art. C2.5.2.6.2]
= (2/7) = 0.286 lanes/beam
However, it is more conservative to use the distribution factor for moment, DFM.
Deflection due to lane load
Design lane load, w = 0.64DFM = 0.64(0.287) = 0.184 kips/ft/beam
0.184
5𝑤𝐿4 5( ) (95 × 12)4
Δ𝐿𝐿 = = 12 = 0.47 in. ↓
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔 (384)(4,287)(168,367)
Deflection due to Design Truck Load with Impact:
To obtain maximum moment and deflection at midspan due to the truck load, let the centerline of the beam
coincide with the middle point of the distance between the inner 32-kip axle and the resultant of the truck load, as
shown in Figure 9.4.15.6-1.

9.4 - 36 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact/9.4.16 Transverse Post-Tensioning

Figure 9.4.15.6-1
Design Truck Axle Load Position on the Span for Maximum Moment [use larger arrowheads on dimension
lines]

Using the elastic moment area, deflection at midspan is:

ΔLT = 2.90(IM)(DFM) = 2.90(1.33)(0.287) = 1.11 in. ↓
Therefore, live load deflection is the greater of:
ΔLT = 1.11 in. ↓ (Controls)
0.25 ΔLT + ΔLL = 0.25(1.11) + 0.47 = 0.75 in. ↓
Allowable live load deflection: 1.43 in. > 1.11 in. OK

9.4.16 TRANSVERSE POST-TENSIONING

Article C4.6.2.2.1 in the LRFD Specifications states that for bridge type (g), the structure acts as a monolithic unit if
sufficiently interconnected. To satisfy this requirement, the LRFD Specifications recommends that a minimum
average transverse prestress of 0.250 ksi be used. However, definition of the contact area for that post-tensioning
is unclear as to whether it is the shear key, the diaphragm, or the entire box side surface. Instead of an empirical
minimum, El-Remaily (1996) recommends that the entire deck surface be modeled as a rigid assembly of
gridwork with adequate post-tensioning to provide for a continuous transverse member at the diaphragm
locations. A design chart based on this theory is given in Chapter 8 for the required transverse post-tensioning per
unit length of span.
According to the chart, for a 28 ft-wide bridge with 39 in. deep beams, an effective post-tensioning force of 6.75
kips/ft is required. Since diaphragms are provided at quarter-points of the span, the post-tensioning force
required is:
6.75(23.75) = 160 kips/diaphragm
It is recommended that transverse post-tensioning consist of one tendon near the top and another near the
bottom in order to provide sufficient flexural strength.
Use 160-ksi prestressing bars. Assume the effective prestress to be 55 percent of the ultimate strength of the bar.
Peff = 0.55(160)APT = 88.0APT kips

9.4 - 37 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.4

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.4.16 Transverse Post-Tensioning

160.0
Thus, total required 𝐴𝑃𝑇 = = 1.82 in.2 ⁄diaphragm
88.0
Try (2) 1¼ in. diameter, 160 ksi, bars.
The total area provided is APT = 2(1.23) = 2.46 in.2
Total provided post-tensioning force = (2.46)(0.55)(160) = 216 kips/diaphragm > 160 kips/diaphragm OK
If the post-tensioning bars are positioned so that they are concentric with the diaphragm cross section, concrete
stress due to the effective prestressing force is:
216/(8)(39) = 0.629 ksi
If available, (2) 11/8 in. diameter bars could be used

9.4 - 38 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 5
9.5.1.1 Terminology ................................................................................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 5
9.5.2 MATERIALS ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 6
9.5.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM ................................................................................ 9.5 - 7
9.5.3.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed Beam Section ........................................................................................................... 9.5 - 7
9.5.3.2 Composite Section ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 8
9.5.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width.................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 8
9.5.3.2.2 Modular Ratio between Slab and Beam Concrete .............................................................................................. 9.5 - 8
9.5.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties ................................................................................................................................ 9.5 - 8
9.5.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ......................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 10
9.5.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads ...................................................................................... 9.5 - 10
9.5.4.1.1 Dead Loads........................................................................................................................................................................ 9.5 - 10
9.5.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments ............................................................................................ 9.5 - 11
9.5.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads ........................................................................................ 9.5 - 11
9.5.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam ....................................................................... 9.5 - 11
9.5.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments ................................................................................................ 9.5 - 12
9.5.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force ............................................................................................................. 9.5 - 13
9.5.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance ...................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 13
9.5.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments ............................................................................................ 9.5 - 13
9.5.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT...................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 13
9.5.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL ......................................................................................................... 9.5 - 14
9.5.4.3 Load Combinations ................................................................................................................................................................ 9.5 - 15
9.5.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS .......................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 16
9.5.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan .................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 16
9.5.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete ................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 17
9.5.5.3 Required Number of Strands ............................................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 17
9.5.5.4 Strand Pattern .......................................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 17
9.5.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties........................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 18
9.5.6 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE ............................................................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 19
9.5.7 PRESTRESS LOSSES ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9.5 - 21
9.5.7.1 Elastic Shortening.............................................................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 21
9.5.7.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement ..................................................................... 9.5 - 22
9.5.7.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete .................................................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 22
9.5.7.2.2 Creep of Concrete........................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 24
9.5.7.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing strands ........................................................................................................................ 9.5 - 24
9.5.7.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time ................................................................. 9.5 - 24
9.5.7.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete .................................................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 24
9.5.7.3.2 Creep of Concrete........................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 25
9.5.7.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ........................................................................................................................ 9.5 - 26

9.5 - 1 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.5.7.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete ...................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 26
9.5.7.3.5 Total Time-Dependent Loss ...................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 27
9.5.7.3.6 Total Losses at Transfer ............................................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 27
9.5.7.3.7 Total Losses at Service Loads ................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 27
9.5.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER .................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 28
9.5.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 28
9.5.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section ............................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 28
9.5.8.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands .................................................................................. 9.5 - 30
9.5.8.4 Stresses at Midspan ............................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 30
9.5.8.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer ..................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 30
9.5.9 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS .......................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 31
9.5.9.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 31
9.5.9.2 Stresses at Midspan ............................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 31
9.5.9.3 Fatigue Stress Limit ............................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 32
9.5.9.4 Summary of Stresses at Service Loads .......................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 32
9.5.9.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage ........................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 32
9.5.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT .................................................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 33
9.5.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 33
9.5.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 33
9.5.11 SHEAR DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 33
9.5.11.1 Critical Section....................................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 34
9.5.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance ..................................................................................... 9.5 - 35
9.5.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement ....................................................................................................... 9.5 - 35
9.5.11.2.2 Values of β and θ ......................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 36
9.5.11.3 Compute Concrete Contribution .............................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 36
9.5.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance ......................................................................... 9.5 - 36
9.5.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement .......................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 36
9.5.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement ......................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 36
9.5.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement ................................................................................................................ 9.5 - 37
9.5.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement ............................................................................................................ 9.5 - 37
9.5.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance .......................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 37
9.5.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER .............................................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 37
9.5.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear ............................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 37
9.5.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance ........................................................................................................................................ 9.5 - 38
9.5.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement.................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 38
9.5.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement ....................................................................................................... 9.5 - 38
9.5.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance .......................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 39
9.5.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT ............................................................................. 9.5 - 39
9.5.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing ............................................................................................................ 9.5 - 39

9.5 - 2 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.5.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE ................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 41
9.5.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 41
9.5.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 41
9.5.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer .................................................................................................. 9.5 - 41
9.5.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight ............................................................................................................................ 9.5 - 42
9.5.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights ............................................................................................................ 9.5 - 42
9.5.15.4 Deflection Due to Diaphragm Weight ......................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 42
9.5.15.5 Deflection Due to Barrier and Wearing Surface Weights ................................................................................... 9.5 - 43
9.5.15.6 Deflection and Camber Summary ................................................................................................................................. 9.5 - 43
9.5.15.7 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact .................................................................................................................... 9.5 - 43

9.5 - 3 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK

This page intentionally left blank

9.5 - 4 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.1 Introduction/9.5.1.1 Terminology

9.5 Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses

9.5.1 INTRODUCTION
This design example demonstrates the design of a 95-ft-long, single span, AASHTO Type BIII-48 box beam bridge
with no skew. This example illustrates, in detail, the design of a typical interior beam at the critical sections in
positive flexure, shear, and deflection due to prestress, dead loads, and live loads. The superstructure consists of
seven adjacent beams, as shown in Figure 9.5.1-1. Beams are designed to act compositely with a 5.5-in.-thick
cast-in-place concrete deck to resist all superimposed dead loads, live loads, and impact. A ½-in.-thick wearing
surface is considered to be an integral part of the 5.5-in.-thick deck. Design live load is HL-93. The design is
accomplished in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fifth Edition, 2010, and the 2011
Interim Revisions. Elastic stresses from external loads are calculated using transformed sections. Shear strength
is calculated using the general procedure. Time-dependent prestress losses are calculated using the refined
estimates.
Figure 9.5.1-1
Bridge Cross Section
1’-6” 1’-6”

5 ½” Composite concrete deck

7 Beams @ 4’-0’ = 28’-0

9.5.1.1 Terminology
The following terminology is used to describe cross sections in this design example:
noncomposite section—the concrete beam cross section.
noncomposite nontransformed section—the concrete beam cross section without the strands transformed. Also
called the gross section.
noncomposite transformed section—the concrete beam cross section with the strands transformed to provide
cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
composite section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch.
composite nontransformed section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch transformed to
provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete but without the strands transformed.
composite transformed section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch and the strands
transformed to provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
The term "composite" implicitly includes the transformation of the concrete deck and haunch.
The term "transformed" generally refers to transformation of the strands.

9.5 - 5 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.2 Materials

9.5.2 MATERIALS
Cast-in-place concrete slab: Actual thickness = 5.5 in.
Structural thickness, ts = 5.0 in.
Note that a ½-in.-thick wearing surface is considered to be an integral part of the deck.
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 4.0 ksi
Precast concrete beams: AASHTO BIII-48 box beams as shown in Figure 9.5.2-1
Required concrete compressive strength at transfer, 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 4.0 ksi
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 5.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight, wc = 0.150 kcf
Overall beam length = 96.0 ft
Design span = 95.0 ft
Prestressing strands: ½-in. diameter, low-relaxation
Area of one strand = 0.153 in.2
Specified tensile strength, fpu = 270.0 ksi

Yield strength, fpy = 0.9 fpu = 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Stress limits for prestressing strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
• Before transfer, fpi ≤ 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi
• At service limit state (after all losses), fpe ≤ 0.80fpy = 194.4 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Ep = 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art.5.4.4.2]
Reinforcing bars:
Yield strength, fy = 60.0 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Es = 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art.5.4.3.2]
Future wearing surface: 2 in. additional concrete, unit weight = 0.150 kcf
New Jersey-type barrier: unit weight = 0.300 kips/ft/side

9.5 - 6 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.2 Materials/9.5.3.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed Beam Section

Figure 9.5.2-1
AASHTO BIII-48 Box Beam Dimensions
” (TYP)

5 ½” 6” (TYP)

6” (TYP)

¾”
39” 28”

3” (TYP)

3” (TYP)

5 ½”

5” 38” 5”

48”

9.5.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM

9.5.3.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed Beam Section
Ag = area of cross section of precast beam = 813 in.2
h = overall depth of precast beam = 39 in.
Ig = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast beam = 168,367 in.4
yb = distance from centroid to extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 19.29 in.
yt = distance from centroid to extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 19.71 in.
Sb = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yb = 8,728 in.3
St = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the noncompsite precast beam = Ig/yt = 8,542 in.3
wg = beam weight per unit length = (813/144)0.150 = 0.847 kips/ft

Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, ksi = 33,000K1(wc)1.5√𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]

where
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate taken as 1.0
wc = unit weight of concrete = 0.150 kcf
LRFD Table 3.5.1-1 states that, in the absence of more precise data, the unit weight of concrete
may be taken as 0.140 + 0.001𝑓𝑐′ for 5.0 < 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 15.0 ksi. For 𝑓𝑐′ = 5.0 ksi, the unit weight would be
0.1450 kcf. However, precast concrete mixes typically have a relatively low water-cementitious
materials ratio and high density. Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150 kcf is used in this example. For
high-strength concrete, this value may need to be increased based on test results. For simplicity, a
value of 0.150 kcf is also used for the cast-in-place concrete.
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi

9.5 - 7 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.3.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed Beam Section/9.5.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties

Therefore, the modulus of elasticity for:

cast-in-place slab, Ec = 33,000(1.0)(0.150)1.5√4.0 = 3,834 ksi
precast beam at transfer, Eci = 33,000(1.0)(0.150)1.5 √4.0 = 3,834 ksi
precast beam at service loads, Ec = 33,000(1.0)(0.150)1.5 √5.0 = 4,287 ksi

9.5.3.2 Composite Section

9.5.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width [LRFD Art.4.6.2.6.1]

Effective flange width is taken as the tributary width perpendicular to the axis of the beam. For the interior beam,
the effective flange width is calculated as one-half the distance to the adjacent beam on each side.
2 × (24) = 48.00 in.
Therefore, the effective flange width is = 48.00 in.

9.5.3.2.2 Modular Ratio between Slab and Beam Concrete

𝐸𝑐 (slab) 3,834
Modular ratio between slab and beam concrete, 𝑛 = = = 0.8943
𝐸𝑐 (beam) 4,287

9.5.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties

The effective flange width must be transformed by the modular ratio to provide cross-sectional properties
equivalent to the beam concrete.
Transformed flange width = n(effective flange width) = (0.8943)(48) = 42.93 in.
Transformed flange area = n(effective flange width)(ts)
= (0.8943)(48)(5) = 214.63 in.2
Transformed flange moment of inertia = 42.93(5.0)3/12 = 447.19 in.4
Note: Only the structural thickness of the deck, 5.0 in., is considered.
Due to the camber of the precast, prestressed beam, a minimum haunch thickness of ½ in., at midspan is
considered in the structural properties of the composite section. Also, the width of haunch must be transformed
by the modular ratio.
Transformed width of haunch = (0.8943)(48) = 42.93 in.
Transformed area of haunch = (0.8943)(48)(0.5) = 21.46 in.2
Transformed moment of inertia of haunch = 42.93(0.5)3/12 = 0.447 in.4
Note that the haunch should only be considered to contribute to section properties if it is required to be provided
in the completed structure. Therefore, some designers neglect its contribution to the section properties.

9.5 - 8 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties

Figure 9.5.3.2.3-1
Dimensions of the Composite Section

Table 9.5.3.2.3-1
Properties of Composite Section
Area yb Ayb A(ybc – yb)2 I I + A(ybc – yb)2
in.2 in. in.3 in.4 in.4 in.4
Beam 813.00 19.29 15,683 20,734 168,367 189,101
Haunch 21.46 39.25 842 4,771 0.45 4,771
Deck 214.63 42.00 9,014 66,938 447 67,385
∑ 1,049.1 25,539 261,257

Ac = total area of the composite section = 1,049.1 in.2

hc = overall depth of the composite section = 44.50 in.
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section = 261,257 in.4
ybc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
= 25,539/1,049.1 = 24.34 in.
ytg = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the precast beam
= 39.00 – 24.34 = 14.66 in.
ytc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the deck
= 44.50 – 24.34 = 20.16 in.
Sbc = composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
261,257
= (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑏𝑐 ) = = 10,734 in.3
24.34
Stg = composite section modulus for the top fiber of the precast beam
261,257
= (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑡𝑔 ) = = 17,821 in.3
14.66
Stc = composite section modulus for extreme top fiber of the structural deck slab

1 𝐼𝑐 1 261,257
= ( )= ( ) = 14,491 in.3
𝑛 𝑦𝑡𝑐 0.8943 20.16

9.5 - 9 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.4 Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.5.4.1.1 Dead Loads

9.5.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

The self weight of the beam and the weight of the deck and haunch act on the noncomposite, simple-span
structure, while the weight of barriers, future wearing surface, and live loads with impact act on the composite,
simple-span structure. Refer to Tables 9.5.4-1 and 9.5.4-2, which follow Section 9.5.4.3 for a summary of
unfactored values calculated below.

9.5.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads

9.5.4.1.1 Dead Loads [LRFD Art. 3.3.2]

DC = Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
Dead loads acting on the noncomposite structure:
Beam self weight, wg = 0.847 kips/ft
8 (48 − 10) (39 − 11) 1 3 3
Diaphragm weight = ( ) [ × − 4 ( ) ( ) ( )] (0.150) = 0.73 kips/diaphragm
12 12 12 2 12 12
5.5-in.-thick deck weight = (5.5/12)(4 ft)(0.150 kcf) = 0.275 kips/ft
½-in.-thick haunch weight = (0.5)(48/144)(0.150) = 0.025 kips/ft
ws = 0.275 + 0.025 = 0.300 kips/ft
Notes:
1. Actual deck thickness (5.5 in.) is used for computing dead load.
2. A ½-in. minimum haunch thickness is assumed in the computations of dead load. If a deeper haunch
will be used because of final beam camber, the weight of the actual haunch should be used.
3. For this design example, the unit weight of the reinforced concrete is taken as 0.150 kcf. Some
designers use a higher unit weight to account for the weight of the reinforcement.
4. The weights of the diaphragms are considered concentrated loads acting at the ends, center, and
quarter points as shown in Figure 9.5.4.1.1-1.
Dead loads placed on the composite structure:
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1 states that permanent loads (curbs and future wearing surface) may be distributed
uniformly among all beams if the following conditions are met:
• Width of the deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb, is not less than four (Nb = 7) OK
• Beams are parallel and have the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft (de = 0.0 ft) OK
• Curvature in plan is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (curvature = 0.0°) OK
• Cross section of the bridge is consistent with one of the cross sections given in
LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 OK
Since these criteria are satisfied, the barrier and wearing surface loads are equally distributed among the
seven beams.
Barrier weight = (2 barriers)(0.300 kips/ft)/(7 beams) = 0.086 kips/ft/beam = wb
DW = dead load of future wearing surface
= (2/12)(0.150) = 0.025 ksf
= (0.025 ksf)(25.0 ft)/(7 beams) = 0.089 kips/ft = ww

9.5 - 10 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.4.1.1 Dead Loads/9.5.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam

Figure 9.5.4.1.1-1
Diaphragm Loads per Beam

9.5.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments

For a simply supported beam with span length (L) loaded with a uniformly distributed load (w), the shear force
(Vx) and bending moment (Mx) at any distance (x) from the support given by:
Vx = w(0.5L – x) (Eq.9.5.4.1.2-1)
Mx = 0.5wx(L – x) (Eq.9.5.4.1.2-2)
Using the above equations, values of shear forces and bending moments for a typical interior beam, under self
weight of beam, weight of slab and haunch, weight of barriers, and future wearing surface are computed and
shown in Table 9.5.4-1 that is located at the end of Section 9.5.4.3. For these calculations, the span length (L) is
the design span, 95 ft. However, for calculations of stresses and deformation at the time prestress is transferred,
the overall length of the precast member, 96 ft, is used, as illustrated later in this example.

9.5.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads

9.5.4.2.1 Live Loads

Design live load is HL-93 which consists of a combination of: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.1]
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance [LRFD Art.3.6.1.2.2]
The design truck consists of 8.0-, 32.0-, and 32.0-kip axles with the first pair spaced at 14.0 ft and the second
pair spaced at 14.0 to 30.0 ft. The design tandem consists of a pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced at 4.0 ft apart.
[LRFD Art.3.6.1.2.3]
2. Design lane load of 0.64 kips/ft without dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.4]

9.5.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam

The live load bending moments and shear forces are determined by using the simplified distribution factor
formulas, [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]. To use the simplified live load distribution factor formulas, the following conditions
must be met: [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2.1]
• Width of deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb not less than four (Nb = 7) OK
• Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft (de = 0.0 ft) OK
• Curvature is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (curvature = 0.0°) OK

9.5 - 11 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam/9.5.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments

For a precast cellular concrete box with shear keys and a cast-in-place concrete [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]
overlay, the bridge type is (f).
The number of design lanes is computed as:
The number of design lanes = the integer part of the ratio w/12, where (w) is the clear [LRFD Art.3.6.1.1.1]
roadway width, in ft, between the curbs
From Figure 9.5.1-1, w = 25 ft
Number of design lanes = Integer part of (25/12) = 2 lanes

9.5.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments

• For all limit states except fatigue limit state:
For two or more lanes loaded when members are sufficiently connected by the cast-in-place deck to act as a unit:
0.06
𝑏 0.6 𝑏 0.2
𝐼𝑐
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 𝑘 ( ) ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
305 12.0 𝐿 𝐽𝑔
Provided that: 35 ≤ b ≤ 60; b = 48 in. OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 120; L = 95 ft OK
5 ≤ Nb ≤ 20; Nb = 7 OK
where
DFM = distribution factor for moment of interior beam
k = 2.5(Nb)-0.2 ≥ 1.5 = 2.5(7)-0.2 = 1.694 >1.5 OK
Nb = number of beams
b = beam width, in.
L = beam span, ft
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite beam, in.4
Jg = St. Venant torsional inertia (derived using composite section properties), in.4
For closed, thin-walled shapes:
4𝐴20
𝐽𝑔 ~ 𝑠 [LRFD Eq. C4.6.2.2.1-3]
Σ
𝑡
where
A0 = area enclosed by centerlines of the elements of the beam
5.0 + 0.5 + 5.5 5.5
= (48 − 5) (44.5 − ( + )) = 1,559 in.2
2 2
s = length of a side element
t = thickness of an element
4(1,559)2
𝐽𝑔 = = 370,680 in.4
11 5.5
44.5 − ( 2 + 2 ) 48 − 5 48 − 5
2( )+( )+( )
5 5.5 11

Therefore,
48 0.6 48 0.2
261,257 0.06
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 1.694 ( ) ( ) ( ) = 0.290 lanes⁄beam
305 12.0 × 95.0 370,680

9.5 - 12 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments/9.5.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT

For one lane loaded, when sufficiently connected to act as a unit:

0.25
𝑏 0.5 𝐼𝑐
DFM = 𝑘 ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
33.3𝐿 𝐽𝑔

48 0.5
261,257 0.25
= 1.694 ( ) ( ) = 0.191 lanes⁄beam
33.3 × 95 370,680
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls and DFM = 0.290 lanes/beam.
• For fatigue limit state:
The LRFD Specifications Art. C3.4.1 states that for Fatigue Limit State, a single design truck should be used.
However, live load distribution factors given in Article 4.6.2.2 take into consideration the multiple presence
factor, m. LRFD Article 3.6.1.1.2 states that the multiple presence factor, m, for one design lane loaded is 1.2.
Therefore, the distribution factor for one design lane loaded should be used. Distribution factor for fatigue limit
state is: 0.191/1.2 = 0.159 lanes/beam

9.5.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force

For two or more lanes loaded:
0.05
𝑏 0.4 𝑏 0.1
𝐼𝑐 𝑏
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
156 12.0 𝐿 𝐽𝑔 48
Provided that: 35 ≤ b ≤ 60; b = 48 in. OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 120; L = 95 ft OK
5 ≤ Nb ≤ 20; Nb = 7 OK
25,000 ≤ Jg ≤ 610,000; Jg = 370,680 in.4 OK
40,000 ≤ Ic ≤ 610,000; Ic = 261,257 in.4 OK
where DFV = distribution factor for shear force for interior beam
48 0.4 48 0.1
261,257 0.05 48
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = 0.447 lanes⁄beam
156 12.0 × 95 370,680 48
For one design lane loaded:
0.05
𝑏 0.15 𝐼𝑐 48 0.15
261,257 0.05
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = ( ) ( ) = ( ) ( ) = 0.427 lanes/beam [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
130𝐿 𝐽𝑔 130 × 95 370,681
Thus, the case of two lanes loaded controls and DFV = 0.447 lanes/beam.

9.5.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.2]

IM = 15% for fatigue limit state
IM = 33 % for all other limit states
Where IM = dynamic load allowance, applied to design truck load only

9.5.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments

9.5.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT

• For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
Shear force and bending moment envelopes on a per-lane-basis are calculated at tenth-points of the span, using
the equations given in Chapter 8 of this manual. However, this is generally done by means of commercially
available computer software that has the ability to deal with moving loads. Therefore, truck load shear forces and
bending moments per beam are:

9.5 - 13 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT/9.5.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL

VLT = (shear force per lane) (DFV)(1 + IM)

= (shear force per lane)(0.447)(1 + 0.33)
= (shear force per lane)(0.595) kips
MLT = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.290)(1 + 0.33)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.386) ft-kips
Values of VLT and MLT at different points are given in Table 9.5.4-2.
• For fatigue limit state:
Article 3.6.1.4.1 in the LRFD Specifications states that the fatigue load is a single design truck which has the same
axle weight used in all other limit states, but with a constant spacing of 30.0 ft between the 32.0-kip axles.
Bending moment envelope on a per-lane-basis is calculated using the equation given in Chapter 8 of this manual.
Therefore, bending moment of fatigue truck load is:
Mf = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.159)(1 + 0.15)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.183) ft-kips
Values of Mf at different points are given in Table 9.5.4-2.

9.5.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL

To obtain the maximum shear force at a section located at a distance (x) from the left support under a uniformly
distributed load of 0.64 kips/ft, load the member to the right of the section under consideration, as shown in
Figure 9.5.4.2.4.2-1. Therefore, the maximum shear force per lane is:

0.32(𝐿 − 𝑥)2
𝑉𝑥 = for 𝑥 ≤ 0.5𝐿 (Eq. 9.5.4.2.4.2-1)
𝐿
where Vx is in kips/lane and L and x are in ft

Figure 9.5.4.2.4.2-1
Maximum Shear Force due to Design Lane Load

left reaction right reaction

x (95-x) > x

95’

CL Bearing CL Bearing

To calculate the maximum bending moment at any section, use Eq. (9.5.4.1.2-2).
Lane load shear forces and bending moments per beam are as follows:
VLL = (lane load shear force)(DFV)
= (lane load shear force)(0.447) kips

9.5 - 14 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL/9.5.4.3 Load Combinations

For all limit states except fatigue limit state:

MLL = (lane load bending moment)(DFM)
= (lane load bending moment)(0.290) ft-kips
Note that the dynamic allowance is not applied to the design lane loading.
Values of shear forces and bending moments, VLL and MLL, are given in Table 9.5.4-2.

9.5.4.3 Load Combinations [LRFD Art. 3.4]

Total factored load shall be taken as:
𝑄 = ∑η𝑖 γ𝑖 𝑄𝑖 [LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]
where
ηi = a load modifier relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance [LRFD Art.1.3.2.1]
(Here, ηi is considered to be 1.0 for typical bridges.)
γi = load factors [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Qi = force effects from specified loads
Investigating the various limit states given in LRFD Article 3.4.1, the following limit states are applicable:
Service I: check compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 1.00(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is the general combination for service limit state stress and applies to all conditions other
than Service III.
Service III: check tensile stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 0.80(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress that applies only to tension in
prestressed concrete structures to control cracks.
Strength I: check ultimate strength: [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and 2]
Maximum Q = 1.25(DC) + 1.50(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Minimum Q = 0.90 (DC) + 0.65(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
This load combination is the general load combination for strength limit state design.
Note: For simple-span bridges, the maximum load factors produce maximum effects. However, use minimum load
factors for dead load (DC) and wearing surface (DW) when dead load and wearing surface stresses are opposite to
those of live load.
Fatigue I: check stress range in strands: [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Q = 1.50(LL + IM)
This load combination is a special load combination to check the tensile stress range in the strands due to live
load and dynamic allowance.

9.5 - 15 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.4.3 Load Combinations/9.5.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Table 9.5.4-1
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads for a Typical Interior Beam
Slab and Haunch Wearing Surface Diaphragm
Beam Weight Barrier Weight
Section Weight Weight Weight
Distance
x/L Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment
x, ft
Vg Mg Vs Ms Vb Mb Vws Mws Vd Md
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips
0 0 40.2 0 14.3 0 4.1 0 4.2 0 1.1 0
*3.21 0.034 37.5 124.8 13.3 44.2 3.8 12.7 3.9 13.1 1.1 3.5
9.5 0.1 32.2 344.0 11.4 121.8 3.3 34.9 3.4 36.1 1.1 10.4
19.0 0.2 24.1 611.5 8.6 216.6 2.5 61.1 2.5 64.3 1.1 20.8
28.5 0.3 16.1 802.6 5.7 284.3 1.6 81.5 1.7 84.3 0.4 27.7
38.0 0.4 8.0 917.3 2.9 324.9 0.8 93.1 0.8 96.4 0.4 31.2
47.5 0.5 0.0 955.5 0.0 338.4 0.0 97.0 0.0 100.4 0.4 34.7
* Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.5.11)

Table 9.5.4-2
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads for a
Typical Interior Beam
Truck Load with Fatigue Truck
Lane Load
Section Impact with Impact
Distance
x/L Shear Moment Shear Moment Moment
x, ft
VLT MLT VLL MLL Mf
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips ft-kips
0 0 38.6 0 13.6 0 0
*3.21 0.034 37.2 77.1 12.7 27.3 32.6
9.5 0.1 34.3 211.5 11.0 75.4 88.6
19 0.2 30.0 370.8 8.7 134.0 152.1
28.5 0.3 25.8 476.3 6.7 175.8 195.6
38 0.4 21.5 538.1 4.9 201.0 217.7
47.5 0.5 17.2 551.5 3.4 209.4 214.7
* Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.5.11)

9.5.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

The required number of strands is usually governed by concrete tensile stresses at the bottom fiber for load
combination Service III and in some cases at load combination Strength I. For estimating the number of strands,
only the stresses at midspan are considered.

9.5.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Bottom tensile stress due to applied dead and live loads using load combination Service III is:
𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 + 𝑀𝑑 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + (0.8)(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 = +
𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑐
where
fb = concrete tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam, ksi
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight, ft-kips
Ms = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights, ft-kips
Md = unfactored bending moment due to diaphragm weight, ft-kips
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
Mws = unfactored bending moment due to future wearing surface, ft-kips

9.5 - 16 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan/9.5.5.4 Strand Pattern

MLT = unfactored bending moment due to truck load, ft-kips

MLL = unfactored bending moment due to lane load, ft-kips
Using values of bending moments from Tables 9.5.4-1 and 9.5.4-2, bottom tensile stress at midspan is:
(955.5 + 338.4 + 34.7)(12) (97.0 + 100.4 + (0.8)(551.5 + 209.4))(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + = 2.728 ksi
8,728 10,734

9.5.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete

Tensile stress limit at service limit state = 0.19√𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]
where 𝑓𝑐′ = specified concrete compressive strength of beam for design, ksi
Concrete tensile stress limit = −0.19√5.0 = −0.425 ksi

9.5.5.3 Required Number of Strands

The required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam after all losses is the difference between the
bottom tensile stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress limit:
fpb = 2.728 − 0.425 = 2.303 ksi
Assume the distance between the center of gravity of strands and the bottom fiber of the beam ybs = 4.0 in. at
midspan.
Therefore, strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = yb − ybs = 19.29 − 4.0 = 15.29 in.
If Ppe is the total prestressing force after all losses, the stress at the bottom fiber due to prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑝𝑒 (𝑃𝑝𝑒 )(15.29)
𝑓𝑝𝑏 = + or 2.303 = +
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 813 8,728
Solving for Ppe, the required Ppe = 772.3 kips
Final prestress force per strand = (area of strand)(fpi)(1 – final losses)
where fpi = initial stress before transfer = 202.5 ksi (Section 9.5.2)
Assuming a final loss of 20% of fpi, the prestress force per strand after all losses:
= (0.153)(202.5)(1−0.20) = 24.8 kips
Number of strands required = 772.3/24.8 = 31.1 strands
Try (31) ½-in.-diameter, 270 ksi strands
Total area of prestressing strands, Aps = 31(0.153) = 4.473 in.2
Note: This is a conservative estimate of the number of strands because nontransformed section
properties are used in lieu of transformed section properties. The number of strands can be refined later
in the design process as more accurate section properties and prestress losses are determined.

9.5.5.4 Strand Pattern

Figure 9.5.5.4-1 shows the assumed strand pattern for the 31 strands at midspan of the beam. All strands are
straight.
The distance between the center of gravity of the strands and the bottom concrete fiber of the beam at midspan:
23(2) + 6(4) + 2(36)
𝑦𝑏𝑠 = = 4.58 in.
31
Strand eccentricity at midspan:
ec = yb – ybs = 19.29 – 4.58 = 14.71 in. = epg

9.5 - 17 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.5.4 Strand Pattern/9.5.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

Figure 9.5.5.4-1
Strand Pattern at Midspan

9.5.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

From the earliest years of prestressed concrete design, the gross section was conservatively used in analysis since
the prestressing forces were smaller and computer programs were not widely used. However, the use of
transformed section, which is obtained from the gross section by adding transformed steel area, yields more
accurate results than the gross section analysis.
For each row of prestressing strands shown in Figure 9.5.5.4-1, the steel area is multiplied by (n – 1) to calculate
the transformed section properties, where n is the modular ratio between prestressing strand and concrete. Since
the modulus of elasticity of concrete is different at transfer and final time, the transformed section properties
should be calculated separately in the two stages. Using similar procedures as in Section 9.5.3.2.3, a sample
calculation is shown in Table 9.5.5.5-1 below.
At transfer:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 6.433
3,834
At final:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 5.648
4,287

Table 9.5.5.5-1
Properties of Transformed Section at Final Time
Transformed yb Ayb A(ybtc – yb)2 I I + A(ybtc – yb)2
Area, in. 2 in. in. 3 in.4 in.4 in.4
Deck 214.63 42.00 9,014 70,704 447 71,151
Haunch 21.46 39.25 842 5,089 0.45 5,089
Beam 813.00 19.29 15,683 16,905 168,367 185,272
Row1 19.88 2.00 39.76 9,491 9,491
Row2 5.18 4.00 20.72 2,041 2,041
Row3 1.73 36.00 62.28 255 255
∑ 1,075.9 25,662 273,299
Note: The moment of inertia of strand about its own centroid is neglected.

9.5 - 18 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties/9.5.6 Strength Limit State

The transformed section properties are calculated as:

Noncomposite transformed section at transfer:
Ati = area of transformed section at transfer = 843.5 in.2
Iti = moment of inertia of the transformed section at transfer = 176,829 in.4
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at transfer = 14.18 in.
ybti = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam at transfer
= 18.76 in.
Sbti = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 9,426 in.3
Stti = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 8,737 in.3

Noncomposite transformed section at final time:

Atf = area of transformed section at final time = 839.8 in.2
Itf = moment of inertia of the transformed section at final time = 175,822 in.4
etf = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at final time = 14.24 in.
ybtf = distance from the centroid of the noncomposite transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam at final time = 18.82 in
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at final time = 9,342 in.3
Sttf = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at final time = 8,713 in.3

Composite transformed section at final time:

Atc = area of transformed composite section at final time = 1,075.9 in.2
Itc = moment of inertia of the transformed composite section at final time = 273,299 in.4
etc = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed composite section at final time = 19.27 in.
ybtc = distance from the centroid of the composite transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam at final time = 23.85 in.
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section at final time =
11,459 in.3
Sttc = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast beam for transformed section at
final time = 18,040 in.3
Sdtc = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the deck for transformed section at final time =
14,799 in.3

9.5.6 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

For box sections, it is common that the flexural strength controls the design. It is therefore recommended that the
strength calculations be conducted prior to the stress check. As the state-of-the-art continues to develop into the
use of high-strength concrete and emphasis continues to be placed on the importance of member strength, it is
possible that the future designs using other cross sections will be controlled by the strength limit state.
Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)

9.5 - 19 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.6 Strength Limit State

Using the values of unfactored bending moment given in Tables 9.5.4-1 and 9.5.4-2, the ultimate bending
moment at midspan is:
Mu = 1.25(955.5 + 338.4 + 97.0+ 34.7) + 1.5(100.4) + 1.75(209.4 + 551.5) = 3,264.2 ft-kips
Average stress in prestressing strands when fpe ≥ 0.5fpu:
𝑐
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 (1 − 𝑘 ) [LRFD Eq.5.7.3.1.1-1]
𝑑𝑝
where
fps = average stress in prestressing strand, ksi
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing strand = 270.0 ksi
𝑓𝑝𝑦
k = 2 (1.04 − ) [LRFD Eq.5.7.3.1.1-2]
𝑓𝑝𝑢
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strands
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing strands, in.
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis, in.
To compute c, assume rectangular section behavior and check if the depth of [LRFD Art.C5.7.3.2.2]
the equivalent stress block, a, is less than or equal to ts + haunch thickness
+ precast beam top flange thickness:
where a = β1c,
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′
𝑐 =
𝑓𝑝𝑢 [LRFD Eq.5.7.3.1.1-4]
0.85𝑓𝑐′ β1 𝑏 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝
where
Aps = area of prestressing strand = 29(0.153) = 4.437 in.2
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement = 0 in.2
fy = specified yield strength of tension reinforcement = 60.0 ksi
𝐴′𝑠 = area of compression reinforcement = 0 in.2
𝑓𝑦′ = specified yield strength of compression reinforcement = 60.0 ksi
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of deck concrete = 4.0 ksi
LRFD C5.7.2.2 states that if the compressive block includes two types of concrete, the lower
of the concrete strengths can be conservatively used.
β1 = stress factor of compression block
= 0.85 for 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 4.0 ksi
= 0.85 − 0.05(𝑓𝑐′ − 4.0) ≥ 0.65 for 𝑓𝑐′ > 4.0 ksi
= 0.85
b = effective width of compression flange = 48 in.
Note: In computing the flexural strength of members with strands placed near the compression face of the
member, it is not correct to use the combined centroid of the entire strand group for establishing the effective
depth, dp, and the area of prestressing steel, Aps. This is because the top strands will have different strain from that
of the bottom strands. An accurate solution can be achieved using the detailed strain compatibility approach,
which accounts for the steel strain at various distances from the neutral axis. However, a reasonable
approximation is to ignore all strands placed on the compression side.

9.5 - 20 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.6 Strength Limit States/9.5.7.1 Elastic Shortening

For the 29 bottom strands, the distance between the center of gravity of the strands and the bottom fiber of the
beam, ybs, is:
23(2) + 6(4)
= 2.41 in.
29
Therefore, dp = 44.5 − 2.41 = 42.09 in.
(4.437)(270.0) + 0 − 0
𝑐= = 8.17 in.
270.0
0.85(4.0)(0.85)(48) + (0.28)(4.437) [ ]
42.09
a = β1c = (0.85)(8.17) = 6.94 in. ≤ 5.0 + 0.5 + 5.5 = 11.0 in. OK
Therefore, the average stress in the prestressing strand is:
8.17
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 270.0 (1 − 0.28 ) = 255.3 ksi
42.09
Nominal flexural resistance: [LRFD Art.5.7.3.2.2]
𝑎
Mn = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 (𝑑𝑝 − ) [LRFD Eq.5.7.3.2.2-1]
2
6.94
(4.437)(255.3) (42.09 − )
Mn = 2 = 3,645.6 ft‐ kips
12
Factored flexural resistance, Mr:
Mr = ɸ𝑀𝑛 [LRFD Eq.5.7.3.2.1-1]
where
resistance factor = 1.00 for flexure and tension controlled prestressed
ɸ = [LRFD Art.5.5.4.2.1]
concrete sections
Mr = 3,645.6 ft-kips > Mu = 3,264.2 ft-kips OK

9.5.7 PRESTRESS LOSSES [LRFD Art.5.9.5]

Total prestress loss:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
where
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel strands
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel after transfer. In
this design example, the refined estimates of time-dependent losses are used.

9.5.7.1 Elastic Shortening

𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓 [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.2.3a-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
where
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands = 28,500 ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete at transfer = 3,834 ksi
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing strands due to prestressing force at
transfer and the self weight of the member at sections of maximum moment.

9.5 - 21 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.7.1 Elastic Shortening/9.5.7.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

If the gross (or net) cross-section properties are used, it is necessary to perform numerical iterations. The elastic
loss ΔfpES is usually assumed to be 10% of the initial prestress to calculate fcgp, which is then used in the equation
above to calculate a refined ΔfpES. The process is repeated until the assumed ΔfpES and refined ΔfpES converge.
However, when transformed section properties are used to calculate concrete stress, the effects of losses and
gains due to elastic deformations are implicitly accounted for. Therefore, ΔfpES should not be included in
calculating fcgp.
Force per strand before transfer = (area of strand)(prestress stress before transfer)
= (0.153)(202.5) = 30.98 ksi
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖2 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 )𝑒𝑡𝑖
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖
where
Ppi = total prestressing force before transfer = (31 strands)(30.98) = 960.4 kips
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to the transformed section at transfer = 14.18 in.
Mg and Md should be calculated based on the overall beam length of 96 ft. Since the elastic shortening loss is a
part of the total loss, fcgp will be conservatively computed based on Mg using the design span length of 95 ft.
960.4 (960.4)(14.18)2 (955.5 + 34.7)(12)(14.18)
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + − = 1.278
843.5 176,829 176,829
Therefore, loss due to elastic shortening:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = ( ) (1.278) = 9.5 ksi
3,834
AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.3 indicates that the loss due to elastic shortening at transfer should be added to the time-
dependent losses to determine total losses. However, this loss at transfer is directly accounted for if transformed
section properties are used in stress analysis.

9.5.7.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

The following construction schedule is assumed in calculating the time-dependent losses:
Concrete age at transfer: ti = 1 day
Concrete age at deck placement: td = 90 days
Concrete age at final stage: tf = 20,000 days
The total time-dependent loss between time of transfer and deck placement is the summation of prestress loss
due to shrinkage of concrete, creep of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing strands.

9.5.7.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between transfer and deck placement:
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 = ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 𝐸𝑝 𝐾𝑖𝑑 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-1]
where
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between transfer and deck placement
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kid = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete and
bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between transfer and deck placement.

9.5 - 22 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.7.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The concrete shrinkage strain, εbi, is taken as:

ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 = 𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑠 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3.-1]

where
The factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13( 2.72) = 1.096
The minimum value of kvs is 1.0 OK
V/S is the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam.
The humidity factor for shrinkage:
khs = 2.00−0.014H = 2.00 − 0.014(70)= 1.020
where H = average annual mean relative humidity (assume 70%)
The factor for the effect of the concrete strength:
5 5
𝑘𝑓 = = = 1.000
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 1 + 4.0
The time development factor at deck placement:
𝑡 89
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = = = 0.664 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑
61 − (4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ) + 𝑡 61 − 4(4.0) + 89
where t is the maturity of concrete(days) = td − ti = 90 − 1 = 89 days
ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 = (1.096)(1.020)(1.000)(0.664)(0.48×10-3) = 0.000356
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = 2
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 (𝑒𝑝𝑔 ) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔

where
epg = eccentricity of prestressing strand with respect to centroid of girder, in.
Ψb(tf, ti) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced at transfer
For the time between transfer and final time:
Ψb(tf, ti) = 1.9 kvskhckfktdti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
khc = 1.56 − 0.008H = 1.56 − 0.008(70) = 1.000
𝑡 20,000 − 1
ktd = ′ = = 0.998 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − 4(4.0) + (20,000 − 1)
Ψb(tf, ti) = 1.9(1.096)(1.000)(1.000)(0.998)(1)-0.118
= 2.078
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = = 0.821 ksi
28,500 4.743 813(14.71)2
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(2.078)]
3,834 813 168,367
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between transfer and deck placement is:
ΔfpSR = (0.000356)(28,500)(0.821)= 8.330 ksi

9.5 - 23 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.7.2.2 Creep of Concrete/9.5.7.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

9.5.7.2.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of girder concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = 𝑓 Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 )𝐾 [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.2b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖 𝑖𝑑
where
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at time of deck placement due to loading introduced at transfer
= 1.9kvskhckfktdti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
= 1.9(1.096)(1.000)(1.000)(0.664)(1)-0.118
= 1.383
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = (1.278)(1.383)(0.821) = 10.787 ksi
3,834

9.5.7.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck placement is
determined as:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑡
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2c-1]
𝐾𝐿 𝑓𝑝𝑦
where
fpt = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer, taken not less than 0.55fy
KL = 30 for low-relaxation strands and 7 for other prestressing steel, unless more accurate
manufacturer's data are available
(202.5 − 9.5) (202.5 − 9.5)
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) = 1.571 ksi
30 243
According to LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.2c, the relaxation loss may also be assumed equal to 1.2 ksi for low-relaxation
strands.
9.5.7.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time
The total time-dependent loss between time of deck placement and final time is the summation of prestress loss
due to shrinkage of beam concrete, creep of beam concrete, relaxation of prestressing strands, and shrinkage of
deck concrete.

9.5.7.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is calculated by:
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 = ε𝑏𝑑𝑓 𝐸𝑝 𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-1]
where
εbdf = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for the time period between deck placement and final time
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kdf = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete and
bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between deck placement and final time
The total girder concrete shrinkage strain between transfer and final time is taken as:
εbif = kvskhskfktdf(0.48 × 10-3) [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]

(1.096)(1.020)(1.000)(0.998)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000536

The girder concrete shrinkage strain between deck placement and final time is:
ε𝑏𝑑𝑓 = ε𝑏𝑖𝑓 − ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 = 0.000536 − 0.000356 = 0.000180

9.5 - 24 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.7.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.5.7.3.2 Creep of Concrete

The beam concrete transformed section coefficient between deck placement and final time is:
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = 2
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐 (𝑒𝑝𝑐 ) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐

where
Ac = area of the composite section = 1,049.1 in.2
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section, = 261,257 in.4
epc = eccentricity of strands with respect to centroid of composite section
= 24.34 − 4.58 = 19.76 in.
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = = 0.825
28,500 4.743 (1,049.1)(19.76)2
1+( )( ) (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(2.078)]
3,834 1,049.1 261,257
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is:
ΔfpSD = (0.000180)(28,500)(0.825) = 4.232 ksi

9.5.7.3.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between deck placement and final time is determined as:
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3b-1]
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑔 [Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) − Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )]𝐾𝑑𝑓 + ∆𝑓𝑐𝑑 Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )𝐾𝑑𝑓
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐸𝑐
where
Δfcd = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to long term losses between
transfer and deck placement, combined with deck weight and superimposed loads, ksi
2
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 (𝑒𝑝𝑔 ) 𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐
= −(Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 ) (1 + )−( + )
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐

4.743 (813)(14.71)2
= −(8.330 + 10.787 + 1.571) (1 + )
813 168,367
(338.4)(12)(14.24) (97.0 + 100.4)(12)(19.27)
−( + ) = −0.743 ksi
175,822 273,299

Ψb(tf , td) = beam creep coefficient at final time due to loading at deck placement
= 1.9𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑐 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓 𝑡𝑑−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
𝑡 20,000 − 90
ktdf = ′ = = 0.998
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − 4(4.0) + (20,000 − 90)
Ψb(tf , td) = 1.9(1.096)(1.000)(1.000)(0.998)(90)-0.118 = 1.222

The gross section properties are used in the equation to calculate Δfcd for the long-term losses since the
transformed section effect has already been included in the factor Kid when calculating the losses between initial
time and deck placement.
28,500 28,500
ΔfpCD = (1.278)(2.078 − 1.383)(0.825) + (−0.743)(1.222)(0.825)
3,834 4,287
= 0.467 ksi

9.5 - 25 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.7.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands/9.5.7.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

9.5.7.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands in the composite section between time of deck
placement and final time is taken as:
ΔfpR2 = ΔfpR1 = 1.571 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3c-1]

9.5.7.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

The prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete is calculated by:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = Δ𝑓 𝐾 [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )] [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.3d-1]
𝐸𝑐 𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
where
Δfcdf = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to shrinkage of deck concrete, ksi
𝜀𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑑 1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝑒𝑑
= ( − ) [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.3d-2]
1 + 0.7Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐

where
εddf = shrinkage strain of deck concrete between placement and final time
Ad = area of deck concrete, in.2
Ecd = modulus of elasticity of deck concrete, ksi
𝛹𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = deck concrete creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced shortly after deck
placement
ed = eccentricity of deck with respect to the gross composite section, in.
Assume the initial strength of concrete at deck placement is 0.8(4.0 ksi) = 3.2 ksi, and use a volume-to-surface
ratio (V/S) of 2.466 for the deck:
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13(2.466) = 1.129 > 1.0
Use kvs = 1.129
5 5
kf = ′ = = 1.190
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖 1 + 3.2
𝑡 20,000 − 90
ktd = ′ = = 0.998
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − 4(3.2) + (20,000 − 90)
εddf = kvskhskfktd0.48 × 10-3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3−1]
= (1.129)(1.020)(1.190)(0.998)( 0.48 × 10-3)
= 0.000656
Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = 1.9kvskhckfktdti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
= 1.9(1.129)(1.000)(1.190)(0.998)(1)-0.118 = 2.548

Creep of deck concrete is assumed to start at 1 day.

0.000656(48 × 5)(3,834) 1 (19.77)(44.5 − (5⁄2) − 24.34)
Δfcdf = ( − )
1 + 0.7(2.548) 1,049.1 261,257
= −0.083 ksi The negative sign indicates a prestressing gain.
The prestress gain due to shrinkage of the deck in the composite section:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = (−0.083)(0.825)[1 + 0.7(1.222)] = −0.845 ksi
4,287
Note: The effect of deck shrinkage on the calculation of prestress gain is discussed further in Section 9.1a.8.5

9.5 - 26 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.7.3.5 Total Time-Dependent Loss/9.5.7.3.7 Total Losses at Service Loads

9.5.7.3.5 Total Time-Dependent Loss

The total time-dependent loss, ΔfpLT, is determined as:
ΔfpLT = (ΔfpSR + ΔfpCR + ΔfpR1) + (ΔfpSD + ΔfpCD + ΔfpR2 + ΔfpSS) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.1-1]
= (8.330 + 10.787 + 1.571) + (4.232 + 0.467 + 1.571 − 0.845)
= 26.1 ksi

9.5.7.3.6 Total Losses at Transfer

AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.2.3a and C5.9.5.3 indicate that the losses or gains due to elastic deformation must be taken
equal to zero if transformed section properties are used in stress analysis. However, the losses or gains due to
elastic deformation must be included in determining the total prestress losses and the effective stress in
prestressing strands.
Δfpi = ΔfpES = 9.5 ksi
Effective stress in tendons immediately after transfer, fpt = fpi − Δfpi = (202.5 − 9.5) = 193.0 ksi
Force per strand = (fpt)(area of strand) = (193.0)(0.153) = 29.5 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer, Ppt = 29.5(31) = 914.5 kips
Initial loss, % = (Total losses at transfer)/(fpi) = 9.5/202.5 = 4.7%
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, the strand force is that before
transfer:
Force per strand = (202.5)(0.153) = 30.98 kips
The total prestressing force after transfer, Ppi = 30.98(31) = 960.4 kips
9.5.7.3.7 Total Losses at Service Loads
Total loss due to elastic shortening at transfer and long-term losses is:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT = 9.5 + 26.1 = 35.6 ksi
The elastic gain due to deck weight, superimposed dead load and live load (Service III) is:
𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝 (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝
( + ) + 0.8 ( )
𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐
(338.4)(12)(14.24) (97.0 + 100.4)(12)(19.27) 28,500
= ( + )
175,822 273,299 4,287
(551.5 + 209.4)(12)(14.24) 28,500
+ 0.8 ( )
273,299 4,287
= 3.3 + 2.5 = 5.8 ksi
The effective stress in strands after all losses and gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 5.8 = 202.5 − 35.6 + 5.8 = 172.7 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
fpe ≤ 0.8 fpy = 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 172.7 ksi OK
The effective stress in strands after all losses and permanent gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 3.3 = 202.5 – 35.6 + 3.3 = 170.2 ksi
Force per strand without live load gains= (fpe)(area of strand) = (170.2)(0.153) = 26.04 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after all losses = 26.04(31) = 807.2 kips
Final losspercentage = (total losses and gains)/(fpi) = (35.6−3.30)/(202.5) = 16.0 %
The initial estimate of final losses of 20.0%, which was used to determine the number of strands, is conservative
and a second iteration is not necessary. For greater accuracy, a second iteration could be performed.

9.5 - 27 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.7.3.7 Total Losses at Service Loads/9.5.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, all the elastic gains and losses are
implicitly accounted for:
Force per strand with only total time-dependent losses = (fpi − ΔfpLT)(area of strand) = (202.5 − 26.1)(0.153) =
26.99 kips
Total prestressing force, Ppe = (26.99)(31) = 836.7 kips

9.5.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER

Because the transformed section is used, the total prestressing force before transfer, Ppi = 914.5 kips.
9.5.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete
Compression: [LRFD Art. 5.9.4]
• 0.6𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 0.6(4.0) = +2.400 ksi
where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = concrete strength at transfer = 4.000 ksi
Tension:
• without bonded auxiliary reinforcement
−0.0948 √𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≤ −0.200 ksi = −0.0948 √4.000 = −0.190 ksi ≤ −0.200 ksi OK
• with bonded auxiliary reinforcement that is sufficient to resist 120% of the tension force in the cracked
concrete
−0.24 √𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = −0.24 √4.000 = −0.480 ksi

9.5.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Stresses at this location need only be checked at transfer, because this stage almost always governs. Also, losses
with time will reduce the concrete stresses making them less critical.
Transfer length = 60(strand diameter) = 60(0.5) = 30 in. = 2.5 ft [LRFD Art. 5.11.4]
The transfer length extends to approximately 2.5 ft from the end of the beam or 2.0 ft from centerline of the
bearing. Due to the camber of the beam at release, the self weight of the beam and diaphragm act on the overall
beam length, 96 ft. Therefore, the values of bending moment given in Table 9.5.4-1 cannot be used at transfer
because they are based on the design span, 95 ft. Using Eq. 9.5.4.1.2-2 given previously, the bending moments at
the end of the transfer zone due to beam and diaphragm weights, are:
Mg = 0.5wx(L − x) = 0.5(0.847)(2.5)(96 − 2.5) = 99.0 ft-kips, and
Md = (0.73 + 0.73/2)2.5 = 2.7 ft-kips
Compute stress in top of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 960.4 (960.4)(14.18) (99.0 + 2.7)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 843.5 8,737 8,736
= 1.139 − 1.559 + 0.140 = −0.280 ksi
The tension stress limit for concrete with no bonded reinforcement: −0.190 ksi NG
Tension stress limit for concrete with bonded reinforcement: −0.480 ksi OK
Compute stress in bottom of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 960.4 (960.4)(14.18) (99.0 + 2.7)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 843.5 9,426 9,426
= 1.139 + 1.445 − 0.129 = +2.455 ksi
Compression stress limit for concrete: +2.400 ksi NG
Therefore, try debonding seven strands from the strand group at 2 in. from bottom for a distance of 5 ft 0 in. from
the end of the beam or 4 ft 6 in. from centerline of bearing.

9.5 - 28 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

To minimize the shock impact of detensioning and cracks at corners and bottom, assume the strand pattern
shown in Figure 9.5.8.2-1. LRFD Article 5.11.4.3 requires that the following conditions be satisfied if debonding
is used:
• Percentage of debonded of total = 7/31 = 22.6% < 25 % OK
• Percentage of debonded of row = 7/23 = 30.4% < 40% OK
• All limit states should be satisfied OK
• Debonded strands should be symmetrically distributed OK
• Exterior strands in each horizontal line are fully bonded OK
Recompute the stresses at the transfer length section. Note that the transformed section properties here are
different than those at midspan after debonding. Using the same method as described in Sect. 9.5.5.5, the
transformed section properties at the end of the beam are computed as:
Ati = 836.6 in.2
ybti = 18.90 in.
Stti = 8,700 in.3
Sbti = 9,253 in.3

Figure 9.5.8.2-1
Strand Pattern at End of Beam

Distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom fiber of the beam is:
ybs = [16(2) + 6(4) + 2(36)]/24 = 5.33 in.
and the strand eccentricity for the transformed section at end of the beam is:
eeti = 18.90 − 5.33 = 13.57 in.
Total prestressing force before transfer at end section = 24(30.98) = 743.5 kips
Concrete stress in top of beam:
743.5 (743.5)(13.57) (99.0 + 2.7)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 0.889 − 1.160 + 0.140 = −0.131 ksi
836.6 8,700 8,700
Tension stress limit for concrete with no bonded reinforcement: −0.190 ksi OK

9.5 - 29 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.5.8.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

Thus, there is no need for additional bonded reinforcement; and

743.5 (743.5)(13.57) (99.0 + 2.7)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 0.889 + 1.090 − 0.132 = +1.847 ksi
836.6 9,253 9,253
Compression stress limit for concrete: +2.400 ksi OK
9.5.8.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands
All strands are effective at this location, therefore use the full value of Ppi. Bending moments due to the self weight
of the beam and diaphragm, at (5 ft + 2.5 ft = 7.5 ft) from the end of the beam, based on overall length, are:
𝑀𝑔 = 0.5𝑤𝑔 𝑥(𝐿 − 𝑥) = 0.5 (0.847)(7.5)(96 − 7.5) = 281.1 ft‐kips
𝑀𝑑 = (0.73 + 0.73/2)7.5 = 8.2 ft‐kips
Concrete stress in top of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 960.4 (960.4)(14.18) (281.1 + 8.2)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 843.5 8,737 8,737
= 1.139 − 1.559 + 0.397 = −0.023 ksi
Tension stress limit for concrete with no bonded reinforcement: −0.190 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑𝐷 ) 960.4 (960.4)(14.18) (281.1 + 8.2)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 843.5 9,426 9,426
= 1.139 + 1.445 − 0.368 = +2.216 ksi
Compression stress limit for concrete: +2.400 ksi OK
9.5.8.4 Stresses at Midspan
Bending moments due to beam self weight and diaphragm weight at midspan are:
𝑀𝑔 = 0.5𝑤𝑔 𝑥(𝐿 − 𝑥) = 0.5 (0.847)(48)(96 − 48) = 975.7 ft‐kips
𝑀𝑑 = (0.73 + 0.73/2)(48) − 0.73(23.75) = 35.2 ft‐kips
All strands are effective at this location; therefore use the full value of Ppi.
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 960.4 (960.4)(14.18) (975.7 + 35.2)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 843.5 8,737 8,737
= 1.139 − 1.559 + 1.388 = +0.968 ksi
Tension stress limit for concrete with no bonded reinforcement: −0.190 ksi OK
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 960.4 (960.4)(14.18) (975.7 + 35.2)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 843.5 9,426 9,426
= 1.139 + 1.445 − 1.287 = +1.297 ksi
Compression stress limit for concrete: +2.400 ksi OK
9.5.8.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer
Top Fiber Bottom Fiber
Stresses Stresses
ft , ksi fb , ksi
At transfer length section of bonded strands −0.131 +1.847
At transfer length section of debonded strands −0.023 +2.216
At midspan +0.968 +1.297

9.5 - 30 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.9 Concrete Stresses at Service Loads/9.5.9.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck

9.5.9 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS

Using transformed section properties and refined losses, Ppe = 836.7 kips
9.5.9.1 Stress Limits for Concrete
Compression: [LRFD Art.5.9.4.2]
Due to permanent loads, (i.e., beam self weight, diaphragm weight, weight of slab and haunch, wearing surface
weight, and barrier loads), for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.45𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(5.000) = +2.250 ksi
for deck: 0.45𝑓𝑐′ = 0.45(4.000) = +1.800 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads, i.e., all dead loads and live loads, for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.60𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(5.000) = +3.000 ksi
for deck: 0.60𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(4.000) = +2.400 ksi
Tension:
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III: −0.19√𝑓𝑐′

for precast beam: −0.19√5.000 = −0.425 ksi

9.5.9.2 Stresses at Midspan

9.5.9.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam
To check top compressive stresses, two cases are considered:
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
Using bending moment values given in Table 9.5.4-1, compute the top fiber stresses:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 + 𝑀𝑠 ) (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − + +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
836.7 (836.7)(14.24) (955.5 + 34.7 + 338.4)(12) (100.4 + 97.0)(12)
= − + +
839.8 8,713 8,713 18,040
= 0.996 − 1.367 + 1.830 + 0.131 = +1.590 ksi
Compressive stress limit: +2.250 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = +1.590 +
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
(551.5 + 209.4)(12)
= +1.590 +
18,040
= +1.590 + 0.506 = +2.096 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete = +3.000 ksi OK
9.5.9.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck
Note: Compressive stress in the deck slab at service loads never controls the design for typical applications. The
calculations shown below are for illustration purposes and may not be necessary in most practical applications.
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 (100.4 + 97.0)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = = = +0.160 ksi
𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 14,799
Compressive stress limit: +1.800 ksi OK

9.5 - 31 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.9.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck/9.5.9.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage

2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:

𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 (551.5 + 209.4)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = + = +0.160 +
𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 14,799
= +0.160 + 0.617 = +0.777 ksi
Compressive stress limit: +2.400 ksi OK
• 9.5.9.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 + 𝑀𝑠 ) (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 ) + 0.8(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 = + − −
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
836.7 (836.7)(14.24) (955.5 + 34.7 + 338.4)(12) [(100.4 + 97.0) + 0.8(551.5 + 209.4)](12)
= + − −
839.8 9,342 9,342 11,459
= 0.996 + 1.275 − 1.707 − 0.844 = −0.280 ksi
Tensile stress limit: −0.425 ksi OK

9.5.9.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

From Table 9.1a.4-2, the unfactored fatigue bending moment at midspan, Mf, is 214.7 ft-kips. Therefore, stress at
the top fiber of the beam due to fatigue load combination I is:
1.50(𝑀𝑓 ) 1.50 (214.7)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 = = = +0.214 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐 18,040
At midspan, the top compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 + 𝑀𝑠 ) (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − + +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
836.7 (836.7)(14.24) (955.5 + 34.7 + 338.4)(12) (100.4 + 97.0)(12)
= − + +
839.8 8,713 8,713 18,040
= 0.996 − 1.367 + 1.830 + 0.131 = 1.590 ksi
Therefore:
𝑓𝑏 1.590
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 + = 0.214 + = 1.009 < 0.40( 𝑓𝑐′ ) = 0.40(5.0) = 2.0 ksi OK
2 2
This condition should be satisfied at all locations along the beam.

9.5.9.4 Summary of Stresses at Service Loads

Top of Deck Service I Top of Beam Service I Bottom of Beam
ksi ksi ksi
Permanent Permanent
Total Loads Total Loads Service III
Loads Loads
At midspan +0.160 +0.777 +1.590 +2.096 −0.280

9.5.9.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage

The calculations in Section 9.5.9.2 comply with the LRFD Specifications. However, PCI believes that it is not
appropriate to include the prestressing gain caused by the deck shrinkage, ΔfpSS, in calculating the prestress
losses. Alternatively, the effect of deck shrinkage should be analyzed by considering it as an external force applied
to the composite nontransformed section as illustrated in Section 9.1a.8.5.

9.5 - 32 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.10 Limits of Reinforcement//9.5.11 Shear Design

9.5.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT [LRFD Art.5.7.3.3.1]

9.5.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement
The check of maximum reinforcement limits in LRFD Article 5.7.3.3.1 was removed from the LRFD Specifications
in 2005.
9.5.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art.5.7.3.3.2]
At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement must be adequate to develop
a factored flexural resistance, Mr, equal to the lesser of:
• 1.2 times the cracking strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and
• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan:
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 (𝑓𝑟 + 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 ) − 𝑀𝑑𝑛𝑐 ( − 1) ≥ 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 𝑓𝑟 [LRFD Eq.5.7.3.3.2-1]
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
where
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD Art.5.4.2.6]
= 0.37√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.37√5.000 = 0.827 ksi

fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied
loads
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 836.7 (836.7)(14.24)
= + = + = 2.272 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 839.8 9,342
Mdnc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section
= Mg + Ms +Md = 955.5 + 338.4 + 34.7 = 1,328.6 ft-kips
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of transformed composite section where the tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads = 11,459 in.3
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of transformed section where the tensile stress is
caused by externally applied loads = 9,342 in.3
11,459 11,459
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = (0.827 + 2.272) − (1,328.6) ( − 1) = 2,657 ft‐ kips
12 9,342
1.2𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 1.2(2,657) = 3,188 ft‐ kips
Illustrated based on
At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is: 2011 LRFD
Mu = 3,264.2 ft-kips (as calculated in Section 9.5.6) Specifications.

Thus, 1.33Mu = 1.33(3,264.2) = 4,341 ft-kips Editor’s Note: 2012

LRFD Specifications
Since 1.2Mcr < 1.33Mu, the 1.2Mcr requirement controls. changes will revise
Mr = 3,645.6 ft-kips > 1.2Mcr = 3,188.6 ft-kips OK minimum
reinforcement.
Note: The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at every section.

9.5.11 SHEAR DESIGN

The area and spacing of shear reinforcement must be determined at regular intervals along the entire length of
the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design procedures are demonstrated below by determining
these values at the critical section near the supports.

9.5 - 33 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.11 Shear Design/9.5.11.1 Critical Section

Transverse shear reinforcement is provided when:

Vu > 0.5ɸ(𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑝 ) [LRFD Eq.5.8.2.4-1]
where
Vu = total factored shear force, kips
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by tensile stresses in the concrete, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
ɸ = resistance factor = 0.9 for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art.5.5.4.2.1]

9.5.11.1 Critical Section [LRFD Art.5.8.3.2]

The critical section near the supports is taken as the effective shear depth, dv, from the internal face of the
support.
dv = distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (de − a/2), but [LRFD Art.5.8.2.7]
not less than (0.9de) or (0.72hc)
where
de = the corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.9]
the centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement
a = depth of compression block = 6.94 in. (at midspan, conservative estimate)
hc = overall depth of the composite section = 44.5 in.
Note: Only 22 strands (16 at 2 in. and 6 at 4 in.) are effective at the critical section for shear, because seven
strands are debonded for a distance equal to 5 ft from the end of the beam and the top level of strands is ignored.
Because the beam is a flanged section, the effective shear depth, dv, should be determined using LRFD Eq. C5.8.2.9-
1. However, dv can be conservatively approximated as de− a/2 using the a as determined in the midspan flexural
analysis in Sect. 9.5.6.
ybs = [16(2) + 6(4)/22] = 2.55 in.
de = hc − ybs = 44.5 − 2.55 = 41.95
dv = de − a/2 = [41.95−0.5(6.94)]= 38.48 in.
0.9de = 0.9(41.95) = 37.76 in.
0.72hc = 0.72(44.5) = 32.04 in.
Therefore, dv = 38.48 in.
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is conservatively assumed to be equal to zero for
determining the critical section for shear, as shown in Figure 9.5.11.1-1. Therefore, the critical section for shear
is at a distance of:
38.48 in. = 3.21 ft from centerline of support
x/L = 3.21/95 = 0.034L

9.5 - 34 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.11.1 Critical Section/9.5.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

Figure 9.5.11.1-1
Critical Section in Shear

6” 38.48”
Critical Section in Shear

9.5.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance

The contribution of the concrete to the nominal shear resistance is:
Vc = 0.0316β√𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-3]

where β = a factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension (a value indicating
concrete contribution).
Several quantities must be determined before this expression can be evaluated.
9.5.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement
Calculate the strain at the centroid of the tension reinforcement, ε𝑠 :
|𝑀𝑢 |
+ 0.5𝑁𝑢 + |(𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 )| − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑜
𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-4]
ε𝑠 =
(𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 )
where
Nu = applied factored axial force at the specified section, 0.034L = 0 kips
Vu = applied factored shear force at the specified section, 0.034L
= 1.25(37.5 + 13.3 + 1.1 + 3.8) + 1.5(3.9) + 1.75(37.2 + 12.7) (Tables 9.5.4-1 and 9.5.4-2)
= 162.8 kips
Vp = component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the applied shear
= 0 kips since the strand pattern is straight
Mu = applied factored bending moment at the specified section, 0.034L, which occurs simultaneously
with Vu, or conservatively taken as the maximum Mu.
= 1.25(124.8 + 44.2 + 3.5 + 12.7) + 1.5(13.1) + 1.75(77.1 + 27.3) [Tables 9.5.4-1 and 9.5.4-2]
= 433.9 ft-kips
Mu need not to be taken less than (Vu − Vp)dv
= (163.0 – 0.0)(38.48)/12
= 522.7 ft-kips. (Controls)
fpo = a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by the locked-in
difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the surrounding concrete, ksi. For
pretensioned members, LRFD Article C5.8.3.4.2 indicates that fpo can be taken as 0.7fpu. (Note: use
this for both pretensioned and post-tensioned systems made with stress relieved and low
relaxation strands).
= 0.7(270.0) = 189.0 ksi

9.5 - 35 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement/9.5.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement

Aps = area of prestressing strands on the flexural tension side of the member
= 22(0.153) = 3.366 in.2 (Only 22 strands of the 29 strands are effective in the flexural tension side
because 7 strands are debonded.)
As = area of nonprestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member
= 0.0 in.2
|(522.7)(12)|
+ 0 + |(162.8 − 0)| − 3.366(189.0)
ε𝑠 = 38.48 = −3.235 × 10−3
(0 + 28,500(3.366))
εs is less than zero. Use εs = 0.

9.5.11.2.2 Values of β and θ

Assume the section contains at least the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement:
4.8 4.8
β= = = 4.8 [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.4.2-1]
(1 + 750ε𝑠 ) (1 + 0)
Angle of diagonal compressive stresses is:
θ = 29 + 3,500ε𝑠 = 29 + 3,500(0) = 29° [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.4.2-3]

9.5.11.3 Compute Concrete Contribution

The nominal shear resisted by the concrete is:
Vc = 0.0316β√𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-3]

where bv = effective web width = 10 in.

Vc = 0.0316(4.8)√5.0(10)(38.48) = 130.5 kips

9.5.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance

9.5.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement

Check if Vu > 0.5ɸ(𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑝 ) [LRFD Eq.5.8.2.4-1]

Vu = 163.0 kips > 0.5ɸ(𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑝 ) = [0.5(0.9)](130.5 + 0) = 58.7 kips

Therefore, transverse shear reinforcement must be provided.

9.5.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement

𝑉𝑢 ⁄ɸ ≤ Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-1]
where
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement
= (𝑉𝑢 ⁄ɸ) − Vc − Vp = (163.0 /0.9) − 130.5 − 0 = 50.6 kips
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦ℎ 𝑑𝑣 (cot θ + cot α)(sin α) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4]
Vs =
𝑠
where
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, in.2
s = spacing of stirrups, in.
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis
= 90° for vertical stirrups

9.5 - 36 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement/9.5.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear

Therefore, area of shear reinforcement within a spacing s is:

Av = (𝑠𝑉𝑠 )⁄(𝑓𝑦ℎ 𝑑𝑣 cot θ)
= [𝑠 (50.6)]⁄[(60.0)(38.48) cot 29°] = 0.0121(s)
If s = 12 in., then Av = 0.15 in.2/ft

9.5.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement

Check maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement. [LRFD Art.5.8.2.7]
|𝑉𝑢 − ɸ𝑉𝑝 | |163.0 − 0|
𝑣𝑢 = = = 0.471 ksi [LRFD Eq.5.8.2.9-1]
ɸ𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 (0.9)(10)(38.48)
0.125𝑓𝑐′ = 0.125(5.0) = 0.625 ksi
Since vu = 0.471 ksi < 0.125𝑓𝑐′
s ≤ 24 in. (Controls) [LRFD Eq.5.8.2.7-1]
s ≤ 0.8dv = (0.8)(38.48) = 30.78 in.
s provided = 12 in. < 24 in. OK
Use No. 3 single leg in each web at 12 in. spacing
Av provided = 0.22 in.2/ft > Av required = 0.15 in.2 OK
(0.22)(60)(38.48)(cot 29°)
𝑉𝑠 = = 76.4 kips
12

9.5.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement [LRFD Art.5.8.2.5]

The area of transverse reinforcement should not be less than:
𝑏𝑣 𝑠 (10)(12)
0.0316√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.0316√5.0 = 0.14 in.2 ⁄ft < 0.22 in.2 ⁄ft OK [LRFD Eq.5.8.2.5-1]
𝑓𝑦ℎ 60.0

9.5.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

In order to assure that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush prior to yield of the transverse
reinforcement, the LRFD Specifications gives an upper limit for Vn as follows:
Vn = 0.25𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑉𝑝 [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-1], it can be concluded that
Vc + Vs must not be greater than 0.25𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣
130.5 + 76.4 = 206.9 kips ≤ 0.25(5.0)(10)(38.48) = 481.0 kips OK
Using the above procedures, the transverse reinforcement can be determined at increments along the entire
length of the beam.

9.5.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER

9.5.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear [LRFD Art.5.8.4]
At the strength limit state, the horizontal shear at a section on a per unit basis can be taken as:
𝑉𝑢
𝑉ℎ𝑖 = [LRFD Eq.C5.8.4.2-7]
𝑑𝑣
where
Vhi = horizontal factored shear force per unit length of the beam, kips/in.

9.5 - 37 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear/9.5.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement

Vu = factored shear force at specified section due to superimposed loads after the deck is cast, kips
dv = the distance between the centroid of the tension steel and the mid-thickness of the slab = (de − ts/2)
= 41.95 − (5.0/2) = 39.45 in.
The LRFD Specifications does not identify the location of the critical section. For convenience, it will be
assumed here to be the same location as the critical section for vertical shear, at point 0.034L.
Using load combination Strength I:
Vu = 1.25(37.5+13.3+3.8) + 1.5(3.9) + 1.75(37.2 + 12.7) = 161.4 kips (Tables 9.5.4-1 and 9.5.4-2)
Therefore, the applied factored horizontal shear is:
161.4
𝑉ℎ𝑖 = = 4.09 kips⁄in.
39.45
9.5.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance
Required Vni = 𝑉ℎ𝑖 ⁄ɸ = 4.09⁄0.9 = 4.54 kips/in. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-1]

9.5.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement

The nominal shear resistance of the interface surface is:
Vni = 𝑐𝐴𝑐𝑣 + μ[𝐴𝑣𝑓 𝑓𝑦ℎ + 𝑃𝑐 ] [LRFD Eq.5.8.4.1-3]
where
c = cohesion factor, ksi [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.3]
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear transfer, in.2
μ = coefficient of friction [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.3]
Avf = area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane, in.2
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
Pc = permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane, kips
For cast-in-place concrete slabs placed on clean concrete girder surface intentionally [LRFD Art.5.8.4.3]
roughened:
c = 0.28 ksi
μ = 1.0
The actual contact width, bv, between the slab and the beam is 48 in.
Acv = (48.0 in)(1.0 in.) = 48.0 in.2
LRFD Eq.5.8.4.1-3 can be solved for Avf as follows:
4.54 = (0.28)(48.0) + 1.0[Avf(60.0) + 0]
Solving for Avf,
Avf (req'd) < 0
Since the resistance provided by cohesion is greater than the applied force, provide the minimum required
interface reinforcement.
9.5.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement
Avf ≥ (0.05Acv)/fyh [LRFD Eq.5.8.4.4-1]
From the design of vertical shear reinforcement, a No. 3 single-leg bar in each web at 12-in. spacing is provided
from the beam extending into the deck. Therefore, Avf = 0.22 in.2/ft.
Avf = (0.22 in.2/ft) < (0.05Acv)/fyh = 0.05(48)/60 = 0.04 in.2/in. = 0.48 in.2/ft NG

9.5 - 38 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement/9.5.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing

However, LRFD Article 5.8.4.4 states that the minimum reinforcement need not exceed the amount needed to
resist 1.33 Vhi/ɸ as determined using LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3.
(1.33 × 4.09/0.9) = (0.28 × 48.0) + 1.0[Avf(60) + 0]
Solving for Avf,
Avf (req'd) < 0 OK

9.5.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

Vni ≤ K1𝑓𝑐′ Acv or K2Acv
0.22
𝑉𝑛𝑖 provided = (0.28)(48) + 1.0 ( (60.0) + 0) = 14.54 kips⁄in.
12
K1fc'Acv = (0.3)(4.0)(48) = 57.6 kips/in.
K2Acv = (1.8)(48) = 86.4 kips/in.
Since provided Vni ≤ 0.3𝑓𝑐′ Acv OK [LRFD Eq.5.8.4.1-4]
≤ 1.8Acv OK [LRFD Eq.5.8.4.1-5]

9.5.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT [LRFD Art.5.8.3.5]

Longitudinal reinforcement should be proportioned so that at each section the following equation is satisfied:
𝑀𝑢 𝑁𝑢 𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 +𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ + 0.5 + (| − 𝑉𝑝 | − 0.5𝑉𝑠 ) cot θ [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.5-1]
𝑑𝑣 ɸ𝑓 ɸ𝑐 ɸ𝑣

where
Aps = area of prestressing strand at the tension side of the section, in.2
fps = average stress in prestressing strand at the time for which nominal resistance is required, ksi
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.2
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars, ksi
Mu = factored moment at the section corresponding to the factored shear force, ft-kips
dv = effective shear depth, in.
ɸ = resistance factor as appropriate moment, shear, and axial resistance. Therefore, [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2]
different ɸ factors will be used for the terms in LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.5-1, depending
on the type of action considered.
Nu = applied factored axial force = 0.0 kips
Vu = factored shear force at section, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement, kips
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses

9.5.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing [LRFD Art.5.8.3.5]

For simple end supports, the longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member at inside face
of bearing should satisfy:
𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ ( − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 ) cot θ [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.5-2]
ɸ𝑣

9.5 - 39 (Nov 11 w/errata date April 12)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing

Mu = 0 ft-kips
Nu = 0 kips
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is assumed to be zero. This assumption is conservative
for these calculations. Therefore, the failure crack assumed for this analysis radiates from the centerline of the
bearing, 6 in. from the end of the beam.
From Tables 9.5.4-1 and 9.5.4-2, using load combination Strength I, the factored shear force at this section is :
Vu = 1.25(40.2 + 14.3 + 4.1 + 1.1) + 1.5(4.2) + 1.75(38.6 + 13.6) = 172.3 kips
𝑉𝑢 172.3
( − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 ) cot θ = ( − 0.5(76.4) − 0) cot 29 ° = 276.5 kips
ɸ𝑣 0.9
As shown in Figure 9.5.13.1-1, the assumed crack plane crosses the centroid of the 22 bonded bottom strands at
a distance of (6 + ybccot θ) from the end of the beam. Since the transfer length is 30 in. from the end of the beam
(60 times the strand diameter), the available prestress from the 22 straight strands is a fraction of the effective
prestress, fpe, in these strands.
Figure 9.5.13.1-1
Assumed Failure Crack

6”

Note: This crack is unlikely because it would form in the end block, which is a large solid section of concrete.
However, the analysis does not account for the area of concrete involved. It simply assumes a crack.
2(16) + 6(4)
For the 22 bonded bottom strands, 𝑦𝑏𝑐 = = 2.55 in.
22
Therefore, 6 + 𝑦𝑏𝑐 cot θ = 6 + (2.55)(cot 29°) = 10.60 in. < 30 in.
Since the location is within the transfer length, the available prestress is less than the effective prestress. The
prestressing force at the center line of bearing is:
10.60
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 = [(22)(0.153) ((202.5 − 35.6) )] + 0 = 198.5 kips < 276.5 kips
30
The strands are not adequate to resist the required longitudinal force. Therefore, provide additional
nonprestressed reinforcement to carry the difference.
Force to be resisted by additional reinforcement = 276.5 – 198.5 = 78.0 kips
Additional mild steel reinforcement required = (78.0 kips)/(60 ksi) = 1.30 in.2
Use five No. 5 bars.
The area of steel provided = 5 × 0.31 = 1.55 in.2
Note: An alternative approach for the calculation of available prestressing force excluding the gains from deck
shrinkage is illustrated in Section 9.6.13.1.

9.5 - 40 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.14 Pretensioned Anchorage Zone/9.5.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer

9.5.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE [LRFD Art.5.10.10]

9.5.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement

Design of the anchorage zone reinforcement is computed using the force in the strands just before transfer. Since
seven strands are debonded at the ends of the beam, the force in the remaining strands before transfer is:
Ppi = 24(0.153)(202.5) = 743.6 kips
The bursting resistance, Pr, should not be less than 4.0% of the prestress
force at transfer.
Pr = fsAs ≥ 0.04Ppi = 0.04(743.6) = 29.7 kips
where
As = total area of vertical reinforcement located within the distance h/4 from the end of the beam, in.2
fs = allowable stress in steel, but taken not greater than 20 ksi
Solving for the required area of steel, As = 29.7/(20) = 1.49 in.2
At least 1.49 in.2 of vertical transverse reinforcement should be provided within a distance of h/4 = 39/4 from the
end of the beam.
Use orthogonal welded wire reinforcement of W20 or D20 wires at12 in. centers vertically and
horizontally.
Space two layers of WWR at 3 in. spacing starting at 2 in. from, and parallel to the end of the beam in the
diaphragm. The layers of WWR each provide four vertical and three horizontal wires. Area of steel provided is 2(4
+ 3)(0.2) = 2.80 in.2 A reinforcing bar cage could be used. Provide adequate embedment for bars.

9.5.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement

LRFD Article 5.10.10.2 requires that transverse reinforcement be provided in the bottom flange and anchored by
extending the leg of the stirrup into the web of the girder. The article does not state how much transverse
reinforcement should be provided in box beams.

9.5.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER [LRFD Art.5.7.3.6.2]

Deflections are calculated using the modulus of elasticity of concrete calculated in Section 9.5.3, and the gross
section properties.

9.5.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer

𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑐 𝐿2
Δ𝑝 =
8𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δp = camber due to prestressing force at transfer, in.
Ppt = total prestressing force after transfer = 914.5 kips
ec = eccentricity of prestressing strand at midspan = 14.71 in.
L = overall beam length = 96.0 ft
Eci = modulus of elasticity at transfer = 3,834 ksi
Ig = moment of inertia of noncomposite precast beam = 168,367 in.4
(914.5)(14.71)(96 × 12)2
Δ𝑝 = = 3.46 in. ↑
(8)(3,834)(168,367)

9.5 - 41 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.15.2 Deflection Due To Beam Self Weight/9.5.15.4 Deflection Due To Diaphragm Weight

9.5.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight

5𝑤𝑔 𝐿4
Δ𝑔 =
384𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δg = deflection due to beam self weight, in.
wg = beam self weight = 0.847 kips/ft

Deflection due to beam self weight at transfer:

L = overall beam length = 96.0 ft

0.847
5( ) (96 × 12)4
Δg = 12 = 2.51 in. ↓
384(3,834)(168,367)

Deflection due to beam self weight used to compute deflection at erection:

L = design span = 95.0 ft

0.847
5( ) (95 × 12)4
Δg = 12 = 2.40 in. ↓
384(3,834)(168,367)

9.5.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights

5𝑤𝑠 𝐿4
Δ𝑠 =
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔
where
Δs = deflection due to slab and haunch weights, in.
ws = slab and haunch weight = 0.275 + 0.025 = 0.300 kips/ft
L = design span = 95.0 ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at service loads = 4,287 ksi
0.300
5( ) (95 × 12)4
Δs = 12 = 0.76 in. ↓
384(4,287)(168,367)

9.5.15.4 Deflection Due to Diaphragm Weight

19𝑃𝑑 𝐿3
Δ𝑑 =
384𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δd = deflection due to diaphragm weight, in.
Pd = diaphragm weight concentrated at quarter points = 0.73 kips

Deflection due to diaphragm self weight at transfer:

L = overall beam length = 96.0 ft
19(0.73)(96 × 12)3
Δd = = 0.09 in. ↓
384(3,834)(168,367)

9.5 - 42 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.15.4 Deflection Due To Diaphragm Weight/9.5.15.7 Deflection Due To Live Load and Impact

Deflection due to diaphragm self weight at erection:

L = design span = 95.0 ft
19(0.73)(95 × 12)3
Δd = = 0.08 in. ↓
384(3,834)(168,367)

9.5.15.5 Deflection Due to Barrier and Wearing Surface Weights

5(𝑤𝑏 + 𝑤𝑤𝑠 )𝐿4
Δ𝑏+𝑤s =
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
Δ𝑏+𝑤s = deflection due to barrier and wearing surface weights, in.
wb = barrier = 0.086 kips/ft
wws = wearing surface weight = 0.089 kips/ft
Ic = gross moment of inertia of composite section = 261,268 in.4
L = design span = 95.0 ft
0.175
5( ) (95 × 12)4
Δ𝑏+𝑤𝑠 = 12 = 0.29 in. ↓
384(4,287)(261,257)

9.5.15.6 Deflection and Camber Summary

At transfer, (Δp + Δg + Δd) = 3.46 − 2.51−0.09 = 0.86 in.
Total deflection at erection, using PCI multipliers (see PCI Design Handbook):
1.8(3.46) − 1.85(2.51 + 0.09) = 1.42 in.
Long-Term Deflection:
LRFD Article 5.7.3.6.2 states that the long-time deflection may be taken as the instantaneous deflection multiplied
by a factor 4.0, if the instantaneous deflection is based on the gross moment of inertia. However, a factor of 4.0 is
not appropriate for this type of precast construction. Therefore, it is recommended that the designer follow the
guidelines of the owner agency for whom the bridge is being designed, or undertake a more rigorous, time-
dependent analysis.

9.5.15.7 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

Live load deflection limit (optional) = Span/800 [LRFD Art.2.5.2.6.2]
12
= (95 × ) = 1.43 in.
800
If the owner invokes the optional live load deflection criteria specified in [LRFD Art.3.6.1.3.2]
Art.2.5.2.6.2, the deflection is the greater of:
• that resulting from the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, or
• that resulting from 25% of the design truck plus impact, ΔLT taken together with the design lane load, ΔLL.
Note: LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2 states that the dynamic load allowance be included in the calculation of live load
deflection.
The LRFD Specifications states that all the beams should be assumed to deflect equally under the applied live load
and impact. [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
Therefore, the distribution factor for deflection, DFD, is calculated as follows:
DFD = (number of lanes/number of beams) [LRFD Art.C2.5.2.6.2]
= 2/7 = 0.286 lanes/beam

9.5 - 43 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.5

BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.5.15.7 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

However, it is more conservative to use the distribution factor for moment, DFM.
Deflection due to lane load;
Design lane load, w = 0.64DFM = 0.64(0.290) = 0.186 kips/ft/beam
0.186
5𝑤𝐿4 5( ) (95 × 12)4
𝛥𝐿𝐿 = = 12 = 0.30 in. ↓
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐 384(4,287)(261,257)
Deflection due to Design Truck Load and Impact;
To obtain maximum moment and deflection at midspan due to the truck load, let the centerline of the beam
coincide with the middle point of the distance between the inner 32-kip axle and the resultant of the truck load, as
shown in Figure 9.5.15.7-1.
Using the elastic moment area or influence lines, deflection at midspan is:
ΔLT = (1.87)(IM)(DFM) = (1.87)(1.33)(0.290) = 0.72 in. ↓
Therefore, live load deflection is the greater of:
ΔLT = 0.72in. ↓ (Controls)
0.25 ΔLT + ΔLL = 0.25(0.72) + 0.30 = 0.48 in.
Allowable live load deflection: 1.43 in. > 0.72 in. OK
Figure 9.5.15.7-1
Design Truck Axle Load Position on the Span for Maximum Moment

Resultant of axle loads

72 kips

32 kips 32 kips 32 kips

37.77 kips 34.23 kips

Midspan 2.333’

35.833’ 11.667’ 14’ 31.167’

95’

9.5 - 44 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 5
9.6.1.1 Terminology............................................................................................................................................................................ 9.6 - 5
9.6.2 MATERIALS ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 6
9.6.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM ................................................................................ 9.6 - 7
9.6.3.2 Composite Section ................................................................................................................................................................ 9.6 - 7
9.6.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width .............................................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 7
9.6.3.2.2 Modular Ratio between Slab and Beam Concrete ......................................................................................... 9.6 - 8
9.6.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties .......................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 8
9.6.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ............................................................................................................................ 9.6 - 9
9.6.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads ................................................................................... 9.6 - 9
9.6.4.1.1 Dead Loads ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 9
9.6.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments ....................................................................................... 9.6 - 11
9.6.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads .................................................................................. 9.6 - 11
9.6.4.2.1 Live Loads .................................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 11
9.6.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam ................................................................. 9.6 - 11
9.6.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment ............................................................................................. 9.6 - 11
9.6.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force ........................................................................................................ 9.6 - 12
9.6.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance ................................................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 13
9.6.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments ....................................................................................... 9.6 - 13
9.6.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT ................................................................................................................ 9.6 - 13
9.6.4.2.4.2 Due To Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL .................................................................................................. 9.6 - 13
9.6.4.3 Load Combinations ........................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 14
9.6.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS .......................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 15
9.6.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan .............................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 15
9.6.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete.............................................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 16
9.6.5.3 Required Number of Strands ........................................................................................................................................ 9.6 - 16
9.6.5.4 Strand Pattern ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 17
9.6.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties ..................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 17
9.6.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9.6 - 19
9.6.6.1 Elastic Shortening.............................................................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 19
9.6.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement................................................................ 9.6 - 20
9.6.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.6 - 20
9.6.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 21
9.6.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 21
9.6.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time ........................................................... 9.6 - 22
9.6.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.6 - 22
9.6.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 22
9.6.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 23
9.6.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete ................................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 23

9.6 - 1 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.6.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss ......................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 24
9.6.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer ................................................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 24
9.6.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads ...................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 25
9.6.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER .................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 25
9.6.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 25
9.6.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section .......................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 26
9.6.7.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands ............................................................................. 9.6 - 27
9.6.7.4 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 28
9.6.7.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer ............................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 28
9.6.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS .......................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 28
9.6.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 28
9.6.8.2 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 29
9.6.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III ........................................... 9.6 - 30
9.6.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 30
9.6.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads ............................................................................................ 9.6 - 30
9.6.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage ........................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 30
9.6.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE ............................................................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 31
9.6.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT .................................................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 32
9.6.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 32
9.6.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................................ 9.6 - 32
9.6.11 SHEAR DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 33
9.6.11.1 Critical Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 33
9.6.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance ................................................................................ 9.6 - 34
9.6.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement ................................................................................................. 9.6 - 34
9.6.11.2.2 Values of β and θ .................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 35
9.6.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution ..................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 35
9.6.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................... 9.6 - 35
9.6.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement ..................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 35
9.6.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement .................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 35
9.6.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement ........................................................................................................... 9.6 - 36
9.6.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement....................................................................................................... 9.6 - 36
9.6.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 36
9.6.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER .............................................................................................................................................. 9.6 - 37
9.6.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear .......................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 37
9.6.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance ................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 37
9.6.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement ............................................................................................................ 9.6 - 37
9.6.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement .................................................................................................. 9.6 - 38
9.6.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Reinforcement ...................................................................................................... 9.6 - 38
9.6.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT ............................................................................. 9.6 - 38

9.6 - 2 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.6.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing ....................................................................................................... 9.6 - 39
9.6.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE ................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 40
9.6.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 40
9.6.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement ...................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 40
9.6.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 40
9.6.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer ............................................................................................ 9.6 - 40
9.6.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight ....................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 41
9.6.15.3 Deflection Due to Diaphragm Weight .................................................................................................................... 9.6 - 41
9.6.15.4 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights ...................................................................................................... 9.6 - 42
9.6.15.5 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface Weights .............................................................. 9.6 - 42
9.6.15.6 Deflection and Camber Summary ............................................................................................................................ 9.6 - 42
9.6.15.7 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact ............................................................................................................... 9.6 - 43

9.6 - 3 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK

This page intentionally left blank

9.6 - 4 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.1 Introduction/9.6.1.1 Terminology

9.6 Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses

9.6.1 INTRODUCTION
This design example demonstrates the design of a 110-ft, single span, Texas U-Beam (TX-U54) bridge with no
skew. This example illustrates in detail the design of a typical interior beam at the critical sections in positive
flexure, shear, and deflection due to prestress, dead loads, and live loads. The superstructure consists of four
beams spaced at 12 ft 0 in. centers, as shown in Figure 9.6.1-1. Beams are designed to act compositely with the
deck, which consists of 4-in.-thick cast-in-place concrete on 3.5-in.-thick precast concrete deck panels, to resist all
superimposed dead loads, live loads, and impact. A ½-in.-thick wearing surface is considered to be an integral
part of the 7.5-in.-thick deck. Design live load is HL-93. The design is accomplished in accordance with AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fifth Edition, 2010 and the 2011 Interim Revisions. Elastic stresses from
external loads are calculated using transformed sections. Shear strength is calculated using the general procedure.
Time-dependent prestress losses are calculated using the refined estimates.
Figure 9.6.1-1
Bridge Cross Section
50'-0"

1'-6” 47'-0” 1'-6”

2” futu re wearing sur face

7.5" Deck

7'-0" 3 spaces @ 12’-0” = 36’-0” 7'-0"

9.6.1.1 Terminology
The following terminology is used to describe cross sections in this design example:
noncomposite section—the concrete beam cross section.
noncomposite nontransformed section—the concrete beam cross section without the strands transformed. Also
called the gross section.
noncomposite transformed section—the concrete beam cross section with the strands transformed to provide
cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
composite section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch.
composite nontransformed section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch transformed to
provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete but without the strands transformed.
composite transformed section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch and the strands
transformed to provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
The term "composite" implicitly includes the transformation of the concrete deck and haunch.
The term "transformed" generally refers to transformation of the strands.

9.6 - 5 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.2 Materials

9.6.2 MATERIALS
Cast-in-place concrete slab: Actual thickness = 4.0 in.
Structural thickness, ts = 3.5 in.
Note that a ½-in.-thick wearing surface is considered to be an integral part of the 4.0-in. CIP deck.
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 4.0 ksi
Precast pretensioned concrete stay-in-place (SIP) deck panels:
Panel thickness = 3.5 in.
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 4.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight, wc = 0.150 kcf
Precast concrete beams: Texas U-Beam, TX-U54 as shown in Figure 9.6.2-1
Required concrete compressive strength at transfer, 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 6.0 ksi
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ =10.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight, wc = 0.150 kcf
Overall beam length = 111.0 ft
Design span = 110.0 ft
Prestressing strands: 0.6-in.-dia., seven-wire, low-relaxation
Area of one strand = 0.217 in.2
Specified tensile strength, fpu = 270.0 ksi
Yield strength, fpy = 0.9fpu = 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Stress limits for prestressing strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
• before transfer, fpi ≤ 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi
• at service limit state (after all losses), fpe ≤ 0.8fpy = 194.4 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Ep = 28,500 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.2]
Figure 9.6.2-1
Texas U-Beam (TX-U54)
8'-0"

1'-3¾" 5'-4½" 1'-3¾"

1 3 4" 2'-6 1 2 " CL Beam

1'-9 5 8"

Cham fer
Figure and detail shown taken from Texas
8 1 4" DOT Standard Drawing
2'-1 1 4 "
2'-01 8"

1'-9 1 2"
5”
8¼"

See Detail A ( Typ.)

8 5 8" 117 8" 4'-7” 1'-8½”

3”3” DETAIL A
3”
3”

9.6 - 6 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.2 Materials/9.6.3.2.1Effective Flange Width

Reinforcing bars:
Yield strength, fy = 60.0 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Es = 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Future wearing surface: 2 in. additional concrete, unit weight = 0.150 kcf
New Jersey type barrier: unit weight = 0.300 kips/ft/side

9.6.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM

9.6.3.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed Beam Section
Ag = area of cross section of precast beam = 1,120 in.2
h = overall depth of precast beam = 54 in.
Ig = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast beam = 403,020 in.4
yb = distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 22.36 in.
yt = distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 31.58 in.
Sb = section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yb = 18,024 in.3
St = section modulus for extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yt = 12,762 in.3
wg = beam weight per unit length = (1,120/144)(0.150) = 1.167 kips/ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity, ksi = 33,000K1(wc)1.5 √𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]
Where
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate taken as 1.0
wc = unit weight of concrete = 0.150 kcf
LRFD Table 3.5.1-1 states that, in the absence of more precise data, the unit weight of concrete may be
taken as 0.140 + 0.001𝑓𝑐′ for 5.0 < 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 15.0 ksi. For 𝑓𝑐′ = 10.0 ksi, the unit weight is 0.150 kcf. However,
precast concrete mixes typically have a relatively low water-cementitious materials ratio and high density.
Therefore, this value may need to be increased based on test results. For simplicity, a value of 0.150 kcf is
also used for the cast-in-place concrete.
f´c = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity for:
cast-in-place slab and precast panels, Ec = 33,000(1.0)(0.150)1.5√4.0 = 3,834 ksi
precast beam at transfer, Eci = 33,000(1.0)(0.150)1.5√6.00 = 4,696 ksi
precast beam at service loads, Ec = 33,000(1.0)(0.150)1.5√10.00 = 6,062 ksi

9.6.3.2 Composite Section

[LRFD Eq. 4.6.2.6.1]
9.6.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width
Effective flange width is taken as the tributary width perpendicular to the axis of the beam. For the interior beam,
the effective flange width is calculated as one-half the distance to the adjacent beam on each side.
2 × (6.0 × 12) = 144.00 in.
Therefore, the effective flange width is 144.00 in.

9.6 - 7 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.3.2.2 Modular Ratio between Slab and Beam Concrete/9.6.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties

9.6.3.2.2 Modular Ratio between Slab and Beam Concrete

𝐸𝑐 (slab) 3,834
Modular ratio between slab and beam concrete, 𝑛 = = = 0.6325
𝐸𝑐 (beam) 6,062
9.6.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties
The effective flange width must be transformed by the modular ratio to provide cross-sectional properties
equivalent to the beam concrete.
Transformed flange width = n(Effective flange width) = (0.6325)(144) = 91.08 in.
Transformed flange area = n(Effective flange width)(ts)
= (0.6325)(144)(7.0) = 637.56 in.2
Transformed flange moment of inertia = (91.08)(7.0)3/12 = 2,603.37 in.4
Note: Because the precast panels and cast-in-place deck have the same modulus of elasticity, they are considered
as a combined unit for purposes of transformed flange section properties. In addition, only the structural
thickness of the cast-in-place deck, 3.5 in., is considered.
Due to camber of the precast, prestressed beam, a minimum haunch thickness of ½ in. at midspan is considered in
the structural properties of the composite section. Also, the width of haunch must be transformed by the modular
ratio.
Transformed width of haunch = (0.6325)(15.75)(2) = 19.92 in.
Transformed area of haunch = (0.6325)(15.75)(2)(0.5) = 9.96 in.2
Transformed moment of inertia of haunch = (19.92)(0.5)3/12 = 0.21 in.4
Note that the haunch should only be considered to contribute to the section properties if it is required to be
provided in the completed structure. Therefore, some designers neglect its contribution to the section properties.
Figure 9.6.3.2.3-1
Dimensions of the Composite Section [DAC Convert to black and white]
144”

91.08”

7”
0.5”

c.g. of Precast Panel

composi te
section Cast-in-Place Deck
54”
y bc

Table 9.6.3.2.3-1
Properties of the Composite Section
yb Ayb 𝐴(𝑦𝑏𝑐 − 𝑦𝑏 )2 I, 𝐼 + 𝐴(𝑦𝑏𝑐 − 𝑦𝑏 )2
Area, in.2
in. in.3 in.4 in.4 in.4
Beam 1,120.00 22.36 25,043 190,447 403,020 593,467
Haunch 9.96 54.25 540 3,539 0.21 3,539
Deck 637.56 58.00 36,978 325,640 2,603 328,243
∑ 1,767.5 62,561 925,249

9.6 - 8 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties/9.6.4.1.1 Dead Loads

Ac = total area of the composite section = 1,768 in.2

hc = overall depth of the composites section = 61.50 in.
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section = 925,249 in.4
ybc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
= 62,561/1,767.5 = 35.40 in.
ytg = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the precast beam
= 54.00 − 35.40 = 18.60 in.
ytc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the deck slab
= 61.50 − 35.40 = 26.10 in.
Sbc = composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
925,249
= (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑏𝑐 ) = = 26,137 in.3
35.40
Stg = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast beam
925,249
= (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑡𝑔 ) = = 49,745 in.3
18.60
Stc = composite section modulus for extreme top fiber of the structural deck slab
1 1 925,249
= ( ) (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑡𝑐 ) = ( )( ) = 56,048 in.3
𝑛 0.6325 26.10

9.6.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

The self weight of the beam and the weight of the deck, haunch, and diaphragms act on the noncomposite, simple-
span structure, while the weight of barriers, future wearing surface, and live loads with impact act on the
composite, simple-span structure. Refer to Tables 9.6.4-1 and 9.6.4-2, which follow Section 9.6.4.3 for a
summary of unfactored values calculated below.

9.6.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads

9.6.4.1.1 Dead Loads

DC = Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments [LRFD Art. 3.3.2]
Dead loads acting on the noncomposite structure:
Beam self weight, wg = 1.167 kips/ft
7.5-in.-thick deck and precast panel weight = (7.5/12 ft)(12 ft)(0.150 kcf) = 1.125 kips/ft
½-in.-thick haunch weight = (0.5)(31.5/144)(0.150 kcf) = 0.016 kips/ft
ws = 1.125 + 0.016 = 1.141 kips/ft
Assume an 18-in.-thick diaphragm at each end and two 8-in.-thick intermediate diaphragms located at a
distance of 42 ft from each bearing. The diaphragm area is based on three trapezoids that make up the
inside of the U-beam. The diaphragm placement layout is based on the Texas Department of
Transportation standard drawings. See Figure 9.6.4.1.1-1.
Cross-sectional area of diaphragm
(21.625)(64.5 + 61.0) (21.125)(61.0 + 50.5) (3.0)(50.5 + 43.0)
=( 2 + 2 + 2 ) = 18.576 ft 2
144 144 144

9.6 - 9 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.4.1.1 Dead Loads

End diaphragm self weight = (18/12 ft)(18.576 ft2)(0.150 kcf)

= 4.180 kips/diaphragm
Interior diaphragm self weight = (8/12 ft)(18.576 ft2)(0.150 kcf)
= 1.858 kips/diaphragm
Notes:
1. Actual deck thickness (7.5 in.) is used for computing dead load.
2. A ½-in. minimum haunch thickness is assumed in the computations of dead load. If a deeper haunch
will be used because of final beam camber, the weight of the actual haunch should be used.
3. For this design example, the unit weight of the reinforced concrete is taken as 0.150 kcf. Some
designers use a higher unit weight to account for the weight of the reinforcement.
Dead loads placed on the composite structure:
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1 states that permanent loads (barrier and future wearing surface loads) may be
distributed uniformly among all beams if the following conditions are met:
• Width of the deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb is not less than four (Nb = 4) OK
• Beams are parallel and have the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft OK
de = (36 − 18) + 15¾ = 33¾ in. = 2.81 ft OK
For simplicity, de is taken from the inside face of the barrier to the inside face of the web at the deck level.
• Curvature in plan is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (curvature = 0.0°) OK
• Cross section of the bridge is consistent with one of the cross sections given in LRFD Table
4.6.2.2.1-1 OK
Since these criteria are satisfied, the barrier and wearing surface loads are distributed equally among the
four beams.
Barrier weight = (2 barriers)(0.300 kips)/(4 beams) = 0.150 kips/ft/beam = wb
DW = Dead load of 2-in.-thick future wearing surface
= (2/12)(0.150) = 0.025 ksf
= (0.025 ksf )(47.0 ft)/(4 beams) = 0.294 kips/ft/beam = wws
DW load should be kept separately from DC because of the higher load factor applied to it.
Figure 9.6.4.1.1-1
Diaphragm Loads per Beam
4.180 kips 1.858 kips 1.858 kips 4.180 kips

42'-0" 26'-0" 42'-0"

110'-0"
CL Bearing CL Bearing

9.6 - 10 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.6.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment

9.6.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments

For a simply supported beam with span length (L) loaded with a uniformly distributed load (w), the shear force
(Vx) and bending moment (Mx) at any distance (x) from the support are given by:
Vx = w(0.5L − x) (Eq. 9.6.4.1.2-1)
Mx = 0.5wx(L − x) (Eq. 9.6.4.1.2-2)
Using the above equations, values of shear forces and bending moments for a typical interior beam under the self
weight of beam, weight of slab and haunch, and weight of barriers and future wearing surface are computed and
given in Table 9.6.4-1 that is located at the end of Section 9.6.4.3. For these calculations, the span length (L) is the
design span, 110 ft. However, for calculations of stresses and deformation at the time prestress is transferred, the
overall length of the precast member, 111 ft, is used as illustrated later in this example.
9.6.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads

9.6.4.2.1 Live Loads [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2]

Design live load is HL-93, which consists of a combination of: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.1]
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.2]
The design truck consists of 8.0-, 32.0-, and 32.0-kip axles with the first pair spaced at 14.0 ft and the second
pair spaced at 14.0 to 30.0 ft. The design tandem consists of a pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced at 4.0 ft apart.
[LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.3]
2. Design lane load of 0.64 kips/ft without dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.4]

9.6.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam

The live load bending moments and shear forces are determined by using the simplified distribution factor
formulas, [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]. To use the simplified live load distribution factor formulas, the following conditions
must be met: [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2.1]
• Width of deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb not less than four (Nb = 4) OK
• Beams are parallel and approximately of the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft (de = 2.81 ft) OK
• Curvature is less than in the LRFD Specifications, (curvature = 0.0°) OK
For a precast concrete U-section with cast-in-place concrete deck, the bridge type is (c). [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]
The number of design lanes is computed as:
Number of design lanes = the integer part of the ratio w/12, where (w) is the clear [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.1]
roadway width, in ft, between the curbs.
From Figure 9.6.1-1, w = 47 ft
Number of design lanes = integer part of (47/12) = 3 lanes
9.6.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment
• For all limit states except fatigue limit state:
For two or more lanes loaded:
𝑆 0.6 𝑆ℎ 0.125
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
6.3 12.0𝐿2
Provided that: 6.0 ≤ S ≤ 18.0; S = 12.0 ft OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 140; L = 110 ft OK
18 ≤ h ≤ 65; h = 54 in. OK
Nb ≥ 3; Nb = 4 O

9.6 - 11 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment/9.6.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force

where
DFM = distribution factor for bending moment for interior beam
S = beam spacing, ft
L = beam span, ft
0.125
12.0 0.6 (12.0)(54)
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = ( ) ( )
6.3 (12.0)(110)2
= (1.472)(0.508) = 0.748 lanes/beam
For one design lane loaded:
𝑆 0.35 𝑆ℎ 0.25
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
3.0 12.0𝐿2
0.25
12.0 0.35 (12.0)(54)
=( ) ( )
3.0 (12.0)(110)2
= (1.625)(0.258) = 0.419 lanes/beam
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls and DFM = 0.748 lanes/beam.
• For fatigue limit state:
The LRFD Specifications, Art. C3.4.1, states that for Fatigue Limit State, a single design truck should be used.
However, live load distribution factors given in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 take into consideration the multiple presence
factor, m. LRFD Article 3.6.1.1.2 states that the multiple presence factor, m, for one design lane loaded is 1.2.
Therefore, the distribution factor for one design lane loaded with the multiple presence factor removed, should be
used. The distribution factor for fatigue limit state is 0.419/1.2 = 0.349 lanes/beam.

9.6.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force

For two or more lanes loaded:
𝑆 0.8 ℎ 0.1
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
7.4 12.0𝐿
Provided that: 6.0 ≤ S ≤ 18.0; S = 12.0 ft OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 140; L = 110 ft OK
18 ≤ h ≤ 65; h = 54 in. OK
Nb ≥ 3; Nb = 4 OK
where
DFV = distribution factor for shear for interior beam
S = beam spacing, ft
Therefore, the distribution factor for shear force is:
0.1
12.0 0.8 54
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = ( ) ( ) = 1.069 lanes⁄beam
7.4 (12.0)(110)

For one design lane loaded:

𝑆 0.6 𝑑 0.1 12.0 0.6 54 0.1
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = ( ) ( ) =( ) ( ) = 0.810 lanes⁄beam
10 12.0𝐿 10 (12.0)(110)
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls and DFV = 1.069 lanes/beam.

9.6 - 12 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance/9.6.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL

9.6.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance

IM = 15% for fatigue limit state [LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]
IM = 33% for all other limit states
where IM = dynamic load allowance applied to design truck load only
9.6.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments
9.6.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT
• For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
Shear force and bending moment envelopes on a per-lane basis are calculated at tenth-points of the span using
the equations given in Chapter 8 of this manual. However, this is generally done by means of commercially
available computer software that has the ability to deal with moving loads. Therefore, truck load shear forces and
bending moments per beam are:
VLT = (shear force per lane)(DFV)(1 + IM)
= (shear force per lane)(1.069)(1 + 0.33)
= (shear force per lane)(1.422) kips
MLT = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.748)(1 + 0.33)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.995) ft-kips
Values for VLT and MLT at different points are given in Table 9.6.4-2.
• For fatigue limit state:
Art. 3.6.1.4.1 in the LRFD Specifications states that the fatigue load is a single design truck which has the same axle
weight used in all other limit states but with a constant spacing of 30.0 ft between the 32.0-kip axles. Bending
moment envelope on a per-lane basis is calculated using the equation given in Chapter 8 of this manual.
Therefore, the bending moment of the fatigue truck load is:
Mf = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1+IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.349)(1+ 0.15)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.401) ft-kips
Values of Mf at different points are given in Table 9.6.4-2.
9.6.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL
To obtain the maximum shear force at a section located at a distance (x) from the left support under a uniformly
distributed load of 0.64 kips/ft, load the member to the right of the section under consideration as shown in
Figure 9.6.4.2.4.2-1. Therefore, the maximum shear force per lane is:
0.32(𝐿 − 𝑥)2
𝑉𝑥 = for 𝑥 ≤ 0.5𝐿 (Eq. 9.6.4.2.4.2-1)
𝐿
where Vx is in kips/lane and L and x are in ft

Figure 9.6.4.2.4.2-1
Maximum Shear Force due to Design Lane Load
0.64 kip/ft/lane

left reaction right reaction

x (110 -x) > 110

110’

9.6 - 13 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL/9.6.4.3 Load Combinations

To calculate the maximum bending moment at any sections, use Eq. (9.6.4.1.2-2).
Lane load shear forces and bending moments per typical interior beam are as follows:
VLL = (lane load shear force)(DFV)
= (lane load shear force)(1.069) kips
For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
MLL = (lane load bending moment)(DFM)
= (lane load bending moment)(0.748) ft-kips
Note that dynamic allowance is not applied to the design lane loading.
Values of shear forces and bending moments, VLL and MLL, are given in Table 9.6.4-2.

9.6.4.3 Load Combinations [LRFD Art. 3.4]

Total factored load is taken as:
𝑄 = ∑η𝑖 γ𝑖 𝑄𝑖 [LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]
where
ηi = a load modifier relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational [LRFD Art. 1.3.2]
importance (Here, ηi is considered to be 1.0 for typical bridges.)
γi = load factors [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Qi = force effect from specified loads
Investigating different limit states given in LRFD Article 3.4.1, the following limit states are applicable:
Service I: check compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 1.00(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for a service limit state stress checks and applies to all conditions
other than Service III.
Service III: check tensile stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 0.80(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress checks that applies only to tension in
prestressed concrete structures to control cracks.
Strength I: check ultimate strength: [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and -2]
Maximum Q = 1.25(DC) + 1.50(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Minimum Q = 0.90 (DC) + 0.65(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
This load combination is the general load combination for strength limit state design.
Note: For simple-span bridges, the maximum load factors produce maximum effects. However, use minimum load
factors for dead load (DC), and wearing surface (DW) when dead load and wearing surface stresses are opposite
to those of live load.
Fatigue I: check stress range in strands: [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Q = 1.50(LL + IM)
This load combination is a special load combination to check the tensile stress range in the strands due to live
load and dynamic allowance.

9.6 - 14 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.4.3 Load Combinations/9.6.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Table 9.6.4-1
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads for a Typical Interior Beam
Internal
Slab + Haunch Wearing Surface
Beam Weight Diaphragm Barrier Weight
Weight Weight
Distance Section Weight
x, ft x/L Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment
Vg Mg Vd Md Vs Ms Vb Mb Vws Mws
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips
0 0 64.2 0.0 1.9 0.0 62.8 0.0 8.3 0.0 16.2 0.0
*4.70 0.043 58.7 288.8 1.9 8.7 57.4 282.3 7.5 37.1 14.8 72.8
11 0.1 51.3 635.4 1.9 20.4 50.2 621.3 6.6 81.7 12.9 160.1
22 0.2 38.5 1,129.7 1.9 40.9 37.7 1,104.5 5.0 145.2 9.7 284.6
33 0.3 25.7 1,482.7 1.9 61.3 25.1 1,449.6 3.3 190.6 6.5 373.5
44 0.4 12.8 1,694.5 0.0 78.0 12.6 1,656.7 1.7 217.8 3.2 426.9
55 0.5 0.0 1,765.1 0.0 78.0 0.0 1,725.8 0.0 226.9 0.0 444.7
*Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.6.11)

Table 9.6.4-2
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads for a
Typical Interior Beam
Fatigue
Truck Load with
Lane Load Truck with
Impact
Distance Section Impact
x, ft x/L Shear Moment Shear Moment Moment
VLT MLT VLL MLL Mf
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips ft-kips
0 0 93.7 0.0 37.6 0.0 0.0
*4.70 0.043 89.3 293.7 34.5 118.5 107.4
11 0.1 83.4 642.3 30.5 260.7 233.2
22 0.2 73.2 1,127.0 24.1 463.4 402.9
33 0.3 63.0 1,454.1 18.4 608.2 520.0
44 0.4 52.7 1,645.8 13.5 695.1 581.3
55 0.5 42.5 1,691.1 9.4 724.1 579.0
* Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.6.11)

9.6.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

The required number of strands is usually governed by concrete tensile stresses at the bottom fiber for load
combination Service III at the section of maximum moment or at the harp points and in some cases Strength I. For
estimating the number of strands, only the stresses at midspan are considered.

9.6.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Bottom tensile stress due to applied dead and live loads using load combination Service III is:
𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 + 𝑀𝑑 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + (0.8)(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 = +
𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑐
where
fb = concrete tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam, ksi
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight, ft-kips
Ms = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights, ft-kips
Md = unfactored bending moment due to diaphragm weights, ft-kips
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips

9.6 - 15 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan/9.6.5.3 Required Number of Strands

Mws = unfactored bending moment due to future wearing surface, ft-kips

MLT = unfactored bending moment due to truck load and impact, ft-kips
MLL = unfactored bending moment due to lane load, ft-kips
Using values of bending moments from Tables 9.6.4-1 and 9.6.4-2, bottom tensile stress at midspan is:
1,765.1 + 1,725.8 + 78.0 (226.9 + 444.7) + (0.8)(1,691.1 + 724.1)
𝑓𝑏 = (12) + (12)
18,024 26,137
= (2.376 + 1.195) = 3.571 ksi

9.6.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete

Tensile stress limit at service loads = 0.19√𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Table 5.9.4.2.2-1]
where 𝑓𝑐′ = specified concrete compressive strength of beam for design, ksi
Concrete tensile stress limit = −0.19√10.00 = −0.601 ksi

9.6.5.3 Required Number of Strands

The required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam is the difference between the bottom tensile
stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress limit:
fpb = (3.571 − 0.601) = 2.970 ksi
Assume the distance between the center of gravity of strands and the bottom fiber of the beam:
Try ybs = 3.00 in.
Therefore, strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = (yb − ybs) = (22.36 − 3.0) = 19.36 in.
If Ppe is the total prestress force after all losses, stress at the bottom fiber due to prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 (19.36)
𝑓𝑝𝑏 = + or 2.970 = +
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 1,120 18,024
Solving for Ppe , the required Ppe = 1,509.9 kips.
Final prestress force per strand = (area of strand)(fpi)(1 − losses)
where fpi = initial stress before transfer, ksi (see Section 9.6.2) = 202.5 ksi
Assuming final loss of 15% of fpi, the prestress force per strand after all losses
= (0.217)(202.5)(1 − 0.15) = 37.4 kips
Number of strands required = (1,509.9/37.4) = 40.4 strands
Considering that the steel transformed section properties are used, as an initial trial, try (38) 0.6-in.-diameter,
270 ksi strands. The strand pattern at midspan for the 38 strands is shown in Figure 9.6.5.3-1. Each available
position is filled beginning with the bottom row.
Total area of prestressing strands, Aps = 38(0.217) = 8.246 in.2

9.6 - 16 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.5.3 Required Number of Strands/9.6.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

Figure 9.6.5.3-1
Assumed Strand Pattern at Midspan

No. Distance from

Strands bottom (in.)
11 4.14
27 2.17 Note: This is a non-
standard strand pattern.
Typically rows are
spaced vertically at 2”
apart.

9.6.5.4 Strand Pattern

The distance between the center of gravity of bottom strands and the bottom concrete fiber of the beam at
midspan is:
ybs = [27(2.17) + 11(4.14)]/(38) = 2.74 in. This is close to the assumed value of 3.0 in. OK
Strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = yb − ybs = 22.36 − 2.74 = 19.62 in. = epg

9.6.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

From the earliest years of prestressed concrete design, the gross section was conservatively used in analysis since
the prestressing forces were smaller and computer programs were not widely used. However, the use of
transformed section, which is obtained from the gross section by adding transformed steel area, yields more
accurate results than the gross section analysis.
For each row of prestressing strands shown in Figure 9.6.5.4-1, the steel area is multiplied by (n – 1) to calculate
the transformed section properties, where n is the modular ratio between prestressing strand and concrete. Since
the modulus of elasticity of concrete is different at transfer and final time, the transformed section properties
should be calculated separately for the two stages. Using similar procedures as in Section 9.6.3.2.3, a sample
calculation is shown in Table 9.6.5.5-1.
At transfer:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 5.069
4,696
At final:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 3.701
6,062

9.6 - 17 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

Table 9.6.5.5-1
Properties of Composite Transformed Section at Final Time
Transformed yb Ayb A(ybtc − yb)2 I I + A(ybtc − yb)2
Area, in.2 in. in.3 in.4 in.4 in.4
Deck 637.56 58.00 36,978 341,978 2,603 344,581
Haunch 9.96 54.25 540 3,752 0.21 3,752
Beam 1,120.00 22.36 25,043 174,440 403,020 577,460
Row 1 21.68 2.17 47.05 23,140 23,140
Row 2 8.83 4.14 36.56 8,322 8,322
∑ 1,798.03 62,645 957,255
Note: The moment of inertia of strand about its own centroid is neglected.

The transformed section properties are calculated as:

Noncomposite transformed section at transfer:
Ati = area of transformed section at transfer = 1,161.8 in.2
Iti = moment of inertia of the transformed section at transfer = 418,565 in.4
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at transfer = 18.91 in.
ybti = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam at
transfer = 21.65 in.
Sbti = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 19,333 in.3
Stti = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 12,939 in.3

Noncomposite transformed section at final time:

Atf = area of transformed section at final time = 1,151 in.2
Itf = moment of inertia of the transformed section at final time = 414,519 in.4
etf = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at final time = 19.10 in.
ybtf = distance from the centroid of the noncomposite transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam at final time = 21.84 in.
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at final time = 18,980 in.3
Sttf = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at final time = 12,889 in.3

Composite transformed section at final time:

Atc = area of transformed composite section at final time = 1,798 in.2
Itc = moment of inertia of the transformed composite section at final time = 957,255 in.4
etc = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed composite section at final time = 32.10 in.
ybtc = distance from the centroid of the composite transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam at final time = 34.84 in.
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section at final time
= 27,476 in.3
Sttc = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast beam for transformed section at final
time = 49,961 in.3
Sdtc = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the deck for the transformed composite section
at final time = 56,768 in.3

9.6 - 18 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.6 Prestress Losses/9.6.6.1 Elastic Shortening

9.6.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES

Total prestress loss:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT
where
ΔfpLT = total loss in prestressing steel stress
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel after transfer. In
this example, the refined estimates of time-dependent losses are used.

9.6.6.1 Elastic Shortening

𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
where
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands = 28,500 ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete at transfer = 4,696 ksi
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing strands due to prestressing force at
transfer and the self weight of the member at sections of maximum moment.
If the gross (or net) cross-section properties are used, it is necessary to perform numerical iterations. The elastic
loss ΔfpES is usually assumed to be 10% of the initial prestress to calculate fcgp, which is then used in the equation
above to calculate a refined ΔfpES. The process is repeated until the assumed ΔfpES and refined ΔfpES converge.
However, when transformed section properties are used to calculate concrete stress, the effects of losses and
gains due to elastic deformations are implicitly accounted for. Therefore, ΔfpES should not be included in
calculating fcgp.
Force per strand before transfer = (area of strand)(prestress stress before transfer)
= (0.217)(202.5) = 43.94 kips
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 2 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 )𝑒𝑡𝑖
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖
where
eti = eccentricity of strands at midspan with respect to the transformed section at transfer = 18.91 in.
Ppi = total prestressing force before transfer = (38 strands)(43.94) = 1,669.7 kips
Mg and Md should be calculated based on the overall beam length of 111 ft. Since the elastic shortening loss is
a part of the total loss, fcgp will be conservatively computed based on Mg and Md using the design span length
of 110 ft.
1,669.7 (1,669.7)(18.91)2 (1,765.1 + 78.0)(12)(18.91)
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + − = 1.864 ksi
1,161.8 418,565 418,565
Therefore, loss due to elastic shortening:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 1.864 = 11.3 ksi
4,696
AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.3 indicates that the loss due to elastic shortening at transfer should be added to the time-
dependent losses to determine total losses. However, this loss at transfer is directly accounted for if transformed
section properties are used in the stress analysis.

9.6 - 19 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement/9.6.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

9.6.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

The following construction schedule is assumed in calculating the time-dependent losses.
Concrete age at transfer: ti = 1 day
Concrete age at deck placement: td = 90 days
Concrete age at final stage: tf = 20,000 days
The total time-dependent loss between time of transfer and deck placement is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of concrete, creep of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing strands.

9.6.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is calculated by:
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 = ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 𝐸𝑝 𝐾𝑖𝑑 [LRFD 5.9.5.4.2a-1]
where
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between transfer and deck placement

Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi

Kid = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between transfer and deck
placement
The concrete shrinkage strain, 𝜀𝑏𝑖𝑑 , is taken as:
ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 = 𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑠 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3.-1]
where
The factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam:
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13 × 3.19 = 1.035
The minimum value of kvs is 1.0 OK
V/S is the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam.
The humidity factor for shrinkage:
khs = 2.00 − 0.14H = 2.00 − 0.014(70) = 1.020
where H = average annual mean relative humidity (assume 70%)
The factor for the effect of the concrete strength:
5 5
𝑘𝑓 = = = 0.714
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 1 + 6.0
The time development factor at deck placement:
𝑡 89
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = ′ = = 0.706 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − 4(6.0) + 89
where t is the maturity of concrete(days) = td − ti = 90 − 1 = 89 days
εbid = (1.035)(1.020)(0.714)(0.706)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000255
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 (𝑒𝑝𝑔 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔

9.6 - 20 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.6.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

where
epg = eccentricity of prestressing strand with respect to the centroid of the girder, in.
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced at transfer
For the time between transfer and final time:
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = 1.9𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑐 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 𝑡𝑖−0.118 [LRFD Eq.5.4.2.3.2-1]
khc = 1.56 − 0.008H = 1.56 − 0.008(70) = 1.000
𝑡 20,000 − 1
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = ′ = = 0.998 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − 4(6.0) + (20,000 − 1)

Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = 1.9(1.035)(1.000)(0.714)(0.998)(1)-0.118 = 1.401

1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = = 0.845
28,500 8.246 1,120(19.62)2
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(1.401)]
4,696 1,120 403,020
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between transfer and deck placement is:
ΔfpSR = (0.000255)(28,500)(0.845) = 6.141 ksi

9.6.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of girder concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = 𝑓 Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 )𝐾 [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.2b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖 𝑖𝑑
where
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at time of deck placement due to loading introduced at transfer
= 1.9𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑐 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑖−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
= 1.9(1.035)(1.000)(0.714)(0.706)(1)-0.118 = 0.991
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = (1.864)(0.991)(0.845) = 9.473 ksi
4,696

9.6.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck placement is
determined as:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑡
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2c-1]
𝐾𝐿 𝑓𝑝𝑦

where
fpt = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer, taken not less than 0.55fy
KL = 30 for low-relaxation strands and 7 for other prestressing steel, unless more accurate
manufacturer's data are available
(202.5 − 11.3) (202.5 − 11.3)
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) = 1.509 ksi
30 243
According to LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.2c, the relaxation loss may also be assumed equal to 1.2 ksi for low-relaxation
strands.

9.6 - 21 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time/9.6.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

9.6.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time

The total time-dependent loss between time of deck placement and final time is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of beam concrete, creep of beam concrete, relaxation of prestressing strands, and shrinkage of
deck concrete.

9.6.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of deck placement and final time is calculated by:
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝐷 = ε𝑏𝑑𝑓 𝐸𝑝 𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-1]
where
εbdf = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between deck placement and final time
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kdf = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between deck placement and final
time
The total concrete shrinkage strain between transfer and final time is taken as:
εbif = ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 = 𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑠 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
= (1.035)(1.020)(0.714)(0.998)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000361
The concrete shrinkage strain between deck placement and final time is:
ε𝑏𝑑𝑓 = ε𝑏𝑖𝑓 − ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 = 0.000361 − 0.000255 = 0.000106
The beam concrete transformed section coefficient between deck placement and final time is:
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐 (𝑒𝑝𝑐 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
Ac = area of the composite section = 1,768 in.2
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section = 925,249 in.4
epc = eccentricity of strands with respect to centroid of composite section = 35.40 − 2.74 = 32.66 in.
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = = 0.854
28,500 8.246 1,768(32.66)2
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(1.401)]
4,696 1,768 925,249
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is:
ΔfpSD = (0.000106)(28,500)(0.854) = 2.580 ksi

9.6.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between time of deck placement and final time is:
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 [Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) − Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )]𝐾𝑑𝑓 + Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐸𝑐
where

Ψ𝑏 ( 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑑 ) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading at deck placement

= 1.9kvskhckfktdftd-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

9.6 - 22 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete/9.6.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

𝑡 20,000 − 90
𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓 = = = 0.998
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ + 𝑡 61 − 4(6.0) + (20,000 − 90)

Ψ𝑏 ( 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑑 ) = 1.9(1.035)(1.000)(0.714)(0.998)(90)-0.118 = 0.824

Δfcd = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to long-term losses between
transfer and deck placement, combined with deck weight and superimposed loads, ksi
2
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 (𝑒𝑝𝑔 ) 𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐
= −(Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 ) (1 + )−( + )
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐

8.246 1,120(19.62)2
= −(6.141 + 9.473 + 1.509) (1 + )
1,120 403,020
1,725.8(19.10)(12) (226.9 + 444.7)(32.10)(12)
− ( + )
414,519 957,255
= −1.485 ksi
The gross section properties are used in the equation to calculate Δfcd for the long-term losses since the
transformed section effect has already been included in the factor Kid when calculating the losses between initial
time and deck placement.
28,500 28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = (1.864)(1.401 − 0.991)(0.854) + (−1.485)(0.824)(0.854)
4,696 6,062
= −0.952 ksi The negative sign indicates a prestressing gain.

9.6.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands in the composite section between time of deck
placement and final time is taken as:
ΔfpR2 = ΔfpR1 = 1.509 ksi

9.6.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

For simplicity, the shrinkage of the CIP deck concrete and the precast panel concrete are both assumed to start 1
day after the deck is cast. In reality, shrinkage of the deck panels after the CIP deck is placed will be less than that
of the CIP deck. The effect on the total calculated prestress losses is minimal.
The prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete is calculated by:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = Δ𝑓 𝐾 [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )] [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3d-1]
𝐸𝑐 𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
where Δfcdf = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to shrinkage of deck concrete, ksi
ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑑 1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝑒𝑑
Δfcdf = [ − ] [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3d-2]
𝐴
1 + 0.7Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) 𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
εddf = shrinkage strain of deck concrete between placement and final time by LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1
Ad = area of deck concrete, in.2
Ecd = modulus of elasticity of deck concrete, ksi
Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = deck concrete creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced shortly after deck
placement
ed = eccentricity of deck with respect to the gross composite section, in.

9.6 - 23 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete/9.6.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer

Assume the initial strength of concrete at deck placement is 0.8(4.0 ksi) = 3.2 ksi, and use a volume-to-surface
ratio 3.379 for the deck:
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13(3.379) = 1.011 > 1.0 OK
5 5
kf = ′ = = 1.190
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖 1 + 3.2

𝑡 20,000 − 90
ktd = ′ = = 0.998
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − 4(3.2) + (20,000 − 90)

εddf = kvskhskfktd0.48 × 10-3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]

= (1.011)(1.020)(1.190)(0.998)(0.48 ×10-3) = 0.000588

Ψ𝑑 ( 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑑 ) = 1.9𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑐 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 𝑡𝑖−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

= 1.9(1.011)(1.000)(1.190)(0.998)(1)-0.118 = 2.281
Creep of the deck concrete is assumed to start at 1 day.
0.000588(144)(7.0)(3,834) 1 32.66(61.5 − 7.0/2 − 35.40)
Δfcdf = ( − )
1 + 0.7(2.281) 1,768 925,249
= −0.203 ksi The negative sign indicates a prestressing gain.
The prestress gain due to shrinkage of the deck in the composite section:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = (−0.203)(0.854)[1 + 0.7(0.824)] = −1.285 ksi
6,062
Note: The effect of deck shrinkage on the calculation of prestress gain is discussed further in Section 9.1a.8.5.

9.6.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss

The total time-dependent loss, ΔfpLT, is determined as: [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.1-1]
ΔfpLT = (ΔfpSR + ΔfpCR + ΔfpR1) + (ΔfpSD + ΔfpCD + ΔfpR2 + ΔfpSS)
= (6.141 + 9.473 + 1.509) + (2.580 − 0.952 + 1.509 − 1.285)
= 19.0 ksi

9.6.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer

AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.2.3a and C5.9.5.3 indicates that the losses or gains due to elastic deformation must be taken
equal to zero if transformed section properties are used in stress analysis. However, the losses or gains due to
elastic deformation must be included in determining the total prestress losses and the effective stress in
prestressing strands.
Δfpi = ΔfpES = 11.3 ksi
Effective stress in tendons immediately after transfer, fpt = fpi − Δfpi = (202.5 − 11.3) = 191.2 ksi
Force per strand = (fpt)(area of strand) = (191.2)(0.217) = 41.49 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer, Ppt = 41.49(38) = 1,577 kips
Initial loss, % = (Total losses at transfer)/(fpi) = 11.3/(202.5) = 5.6%
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, the strand force is that before
transfer:
Force per strand = (202.5)(0.217) = 43.94 kips
The total prestressing force before transfer, Ppi = 43.94(38) = 1,670 kips

9.6 - 24 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads/9.6.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

9.6.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads

Total loss due to elastic shortening at transfer and long-term losses is:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT = 11.3 + 19.0 = 30.3 ksi
The elastic gain due to deck weight, superimposed dead load, and live load (Service III) is:
𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝 (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝
=( + ) + 0.8 ( )
𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐
1,725.8(12)(19.10) (226.9 + 444.7)(12)(32.10) 28,500 (1,691.1 + 724.1)(12)(32.1) 28,500
=( + ) + 0.8 ( )
414,519 957,255 6,062 957,255 6,062
= 5.8 + 3.7 = 9.5 ksi
The effective stress in strands after all losses and gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 5.8 = 202.5 − 30.3 + 9.5 = 181.7 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
fpe ≤ 0.8 fpy = 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 181.7 ksi OK
The effective stress in strands after all losses and permanent gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 8.0= 202.5 – 30.3 + 5.8 = 178.0 ksi
Force per strand without live load gains= (fpe)(area of strand) = (178.0)(0.217) = 38.63 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after all losses = 38.63(38) = 1,468 kips
Final loss percentage = (total losses and gains)/(fpi) = (30.3 − 5.8)/(202.5) = 12.1%
Without consideration of prestressing gains at deck placement, the final loss percentage = total losses/(fpi) =
(30.3)/202.5) = 15.0%
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, all the elastic gains and losses are
implicitly accounted for.
Force per strand with only total time-dependent losses = (fpi − ΔfpLT)(area of strand) = (202.5 − 19.0)(0.217) =
39.82 kips
Total prestressing force, Ppe = (39.82)(38) = 1,513 kips

9.6.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER

Because the transformed section is used, the total prestressing force before transfer Ppi = 1,670 kips.

9.6.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.4]

Compression:
• 0.6𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 0.6(6.0) = +3.600 ksi
where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = concrete strength at release = 6.000 ksi
Tension:
• without bonded auxiliary reinforcement
−0.0948√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≤ −0.200 ksi; −0.0948√6.000 = −0.232 ksi
Therefore, −0.200 ksi (Controls)
• with bonded auxiliary reinforcement that is sufficient to resist 120% of the tension force in the cracked
concrete
−0.24√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = − 0.24√6.000 = −0.588 ksi

9.6 - 25 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

9.6.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Stresses at this location need only be checked at transfer because this stage almost always governs. Also, losses
with time will reduce the concrete stresses making them less critical.
Transfer length = 60(strand diameter) = 60(0.6) = 36 in. = 3 ft [LRFD Art. 5.11.4]
Due to camber of the beam at transfer, the beam self weight and diaphragm weight act on the overall beam length,
111 ft. Therefore, values for bending moment given in Table 9.6.4-1 cannot be used because they are based on
the design span length of 110 ft. Using Equation 9.6.4.1.2-2, the bending moment at transfer length due to beam
and diagram weights, are:
Mg = 0.5wgx(L − x) = (0.5)(1.167)(3)(111 − 3) = 189.1 ft-kips
Md = 1.858(3) = 5.6 ft-kips
Compute concrete stress in the top of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 1,670 1,670(18.91) (189.1 + 5.6)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 1,161.8 12,939 12,939
= 1.437 ‒ 2.441 + 0.181 = −0.823 ksi
Tensile stress limit for concrete with bonded reinforcement: ‒0.588 ksi NG
Compute concrete stress in the bottom of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 1,670 1,670(18.91) (189.1 + 5.6)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 1,161.8 19,333 19,333
= 1.437 + 1.633 − 0.121 = + 2.949 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.600 ksi OK
Since stress at the top exceeds the stress limit, debond strands to satisfy the specified limits. Debond nine strands
for a distance of 10 ft from the end of the beam.
To minimize the shock impact of detensioning and cracks at corners and bottom, assume the strand pattern
shown in Fig. 9.6.7.2-1. LRFD Article 5.11.4.3 requires that the following conditions be satisfied if debonding is
used:
• percentage debonding of total = 9/38 = 24% ≤ 25% OK
• percentage debonding of row = 9/27 = 33% ≤ 40% OK
• All limit states should be satisfied OK
• Debonded strands should be symmetrically distributed OK
• Exterior strands in each horizontal line are fully bonded OK

9.6 - 26 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.6.7.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands

Figure 9.6.7.2-1
Strand Pattern at End of Beam

Bonded
Debonded (10’-0” from end)

Compute the center of gravity of the bonded prestressing strands at the end of the beam.
The distance from the center of gravity of bonded strands to the bottom fiber of the beam is:
ybs = [18(2.17) + 11(4.14))]/(29) = 2.92 in.
and the strand eccentricity for the transformed section at end of the beam is:
eti = 21.82 − 2.92 = 18.90 in.
Recompute the stresses at the transfer length section. Note that the transformed section properties here are
different than those at midspan after debonding. Using the same method as described in Section 9.6.5.5, the
transformed section properties at end of beam are computed as:
Ati = 1,152 in.2 ybi = 21.82 in. Sbti = 19,183 in.3 Stti = 13,007 in.3
Total prestressing force at release at end section = 29(43.94) = 1,274 kips
Concrete stress in top of beam:
1,274 1,274(18.90) (189.1 + 5.6)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − +
1,152 13,007 13,007
= 1.106 − 1.851 + 0.180 = −0.565 ksi
Tensile stress limit for concrete is: −0.588 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
1,274 1,274(18.90) (189.1 + 5.6)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + −
1,152 19,183 19,183
= 1.106 + 1.255 − 0.122 = +2.239 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete is: +3.600 ksi OK

9.6.7.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands

All strands are effective at this location; therefore use the full value of Ppi. Bending moments due to the self weight
of the beam and diaphragms at (10 ft + 3 ft = 13 ft) from the end of the beam are:
Mg = 0.5wgx(L − x) = (0.5)(1.167)(13)(111 − 13) = 743.4 ft-kips
Md = 1.858(13) = 24.2 ft-kips

9.6 - 27 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.7.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands/9.6.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

Concrete stress in top of beam:

𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 ) 1,670 1,670(18.91) (743.4 + 24.2)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 1,161.8 12,939 12,939
= 1.437 − 2.441 + 0.712 = −0.292 ksi
Tensile stress limit for concrete: −0.588 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1,670 1,670(18.91) (743.4 + 24.2)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 1161.8 19,333 19,333
= 1.437 + 1.633 − 0.476 = 2.594 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.600 ksi OK

9.6.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

Bending moment at midspan due to the beam and diaphragm weights are:
Mg = 0.5(1.167)(55.5)(111 − 55.5) = 1,797.3 ft-kips
Md = 1.858(42.5) = 79.0 ft-kips
Concrete stress in top bottom of beam:
1,670 1,670(18.91) (1,797.3 + 79.0)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.437 − 2.441 + 1.740 = +0.736 ksi
1,161.8 12,939 12,939
Tensile stress limit for concrete: −0.588 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
1,670 1,670(18.91) (1,797.3 + 79.0)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.437 + 1.633 ‒ 1.165 = +1.905 ksi
1,161.8 19,333 19,333
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.600 ksi OK

9.6.7.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

Top Fiber Bottom Fiber
Stresses Stresses
ft , ksi fb , ksi
At transfer length section −0.565 +2.239
At end of debonded strands + transfer length −0.292 +2.594
At midspan +0.736 +1.905

9.6.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS

Using transformed section properties and refined losses, Ppe = 1,513 kips

9.6.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

Compression: [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2.]
Due to permanent loads, (i.e. beam self weight, weight of slab and haunch, diaphragm weight, weight of future
wearing surface, and weight of barriers,), for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = (0.45)(10.000) = +4.500 ksi
for deck: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = (0.45)(4.000) = +1.800 ksi

9.6 - 28 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete/9.6.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck

Due to permanent and transient loads (i.e. all dead loads and live loads), for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.60 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.6(10.000) = +6.000 ksi
for deck: 0.60 𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(4.000) = +2.400 ksi
Tension:
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III: 0.19√𝑓𝑐′

for precast beam: −0.19√10.000 = −0.601 ksi

9.6.8.2 Stresses at Midspan

9.6.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam
To check top compressive stresses, two cases are considered:
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
Using bending moment values given in Table 9.6.4-1, compute the top fiber stresses:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 + 𝑀𝑠 (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − + +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
1,513 (1,513)(19.10) (1,765.1 + 78.0 + 1,725.8)(12) (444.7 + 226.9)(12)
= − + +
1,151 12,889 12,889 49,961
= 1.315 − 2.242 + 3.323 + 0.161 = +2.557 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +4.500 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = +2.557 +
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
(1,691.1 + 724.1)(12)
= +2.557 +
49,961
= 2.557+ 0.580 = +3.137 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +6.000 ksi OK
9.6.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck
Note: Compressive stress in the deck slab at service loads never controls the design for typical applications. The
calculations shown below are for illustration purposes and may not be necessary in most practical applications.
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
(𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 ) (444.7 + 226.9)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = = = +0.142 ksi
𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 56,768
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +1.800 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
(𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 ) (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 ) (1,691.1 + 724.1)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = + = +0.142 +
𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 56,768
= 0.142 + 0.511 = +0.653
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +2.400 ksi OK

9.6 - 29 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III/9.6.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage

9.6.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III

𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 + 𝑀𝑠 ) (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 ) + 0.8(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 = + − −
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
1,513 (1,513)(19.10) (1,765.1 + 78.0 + 1,725.8)(12)
= + −
1,151 18,980 18,980
(444.7 + 226.9)(12) + 0.8(1,691.1 + 724.1)(12)
−
27,476
= 1.315 + 1.523 − 2.256 − 1.137 = −0.555 ksi
Tensile stress limit for concrete: −0.601 ksi OK

9.6.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

LRFD Article 5.5.3.1 states that in fully prestressed components other than segmentally constructed bridges, the
compressive stress due to Fatigue I load combination and one half the sum of effective prestress and permanent
loads shall not exceed 0.40𝑓𝑐′ , after losses.
From Table 9.6.4-2, the unfactored fatigue bending moment at midspan, Mf, is 579.0 ft-kips. Therefore, stress at
the top fiber of the beam due to fatigue load combination I is:
1.50(𝑀𝑓 ) 1.50 (579.0)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 = = = +0.209 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐 49,961
At midspan, the top compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑑 + 𝑀𝑠 ) (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − + +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
1,513 (1,513)(19.10) (1,765.1 + 78.0 + 1725.8)(12) (444.7 + 226.9)(12)
= − + +
1,151 12,889 12,889 49,961
= 1.315 − 2.242 + 3.323 + 0.161 = 2.557 ksi
Therefore:
𝑓𝑏 2.257
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 + = 0.209 + = 1.488 < 0.40( 𝑓𝑐′ ) = 0.40(10.0) = 4.0 ksi OK
2 2
This condition should be satisfied at all locations along the beam.

9.6.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

Top of Beam, ksi Top of Deck, ksi
Service I Service I Bottom of
Beam, ksi
Permanent Permanent Service III
Total Loads Total Loads
Loads Loads
At midspan +2.557 +3.137 +0.142 +0.653 −0.555

9.6.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage

The calculations in Section 9.6.8.2 comply with the LRFD Specifications. However, PCI believes that it is not
appropriate to include the prestressing gain caused by the deck shrinkage, ΔfpSS, in calculating the prestress
losses. Alternatively, the effect of deck shrinkage should be analyzed by considering it as an external force applied
to the composite nontransformed section as illustrated in Section 9.1a.8.5.

9.6 - 30 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.9 Strength Limit State

9.6.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Using the values of unfactored bending moment given in Tables 9.6.4-1 and 9.6.4-2, the ultimate bending
moment at midspan is:
Mu = 1.25(1,765.1 + 78.0 + 1,725.8 + 226.9) + 1.5(444.7) + 1.75(1,691.1 + 724.1) = 9,638.4 ft-kips
Average stress in prestressing steel when fpe ≥ 0.5fpu:
𝑐
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 (1 − 𝑘 ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1]
𝑑𝑝
where
fps = average stress in prestressing strand, ksi
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing strand = 270.0 ksi
𝑓𝑝𝑦 243
k = 2 (1.04 − ) = 2 (1.04 − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-2]
𝑓𝑝𝑢 270
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strands
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis, in.
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing strands = hc − ybs =
61.50 − 2.74 = 58.76 in.
To compute c, assume rectangular section behavior and check if the depth of [LRFD C5.7.3.2.2]
the equivalent compression stress block, a, is less than or equal to ts:
where a = β1c

𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′

𝑐=
𝑓𝑝𝑢 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-4]
0.85𝑓𝑐′ 𝛽1 𝑏 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝

where
a = depth of the equivalent stress block
Aps = area of prestressing strand = 38(0.217) = 8.246 in.2
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement = 0.0 in.2
fy = specified yield strength of tension reinforcement, = 60.0 ksi
𝐴′𝑠 = area of compression reinforcement = 0.0 in.2
𝑓𝑦′ = specified yield strength of compression reinforcement = 60.0 ksi
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of deck concrete = 4.0 ksi
β1 = stress factor of compression block [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.2]
= 0.85 for 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 4.0 ksi
= 0.85 − 0.05(𝑓𝑐′ − 4.0) ≥ 0.65 for 𝑓𝑐′ > 4.0 ksi
= 0.85
b = effective width of compression flange = 144.0 in.

9.6 - 31 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.9 Strength Limit State/9.6.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement

8.246(270.0) + 0 − 0
𝑐= = 5.22 in.
270.0
0.85(4.0)(0.85)(144.0) + (0.28)(8.246) ( )
58.76
a = β1c = (0.85)(5.22) = 4.44 in. < ts = 7.0 in. OK
Therefore, the rectangular section behavior assumption is valid.
Therefore, the average stress in the prestressing strand is:
5.22
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 270.0 (1 − 0.28 ) = 263.3 ksi
58.76
Nominal flexural resistance:
𝑎
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 (𝑑𝑝 − ) [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.2.2-1]
2
The above equation is a simplified form of LRFD Equation 5.7.3.2.2-1 because no compression reinforcement or
mild tension reinforcement is present.
4.44
𝑀𝑛 = (8.246)(263.3) (58.76 − ) /12 = 10,229.8 ft-kips
2
Factored flexural resistance:
Mr = ɸMn [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where ɸ = resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
= 1.00, for tension controlled prestressed concrete sections
Mr = 10,229.8 ft-kips > Mu = 9,638.4 ft-kips OK

9.6.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT

9.6.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
The check of maximum reinforcement limits in LRFD Article 5.7.3.3.1 was removed from the LRFD Specifications
in 2005.

9.6.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]

At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement must be adequate to develop
a factored flexural resistance, Mr, equal to the lesser of:
• 1.2 times the cracking strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and
• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan:
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 (𝑓𝑟 + 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 ) − 𝑀𝑑𝑛𝑐 ( − 1) ≥ 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 𝑓𝑟 [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2-1]
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
where
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= 0.37√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.37√10.000 = 1.170 ksi

fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied
loads

9.6 - 32 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.6.11.1 Critical Section

𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 1,513 (1,513)(19.10)

= + = + = 2.837 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 1,151 18,980
Mdnc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section
= Mg + Md + Ms = 1,765.1 + 78.0 + 1,725.8 = 3,568.9 ft-kips
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of transformed composite section where the tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads = 27,476 in.3
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of transformed noncomposite section where the
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 18,980 in.3

27,476 27,476
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = (1.170 + 2.837) − (3,568.9) ( − 1) = 7,577.2 ft-kips
12 18,980
1.2Mcr = 1.2(7,577.2) = 9,092.6 ft-kips Illustrated based on 2011
LRFD Specifications.
At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is:
Editor’s Note: 2012 LRFD
Mu = 9,638.4 ft-kips (as calculated in Section 9.6.9) Specifications changes
1.33 Mu = 1.33(9,638.4) = 12,819.1 ft-kips will revise minimum
reinforcement.
Since 1.2Mcr < 1.33Mu, the 1.2Mcr requirement controls.
Mr = 10,229.8 ft-kips > 1.2Mcr = 9,092.6 OK
Note: The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at every section.

9.6.11 SHEAR DESIGN

The area and spacing of shear reinforcement must be determined at regular intervals along the entire length of
the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design procedures are demonstrated below by determining
these values at the critical section near the supports.
Transverse shear reinforcement is required when:
Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
where
Vu = total factored shear force, kips
Vc = nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the concrete, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
ɸ = resistance factor = 0.9 for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]

9.6.11.1 Critical Section [LRFD Art. 5.8.3.2]

The critical section near the supports is taken as the effective shear depth, dv, from the internal face of the
support.
dv = distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (de− a/2), but [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
not less than (0.9de) or (0.72hc)
where
de = the corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.9]
centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement
a = depth of compression block = 4.44 in. (at midspan, assumed adequate)
hc = overall depth of the composite section = 61.5 in.

9.6 - 33 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.11.1 Critical Section/9.6.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

Note: Only 29 strands are effective at the critical section for shear, because nine strands are debonded for a
distance of 10 ft from the end of the beam.
ybs = 2.92 in., calculated in Section 9.6.7.2
de = hc − ybs = 61.50 − 2.92 = 58.58 in.
dv = 58.58 − (0.5)(4.44) = 56.36 in. (Controls)
≥ 0.9de = 0.9(58.58) = 52.72 in. OK
≥ 0.72hc = 0.7(61.50) = 44.28 in. OK
Therefore, dv = 56.36 in.
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it was conservatively assumed to be zero for determining
the critical section for shear, as shown in Figure 9.6.11.1-1. Therefore, the critical section in shear is located at a
distance of:
56.36 in. = 4.70 ft from centerline of support
(x/L) = 4.70/110 = 0.043L
Figure 9.6.11.1-1
Critical Section in Shear

6” 56.36” Critical Section in Shear

9.6.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance

The contribution of the concrete to the nominal shear resistance is:
Vc = 0.0316β√𝑓𝑐′ bvdv [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-3]

where β = a factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension (a value indicating
concrete contribution)
Several quantities must be determined before this expression can be evaluated.

9.6.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

Calculate the strain at the centroid of the tension reinforcement, εs:
|𝑀𝑢 |
+ 0.5𝑁𝑢 + |(𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 )| − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑜
𝑑 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-4]
ε𝑠 = 𝑣
(𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 )
where
Nu = applied factored axial force at the specified section, 0.043L = 0 kips
Vu = applied factored shear force at the specified section, 0.043L
= 1.25(58.7 + 57.4 + 7.5 + 1.9) + 1.50(14.8) + 1.75(89.3 + 34.5) (Tables 9.6.4-1 and 9.6.4-2)
= 395.7 kips

9.6 - 34 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement/9.6.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement

Vp = component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the applied shear
= 0 kips since strand pattern is straight
Mu = applied factored bending moment at the specified section, 0.043L
= 1.25(288.8 + 282.3 + 37.1 + 8.7) + 1.50(72.8) + 1.75(293.7 + 118.5)
= 1,601.7 ft-kips
Mu need not to be taken less than (Vu − Vp)dv:
(Vu − Vp)dv = [(395.7 − 0)(56.36/12)] = 1,858.5 ft-kips
Since (Vu − Vp)dv ≥ Mu, Mu = 1,858.5 ft-kips Controls
Aps = area of prestressing strands on the flexural tension side of the member = 29(0.217) = 6.293 in.2
(Only 29 of the 38 strands in the flexural tension side are effective because nine strands are
debonded).
fpo = a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by the locked-in
difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the surrounding concrete (ksi). For
pretensioned members, LRFD Article C5.8.3.4.2 indicates that fpo can be taken as 0.7fpu. (Note: use
this for both pretensioned and post-tensioned systems made with stress relieved and low
relaxation strands).
= 0.7(270.0) = 189.0 ksi
|1,858.5 ⨯ (12)|
+ 0.5(0) + |(395.7 − 0)| − 6.293(189)
ε𝑠 = 56.36 = −2.219 × 10−3
[0 + 28,500(6.293)]
εs is less than zero. Use εs = 0.

9.6.11.2.2 Values of β and θ

Assume the section contains at least the minimum amount of traverse reinforcement:
4.8 4.8
β= = = 4.8 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-1]
(1 + 750ε𝑠 ) (1 + 0)
Angle of diagonal compressive stress is:
θ = 29 + 3,500εs = 29 + 3,500(0) = 29° [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-3]

9.6.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution

The nominal shear resisted by the concrete is:
Vc = 0.0316β√𝑓𝑐′ bvdv [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
where bv = effective web width = 10.0 in.
Vc = 0.0316(4.8) √10.0 (10.0)(56.36) = 270.3 kips

9.6.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance

9.6.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement

Check if Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
Vu = 395.7 kips > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) = 0.5(0.9)(270.3 + 0) = 121.6 kips
Therefore, transverse shear reinforcement must be provided.

9.6.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement

Vu /ɸ ≤ Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1]

9.6 - 35 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement/9.6.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

where
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement
= (Vu /ɸ) − Vc − Vp = (395.7/0.9) − 270.3 − 0.0 = 169.4 kips
𝐴 𝑓 𝑑 (cot θ + cot α) (sin α)
Vs = 𝑣 𝑦ℎ 𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4]
𝑠
where
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance, s , in.2
s = spacing of stirrups, in.
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement = 60.0 ksi
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis
= 90° for vertical stirrups

Therefore, area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, is:

Av = (sVs)/(fyhdvcot θ)
= [(s)(169.4)]/[60(56.36)cot 29°] = 0.028s in.2
If s = 10 in., required Av = 0.28 in.2/ft

9.6.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement

Check maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement: [LRFD Art 5.8.2.7]
Check if vu < 0.125f'c
|𝑉𝑢 − ɸ𝑉𝑝 | |395.7 − 0|
𝑣𝑢 = = = 0.780 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.9-1]
ɸ𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 (0.9)(10.0)(56.36)
0.125𝑓𝑐′ = (0.125)(10.0) = 1.250 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.7-1]
Since vu < 0.125𝑓𝑐′
then, s ≤ 24 in. (Controls)
s ≤ 0.8dv = 0.8(56.36)= 45.1 in.
Therefore, maximum s = 24 in. > s provided = 10 in. OK
Use No. 4 bar two-leg stirrups at 10 in., Av = 0.48 in2/ft > 0.28 in2/ft
0.40(60.0)(56.36) cot 29°
𝑉𝑠 = = 244.0 kips
10
9.6.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement
The area of traverse reinforcement should not be less than:
𝑏𝑣 𝑠 10.0(10.0)
0.0316√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.0316√10.0 = 0.167 in.2 ⁄ft < 𝐴𝑣 provided OK [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5-1]
𝑓𝑦ℎ 60.0

9.6.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

In order to ensure that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush prior to yielding of the transverse
reinforcement, the LRFD Specifications gives an upper limit of Vn as follows:
Vn = 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bv dv + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1, it can be concluded that
Vc + Vs must not be greater than 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv

9.6 - 36 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance/9.6.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement

270.3 + 244.0 = 514.3 kips ≤ 0.25(10)(10.0)(56.36) = 1,409.0 kips OK

Using the above procedures, the transverse reinforcement can be determined at increments along the entire
length of the beam.

9.6.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER

9.6.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear [LRFD Art. 5.8.4]
At the strength limit state, the horizontal shear at a section on a per unit basis can be taken as:
𝑉𝑢
𝑉ℎ𝑖 =
𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq. C5.8.4.2-7]
where
Vhi = horizontal factored shear force per unit length of the beam, kips/in.
Vu = factored shear force at specified section due to superimposed loads after the deck is cast, kips
dv = the distance between the centroid of the tension steel and the mid-thickness of the slab
= (de − ts/2) = 58.58 − (7.00/2) = 55.08 in.
The LRFD Specifications does not identify the location of the critical section. For convenience, it will be
assumed here to be the same location as the critical section for vertical shear at point 0.043L.
Using load combination Strength I:
Vu = 1.25(58.7+1.9+57.4+7.5) + 1.50(14.8) + 1.75(89.3 + 34.5) = 395.7 kips (Tables 9.6.4-1 and 9.6.4-2)
Therefore, the applied factored horizontal shear is:
395.7
𝑉ℎ𝑖 = = 7.18 kips⁄in.
55.08
9.6.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance
Required Vni = Vhi/ɸ = 7.18/0.9 = 7.98 kips/in. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-1]

9.6.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement

The nominal shear resistance of the interface surface is:
Vni = cAcv + µ[Avf fyh + Pc] [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3]
where
c = cohesion factor, ksi [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.3]
μ = coefficient of friction [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.3]
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear transfer, in.2
Avf = area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane, in.2
Pc = permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane, kips
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
For cast-in-place concrete slabs placed on clean concrete girder surface intentionally [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.3]
roughened:
c = 0.28 ksi
μ = 1.0
The actual contact width, bv, between the slab and the beam is 2(15.75) = 31.5 in.
Acv = (31.5 in.)(1.0 in.) = 31.5 in.2

9.6 - 37 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement/9.6.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement

LRFD Eq. 5.6.4.1-3 can be solved for Avf as follows:

7.98 = 0.28 (31.5) + 1.0[Avf(60)+0]
Solving for Avf
Avf (req'd) < 0.0 in.2/ft
Since the resistance provided by cohesion is greater than the applied force, provide the minimum required
interface reinforcement.
9.6.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement
Minimum shear reinforcement, Avf ≥ (0.05Acv)/fyh [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.4-1]
From the design of vertical shear reinforcement, a No. 4 two leg bar at 10 in. spacing is provided from the beam
extending into the deck. Therefore, Avf =0.48 in.2/ft.
Avf = (0.48 in.2/ft) > (0.05 Acv)/fyh = 0.05(31.5)/60 = 0.026 in.2/in. = 0.31 in2/ft OK
Consider further that LRFD Article 5.8.4.4 states that the minimum reinforcement requirement may be waived if
vhi/Acv < 0.210 ksi with surface roughened to an amplitude of 0.25 in.
7.18 kips/in./31.5 in. = 0.228 ksi > 0.210 ksi
Therefore, the minimum reinforcement requirement cannot be waived.

9.6.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Reinforcement

Vni ≤ K1𝑓𝑐′ Acv or K2Acv
0.96
𝑉𝑛 provided = 0.28(31.5) + 1.0 ( (60) + 0) = 13.62 kips⁄in.
12
K1𝑓𝑐′ Acv = (0.3)(4.0)(31.5) = 37.8 kips/in.
K2Acv = 1.8(31.5) = 56.7 kips/in.
Since provided Vn ≤ 0.3𝑓𝑐′ Acv OK [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-4]
≤ 1.8Acv OK [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-5]

9.6.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT [LRFD Art. 5.8.3.5]

Longitudinal reinforcement should be proportioned so that at each section, the following equation is satisfied:
𝑀𝑢 𝑁𝑢 𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ + 0.5 (| − 𝑉𝑝 | − 0.5𝑉𝑠 ) cot θ [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.5-1]
𝑑𝑣 ɸ𝑓 ɸ𝑐 ɸ𝑣

where
Aps = area of prestressing strand at the tension side of the section, in.2
fps = average stress in prestressing strand at the time for which the nominal resistance is required, ksi
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.2
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars, ksi
Mu = factored moment at the section corresponding to the factored shear force, ft-kips
dv = effective shear depth, in.
ɸ = resistance factor as appropriate for moment, shear and axial resistance. [LRFD Art.5.5.4.2]
Therefore, different ɸ factors will be used for the terms in LRFD Equation
5.8.3.5-1, depending on the type of action being considered
Nu = applied factored axial force, kips

9.6 - 38 (Nov 11 w/errata date April 12)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement/9.6.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing

Vu = factored shear force at section, kips

Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses

9.6.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing [LRFD Art.5.8.3.5]

For simple end supports, the longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member at inside face
of bearing should satisfy:
𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ ( − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 ) cot θ [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.5-2]
ɸ
Mu = 0 ft-kips
Nu = 0 kips
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is assumed to be zero. This assumption is conservative
for these calculations. Therefore, the failure crack assumed for this analysis radiates from the centerline of the
bearing, 6 in. from the end of the beam.
From Tables 9.6.4-1 and 9.6.4-2 using load combination Strength I, the factored shear force at this section is:
Vu = 1.25(64.2 + 62.8 + 8.3 + 1.9) + 1.50(16.2) + 1.75(93.7 + 37.6) = 425.6 kips
𝑉𝑢 425.6
( − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 ) cot θ = ( − 0.5(244.0) − 0.0) cot 29° = 633.0 kips
ɸ𝑣 0.9
As shown in Figure 9.6.13.1-1, the assumed crack plane crosses the centroid of the 29 bonded strands at a
distance of (6 + 2.92cot 29° = 11.27 in.) from the end of the beam. Since the transfer length is 36 in. from the end
of the beam (60 times the strand diameter), the available prestress from the 29 bonded strands is a fraction of the
effective prestress, fpe, in these strands. Note: 29 effective strands because nine are debonded and use fps without
gains at beam end to be conservative.
Therefore, the available prestress force is:
11.27
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 = (29)(0.217) ((202.5 − 30.3) )
36
= 339.2 kips < 633.0 kips NG
Additional reinforcement required:
(633.0 – 343.7)/60.0 = 4.897 in.2
Provide (12) No. 6 bars = (5.28 in.2)
An alternative approach is to exclude all permanent gains from the available prestressing force. The prestress
force at the girder ends is slightly different because of varying influence of losses/gains as compared to midspan.
The available prestressing force then becomes:
11.27
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 = (29)(0.217) ((202.5 − (∆𝑓𝑝𝑇 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 )) )+0
36
11.27
= (29)(0.217) ((202.5 − (30.3 − 0.952 − 1.285)) )+0
36
= 343.7 kips < 633.0 kips NG
Additional reinforcement required:
(633.0 – 343.7)/60.0 = 4.822 in.2 (Note: difference is not significant)
Provide (12) No. 6 bars = (5.28 in.2)

9.6 - 39 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing/9.6.15.Deflection and Camber

Figure 9.6.13.1-1
Assumed Failure Crack
c.g. of the 29 bonded bottom strands

ybc

6”

9.6.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE [LRFD Art. 5.10.10]

9.6.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.10.10.1]

Design of the anchorage zone reinforcement is computed using the force in the strands just prior to transfer. Since
nine strands are debonded at the ends of the beam, the force in the remaining strands before transfer is:
Ppi = 29(0.217)(202.5) = 1,274.3 kips
The bursting resistance, Pr, should not be less than 4.0% of Ppi.
Pr = fsAs ≥ 0.04Ppi = 0.04(1,274.3) = 51.0 kips
where
As = total area of horizontal reinforcement located within a distance h/4 from the end of the beam, in.2
fs = allowable stress in steel, but taken not greater than 20 ksi
Solving for the required area of steel, As = 51.0/20 = 2.55 in.2
At least 2.55 in.2 of horizontal transverse reinforcement should be provided within a distance of (h/4 = 54/4 =
13.5 in.) from the end of the beam.
Use two transverse horizontal layers of reinforcement in the bottom flange to resist splitting forces in the
horizontal direction as shown in LRFD Specifications Fig. C5.10.10.1-1. Each layer of reinforcement to consist of
three No. 6 bars at 5.5-in. centers starting at 2 in. from end of the beam. Area of reinforcement provided = 6(0.44)
= 2.64 in.2 > 2.5 in.2 OK

9.6.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.10.10.2]

For a distance of 1.5h = 1.5(54) = 81 in., from the end of the beam, reinforcement is placed to confine the
prestressing steel in the bottom flange. The reinforcement may not be less than No. 3 deformed bars with spacing
not exceeding 6 in. The reinforcement should be of a shape that will confine (enclose) the strands.

9.6.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.6.2]

Deflections are calculated using the modulus of elasticity of concrete calculated in Section 9.6.3.1, and the gross
section properties of the precast beam.

9.6.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer

𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑐 𝐿2
Δ𝑝 =
8𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔

9.6 - 40 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.15 Deflection and Camber/9.6.15.3 Deflection due to Diaphragm Weight

where
Δp = camber due to prestressing force at transfer, in.
Ppt = total prestressing force after transfer = 38(41.49) = 1,577 kips
ec = eccentricity of prestressing force at midspan = 19.62 in.
L = overall beam length = 111.0 ft
Eci = modulus of elasticity at transfer = 4,696 ksi
Ig = moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast beam = 403,020 in.4

1,577.0(19.62)(111 × 12)2
Δ𝑝 = = 3.63 in. ↑
(8)(4,696)(403,020)

9.6.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight

5𝑤𝑔 𝐿4
Δ𝑔 =
384𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δg = deflection due to beam self weight, in.
wg = beam self weight = 1.167 kips/ft
Eci = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at transfer = 4,696 ksi
Ig = moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast beam = 403,020 in.4
L = beam length = 111.0 ft at transfer = 110.0 ft at erection
Deflection due to beam self weight at transfer:
1.167
5( ) (111 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 2.11 in. ↓
(384)(4,696)(403,020)
Deflection due to beam self weight used to compute deflection at erection:
1.167
5( ) (110 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 2.03 in. ↓
(384)(4,696)(403,020)
9.6.15.3 Deflection Due to Diaphragm Weight
For two equal concentrated loads symmetrically placed, the deflection at midspan is calculated as:
𝑃𝑑 𝑎
Δ𝑑 = (3𝐿2 − 4𝑎2 )
24𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Pd = diaphragm weight concentrated at 42 ft from each support = 1.858 kips
a = distance from the concentrated load to beam end = 42.5 ft at transfer
= 42.0 ft at erection
Eci = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at transfer = 4,696 ksi
Ig = moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast beam = 403,020 in.4
L = beam length = 111.0 ft at transfer = 110.0 ft at erection

9.6 - 41 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.15.3 Deflection due to Diaphragm Weight/9.6.15.6 Deflection and Camber Summary

Deflection due to diaphragm weight at transfer:

(1.858)(42.5 × 12)
Δ𝑑 = [3(111 × 12)2 − 4(42.5 × 12)2 ] = 0.09 in. ↓
(24)(4,696)(403,020)
Deflection due to diaphragm weight used to compute deflection at erection:
(1.858)(42.0 × 12)
Δ𝑑 = [3(110 × 12)2 − 4(42.0 × 12)2 ] = 0.09 in. ↓
(24)(4,696)(403,020)
9.6.15.4 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights
5𝑤𝑠 𝐿4
Δ𝑠 =
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔
where
Δs = deflection due to slab and haunch weights, in.
ws = slab and haunch weight = 1.125 + 0.016 = 1.141 kips/ft (Sect. 9.6.4.1.1)
L = design span = 110.0 ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at service loads = 6,062 ksi
Ig = gross moment of inertia of the precast beam = 403,020 in.4
1.141
5( ) (110 × 12)4
Δ𝑠 = 12 = 1.54 in. ↓
(384)(6,062)(403,020)

9.6.15.5 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface Weights

5(𝑤𝑏 + 𝑤𝑤𝑠 )𝐿4
Δ𝑏+𝑤𝑠 =
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
Δb+ws = deflection due to barrier and wearing surface weights, in.
wb = barrier weight = 0.150 kips/ft
wws = wearing surface weight = 0.294 kips/ft
L = design span = 110.0 ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at service loads = 6,062 ksi
Ic = gross moment of inertia of the composite section = 925,249 in.4 (Table 9.6.3.2.3-1)
0.444
5( ) (110 × 12)4
Δ𝑏+𝑤𝑠 = 12 = 0.26 in. ↓
(384)(6,062)(925,249)

9.6.15.6 Deflection and Camber Summary

At transfer, (Δp + Δg + Δd) = 3.63 − 2.11 − 0.09 = 1.43 in. ↑
Total deflection at erection, using PCI multipliers (see PCI Design Handbook)
= 1.8(3.63) − 1.85(2.03 + 0.09) = 2.61 in. ↑
Long-Term Deflection:
LRFD Article 5.7.3.6.2 states that the long-time deflection may be taken as the instantaneous deflection multiplied
by a factor of 4.0, if the instantaneous deflection is based on the gross moment of inertia. However, a factor of 4.0
is not appropriate for this type of precast construction. Therefore, it is recommended that the designer follow the
guidelines of the owner agency for which the bridge is being designed, or undertake a more rigorous, time-
dependent analysis.

9.6 - 42 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.15.7 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

9.6.15.7 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

Live load deflection limit (optional) = Span/800 [LRFD Art.2.5.2.6.2]
12
= (110 × ) = 1.65 in.
800
If the owner invokes the optional live load deflection criteria specified in Art. 2.5.2.6.2, the [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3.2]
deflection is the greater of:
• that resulting from the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, or
• that resulting from 25% of the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, taken together with the design lane load, ΔLL
Note: LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2 states that the dynamic load allowance be included in the calculation of live load
deflection.
The LRFD Specifications states that all beams should be assumed to deflect equally under [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
the applied live load and impact.
Therefore, the distribution factor for deflection, DFD, is calculated as follows:
DFD = (number of lanes/number of beams) = 3/4 = 0.75 lanes/beam [LRFD Art. C2.5.2.6.2]
However, it is more conservative to use the distribution factor for moment, DFM
Deflection due to lane load:
Design lane load, w = 0.64DFM = 0.64(0.748) = 0.479 kips/ft/beam
0.479
5𝑤𝐿4 5( ) (110 × 12)4
Δ𝐿𝐿 = = 12 = 0.28 in. ↓
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐 (384)(6,062)(925,249)
Deflection due to Design Truck Load and Impact:
To obtain the maximum moment and deflection at midspan due to truck load, let the centerline of the beam
coincide with the middle point of the distance between the inner 32-kip axle and the resultant of the truck load, as
shown in Figure 9.6.15.7-1.
Figure 9.6.15.7-1
Design Truck Axle Load Position for Maximum Bending Moment

Resultant of axle loads

72 kips

32 kips 32 kips 8 kips

2.333’
37.53 kips 34.47 kips
Midspan 2.333’

43.333’ 11.667’ 14’ 38.667’

110’

Using the elastic moment area or influence lines, deflection at midspan is:
ΔLT = (0.589)(IM)(DFD) = (0.589)(1.33)(0.75) = 0.59 in. ↓

9.6 - 43 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.6

U-BEAM (TX-U54), SINGLE SPAN, PRECAST DECK PANELS, COMPOSITE DECK
9.6.15.7 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

Therefore, live load deflection is the greater of:

ΔLT = 0.59 in. ↓ (Controls)
0.25ΔLT + ΔLL = 0.25(0.59) + 0.28 = 0.43 in. ↓
Therefore, live load deflection = 0.59 in. < allowable deflection = 1.65 in. OK

9.6 - 44 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.7.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................. 9.7 - 3
9.7.1.1 Terminology............................................................................................................................................................................ 9.7 - 3
9.7.2 MATERIALS ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 3
9.7.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM .......................................................................... 9.7 - 4
9.7.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ....................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 5
9.7.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads ................................................................................... 9.7 - 5
9.7.4.1.1 Dead Loads ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 5
9.7.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments .......................................................................................... 9.7 - 6
9.7.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads ..................................................................................... 9.7 - 6
9.7.4.2.1 Live Loads ....................................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 6
9.7.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam .................................................................... 9.7 - 6
9.7.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments .............................................................................................. 9.7 - 6
9.7.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force ........................................................................................................... 9.7 - 7
9.7.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance .................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 8
9.7.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments .......................................................................................... 9.7 - 8
9.7.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT ................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 8
9.7.4.2.4.2 Due To Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL ..................................................................................................... 9.7 - 9
9.7.4.3 Load Combinations .............................................................................................................................................................. 9.7 - 9
9.7.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS .................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 11
9.7.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan .............................................................................................................................. 9.7 - 11
9.7.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete.............................................................................................................................................. 9.7 - 11
9.7.5.3 Required Number of Strands........................................................................................................................................ 9.7 - 11
9.7.5.4 Strand Pattern ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 12
9.7.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties ..................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 12
9.7.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES ................................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 13
9.7.6.1 Elastic Shortening.............................................................................................................................................................. 9.7 - 14
9.7.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement................................................................ 9.7 - 14
9.7.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.7 - 15
9.7.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 16
9.7.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 16
9.7.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time ........................................................... 9.7 - 16
9.7.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.7 - 16
9.7.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 17
9.7.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 18
9.7.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete ................................................................................................................................. 9.7 - 18
9.7.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss .......................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 18
9.7.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer ................................................................................................................................................. 9.7 - 18
9.7.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads....................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 18
9.7.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER ............................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 19

9.7 - 1 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.7.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 9.7 - 19
9.7.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Bonded Strands .................................................................................. 9.7 - 19
9.7.7.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands ............................................................................. 9.7 - 21
9.7.7.4 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 21
9.7.7.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer ............................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 21
9.7.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS .................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 21
9.7.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 9.7 - 22
9.7.8.2 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 22
9.7.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 22
9.7.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads ............................................................................................ 9.7 - 23
9.7.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE ........................................................................................................................................................ 9.7 - 23
9.7.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT ............................................................................................................................................ 9.7 - 25
9.7.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 25
9.7.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................................ 9.7 - 25
9.7.11 SHEAR DESIGN ......................................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 26
9.7.11.1 Critical Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 9.7 - 26
9.7.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance ................................................................................ 9.7 - 27
9.7.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement ................................................................................................. 9.7 - 27
9.7.11.2.2 Values of β and θ .................................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 28
9.7.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution ..................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 28
9.7.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................... 9.7 - 28
9.7.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement ..................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 28
9.7.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement .................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 28
9.7.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement........................................................................................................... 9.7 - 29
9.7.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 29
9.7.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER......................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 29
9.7.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT ........................................................................ 9.7 - 29
9.7.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing ....................................................................................................... 9.7 - 30
9.7.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE.............................................................................................................................. 9.7 - 31
9.7.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement...................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 31
9.7.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER ............................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 31
9.7.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer ............................................................................................ 9.7 - 31
9.7.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight ....................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 32
9.7.15.3 Deflection Due to Joint Concrete, Barrier, and Wearing Surface Weights ............................................. 9.7 - 32
9.7.15.4 Deflection and Camber Summary ............................................................................................................................ 9.7 - 33
9.7.15.5 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact............................................................................................................... 9.7 - 33
9.7.16 TRANSVERSE POST-TENSIONING ................................................................................................................................... 9.7 - 34

9.7 - 2 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.1 Introduction/9.7.2 Materials

9.7 Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses

9.7.1 INTRODUCTION
This design example demonstrates the design of an 80-ft, single span, PCI Northeast Extreme double-tee deck
bridge with no skew. This example illustrates in detail the design of a typical interior beam at the critical sections
in positive flexure, shear, and deflection due to prestress, dead loads, and live loads. The superstructure consists
of five beams spaced at 9 ft 0 in. centers, as shown in Figure 9.7.1-1. A 3-in.-thick bituminous surfacing will be
placed on the beams as a wearing surface. Beams are transversely post-tensioned through the flange of the
beams. Design live load is HL-93. The design is accomplished in accordance with AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications, Fifth Edition, 2010, and the 2011 Interim Revisions. Elastic stresses from external loads are
calculated using transformed sections. Shear strength is calculated using the general procedure. Time-dependent
prestress losses are calculated using the refined estimates.
Figure 9.7.1-1
Bridge Cross Section
44’-4”

1’-6” 41’-4” 1’-6”

3” Bituminous Wearing Sur face

8” Longitudinal Joint 8” Flange Thickness

4’-2” 9’-0” 9’-0” 9’-0” 9’-0” 4’-2”

9.7.1.1 Terminology
The following terminology is used to describe cross sections in this design example:
noncomposite section—the concrete beam cross section.
noncomposite nontransformed section—the concrete beam cross section without the strands transformed. Also
called the gross section.
noncomposite transformed section—the concrete beam cross section with the strands transformed to provide
cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
The term "transformed" generally refers to transformation of the strands.

9.7.2 MATERIALS
Precast concrete beams: PCI double-tee beams, Type NEXT 36 D as shown in Figure 9.7.2-1
Required concrete compressive strength at transfer, 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 6.0 ksi
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 8.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight, wc = 0.150 kcf
Overall beam length = 81.0 ft
Design span = 80.0 ft

9.7 - 3 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.2 Materials/9.7.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Beam

Prestressing strands: 0.6-in.-dia., seven-wire, low-relaxation

Area of one strand = 0.217 in.2
Specified tensile strength, fpu = 270.0 ksi
Yield strength, fpy = 0.9fpu = 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Stress limits for prestressing strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
• before transfer, fpi ≤ 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi
• at service limit state (after all losses), fpe ≤ 0.80fpy = 194.4 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Ep = 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]

Figure 9.7.2-1
PCI Double-Tee Beam Type NEXT 36 D
8’-4”

1’-3” 1’-3” 8”

R=4”

5’-0”
2’-4”

¾”Cham fer

13.25” 13.25”

Reinforcing bars:
Yield strength, fy = 60.0 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Es = 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
3-in.-thick bituminous wearing surface: unit weight = 0.140 kcf [LRFD Table 3.5.1-1]
New Jersey-type barrier: unit weight = 0.300 kips/ft/side

9.7.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM

Ag = area of cross section of precast beam = 1,595.0 in.2
h = overall depth of precast beam = 36 in.
Ig = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast beam = 179,629 in.4
yb = distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 23.20 in.
yt = distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 12.80 in.
Sb = section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yb = 7,743 in.3
St = section modulus for extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yt = 14,034 in.3
wg = beam weight per unit length = (1,595/144)(0.150) = 1.661 kips/ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity, ksi = 33,000𝐾1 (𝑤𝑐 )1.5 �𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]

9.7 - 4 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Beam/9.7.4.1.1 Dead Loads

where
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate taken as 1.0
wc = unit weight of concrete = 0.150 kcf
LRFD Table 3.5.1-1 states that, in the absence of more precise data, the unit weight of concrete may
be taken as 0.140 + 0.001𝑓𝑐′ for 5.0 < 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 15.0 ksi. For 𝑓𝑐′ = 8.0 ksi, the unit weight would be 0.1480
kcf. However, precast concrete mixes typically have a relatively low water-cementitious materials ratio
and high density. Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150 kcf is used in this example. For high-strength concrete,
this value may need to be increased based on test results. For simplicity, a value of 0.150 kcf is also used
for the cast-in-place concrete.
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity for:
precast beam at transfer: 𝐸𝑐𝑖 = 33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5 √6.0 = 4,696 ksi
precast beam at service loads: 𝐸𝑐 = 33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5 √8.0 = 5,422 ksi

9.7.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

9.7.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads
9.7.4.1.1 Dead Loads
DC = Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments [LRFD Art. 3.3.2]
Beam self weight, wg = 1.661 kips/ft
Joint concrete = 8 × 8 in. cast-in-place, longitudinal joint
= ((8)(8)/144 ft2)(0.150 kcf) = 0.067 kips/ft/beam
Generally, the unit weight of reinforced concrete should be slightly greater than the unit weight of
concrete alone because of the added weight of reinforcement. However, in this example, the difference is
considered negligible.
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1 states that permanent loads (barrier and wearing surface loads) may be
distributed uniformly among all the beams if the following conditions are met:
• Width of deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb, is not less than four (Nb = 5) OK
• Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft
de = 4.17 − 2.50 − 1.50 = 0.17 ft OK
• Curvature in plan is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (curvature = 0.0°) OK
• Cross section of the bridge is consistent with one of the cross sections given in LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1.
The bridge is "sufficiently connected to act as unit" and the bridge type is (i). OK
Since these criteria are satisfied, the barrier and wearing surface loads are distributed equally among the
five beams.
Barrier weight = (2 barriers)(0.300 kips)/(5 beams) = 0.120 kips/ft/beam = wb
DW = Dead load of wearing surface
= (3/12)(0.140) = 0.035 ksf
= (0.035 ksf)(41.33 ft)/(5 beams) = 0.289 kips/ft/beam = wws
The DW loads should be kept separately from DC loads because a higher load factor is applied to them.

9.7 - 5 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.7.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments

9.7.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments

For a simply supported beam with a span length (L) loaded with a uniformly distributed load (w), the shear force
(Vx) and bending moment (Mx) at any distance (x) from the support are given by:
Vx = w(0.5L – x) (Eq. 9.7.4.1.2-1)
Mx = 0.5wx(L – x) (Eq. 9.7.4.1.2-2)

Using the above equations, values of shear forces and bending moments for a typical interior beam under the self
weight of beam and weights of longitudinal joint concrete, barriers, and wearing surface are computed and given
in Table 9.7.4-1 that is located at the end of Section 9.7.4.3. For these calculations, the span length (L) is the
design span, 80 ft. However, for calculations of stresses and deformations at the time prestress is transferred, the
overall length of the precast member, 81 ft, is used as illustrated later in this example.

9.7.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads

9.7.4.2.1 Live Loads

Design live load is HL-93, which consists of a combination of: [LRFD 3.6.1.2.1]
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance [LRFD 3.6.1.2.2]
The design truck consists of 8.0-, 32.0-, and 32.0-kip axles with the first pair spaced at [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.3]
14.0 ft and the second pair spaced at 14.0 to 30.0 ft. The design tandem consists of a
pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced at 4.0 ft apart.
2. Design lane load of 0.64 kips/ft without dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.4]

9.7.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam

The live load bending moments and shear forces are determined by using the simplified distribution factor
formulas [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]. To use the simplified live load distribution factor formulas, the following conditions
must be met: [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2.1]
• Width of deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb not less than four (Nb = 5) OK
• Beams are parallel and approximately of the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft (de= 0.17 ft) OK
• Curvature is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications, (curvature = 0.0°) OK
For a precast concrete double-tee section with shear keys and with transverse post- [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]
tensioning, the bridge type is (i).
The number of design lanes is computed as:
Number of design lanes = the integer part of the ratio (w/12), where w is the clear [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.1]
roadway width, in ft, between the curbs
From Figure 9.7.1-1, w = 41.33 ft
Number of design lanes = integer part of (41.33/12) = 3 lanes

9.7.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments

• For all limit states except fatigue limit state:
For two or more lanes loaded:
𝑆 0.6 𝑆 0.2 𝐾𝑔 0.1
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 0.075 + � � � � � � [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
9.5 𝐿 12.0𝐿𝑡𝑠3

9.7 - 6 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments/9.7.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force

Provided that: 3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16.0; S = 9.0 ft OK

4.5 ≤ ts ≤ 12.0; ts = 8.0 in. OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 240; L = 80 ft OK
Nb ≥ 4; Nb = 5 OK
10,000 ≤ Kg ≤ 7,000,000 OK (see below)
where
DFM = distribution factor for moment in interior beam
S = beam spacing, ft
L = beam span, ft
ts = structural depth of concrete deck, in.
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter, in.4 = n(Ibs + Abseg2) [LRFD Eq. 4.6.2.2.1-1]
where
n = modular ratio between beam and deck slab concrete
𝐸𝑐 (beam) 5,422
= = = 1.0000
𝐸𝑐 (slab) 5,422
Ibs = moment of inertia of the stems, in.4 = 53,462 in.4
Abs = cross-sectional area of the beam stems, in.2 = 803 in.2
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the stems and the flange, in. = 17.49 in.
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 is unclear on how to calculate Kg for bridges without a composite deck. For this example,
because the beams are connected to act as a unit, the stem is considered as the “beam” and the flange is
considered as the “deck” in calculating Kg.
Therefore,
Kg = 1.0000[53,462 + 803(17.492)] = 299,100 in.4
9 0.6 9 0.2 299,100 0.1
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 0.075 + � � � � � �
9.5 80 12.0(80)(8)3
= 0.075 + (0.968)(0.646)(0.952) = 0.670 lanes⁄beam
For one design lane loaded:
𝑆 0.4 𝑆 0.3 𝐾𝑔 0.1
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 0.06 + � � � � � � [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
14 𝐿 12.0𝐿𝑡𝑠3
9 0.4 9 0.3 299,100 0.1
= 0.06 + � � � � � �
14 80 12.0(80)(8)3
= 0.06 + (0.838)(0.519)(0.952) = 0.474 lanes⁄beam
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls and DFM = 0.670 lanes/beam.
• For fatigue limit state:
The LRFD Specifications, Art. C3.4.1, states that for Fatigue Limit State, a single design truck should be used.
However, live load distribution factors given in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 take into consideration the multiple
presence factor, m. LRFD Article 3.6.1.1.2 states that the multiple presence factor, m, for one design lane loaded
is 1.2. Therefore, the distribution factor for one design lane loaded with the multiple presence factor removed,
should be used. The distribution factor for fatigue limit state is: 0.474/1.2 = 0.395 lanes/beam.

9.7.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force

For two or more lanes loaded:
𝑆 𝑆 2.0
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = 0.2 + � � − � � [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
12 35

9.7 - 7 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force/9.7.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT

Provided that: 3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16.0; S = 9.0 ft OK

20 ≤ L ≤ 240; L = 80 ft OK
4.5 ≤ ts ≤ 12.0; ts = 8.0 in. OK
Nb ≥ 4; Nb = 5 OK
where
DFV = distribution factor for shear for interior beam
S = beam spacing, ft

Therefore, the distribution factor for shear force is:

9 9 2.0
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = 0.2 + � � − � � = 0.884 lanes⁄beams
12 35
For one design lane loaded:
𝑆 9 [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = 0.36 + � � = 0.36 + � � = 0.720 lanes⁄beams
25 25
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls and DFV = 0.884 lanes/beam.
9.7.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance
IM = 15% for fatigue limit state [LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]
IM = 33% for all other limit states
where IM = dynamic load allowance, applied to design truck load only
9.7.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments
9.7.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT
• For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
Shear force and bending moment envelopes on a per-lane basis are calculated at tenth-points of the span using
the equations given in Chapter 8 of this manual. However, this is generally done by means of commercially
available computer software that has the ability to deal with moving loads. Therefore, truck load shear forces and
bending moments per beam are:
VLT = (shear force per lane)(DFV)(1 + IM)
= (shear force per lane)(0.884)(1 + 0.33)
= (shear force per lane)(1.176) kips
MLT = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.670)(1 + 0.33)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.891) ft-kips
Values for VLT and MLT at different points are given in Table 9.7.4-2.
• For fatigue limit state:
Article 3.6.1.4.1 in the LRFD Specifications states that fatigue load is a single design truck which has the same axle
weight used in all other limit states but with a constant spacing of 30.0 ft between the 32.0-kip axles. Bending
moment envelope on a per-lane basis is calculated using the equation given in Chapter 8 of this manual.
Therefore, bending moment of fatigue truck load is:
Mf = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.395 )(1 + 0.15)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.454) ft-kips
Values of Mf at different points are given in Table 9.7.4-2.

9.7 - 8 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL/9.7.4.3 Load Combinations

9.7.4.2.4.2 Due To Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL

To obtain the maximum shear force at a section located at a distance (x) from the left support under a uniformly
distributed load of 0.64 kips/ft, load the member to the right of the section under consideration as shown in
Figure 9.7.4.2.4.2-1. Therefore, the maximum shear force per lane is:
0.32(𝐿 − 𝑥)2
𝑉𝑥 = for 𝑥 ≤ 0.5𝐿 (Eq. 9.7.4.2.4.2-1)
𝐿
where Vx is in kips/lane and L and x are in ft

Figure 9.7.4.2.4.2-1
Maximum Shear Force due to Design Lane Load
0.64 kip/ft/lane

left reaction right reaction

x (80-x) > x

80’

CL Bearing CL Bearing

To calculate the maximum bending moment at any section, use Eq. (9.7.4.1.2-2).
Lane load shear force and bending moment per typical interior beam are as follows:
VLL = (lane load shear force)(DFV)
= (lane load shear force)(0.884) kips
For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
MLL = (lane load bending moment)(DFM)
= (lane load bending moment)(0.670) ft-kips
Note that dynamic allowance is not applied to the design lane loading.
Values of shear forces and bending moments, VLL and MLL, are given in Table 9.7.4-2.

9.7.4.3 Load Combinations [LRFD Art. 3.4]

Total factored load is taken as:
𝑄 = ∑ η𝑖 𝛾𝑖 𝑄𝑖 [LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]
where
ηi = a load modifier relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance. [LRFD Art. 1.3.2.1]
(Here, ηi is considered to be 1.0 for typical bridges.)
γi = load factors [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Qi = force effects from specified loads
Investigating different limit states given in LRFD Article 3.4.1, the following limit states are applicable:
Service I: check compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 1.00(LL + IM)
This load combination is a special combination for a service limit state stress and applies to all conditions other
than Service III.

9.7 - 9 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.4.3 Load Combinations

Service III: check tensile stresses in prestressed concrete components:

Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 0.80(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress checks that applies only to tension in
prestressed concrete structures to control cracks.
Strength I: check ultimate strength: [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2]
Maximum Q = 1.25(DC) + 1.50(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Minimum Q = 0.90 (DC) + 0.65(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
This load combination is the general load combination for strength limit state design.
Note: For simple-span bridges, the maximum load factors produce maximum effects. However, use minimum load
factors for dead load (DC), and wearing surface (DW) when the dead load and wearing surface stresses are
opposite to those of live load.
Fatigue I: check stress range in strands:
Q = 1.50(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special load combination to check the tensile stress range in the strands due to live
load and dynamic allowance.

Table 9.7.4-1
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads for a Typical Interior Beam
Joint Concrete Wearing Surface
Beam Weight Barrier Weight
Weight Weight
Distance Section
Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment
x, ft x/L
Vg Mg Vj Mj Vb Mb Vws Mws
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips
0 0 66.4 0.0 2.7 0.0 4.8 0.0 11.6 0.0
*2.38 0.03 62.5 153.4 2.5 6.2 4.5 11.1 10.9 26.7
8 0.1 53.2 478.4 2.1 19.3 3.8 34.6 9.2 83.3
16 0.2 39.9 850.4 1.6 34.3 2.9 61.4 6.9 148.0
24 0.3 26.6 1,116.2 1.1 45.0 1.9 80.6 4.6 194.2
32 0.4 13.3 1,275.6 0.5 51.5 1.0 92.2 2.3 222.0
40 0.5 0 1,328.8 0.0 53.6 0.0 96.0 0 231.2
*Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.7.11)

Table 9.7.4-2
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads for a Typical Interior
Beam
Fatigue Truck
Truck Load with Impact Lane Load
with Impact
Distance Section
Shear Moment Shear Moment Moment
x, ft x/L
VLT MLT VLL MLL Mf
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips ft-kips
0 0 74.8 0.0 22.6 0.0 0.0
*2.38 0.03 72.3 130.3 21.3 39.6 64.2
8 0.1 66.3 402.1 18.3 123.5 204.7
16 0.2 57.8 701.5 14.5 219.5 357.2
24 0.3 49.4 898.3 11.1 288.2 457.3
32 0.4 40.9 1,012.2 8.1 329.3 516.0
40 0.5 32.5 1,033.6 5.7 343.0 526.9
*Critical section for shear (see Sect. 9.7.11)

9.7 - 10 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.5 Estimate Required Prestress/9.7.5.3 Required Number of Strands

9.7.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

The required number of strands is usually governed by concrete tensile stresses at the bottom fiber for load
combination Service III at the section of maximum moment or at the harp points and in some cases Strength I. For
estimating the number of strands, only the stresses at midspan are considered.

9.7.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Bottom tensile stresses, due to applied dead and live loads using load combination Service III is:
𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑗 + 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + (0.8)(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 =
𝑆𝑏
where
fb = concrete tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam, ksi
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight, ft-kips
Mj = unfactored bending moment due to joint concrete weight, ft-kips
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
Mws = unfactored bending moment due to wearing surface, ft-kips
MLT = unfactored bending moment due to truck load, ft-kips
MLL = unfactored bending moment due to lane load, ft-kips
Using values of bending moments from Tables 9.7.4-1 and 9.7.4-2, bottom tensile stress at midspan is:
1,328.8 + 53.6 + 96.0 + 231.2 + (0.8)(1,033.6 + 343.0)
𝑓𝑏 = (12) = 4.356 ksi
7,743

9.7.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete

Tensile stress limit at service loads = 0.19�𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Table 5.9.4.2.2-1]

where 𝑓𝑐′ = specified concrete compressive strength of beam for design, ksi
Concrete tensile stress limit = −0.19√8.0 = −0.537 ksi
9.7.5.3 Required Number of Strands
The required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam is the difference between the bottom tensile
stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress limit:
fpb = (4.356 − 0.537) = 3.819 ksi
Assume the distance between the center of gravity of bottom strands and the bottom fiber of the beam:
ybs = 6.0 in.
Therefore, strand eccentricity at midspan, 𝑒𝑐 = (𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑏𝑠 ) = (23.20 − 6.0) = 17.2 in.
If Ppe is the total prestressing force after all losses, the bottom fiber stress due to prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 (17.2)
𝑓𝑝𝑏 = + or 3.819 = +
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 1,595 7,743
Solving for Ppe , the required Ppe = 1,340.8 kips
Final prestress force per strand = (area of strand)(fpi)(1 − final losses)
where fpi = initial strand stress before transfer, ksi (see Section 9.7.2) = 202.5 ksi
Assuming a final loss of 20% of fpi , the prestress force per strand after all losses
= (0.217)(202.5)(1− 0.20) = 35.2 kips
Number of strands required = (1,340.8/35.2) = 38.09 strands

9.7 - 11 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.5.3 Required Number of Strands/9.7.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

As an initial trial, (38) 0.6-in.-diameter, 270 ksi strands are selected. The center of gravity of the 38 strands at
midspan is 8.08 in. from the bottom of the concrete, which is higher than the assumed value, 6.0 in. Thus, a second
iteration using the new value of strand eccentricity indicates that 40 strands are required. The strand pattern at
midspan for the 40 strands is shown in Figure 9.7.5.3-1. Each available position is filled beginning with the
bottom row.
Try (40) 0.6-in.-diameter, 270 ksi strands
Total area of prestressing strands, Aps= 40 (0.217) = 8.680 in.2
Note: This is a conservative estimate of the number of strands because nontransformed section properties are
used in lieu of transformed section properties. The number of strands can be refined later in the design process as
more accurate section properties and prestress losses are determined.
Figure 9.7.5.3-1
Assumed Strand Pattern at Midspan

9.7.5.4 Strand Pattern

The distance between the center of gravity of strands and the bottom concrete fiber of the beam at midspan is:
ybs = [6(2.5) + 10(4.5) + 10(6.5) + 10(8.5) + 4(28.5)] / (40) = 8.10 in.
Strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = yb − ybs = 23.20 − 8.10 = 15.10 in. = epg

9.7.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

From the earliest years of prestressed concrete design, the gross section was conservatively used in analysis
because the prestressing forces were smaller and computer programs were not widely used. However, the use of
transformed section, which is obtained from the gross section by adding transformed steel area, yields more
accurate results than the gross section analysis.
For each row of prestressing strands shown in Figure 9.7.5.3-1, the steel area is multiplied by (n – 1) to calculate
the transformed section properties, where n is the modular ratio between prestressing strand and concrete. Since
the modulus of elasticity of concrete is different at transfer and final time, the transformed section properties
should be calculated separately for the two stages. A sample calculation of the transformed section properties is
shown in Table 9.7.5.5-1.
At transfer:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 5.069
4,696
At final:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 4.256
5,422

9.7 - 12 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties/9.7.6 Prestress Losses

Table 9.7.5.5-1
Properties of Transformed Section at Final Time
Transformed yb Ayb A(ybtf − yb)2 I I + A(ybtf − yb)2
Area, in.2 in. in.3 in.4 in.4 in.4
Beam 1,595.00 23.20 37,004 184 179,629 179,813
Row 1 5.54 2.50 13.85 2,296 2,296
Row 2 9.24 4.50 41.58 3,115 3,115
Row 3 9.24 6.50 60.06 2,473 2,473
Row 4 9.24 8.50 78.54 1,905 1,905
Row 5 3.69 28.50 105.17 117 117
∑ 1,632.0 37,303 189,719
Note: The moment of inertia of strand about its own centroid is neglected.

The transformed section properties are calculated as:

Noncomposite transformed section at transfer:
Ati = area of transformed section at transfer = 1,639.0 in.2
Iti = moment of inertia of the transformed section at transfer = 191,602 in.4
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at transfer = 14.69 in.
ybti = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam at transfer =
22.79 in.
Sbti = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 8,407 in.3
Stti = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 14,504 in.3

Noncomposite transformed section at final time:

Atf = area of transformed section at final time = 1,632.0 in.2
Itf = moment of inertia of the transformed section at final time = 189,719 in.4
etf = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at final time = 14.76 in.
ybtf = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam at final time
= 22.86 in.
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at final time = 8,299 in.3
Sttf = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at final time = 14,438 in.3
Note: The 8-in.-wide cast-in-place concrete joint between the girders would change the section properties at
service. However, the difference is small so it is conservatively ignored in this example.

9.7.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES

Total prestress loss:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
where
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel after transfer. In
this design example, the refined estimates of time-dependent losses are used.

9.7 - 13 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.6.1 Elastic Shortening/9.7.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

9.7.6.1 Elastic Shortening

𝐸𝑝
𝛥𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.3a-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
where
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands = 28,500 ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete at transfer = 4,696 ksi
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing strands due to prestressing force at
transfer and the self weight of the member at sections of maximum moment.
If the gross (or net) cross-section properties are used, it is necessary to perform numerical iterations. The elastic
loss ΔfpES is usually assumed to be 10% of the initial prestress to calculate fcgp, which is then used in the equation
above to calculate a refined ΔfpES. The process is repeated until the assumed ΔfpES and refined ΔfpES converge.
However, when transformed section properties are used to calculate concrete stress, the effects of losses and
gains due to elastic deformations are implicitly accounted for. Therefore, ΔfpES should not be included in
calculating fcgp.
Force per strand before transfer = (area of strand)(prestress stress before transfer) = (0.217)(202.5) = 43.94 ksi
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖2 𝑀𝑔 𝑒𝑡𝑖
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖
where
eti = eccentricity of strands at midspan with respect to the transformed section at transfer = 14.69 in.
Ppi = total prestressing force before transfer = (40 strands)(43.94) = 1757.6 kips
Mg should be calculated based on the overall beam length of 81 ft. Since the elastic shortening loss is a part
of the total loss, fcgp will be conservatively computed based on Mg using the design span length of 80 ft.

1,757.6 (1,757.6)(14.69)2 (1,328.8)(12)(14.69)

𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + − = 1.829 ksi
1,639.0 191,602 191,602
Therefore, loss due to elastic shortening:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = � � (1.829) = 11.1 ksi
4,696
AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.3 indicates that the loss due to elastic shortening at transfer should be added to the time-
dependent losses to determine total losses. However, this loss at transfer is directly accounted for if transformed
section properties are used in stress analysis.

9.7.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

AASHTO LRFD 5.9.5.4.4 states that the values for time of "deck placement" can be taken as time of noncomposite
topping placement. For convenience, this example will use the term "deck placement" to be interchangeable with
topping placement. The following construction schedule is assumed in calculating the time-dependent losses.
Concrete age at transfer: ti = 1 day
Concrete age at deck placement: td = 90 days
Concrete age at final stage: tf = 20,000 days
The total time-dependent loss between time of transfer and deck placement is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of concrete, creep of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing strands.

9.7 - 14 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

9.7.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is calculated by:
ΔfpSR = εbidEpKid [LRFD 5.9.5.4.2a-1]
where
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between transfer and deck placement
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kid = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between transfer and deck
placement
The concrete shrinkage strain, εbid , is taken as:
εbid = 𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑠 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3.-1]
where
The factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam:
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13(5.138) = 0.782
The minimum value of kvs is 1.0. Therefore, use kvs = 1.000
V/S is the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam.
The humidity factor for shrinkage:
khs = 2.00 − 0.014H = 2.00 − 0.014(70) = 1.020
where H = average annual mean relative humidity (assume 70%)
The factor for the effect of the concrete strength:
5 5
𝑘𝑓 = = = 0.714
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 1 + 6.0
The time development factor at deck placement:
𝑡 89
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = ′ = = 0.706 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − 4(6.0) + 89
where t is the maturity of concrete(days) = td – ti = 90 − 1 = 89 days
εbid = (1.000)(1.020)(0.714)(0.706)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000247
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = 2
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 �𝑒𝑝𝑔 � [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-2]
1+ �1 + � �1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )�
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔

where
epg = eccentricity of prestressing strand with respect to the centroid of the girder = 15.10 in.

Ψ𝑏 � 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑖 � = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced at transfer

For the time between transfer and final time:

Ψ𝑏 � 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑖 � = 1.9𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑐 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 𝑡𝑖−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

khc = 1.56 − 0.008H = 1.56 − 0.008(70) = 1.000

𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 20,000 − 1
ktd = = = 0.998 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ + (𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 ) 61 − 4(6.0) + (20,000 − 1)

Ψ𝑏 � 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑖 � = 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(0.714)(0.998)(1)-0.118 = 1.354

9.7 - 15 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.7.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = = 0.837
28,500 8.680 1,595(15.10)2
1+ �1 + � [1 + 0.7(1.354)]
4,696 1,595 179,629
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between transfer and deck placement is:
ΔfpSR = (0.000247)(28,500)(0.837) = 5.892 ksi

9.7.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of girder concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is determined as:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = 𝑓 Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 )𝐾 [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.2b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖 𝑖𝑑
where
Ψ𝑏 ( 𝑡 𝑑 , 𝑡 𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at time of deck placement due to loading introduced at transfer

= 1.9𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑐 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑖−.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

= 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(0.714)(0.706)(1)-0.118 = 0.958
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = (1.829)(0.958)(0.837) = 8.901 ksi
4,696

9.7.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck placement is
determined as:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑡
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = � − 0.55� [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2c-1]
𝐾𝐿 𝑓𝑝𝑦
where
fpt = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer, taken not less than 0.55fy
KL = 30 for low-relaxation strands and 7 for other prestressing steel, unless more accurate
manufacturer's data are available
(202.5 − 11.1) (202.5 − 11.1)
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = � − 0.55� = 1.516 ksi
30 243
According to LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.2c, the relaxation loss may also be assumed equal to 1.2 ksi for low-relaxation
strands.

9.7.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time

The total time-dependent loss between time of deck placement and final time is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of beam concrete, creep of beam concrete, relaxation of prestressing strands, and shrinkage of
deck concrete.

9.7.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is calculated by:
ΔfpSD = εbdf Ep Kdf [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-1]
where
εbdf = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between deck placement and final time
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kdf = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between deck placement and final
time

9.7 - 16 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.7.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

The total concrete shrinkage strain between transfer and final time is taken as:
εbif = 𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑠 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
= (1.000)(1.020)(0.714)(0.998)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000349
The girder concrete shrinkage strain between deck placement and final time is:
εbdf = εbif − εbid = 0.000349 − 0.000247 = 0.000102
The beam concrete transformed section coefficient between deck placement and final time is:
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = 2
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐 �𝑒𝑝𝑐 � [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-2]
1+ �1 + � �1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )�
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐

where
Since there is no composite deck for this example, the beam section properties will be used in place of the
composite section properties:
Ac = Ag = area of the precast beam = 1,595 in.2
Ic = Ig = moment of inertia of the precast beam = 179,629 in.4
epc = epg = eccentricity of strands with respect to centroid of the precast beam
= 15.10 in.
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = = 0.837
28,500 8.680 (1,595)(15.10)2
1+ �1 + � [1 + 0.7(1.354)]
4,696 1,595 179,629
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is:
ΔfpSD = (0.000102)(28,500)(0.837) = 2.433 ksi

9.7.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between time of deck placement and final time is:
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓 �Ψ �𝑡 , 𝑡 � − Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )�𝐾𝑑𝑓 + Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑓 𝑖 𝐸𝑐
where

Ψ𝑏 � 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑑 � = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading at deck placement

= 1.9𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑐 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓 𝑡𝑑−0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑑 20,000 − 90
𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓 = ′ =
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + (𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑑 ) 61 − 4(6.0) + (20,000 − 90)
= 0.998

Ψ𝑏 � 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑑 � = 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(0.714)(0.998)(90)-0.118 = 0.796

Δfcd = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to long-term losses between
transfer and deck placement, combined with deck weight and superimposed loads, ksi
2
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 𝑒𝑝𝑔 (𝑀𝑗 + 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑓
= −�Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 � �1 + �−� �
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑡𝑓
8.680 (1,595)(15.10)2 (53.6 + 96.0 + 231.5)(12)(14.76)
= −(5.892 + 8.901 + 1.516) �1 + �−� �
1,595 179,629 189,719
= −0.624 ksi

9.7 - 17 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete/9.7.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads

The gross section properties are used in the equation to calculate Δfcd for the long-term losses since the
transformed section effect has already been included in the factor Kid when calculating the losses between initial
time and deck placement.
28,500 28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 1.829[1.354 − 0.958](0.837) + (−0.624)(0.796)(0.837)
4,696 5,422
= 1.494 ksi
9.7.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands
The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of deck placement and final time is
taken as:
ΔfpR2 = ΔfpR1 = 1.516 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3c-1]
9.7.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete
The prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete is taken a zero for this bridge because there is no composite
deck.
ΔfpSS = 0.0 ksi
9.7.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss
The total time-dependent loss, ΔfpLT, is determined as: [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.1-1]
ΔfpLT = (ΔfpSR + ΔfpCR + ΔfpR1) + (ΔfpSD + ΔfpCD + ΔfpR2 + ΔfpSS)
= (5.892 + 8.901 + 1.516) + (2.433 + 1.494 + 1.516 + 0.0) = 21.8 ksi
9.7.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer
AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.2.3a and C5.9.5.3 indicate that the losses or gains due to elastic deformation must be taken
equal to zero if transformed section properties are used in stress analysis. However, the losses or gains due to
elastic deformation must be included in determining the total prestress losses and the effective stress in
prestressing strands.
Δfpi = ΔfpES = 11.1 ksi
Effective stress in tendons immediately after transfer, fpt = fpi − Δfpi = (202.5−11.1) = 191.4 ksi
Force per strand = (fpt)(area of strand) = (191.4)(0.217) = 41.5 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer, Ppt = 41.5(40) = 1660.0 kips
Initial loss, % = (Total losses at transfer)/(fpi) = 11.1/202.5 = 5.5%
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, the strand force is that before
transfer:
Force per strand = (202.5)(0.217) = 43.9 kips
The total prestressing force before transfer, Ppi = 43.9(40) = 1,756 kips

9.7.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads

Total loss due to elastic shortening at transfer and long-term losses (Service III) is:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT = 11.1 + 21.8 = 32.9 ksi
The elastic gain due to superimposed dead load, and live load is:
(𝑀𝑗 + 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑝 (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )𝑒𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑝
= � � + 0.8 � �
𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐸𝑐
(53.6 + 96.0 + 231.5)(12)(14.76) 28,500 (1,033.6 + 343.0)(12)(14.76) 28,500
� � + 0.8 � �
= 189,719 5,422 189,719 5,422
= 1.9 + 5.4 = 7.3 ksi

9.7 - 18 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads/9.7.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Bonded Strands

The effective stress in strands after all losses and gains:

fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 7.3 = 202.5 − 32.9 + 7.3 = 176.9 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
fpe ≤ 0.8 fpy = 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 176.9 ksi OK
The effective stress in strands after all losses and permanent gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 1.9 = 202.5 – 32.9 + 1.9 = 171.5 ksi
Force per strand without live load gains= (fpe)(area of strand) = (171.5)(0.217) = 37.22 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after all losses = 37.22(40) = 1,488.8 kips
Final loss percentage = (total losses and gains)/( fpi) = (32.9 − 1.9)/(202.5) = 15.3%
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, all the elastic gains and losses are
implicitly accounted for:
Force per strand with only total time-dependent losses = (202.5 − 21.8)(0.217) = 39.21 kips
Total prestressing force, Ppe = (39.21)(40) = 1,568 kips

9.7.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER

Because the transformed section is used, the total prestressing force before transfer, Ppi = 1,756 kips.

9.7.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.4]

Compression:
• 0.6𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 0.6(6.0) = +3.600 ksi
where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = concrete strength at transfer = 6.000 ksi
Tension:
• without bonded auxiliary reinforcement

−0.0948�𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≤ 0.200 ksi = −0.0948√6.000 = −0.232 ksi

Therefore, −0.200 ksi (Controls)
• with bonded auxiliary reinforcement that is sufficient to resist 120% of the tension force in the cracked
concrete

−0.24�𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = −0.24√6.000 = −0.588 ksi

9.7.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Bonded Strands

Stresses at this location need only be checked at transfer since this stage almost always governs. Also, losses with
time will reduce the concrete stresses, making them less critical.
Transfer length = 60(strand diameter) = 60(0.6) = 36 in. = 3 ft [LRFD Art. 5.11.4]
Due to camber of the beam at transfer, the beam self weight acts on the overall beam length, 81 ft. Therefore,
values for bending moment given in Table 9.7.4-1 cannot be used because they are based on the design span
length of 80 ft. Using Equation 9.7.4.1.2-2, the bending moment at transfer length due to beam self weight is:
Mg = 0.5wgx(L − x) = (0.5)(1.661)(3)(81 − 3) = 194.3 ft-kips
Compute concrete stress in the top of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1,756 (1,756)(14.69) 194.3(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − + = 1.071 − 1.779 + 0.161 = −0.547 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 1,639 14,504 14,504

9.7 - 19 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Bonded Strands

Tensile stress limit for concrete with bonded reinforcement: −0.588 ksi OK
Compute concrete stress in bottom of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1,756 (1,756)(14.69) 194.3(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + − = 1.071 + 3.068 − 0.277 = +3.862 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 1,639 8,407 8,407
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.600 ksi NG
Therefore, try debonding four strands from the strand group at 4.5 in. from the bottom for a distance of 5 ft
0 in. from the end of the beam or 4 ft 6 in. from centerline of bearing.
To minimize the shock impact of detensioning and cracks at corners and bottom, assume the strand pattern
shown in Figure 9.7.7.2-1. LRFD Article 5.11.4.3 requires that the following conditions be satisfied if
debonding is used:
• percentage debonding of total = 4/40 = 10% ≤ 25% OK
• percentage debonding of row = 4/10 = 40% ≤ 40% OK
• All limit states should be satisfied OK
• Debonded strands should be symmetrically distributed OK
• Exterior strands in each horizontal line are fully bonded OK
Recompute top and bottom the stresses at the transfer length section. Note that the transformed section
properties here are different than those at midspan after debonding. Using the same method as described in
Section 9.7.5.5, the transformed section properties at end of beam are computed as:
Ati = 1,635 in.2 ybti = 22.84 in. Sbti = 8,324in.3 Stti = 14,447 in.3
Figure 9.7.7.2-1
Strand Pattern at End of Beam

Distance from the center of gravity of bonded strands to the bottom fiber of the beam is:
ybs = [6(2.5) + 6(4.5) + 10(6.5) + 10(8.5) + 4(28.5)]/(36) = 8.50 in.
and the strand eccentricity for the transformed section at end of beam is:
eti = 22.84 − 8.50 = 14.34 in.
Total prestressing force before transfer at end section = 36(43.9) = 1580 kips
Concrete stress in top of beam:
1,580 (1,580)(14.34) (194.3)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 0.966 − 1.568 + 0.161 = −0.441 ksi
1,635 14,447 14,447
Tensile stress limit is: −0.558 ksi OK

9.7 - 20 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Bonded Strands/9.7.8 Concrete Stresses at Service Loads

Bonded auxiliary reinforcement must be provided in the top of the beam.

Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
1,580 (1,580)(14.34) (194.3)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 0.966 + 2.722 − 0.280 = +3.408 ksi
1,635 8,324 8,324
Compressive stress limit is: +3.600 ksi OK

9.7.7.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands

All strands are effective at this location; therefore use the full value of Ppi. Bending moment due to the self weight
of the beam at (5 ft + 3 ft = 8 ft) from the end of the beam:
Mg = 0.5wgx(L − x) = (0.5)(1.661)(8)(81 − 8) = 485.0 ft-kips
Concrete stress in top of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1,756 (1,756)(14.69) 485.0(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − + = 1.071 − 1.779 + 0.401 = −0.307 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 1,639 14,504 14,504
Tensile stress limit: −0.588 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 1,756 (1,756)(14.69) 485.0(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + − = 1.071 + 3.068 − 0.692 = +3.447 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 1,639 8,407 8,407
Compressive stress limit: +3.600 ksi OK

9.7.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

Bending moment at midspan due to the beam self weight is:
Mg = 0.5(1.661)(40.5)(81-40.5) = 1,362.2 ft-kips

1,756 (1,756)(14.69) (1,362)(12)

𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.071 − 1.779 + 1.127 = +0.419 ksi
1,639 14,504 14,504

Compressive stress limit: +3.600 ksi OK

1,756 (1,756)(14.69) (1,362)(12)

𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.071 + 3.068 − 1.944 = +2.195 ksi
1,639 8,407 8,407

Compressive stress limit: +3.600 ksi OK

9.7.7.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

Top Fiber Bottom Fiber
Stresses Stresses
ft, ksi fb, ksi

At transfer length section of bonded strands −0.441 +3.408

At transfer length section of debonded strands −0.307 +3.447
At midspan +0.419 +2.195

9.7.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]

Using transformed section properties and refined losses, Ppe = 1568 kips

9.7 - 21 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.8 Concrete Stresses at Service Loads//9.7.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

9.7.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

Compression: [LRFD Table 5.9.4.2.1-1]
Due to permanent loads (i.e. beam self weight, weight of future wearing surface, weight of barriers, and weight of
joint concrete), for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.45𝑓𝑐′ = (0.45)(8.000) = +3.600 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads (i.e. all dead loads and live loads), for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.60𝑓𝑐′ = 0.6(8.000) = +4.800 ksi
Tension: [LRFD Table 5.9.4.2.2-1]
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III:
for precast beams −0.19�𝑓𝑐′ = −0.19√8.000 = −0.537 ksi

9.7.8.2 Stresses at Midspan

9.7.8.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam

To check top compressive stresses, two cases are considered:
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
Using bending moment values given in Table 9.7.4-1 and 9.7.4-2, compute the top fiber stresses:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 �𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑗 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 +𝑀𝑏 �
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓
1,568 (1,568)(14.76) (1,328.8 + 53.6 + 231.2 + 96.0)(12)
= − + = 0.961 − 1.603 + 1.421 = +0.779 ksi
1,632 14,438 14,438
Compressive stress limit: +3.600 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 ) (1,033.6 + 343.0)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = +0.779 + = +0.779 + = +0.779 + 1.144 = +1.923 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 14,438
Compressive stress limit: +4.800 ksi OK

9.7.8.2.2 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III

𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 �𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑗 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 � + 0.8(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
1,568 (1,568)(14.76) (1,328.8 + 53.6 + 231.2 + 96.0)(12) + 0.8(1,033.6 + 343.0)(12)
= + −
1,632 8,299 8,299
= 0.961 + 2.789 − 4.064 = −0.314 ksi
Tensile stress limit: −0.537 ksi OK

9.7.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit

LRFD Article 5.5.3.1 states that in fully prestressed components other than segmentally constructed bridges, the
compressive stress due to Fatigue I load combination and one half the sum of effective prestress and permanent
loads shall not exceed 0.40𝑓𝑐′ , after losses.
From Table 9.7.4-2, the unfactored fatigue bending moment at midspan, Mf, is 526.9 ft-kips. Therefore, stress at
the top fiber of the beam due to fatigue load combination I is:
1.50(𝑀𝑓 ) 1.50 (526.9)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 = = = +0.657 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 14,438

9.7 - 22 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit/9.7.9 Strength Limit State

At midspan, the top compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑗 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓
1,568 (1,568)(14.76) (1,328.8 + 53.6 + 231.2 + 96.0)(12)
= − +
1,632 14,438 14,438
= 0.961 − ��1.603 + 1.421 = �0.779 ksi
Therefore:
𝑓𝑏 0.779
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 + = 0.657 + = 1.047 < 0.40( 𝑓𝑐′ ) = 0.40(8.00) = 3.2 ksi OK
2 2
This condition should be satisfied at all locations along the beam.

9.7.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

Top of Beam, ksi
Bottom of
Service I
Beam, ksi
Permanent Total Loads Service III
Loads
At midspan +0.779 +1.923 −0.314

9.7.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Using the values of unfactored bending moment given in Tables 9.7.4-1 and 9.7.4-2, the ultimate bending
moment at midspan is:
Mu = 1.25(1,328.8 + 53.6 + 96.0) + 1.5(231.2) + 1.75(1,033.6 + 343.0) = 4,603.9 ft-kips
Average stress in prestressing strands when fpe ≥ 0.5fpu:
𝑐
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 �1 − 𝑘 � [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1]
𝑑𝑝
where
fps = average stress in prestressing strand, ksi
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing strand = 270.0 ksi
𝑓𝑝𝑦 243
k = 2 �1.04 − � = 2 �1.04 − � [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-2]
𝑓𝑝𝑢 270
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strands [LRFD Table C5.7.3.1.1-1]
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing strands
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis, in.
To compute c, assume rectangular section behavior and check if the depth of the equivalent
compression stress block, a, is less than or equal to ts:
where a = β1c
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′
𝑐=
𝑓𝑝𝑢 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-4]
0.85𝑓𝑐′ β1 𝑏 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝

9.7 - 23 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.9 Strength Limit State

where
a = depth of the equivalent stress block, in.
Aps = area of prestressing strand = 36(0.217) = 7.812 in.2
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement = 0 in.2
𝐴′𝑠 = area of compression reinforcement = 0 in.2
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete = 8.0 ksi
fy = specified yield strength of tension reinforcement = 60.0 ksi
𝑓𝑦′ = specified yield strength of compression reinforcement, ksi
β1 = stress factor of compression block [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.2]
= 0.85 for 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 4.0 ksi
= 0.85 − 0.05(𝑓𝑐′ − 4.0 ≥ 0.65 for 𝑓𝑐′ > 4.0 ksi
= 0.85 − 0.05(8.0 − 4.0) = 0.65
b = width of compression flange = 100 in.
Note: In computing the flexural strength of members with strands placed near the compression face of the
member, it is not correct to use the combined centroid of the entire strand group for establishing the effective
depth, dp, and the area of prestressing steel, Aps. This is because the top strands will have different strain from that
of the bottom strands. An accurate solution can be achieved using the detailed strain compatibility approach,
which accounts for the steel strain at various distances from the neutral axis. However, a reasonable
approximation is to ignore all strands placed on the compression side.
For the 36 bottom strands, the distance between the center of gravity of the strands and the bottom fiber of the
beam, ybs, is:
ybs = [6(2.5) + 10(4.5) + 10(6.5) + 10(8.5)]/(36) = 5.83 in.
dp = h − ybs = 36.00 − 5.83 = 30.17 in.
7.812(270) + 0 − 0
𝑐= = 4.57 in.
270
0.85(8.0)(0.65)(100) + (0.28)(7.812) � �
30.17
𝑎 = β1 𝑐 = (0.65)(4.57) = 2.97 in. < 𝑡𝑠 = 8.0 in. OK
Therefore, the rectangular section behavior is valid.
The average stress in prestressing strand is:
4.57
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 270.0 �1 − 0.28 � = 258.5 ksi
30.17
Nominal flexural resistance:
𝑎
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 �𝑑𝑝 − �
2
The above equation is a simplified form of LRFD Equation 5.7.3.2.2-1 because no compression reinforcement or
nonprestressed tension reinforcement is considered and the section behaves as a rectangular section.
2.97
(7.812)(258.5) �30.17 − �
𝑀𝑛 = 2 = 4,827 ft- kips
12
Factored flexural resistance:
Mr = ɸMn [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]

9.7 - 24 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.9 Strength Limit State/9.7.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement

where
ɸ = resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
= 1.00, tension controlled prestressed concrete sections
Mr = 4,827 ft-kips > Mu = 4,603.9 ft-kips OK

9.7.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT

9.7.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
The check of maximum reinforcement limits was removed from the LRFD Specifications in 2005.

9.7.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]

At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement must be adequate to develop
a factored flexural resistance, Mr, equal to the lesser of:
• 1.2 times the cracking strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and
• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan:
Mcr = Sbtf(fr + fcpe) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.2-1]
The above equation is a simplified form of LRFD Equation 5.7.3.3.2-1 because no composite section exists,
therefore the composite and noncomposite section modulus are the same.
where
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= 0.37�𝑓𝑐′ = 0.37√8.000 = 1.047 ksi

fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied
loads
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 1,568 (1,568)(14.76)
= + = + = 3.750 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 1,632 8,299
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of transformed section where the tensile stress is
caused by externally applied loads. For this example, use noncomposite transformed section
modulus = 8,299 in.3
8,299
Mcr = (1.047 + 3.750) = 3,318 ft- kips
12
At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is:
1.2Mcr = 1.2(3,318) = 3,982 ft-kips Illustrated based on
2011 LRFD
Mu = 4,603.9 ft-kips (Sect. 9.7.9)
Specifications.
Thus, 1.33Mu = 1.33(4,603.9) = 6,123 ft-kips
Editor’s Note: 2012
Since 1.2Mcr < 1.33Mu , the 1.2Mcr requirement controls. LRFD Specifications
changes will revise
Mr = 4,827 ft-kips > 1.2 Mcr = 3,982 ft-kips OK
minimum
Note: The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at every section. reinforcement.

9.7 - 25 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.11 Shear Design/9.7.11.1 Critical Section

9.7.11 SHEAR DESIGN

The area and spacing of shear reinforcement must be determined at regular intervals along the entire length of
the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design procedures are demonstrated below by determining
these values at the critical section near the supports.
Transverse shear reinforcement is required when:
Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]

where
Vu = total factored shear force, kips
Vc = nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the concrete, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
ɸ = resistance factor = 0.9 for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]

9.7.11.1 Critical Section [LRFD Art. 5.8.3.2]

The critical section near the supports is taken as the effective shear depth, dv, from the internal face of the
support.
dv = distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (de − a/2), but [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
not less than (0.9de) or (0.72h)
where
de = the corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile
force in the tensile reinforcement
a = depth of compression block = 2.97 in. at midspan (assumed adequate) (Sect. 9.7.9)
h = overall depth of the section = 36 in.
Note: Only 32 strands are effective at the critical section for shear, because four strands are debonded for a
distance equal to 5 ft from the end of the beam and the top level of strands is ignored.
ybs = [6(2.5) + 6(4.5) + 10(6.5) + 10(8.5)] / (32) = 6.00 in.
de = h − ybs = 36.00 − 6.00 = 30.00 in.
dv = 30.00 − (0.5)(2.97) = 28.52 in.
≥ 0.9 de = 0.9(30.00) = 27.00 in.
≥ 0.72 h = 0.72(36) = 25.92 in. OK
Therefore, dv = 28.52 in.
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is conservatively assumed to be zero for determining
the critical section for shear, as shown in Figure 9.7.11.1-1. Therefore, the critical section in shear is located at a
distance of:
28.52 in. = 2.38 ft from centerline of support
(x/L) = 2.38/80 = 0.030L

9.7 - 26 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.11.1 Critical Section/9.7.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

Figure 9.7.11.1-1
Critical Section in Shear

6” 28.52”
Critical Section in Shear

9.7.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance

The contribution of the concrete to the nominal shear resistance is:
Vc = 0.0316β�𝑓𝑐′ bvdv [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-3]

where β = a factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension (a value indicating
concrete contribution).
Several quantities must be determined before this expression can be evaluated.

9.7.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement

Calculate the strain at the centroid of the tension reinforcement, εs:
|𝑀𝑢 |
+ 0.5𝑁𝑢 + �(𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 )� − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑜
𝑑
ε𝑠 = 𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-4]
(𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 )
where
Nu = applied factored normal axial force at the specified section, 0.030L = 0
Vu = applied factored shear force at the specified section, 0.030L
= 1.25(62.5 + 2.5 + 4.5) + 1.50(10.9) + 1.75(72.3 + 21.3) (Tables 9.7.4-1 and 9.7.4-2)
= 267.0 kips
Vp = component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the applied shear
= 0 since strand pattern is straight
Mu = applied factored bending moment at the specified section, 0.030L
= 1.25(153.4 + 6.2 + 11.1) + 1.50(26.7) + 1.75(130.3 + 39.6) (Tables 9.7.4-1 and 9.7.4-2)
= 550.8 ft-kips
Mu need not to be taken less than (Vu − Vp)dv:
(Vu − Vp)dv = [(267.0 − 0)28.52]/12 = 634.6 ft-kips
Since (Vu − Vp)dv ≥ Mu , Mu = 634.6 ft-kips Controls
Aps = area of prestressing strands on the flexural tension side of the member = 32(0.217) = 6.944 in.2
(Only 32 strands of the 36 strands are effective in the flexural tension side because four strands
are debonded). Transfer length 60 (0.60) = 36 inches. Use critical section = 6 + 28.52 inches. Use
34.52/36 (6.944 in.2) = 6.659 in.2

9.7 - 27 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement/9.7.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement

fpo = a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by the locked-in
difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the surrounding concrete (ksi). For
pretensioned members, LRFD Article C5.8.3.4.2 indicates that fpo can be taken as 0.7fpu. (Note: use
this for both pretensioned and post-tensioned systems made with stress-relieved and low
relaxation strands).
= 0.7(270.0) = 189.0 ksi

|634.6(12)|
+ 0.5(0) + |267.0 − 0| − 6.659(189)
ε𝑠 = 28.52 = −3.8 × 10−3
(0 + 28,500(6.659))
εs is less than zero. Use εs = 0.
9.7.11.2.2 Values of β and θ
Assume the section contains at least the minimum amount of traverse reinforcement:
4.8 4.8
β= = = 4.8 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-1]
(1 + 750ε𝑠 ) (1 + 0)
Angle of diagonal compressive stress is:
θ = 29 + 3,500εs = 29 + 3,500(0) = 29° [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-3]

9.7.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution

The nominal shear resisted by the concrete is:
𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316β�𝑓𝑐′ bvdv [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
where bv = effective web width = 2(13.25) = 26.5 in.
LRFD Article 5.8.2.9 states that bv is the minimum web width between the tensile and compressive forces due to
flexure. In this example the beam web is slightly sloped. The minimum width at the bottom of the beam is
conservatively used in the calculation.
Vc = 0.0316(4.8) 8.0 (26.5)(28.52) =324.2 kips
9.7.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance

9.7.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement

Check if Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
Vu = 267.0 kips > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) = 0.5(0.9)(324.2 + 0) = 145.9 kips
Therefore, transverse shear reinforcement must be provided.
9.7.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement
Vu/ɸ ≤ Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-1]
where
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement
= (Vu/ɸ − Vc − Vp = (267.0/0.9) − 324.2 − 0.0 = −27.5 kips
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦ℎ 𝑑𝑣 (cot θ + cot α)(sin α)
𝑉𝑠 = [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4]
𝑠
where
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance, s , in.2
s = spacing of stirrups, in.
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis
= 90° for vertical stirrups

9.7 - 28 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement/9.7.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement

Since the required Vs is negative the minimum traverse reinforcement requirement is used to determine the area
of the shear reinforcement. The area of transverse reinforcement should not be less than:
𝑏𝑣 𝑠 (26.5)(𝑠)
𝐴𝑣 ≥ 0.0316�𝑓𝑐′ = 0.0316√8.0 = 0.039(𝑠) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5-1]
𝑓𝑦ℎ 60
If s = 15 in., required Av = 0.59 in2/ft
9.7.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement
Check maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement: [LRFD Art 5.8.2.7]
Check if vu < 0.125𝑓𝑐′
�𝑉𝑢 − ɸ 𝑉𝑝 � |(267.0) − (0)|
𝑣𝑢 = = = 0.393 ksi
ɸ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 (0.9)(26.5)(28.52)
0.125𝑓𝑐′ = (0.125)(8.0) = 1.000 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.7-1]
Since vu < 0.125𝑓𝑐′
then, s ≤ 24 in.
s ≤ 0.8 dv = 0.8(28.52) = 22.8 in. Controls
Therefore, maximum s = 22.8 in. > s provided = 15 in. OK
Use No. 4 bar four-leg stirrups at 15 in., Av = 0.64 in.2/ft > 0.59 in.2/ft
0.80(60)(28.52) (cot 29°)
𝑉𝑠 = = 164.6 kips
15
9.7.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance
In order to ensure that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush prior to yielding of the transverse
reinforcement, the LRFD Specifications gives an upper limit of Vn as follows:
Vn = 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1, it can be concluded that
Vc + Vs must not be greater than 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv
324.2 + 164.6 = 488.8 kips ≤ 0.25(8)(26.5)(28.52) = 1,511.6 kips OK
Using the above procedures, the transverse reinforcement can be determined at increments along the entire
length of the beam.

9.7.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER

Because there is no cast-in-place composite deck, calculations for interface shear transfer are not required.

9.7.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT

Longitudinal reinforcement should be proportioned so that at each section the following equation is satisfied:
𝑀𝑢 𝑁𝑢 𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ + 0.5 + �� − 𝑉𝑝 � − 0.5𝑉𝑠 � cot θ [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.5-1]
𝑑𝑣 ɸ𝑓 ɸ𝑐 ɸ𝑣

Where
Aps = area of prestressing strand at the tension side of the section, in.2
fps = average stress in prestressing strand at the time for which the nominal resistance is required, ksi
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.2
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars, ksi

9.7 - 29 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement/9.7.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearings

Mu = factored moment at the section corresponding to the factored shear force, ft-kips
dv = effective shear depth, in.
ɸ = resistance factor as appropriate for moment, shear, and axial resistance. Therefore, different ɸ
factors will be used for the terms in LRFD Equation (5.8.3.5-1), depending on the type of action
being considered
Nu = applied factored axial force, kips
Vu = factored shear force at section, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement, kips
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses

9.7.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing [LRFD Art.5.8.3.5]

For simple end supports, the longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member at inside face
of bearing should satisfy:
𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ � − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 � cot θ [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.5-2]
ɸ𝑣
Mu = 0 ft-kips
Nu = 0 kips
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is assumed to be zero. This assumption is conservative
for these calculations. Thus, the failure crack assumed for this analysis radiates from the centerline of the bearing,
6 in. from the end of the beam.
From Tables 9.7.4-1 and 9.7.4-2 using load combination, Strength I, the factored shear force at this section is:
Vu = 1.25(66.4 + 2.7 + 4.8) + 1.50(11.6) + 1.75(74.8 + 22.6) = 280.2 kips (Tables 9.7.4-1 and 9.7.4-2)
𝑉𝑢 280.2
� − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − Vp � cot θ = � − 0.5(164.6) − 0.0� cot 29° = 413.2 kips
ɸ𝑣 0.9
As shown in Figure 9.7.13.1-1, the assumed crack plane crosses the centroid of the 32 bonded strands at a
distance of (6 + 6.00cot 29° = 16.82 in.) from the end of the beam. Since the transfer length is 36 in. from the end
of the beam (60 times the strand diameter), the available prestress from the 32 bonded strands is a fraction of the
effective prestress, fpe, in these strands. Note: 32 effective strands, and ybc = ybs = 6.00 in. comes from Section
9.7.11.1.
Therefore, the available prestress force is:
16.82
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 = �(32)(0.217) �(171.5) �� + 0 = 556.4 kips > 413.2 kips OK
36
No additional reinforcement is required.
Note: An alternative approach for the calculation of available prestressing force excluding the gains from deck
shrinkage is illustrated in Section 9.6.13.1.

9.7 - 30 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearings/9.7.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer

Figure 9.7.13.1-1
Assumed Failure Crack

9.7.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE [LRFD Art. 5.10.10]

9.7.17.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement
Design of the anchorage zone reinforcement is computed using the force in the strands just prior to transfer. Since
four strands are debonded at the ends of the beam, the force in the remaining strands before transfer is:
Ppi = 36(0.217)(202.5) = 1,582 kips
The bursting resistance, Pr, should not be less than 4.0% of Ppi.
Pr = fsAs ≥ 0.04Ppi = 0.04(1,582) = 63.3 kips
where
As = total area of vertical reinforcement located within a distance h/4 from the end of the beam, in.2
fs = stress in steel, but not taken greater than 20 ksi
Solving for the required area of steel, As = 63.3/20 = 3.17 in.2
At least 3.17 in.2 of vertical transverse reinforcement should be provided within a distance of (h/4 = 36/4 = 9.0
in.) from the end of the beam.
Use four No. 4 four-leg bars at 2 in. spacing starting at 2 in. from the end of the beam
The provided As = 4(4)(0.20) = 3.20 in.2 > 3.17 in.2 OK

9.7.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.10.10.2]

For a distance of 1.5h = 1.5(36) = 54 in., from the end of the beam, reinforcement is placed to confine the
prestressing steel in the bottom flange. The reinforcement may not be less than No. 3 deformed bars with spacing
not exceeding 6 in. The reinforcement should be of a shape that will confine (enclose) the strands.

9.7.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.6.2]

Deflections are calculated using the modulus of elasticity of concrete calculated in Section 9.7.3.1 and gross
section properties of the precast beam.

9.7.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer

Force per strand after transfer = 41.5 kips
𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑐 𝐿2
Δ𝑝 =
8𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔

9.7 - 31 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer/9.7.15.3 Deflection Due to Joint Concrete, Barrier, and Wearing Surface Weights

where
Δp = camber due to prestressing force at transfer, in.
Ppt = total prestressing force after transfer = 40(41.5) = 1,660.0 kips
ec = eccentricity of prestressing force at midspan = 15.10 in.
L = overall beam length = 81.0 ft
Eci = modulus of elasticity at transfer = 4,696 ksi
Ig = moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast beam = 179,629 in.4
1,660.0(15.10)(81 × 12)2
Δ𝑝 = = 3.51 in. ↑
(8)(4,696)(179,629)

9.7.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight

5𝑤𝑔 𝐿4
Δ𝑔 =
384𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δg = deflection due to beam self weight, in.
wg = beam self weight = 1.661 kips/ft
Eci = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at transfer = 4,696 ksi
Ig = moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast beam = 179,629 in.4
L = beam length = 81.0 ft at transfer = 80.0 ft at erection
Deflection due to beam self weight after transfer:
1.661
5� � (81 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 1.91 in. ↓
(384)(4,696)(179,629)
Deflection due to beam self weight used to compute deflection at erection:
1.661
5� � (80 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 1.81 in. ↓
(384)(4,696)(179,629)

9.7.15.3 Deflection Due to Joint Concrete, Barrier, and Wearing Surface Weights
5(𝑤𝑗 + 𝑤𝑏 + 𝑤𝑤𝑠 )𝐿4
Δ𝑗+𝑏+𝑤𝑠 =
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔
where
Δ𝑗+𝑏+𝑤𝑠 = deflection due to joint concrete, barrier, and wearing surface weights, in.
wj = joint concrete weight = 0.067 kips/ft
wb = barrier weight = 0.120 kips/ft
wws = wearing surface weight = 0.289 kips/ft
L = design span = 80.0 ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at service loads = 5,422 ksi
Ig = moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast beam = 179,629 in.4
0.067 + 0.120 + 0.289
5� � (80 × 12)4
Δ𝑗+𝑏+𝑤𝑠 = 12 = 0.45 in. ↓
(384)(5,422)(179,629)

9.7 - 32 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.15.4 Deflection and Camber Summary/9.7.15.5 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

9.7.15.4 Deflection and Camber Summary

At transfer, (Δp + Δg) = 3.51 − 1.91 = 1.60 in. ↑
Total deflection at erection, using PCI multipliers (see PCI Design Handbook)
= 1.8(3.51) − 1.85(1.81) = 2.97 in. ↑
Long-Term Deflection:
LRFD Article 5.7.3.6.2 states that the long-time deflection may be taken as the instantaneous deflection multiplied
by a factor of 4.0, if the instantaneous deflection is based on the gross moment of inertia. However, a factor of 4.0
is not appropriate for this type of precast construction. Therefore, it is recommended that the designer follow the
guidelines of the owner agency for which the bridge is being designed, or undertake a more rigorous, time-
dependent analysis.

9.7.15.5 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

Live load deflection limit (optional) = Span/800 [LRFD Art.2.5.2.6.2]
12
= �80 × � = 1.20 in.
800
If the owner invokes the optional live load deflection criteria specified in Art. 2.5.2.6.2, the deflection is the
greater of:
• that resulting from the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, or
• that resulting from 25% of the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, taken together with the design lane load, ΔLT.
Note: LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2 states that the dynamic load allowance be included in the calculations for live load
deflection.
The LRFD Specifications state that all beams should be assumed to deflect equally under [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
the applied live load and impact.
Therefore, the distribution factor for deflection, DFD, is calculated as follows:
DFD = (number of lanes/number of beams) [LRFD Art. C2.5.2.6.2]
= 3/5 = 0.60 lanes/beam
However, it is more conservative to use the distribution factor for moment, DFM.
Deflection due to lane load:
Design lane load, w = 0.64 DFM = 0.64(0.670) = 0.429 kips/ft/beam
0.429
5𝑤𝐿4 5� � (80 × 12)4
Δ𝐿𝐿 = = 12 = 0.41 in. ↓
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔 (384)(5,422)(179,629)
Deflection due to Design Truck Load and Impact:
To obtain the maximum moment and deflection at midspan due to truck load, let the centerline of the beam
coincide with the middle point of the distance between the inner 32-kip axle and the resultant of the truck load, as
shown in Figure 9.7.15.5-1.
Using the elastic moment area or influence lines, deflection at midspan is:
ΔLT = (1.258)(IM)(DFM) = (1.258)(1.33)(0.670) = 1.12 in. ↓
Therefore, live load deflection is the greater of:
ΔLT = 1.12 in. (Controls)
0.25ΔLT + ΔLL = 0.25(1.12) + 0.41 = 0.69 in. ↓
Therefore, live load deflection = 1.12 in. < allowable deflection = 1.20 in. OK

9.7 - 33 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.7

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 D), SINGLE SPAN, NONCOMPOSITE SURFACE
9.7.15.5 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact/9.7.16 Transverse Post-Tensioning

Figure 9.7.15.5-1
Design Truck Axle Load Position for Maximum Bending Moment

9.7.16 TRANSVERSE POST-TENSIONING

Article C4.6.2.2.1 in the LRFD Specifications states that for bridge Type (i), the structure acts as a monolithic unit if
sufficiently interconnected. To satisfy this rquirement, the LRFD Specifications recommends that a minimum
average traverse prestress of 0.250 ksi be used. However, definition of the contact area for the post-tensioning is
unclear. LRFD Article 5.14.4.3.3c states that the compressed depth of the joint shall not be less than 7.0 in. for
shear-flexure joints that are required to provide full continuity and monolithic behavior of the deck. In this
example, the contact area is the 8-in.-thick flange.The post-tensioning force required is:
0.250(8)(12) = 24 kips/ft
According to common practice, post-tensioning ducts incorporating four seven-wire strands are used for
applications such as these. Therefore, use four 270 ksi, 0.6-in.-diameter seven wire strands per duct. Assume
the effective prestress to be 55% of the ultimate strength of the strand.
Peff = 4(0.217)(0.55)(270) = 128.9 kips/duct
Spacing between ducts = 128.9/(24) = 5.37 ft between ducts OK
Use 5.00 ft between ducts
Total provided post-tensioning force
= 128.9 kips/duct > required post-tensioning force = 5.00(24) = 120 kips/duct OK
The concrete stress due to the effective post-tensioning force is:
128.9/(8)(5.0 × 12) = 0.269 ksi > 0.250 ksi OK

9.7 - 34 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.8.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................. 9.8 - 5
9.8.1.1 Terminology............................................................................................................................................................................ 9.8 - 5
9.8.2 MATERIALS ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 5
9.8.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM .......................................................................... 9.8 - 6
9.8.3.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed, Beam Section ..................................................................................................... 9.8 - 6
9.8.3.2 Composite Section ................................................................................................................................................................ 9.8 - 7
9.8.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width .............................................................................................................................................. 9.8 - 7
9.8.3.2.2 Modular Ratio between Slab and Beam Concrete ......................................................................................... 9.8 - 7
9.8.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties .......................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 7
9.8.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ....................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 9
9.8.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads ................................................................................... 9.8 - 9
9.8.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments ....................................................................................... 9.8 - 10
9.8.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads .................................................................................. 9.8 - 10
9.8.4.2.1 Live Loads .................................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 10
9.8.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam ................................................................. 9.8 - 10
9.8.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments ........................................................................................... 9.8 - 10
9.8.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force ........................................................................................................ 9.8 - 11
9.8.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance ................................................................................................................................................. 9.8 - 12
9.8.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments ....................................................................................... 9.8 - 12
9.8.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT ................................................................................................................ 9.8 - 12
9.8.4.2.4.2 Due To Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL .................................................................................................. 9.8 - 13
9.8.4.3 Load Combinations ........................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 13
9.8.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS .................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 15
9.8.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan .............................................................................................................................. 9.8 - 15
9.8.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete.............................................................................................................................................. 9.8 - 15
9.8.5.3 Required Number of Strands ........................................................................................................................................ 9.8 - 15
9.8.5.4 Strand Pattern ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 16
9.8.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties ..................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 16
9.8.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES ................................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 18
9.8.6.1 Elastic Shortening.............................................................................................................................................................. 9.8 - 18
9.8.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement................................................................ 9.8 - 19
9.8.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.8 - 19
9.8.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 20
9.8.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 20
9.8.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time ........................................................... 9.8 - 20
9.8.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 9.8 - 20
9.8.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 21
9.8.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 22
9.8.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete ................................................................................................................................. 9.8 - 22

9.8 - 1 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.8.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss ......................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 23
9.8.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer ................................................................................................................................................. 9.8 - 23
9.8.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads ...................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 23
9.8.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER .............................................................................................................................. 9.8 - 24
9.8.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.4] ..................................................................................................... 9.8 - 24
9.8.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section .......................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 24
9.8.7.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands ............................................................................. 9.8 - 26
9.8.7.4 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 26
9.8.7.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer ............................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 26
9.8.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS .................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 27
9.8.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 9.8 - 27
9.8.8.2 Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 27
9.8.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 28
9.8.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads ............................................................................................ 9.8 - 28
9.8.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage ...................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 28
9.8.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE ........................................................................................................................................................ 9.8 - 28
9.8.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT ............................................................................................................................................ 9.8 - 30
9.8.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 30
9.8.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................................ 9.8 - 31
9.8.11 SHEAR DESIGN ......................................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 31
9.8.11.1 Critical Section ................................................................................................................................................................. 9.8 - 32
9.8.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance ................................................................................ 9.8 - 33
9.8.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement ................................................................................................. 9.8 - 33
9.8.11.2.2 Values of β and θ .................................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 33
9.8.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution ..................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 34
9.8.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................... 9.8 - 34
9.8.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement ..................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 34
9.8.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement .................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 34
9.8.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement ........................................................................................................... 9.8 - 34
9.8.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 35
9.8.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER......................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 35
9.8.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear .......................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 35
9.8.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance ................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 35
9.8.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement ............................................................................................................ 9.8 - 35
9.8.12.3.1 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement ................................................................................................... 9.8 - 36
9.8.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance .................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 36
9.8.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT ........................................................................ 9.8 - 37
9.8.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing ....................................................................................................... 9.8 - 37
9.8.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE .............................................................................................................................. 9.8 - 38

9.8 - 2 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.8.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 38
9.8.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement ...................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 39
9.8.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER ............................................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 39
9.8.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer ............................................................................................ 9.8 - 39
9.8.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight ....................................................................................................................... 9.8 - 39
9.8.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights ...................................................................................................... 9.8 - 40
9.8.15.4 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface Weights .............................................................. 9.8 - 40
9.8.15.5 Deflection and Camber Summary ............................................................................................................................ 9.8 - 40
9.8.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact ............................................................................................................... 9.8 - 40

9.8 - 3 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK

This page intentionally left blank

9.8 - 4 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8 Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses/9.8.2 Materials

9.8 Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses

9.8.1 INTRODUCTION
This design example demonstrates the design of an 80-ft, single span, PCI Northeast Extreme Double-Tee bridge
with no skew. This example illustrates in detail the design of a typical interior beam at the critical sections in
positive flexure, shear, and deflection due to prestress, dead loads, and live load. The superstructure consists of
five beams spaced at 8-ft 10½-in. centers, as shown in Figure 9.8.1-1. Beams are designed to act compositely
with the 6-in.-thick cast-in-place concrete deck to resist all superimposed dead loads, live loads, and impact. A ½-
in.-thick wearing surface is considered to be an integral part of the 6-in.-thick deck. Design live load is HL-93. The
design is accomplished in accordance with AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Fifth Edition, 2010, and the
2011 Interim Revisions. Elastic stresses from external loads are calculated using transformed sections. Shear
strength is calculated using the general procedure. Time-dependent prestress losses are calculated using the
refined estimates.
Figure 9.8.1-1
Bridge Cross Section

6" Composite Concrete Deck

9.8.1.1 Terminology
The following terminology is used to describe cross sections in this design example:
noncomposite section—the concrete beam cross section.
noncomposite nontransformed section—the concrete beam cross section without the strands transformed. Also
called the gross section.
noncomposite transformed section—the concrete beam cross section with the strands transformed to provide
cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
composite section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch.
composite nontransformed section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch transformed to
provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete but without the strands transformed.
composite transformed section—the concrete beam plus the concrete deck and haunch and the strands
transformed to provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the beam concrete.
The term "composite" implicitly includes the transformation of the concrete deck and haunch.
The term "transformed" generally refers to transformation of the strands.
9.8.2 MATERIALS
Cast-in-place concrete slab: Actual thickness = 6.0 in.
Structural thickness, ts = 5.5 in.
Note that a ½-in.-thick wearing surface is considered to be an integral part of the 6-in.-thick deck.
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 4.0 ksi

9.8 - 5 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.2 Materials/9.8.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Beam

Precast concrete beams: PCI Northeast Double-Tee Beams, Type NEXT 36 F as shown in Figure 9.8.2-1
Required concrete compressive strength at transfer, 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 6.0 ksi
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 8.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight, wc = 0.150 kcf
Overall beam length = 81.0 ft
Design span = 80.0 ft
Prestressing strands: 0.6-in.-dia., seven-wire, low-relaxation
Area of one strand = 0.217 in.2
Specified tensile strength, fpu = 270.0 ksi
Yield strength, fpy = 0.9fpu = 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Stress limits for prestressing strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
• before transfer, fpi ≤ 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi
• at service limit state (after all losses), fpe ≤ 0.8fpy = 194.4 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Ep = 28,500 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.2]
Reinforcing bars:
Yield strength, fy = 60.0 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Es = 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Future wearing surface: 2 in. additional concrete, unit weight = 0.150 kcf
New Jersey-type barrier: unit weight = 0.300 kips/ft/side
Figure 9.8.2-1
PCI Double-Tee Beam Type NEXT 36 F

9.8.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM

9.8.3.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed, Beam Section
Ag = area of cross section of precast beam = 1,330 in.2
h = overall depth of precast beam = 36 in.
Ig = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast beam = 166,569 in.4
yb = distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 22.13 in.
yt = distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = 13.87 in.

9.8 - 6 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.3.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed, Beam Section/9.8.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties

Sb = section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yb = 7,527 in.3
St = section modulus for extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast beam = Ig/yt = 12,009 in.3
wg = beam weight per unit length (1,330/144)(0.150) = 1.385 kips/ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity, ksi = 33,000K1 (wc)1.5√𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]
where
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate taken as 1.0
wc = unit weight of concrete = 0.150 kcf
LRFD Table 3.5.1-1 states that, in the absence of more precise data, the unit weight of concrete may be
taken as 0.140 + 0.001𝑓𝑐′ for 5.0 < 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 15.0 ksi. For 𝑓𝑐′ = 8.0 ksi, the unit weight would be 0.1480 kcf.
However, precast concrete mixes typically have a relatively low water-cementitious materials ratio and
high density. Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150 kcf is used in this example. For high-strength concrete, this
value may need to be increased based on test results. For simplicity, a value of 0.150 kcf is also used for
the cast-in-place concrete.
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity for:
cast-in-place slab, Ec = 33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5√4.0 = 3,834 ksi
precast beam at transfer, Eci = 33,000(1.00) (0.150)1.5√6.0 = 4,696 ksi
precast beam at service loads, Ec = 33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5√8.0 = 5,422 ksi
9.8.3.2 Composite Section

9.8.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width [LRFD Eq. 4.6.2.6.1]

Effective flange width is taken as the tributary width perpendicular to the axis of the beam. For the interior beam,
the effective flange width is calculated as one-half the distance to the adjacent beam on each side.
106.0 + 0.25 + 0.25 = 106.5 in.
Therefore, the effective flange width is 106.5 in.
9.8.3.2.2 Modular Ratio between Slab and Beam Concrete
𝐸𝑐 (slab) 3,834
Modular ratio between slab and beam concrete, 𝑛 = = = 0.7071
𝐸𝑐 (beam) 5,422
9.8.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties
The effective flange width must be transformed by the modular ratio to provide cross-sectional properties
equivalent to the beam concrete.
Transformed flange width = n(Effective flange width) = (0.7071)(106.5) = 75.31 in.
Transformed flange area = n(Effective flange width)(ts)
= (0.7071)(106.5)(5.5) = 414.18 in.2
Transformed flange moment of inertia = (75.31)(5.5)3/12 = 1,044.14 in.4
Note: Only the structural thickness of the deck, 5.5 in., is considered.
Due to camber of the precast, prestressed beam, a minimum haunch thickness of ½ in. at midspan is
considered in the structural properties of the composite section. Also, the width of haunch must be
transformed by the modular ratio.
Transformed width of haunch = (0.7071)(106) = 74.95 in.
Transformed area of haunch = (0.7071)(106)(0.5) = 37.48 in.2
Transformed moment of inertia of haunch = (74.95)(0.5)3/12 = 0.78 in.4

9.8 - 7 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36 F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties

Note that the haunch should only be considered to contribute to section properties if it is required to be
provided in the completed structure. Therefore, some designers neglect its contribution to the section
properties.
Figure 9.8.3.2.3-1
Dimensions of the Composite Section

Table 9.8.3.2.3-1
Dimensions of the Composite Section
yb A yb A(ybc − yb)2 I I + A(ybc − yb)2
Area, in.2
in. in.3 in.4 in.4 in.4
Beam 1,330.00 22.13 29,433 24,363 166,569 190,932
Haunch 37.48 36.25 1,359 3,629 0.78 3,630
Deck 414.18 39.25 16,257 68,284 1,044 69,328
∑ 1,781.7 47,049 263,890

Ac = total area of the composite section = 1,782 in.

hc = overall depth of the composite section = 42.00 in.
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section = 263,890 in.4
ybc = distance from the centroid of the composites section to the extreme bottom fiber of the precast
beam = 47,049/1,781.7 = 26.41 in.
ytg = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the precast beam
= 36.00 − 26.41 = 9.59 in.
ytc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the structural deck
= 42.00 − 26.41 = 15.59 in.
Sbc = composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
263,890
= (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑏𝑐 ) = = 9,992 in.3
26.41
Stg = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast beam
263,890
= (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑡𝑔 ) = = 27,517 in.3
9.59
Stc = composite section modulus for extreme top fiber of the structural deck slab
1 1 263,890
= ( ) (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑡𝑐 ) = ( )( ) = 23,938 in.3
𝑛 0.7071 15.59

9.8 - 8 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.4 Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.8.4.1.1 Dead Loads

9.8.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS

The self weight of the beam and the weight of the deck and haunch act on the noncomposite, simple-span
structure, while the weight of barriers, future wearing surface, and live loads with impact act on the composite,
simple-span structure. Refer to Tables 9.8.4-1 and 9.8.4-2, which follow Section 9.8.4.3 for a summary of
unfactored values calculated below.

9.8.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads

9.8.4.1.1 Dead Loads

DC = Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments [LRFD Art. 3.3.2]
Dead loads acting on the noncomposite structure:
Beam self weight, wg = 1.385 kips/ft
6-in.-thick deck weight = (6/12 ft)(106.5/12 ft)(0.150 kcf) = 0.666 kips/ft
½-in.-thick haunch weight = (0.5/12 ft)(106.5/12 ft)(0.150 kcf) = 0.055 kips/ft
ws = 0.666 + 0.055 = 0.721 kips/ft

Notes:
1. Actual deck thickness (6 in.) is used for computing dead load.
2. A ½-in. minimum haunch thickness is assumed in the computations of dead load. If a deeper haunch will
be used because of final beam camber, the weight of the actual haunch should be used.
3. For this design example, the unit weight of the reinforced concrete is taken as 0.150 kcf. Some designers
use a higher unit weight to account for the weight of the reinforcement.
4. The weight of cross-diaphragms is ignored since most agencies are changing from cast-in-place concrete
diaphragms to lightweight steel diaphragms.
Dead loads placed on the composite structure:
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1 states that permanent loads (barrier and future wearing surface) may be distributed
uniformly among the beams if the following conditions are met:
• Width of the deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb, is not less than four (Nb = 5) OK
• Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft
• de = (8.83 − 5.00)/2 − 1.5 = 0.42 ft OK
• Curvature in plan is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (curvature = 0.0°) OK
• Cross section of the bridge is consistent with one of the cross sections given in LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1
(similar to bridge type "k") OK
Since these criteria are satisfied, the barrier and wearing surface loads are equally distributed among the
five beams.
Barrier weight = (2 barriers)(0.300 kips/ft)/(5 beams) = 0.120 kips/ft/beam = wb
DW = Dead load of 2-in. future wearing surface
= (2/12)(0.150) = 0.025 ksf
= (0.025 ksf)(41.33 ft)/(5 beams) = 0.207 kips/ft/beam = wws
DW load should be kept separately from DC because of higher load factor is applied to it

9.8 - 9 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.8.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments

9.8.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments

For a simply supported beam with a span length (L) loaded with a uniformly distributed load (w), the shear force
(Vx) and bending moment (Mx) at any distance (x) from the support are given by:
Vx = w(0.5L − x) (Eq. 9.8.4.1.2-1)
Mx = 0.5wx(L − x) (Eq. 9.8.4.1.2-2)
Using the above equations, values of shear forces and bending moments for a typical interior beam under self
weight of beam, weight of slab and haunch, and weight of barriers and future wearing surface are computed and
shown in Table 9.8.4-1 that is located at the end of Section 9.8.4.3. For these calculations, the span length (L) is
the design span, 80 ft. However, for calculations of stresses and deformation at the time prestress is transferred,
the overall length of the precast member, 81 ft, is used as illustrated later in this example.
9.8.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads
9.8.4.2.1 Live Loads
Design live load is HL-93, which consists of a combination of: [LRFD 3.6.1.2.1]
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance. [LRFD 3.6.1.2.2]
The design truck consists of 8.0-, 32.0-, and 32.0-kip axles with the first pair spaced at 14.0 ft and the second
pair spaced at 14.0 to 30.0 ft. The design tandem consists of a pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced at 4.0 ft apart.
[LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.3]
2. Design lane load of 0.64 kips/ft without dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.4]

9.8.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam

The live load bending moments and shear forces are determined by using the simplified distribution factor
formulas [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]. To use the simplified live load distribution factor formulas, the following conditions
must be met: [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2.1]
• Width of deck is constant OK
• Number of beams, Nb ≥ four (Nb = 5) OK
• Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness OK
• The roadway part of the overhang, de ≤ 3.0 ft (de = 0.42 ft) OK
• Curvature is less than specified in the LRFD Specifications (Curvature = 0.0°) OK
Note: The precast double-tee section with deck is not included in LRFD Table [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]
4.6.2.2.1-1, therefore, it is analyzed as Type (k) due to similar structural behavior.
The number of design lanes is computed as:
Number of design lanes = the integer part of the ratio w/12, where w is the clear [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.1]
roadway width, in feet, between the curbs.
From Figure 9.8.1-1, w = 41.33 ft
Number of design lanes = integer part of (41.33/12) = 3 lanes
9.8.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments
• For all limit states except fatigue limit state:
For two or more lanes loaded:
𝑆 0.6 𝑆 0.2 𝐾𝑔 0.1
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 0.075 + ( ) ( ) ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
9.5 𝐿 12𝐿𝑡𝑠3
Provided that: 3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16; S = 8.9 ft OK
4.5 ≤ ts ≤ 12; ts = 5.5 in. OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 240; L = 80 ft OK
Nb ≥ 4; Nb = 5 OK
10,000 ≤ Kg ≤ 7,000,000 OK (see below)

9.8 - 10 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments/9.8.4.2.2.2. Distribution Factor for Shear Force

where
DFM = distribution factor for bending moment for interior beam
S = beam spacing, ft
L = beam span, ft
ts = structural depth of concrete deck, in.
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter, in.4 = n(Ig + Ageg2) [LRFD Eq. 4.6.2.2.1-1]
where
n = modular ratio between beam and deck slab concrete
𝐸𝑐 (beam) 5,422
= = = 1.414
𝐸𝑐 (slab) 3,834
Ag = cross-sectional area of the precast beam (noncomposite section) = 1,330 in.2
Ig = moment of inertia of the precast beam (noncomposite section) = 166,569 in.4
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the precast beam and the deck
= [42.00 − (5.5/2) − 22.13] = 17.12 in.
Therefore,
Kg = 1.414[166,569+1330(17.12)2] = 786,728 in.4
8.9 0.6 8.9 0.2 786,728 0.1
𝐷𝐹𝑀 = 0.075 + ( ) ( ) ( )
9.5 80 12.0(80)(5.5)3
= 0.075 + (0.962)(0.645)(1.173) = 0.803 lanes⁄beam
For one design lane loaded:
𝑆 0.4 𝑆 0.3 𝐾 0.1
DFM = 0.06 + ( ) ( ) ( 𝑔 3 ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
14 𝐿 12𝐿𝑡𝑠
8.9 0.4 8.9 0.3 786,728 0.1
= 0.06 + ( ) ( ) ( )
14 80 12.0(80)(5.5)3
= 0.06 + (0.834)(0.517)(1.173) = 0.566 lanes/beam
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls and DFM = 0.803 lanes/beam.
For fatigue limit state:
The LRFD Specifications, Art. C3.4.1, states that for Fatigue Limit State, a single design truck should be used.
However, live load distribution factors given in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 take into consideration the multiple presence
factor, m. LRFD Article 3.6.1.1.2 states that the multiple presence factor, m, for one design lane loaded is 1.2.
Therefore, the distribution factor for one design lane loaded with the multiple presence factor removed, should be
used. The distribution factor for fatigue limit state is: 0.566/1.2 = 0.472 lanes/beam.

9.8.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force

For two or more lanes loaded:
𝑆 𝑆 2.0
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = 0.2 + ( ) − ( ) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
12 35
Provided that: 3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16; S = 8.9 ft OK
4.5 ≤ ts ≤ 12; ts = 5.5 in. OK
20 ≤ L ≤ 240; L = 80 ft OK
Nb ≥ 4; Nb = 5 OK

9.8 - 11 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force/9.8.4.2.4.1 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL

where
DFV = distribution factor for shear for interior beam
S = beam spacing, ft
Therefore, the distribution factor for shear force is:
8.9 8.9 2.0
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = 0.2 + ( ) − ( ) = 0.877 lanes⁄beam
12 35
For one design lane loaded:
𝑆 8.9
𝐷𝐹𝑉 = 0.36 + ( ) = 0.36 + ( ) = 0.716 lanes⁄beam
25 25
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls and DFV = 0.877 lanes/beam.

9.8.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance

IM = 15% for fatigue limit state [LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]
IM = 33% for all other limit states
where IM = dynamic allowance, applied to design truck load only

9.8.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments

9.8.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; VLT and MLT

• For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
Shear force and bending moment envelopes on a per-lane basis are calculated at tenth-points of the span using
the equations given in Chapter 8 of this manual. However, this is generally done by means of commercially
available computer software that has the ability to deal with moving loads. Therefore, truck load shear forces
and bending moments per beam are:
VLT = (shear force per lane)(DFV)(1 + IM)
= (shear force per lane)(0.877)(1 + 0.33)
= (shear force per lane)(1.166) kips
MLT = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.803)(1 + 0.33)
= (bending moment per lane)(1.068) ft-kips
Values for VLT and MLT at different points are given in Table 9.8.4-2.
• For fatigue limit state:
Article 3.6.1.4.1 in the LRFD Specifications states that fatigue load is a single design truck which has the same
axle weight used in all other limit states but with a constant spacing of 30.0 ft between the 32.0-kip axles.
Bending moment envelope on a per-lane basis is calculated using the equation given in Chapter 8 of this
manual.
Therefore, the bending moment of the fatigue truck load is:
Mf = (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.472) (1 + 0.15)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.543) ft-kips
Values of Mf at different points are given in Table 9.8.4-2.

9.8 - 12 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL/9.8.4.3 Load Combinations

9.8.4.2.4.2 Due To Design Lane Load; VLL and MLL

To obtain the maximum shear force at a section located at a distance (x) from the left support under a uniformly
distributed load of 0.64 kips/ft, load the member to the right of the section under consideration as shown in
Figure 9.8.4.2.4.2-1. Therefore, the maximum shear force per lane is:
0.32(𝐿 − 𝑥)2
𝑉𝑥 = for 𝑥 ≤ 0.5𝐿 (Eq. 9.8.4.2.4.2-1)
𝐿
where Vx is in kips/lane and L and x are in ft
Figure 9.8.4.2.4.2-1
Maximum Shear Force due to Design Lane Load
0.64 kip/ft/lane

left reaction right reaction

x (80-x) > x

80’

CL Bearing CL Bearing

To calculate the maximum bending moment at any sections, use Eq. (9.8.4.1.2-2).
Lane load shear force and bending moment per typical interior beam are as follows:
VLL = (lane load shear force)(DFV)
= (lane load shear force)(0.877) kips
For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
MLL = (lane load bending moment)(DFM)
= (lane load bending moment)(0.803) ft-kips
Note that dynamic allowance is not applied to the design lane loading.
Values of shear forces and bending moments, VLL and MLL, are given in Table 9.8.4-2.

9.8.4.3 Load Combinations

Total factored load shall be taken as:
𝑄 = ∑ η𝑖 γ𝑖 𝑄𝑖 [LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]
where
ηi = a load modifier relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance. [LRFD Art. 1.3.2.1]
(Here, ηi is considered to be 1.0 for typical bridges.)
γi = load factors [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Qi = force effects from specified loads
Investigating different limit states given in LRFD Article 3.4.1, the following limit states are applicable:
Service I: check compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 1.00(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress and applies to all conditions other
than Service III.

9.8 - 13 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.4.3 Load Combinations

Service III: check tensile stresses in prestressed concrete components:

Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 0.80(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress that applies only to tension in
prestressed concrete structures to control cracks.
Strength I: check ultimate strength: [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and -2]
Q maximum = 1.25(DC) + 1.50(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Q minimum = 0.90 (DC) + 0.65(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
This load combination is the general load combination for strength limit state design.
Note: For simple-span bridges, the maximum load factors produce maximum effects. However, use minimum load
factors for dead load (DC), and wearing surface (DW) when the dead load and wearing surface stresses are
opposite to those of live load.
Fatigue I: check stress range in strands [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Q = 1.50(LL + IM)
This load combination is a special load combination to check the tensile stress range in the strands due to live
load and dynamic allowance.

Table 9.8.4-1
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads for a Typical Interior Beam
Slab + Haunch Wearing Surface
Beam Weight Barrier Weight
Weight Weight
Distance Section
Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment
x, ft x/L
Vg Mg Vs Ms Vb Mb Vws Mws
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips
0 0 55.4 0.0 28.8 0.0 4.8 0.0 8.3 0.0
*2.69 0.034 51.7 144.0 26.9 75.0 4.5 12.5 7.7 21.5
8 0.1 44.3 398.9 23.1 207.6 3.8 34.6 6.6 59.6
16 0.2 33.2 709.1 17.3 369.2 2.9 61.4 5.0 106.0
24 0.3 22.2 930.7 11.5 484.5 1.9 80.6 3.3 139.1
32 0.4 11.1 1,063.7 5.8 553.7 1.0 92.2 1.7 159.0
40 0.5 0.0 1,108.0 0.0 576.8 0.0 96.0 0.0 165.6
*Critical section for shear (see Section 9.8.11)

Table 9.8.4-2
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads for a Typical Interior Beam
Fatigue Truck
Truck Load with Impact Lane Load
with Impact
Distance Section
Shear Moment Shear Moment Moment
x, ft x/L
VLT MLT VLL MLL Mf
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips ft-kips
0 0 74.1 0.0 22.5 0.0 0.0
*2.69 0.034 71.4 175.8 21.0 53.4 77.7
8 0.1 65.8 481.9 18.2 148.0 210.2
16 0.2 57.4 840.8 14.4 263.1 357.8
24 0.3 49.0 1,076.6 11.0 345.4 457.7
32 0.4 40.6 1,213.1 8.1 394.7 505.4
40 0.5 32.2 1,238.7 5.6 411.1 490.6
*Critical section for shear (see Section 9.8.11)

9.8 - 14 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.5 Estimate Required Prestress/9.8.5.3 Required Number of Strands

9.8.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

The required number of strands is usually governed by concrete tensile stresses at the bottom fiber for load
combination Service III at the section of maximum moment and in some cases at Strength I. For estimating the
number of strands, only the stresses at midspan are considered.
9.8.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan
Bottom tensile stress due to applied dead and live loads, using load combination III, is:
𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + (0.8)(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 = +
𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑐
where
fb = concrete tensile stress at bottom fiber of the beam, ksi
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight, ft-kips
Ms = unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights, ft-kips
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
Mws = unfactored bending moment due to wearing surface, ft-kips
MLT = unfactored bending moment due to truck load, ft-kips
MLL = unfactored bending moment due to lane load, ft-kips
Using values of bending moments from Tables 9.8.4-1 and 9.8.4-2, bottom tensile stress at midspan is:
1,108.0 + 576.8 96.0 + 165.6 + (0.8)(1,238.7 + 411.1)
𝑓𝑏 = (12) + (12) = 4.585 ksi
7,527 9,992

9.8.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete

Tensile stress limit at service limit state = −0.19√𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]
where 𝑓𝑐′ = specified concrete compressive strength of beam for design, ksi
Concrete tensile stress limit = −0.19√8.0 = −0.537 ksi
9.8.5.3 Required Number of Strands
The required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam is the difference between the bottom tensile
stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress limit:
fpb = 4.585 − 0.537 = 4.048 ksi
Assume the distance between the center of gravity of strands and the bottom fiber of the beam:
Try ybs = 6.0 in.
Therefore, strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = (𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑏𝑠 ) = (22.13 − 6.0) = 16.1 in.
If Ppe is the total prestress force after all losses, the stress at the bottom fiber due to prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 (16.1)
𝑓𝑝𝑏 = + , or 4.048 = +
𝐴𝑔 𝑆𝑏 1,330 7,527
Solving for Ppe, the required Ppe = 1,400.3 kips.
Final prestress force per strand = (area of strand)(fpi)(1 − final losses)
where fpi = initial strand stress before transfer, ksi (see Section 9.8.2) = 202.5 ksi
Assuming final loss of 20% of fpi , prestress force per strand after all losses
= (0.217)(202.5)(1−0.20) = 35.2 kips
Number of strands required = (1,400.3/35.2) = 39.8 strands

9.8 - 15 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.5.3 Required Number of Strands/9.8.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

As an initial trial, (40) 0.6-in.-diameter, 270 ksi strands were selected. The center of gravity of the 40 strands at
midspan is 8.50 in. from the bottom of the concrete, which is higher than the assumed value, 6.0 in. Thus, a second
iteration using the new value of strand eccentricity indicates that 46 strands are required. The strand pattern at
midspan for the 46 strands is shown in Figure 9.8.5.4.1. Each available position is filled beginning with the
bottom row.
Try (46) 0.6-in.-diameter, 270 ksi strands
Total area of prestressing stands, Aps = 46(0.217) = 9.982 in.2
Note: This is a conservative estimate of the number of strands because nontransformed section properties are
used in lieu of transformed section properties. The number of strands can be refined later in the design process as
more accurate section properties and prestress losses are determined.
9.8.5.4 Strand Pattern
The distance between the center of gravity of strands and the bottom concrete fiber of the beam at midspan is:
ybs = [6(2.5) + 10(4.5) + 10(6.5) + 10(8.5) + 6(10.5) + 4(32.5)] / (46) = 8.76 in.
Strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = yb − ybs = 22.13 − 8.76 = 13.37 in. = epg
Figure 9.8.5.4-1
Assumed Strand Pattern at Midspan

9.8.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

From the earliest years of prestressed concrete design, the gross section was conservatively used in analysis since
the prestressing forces were smaller and computer programs were not widely used. However, the use of
transformed section, which is obtained from the gross section by adding transformed steel area, yields more
accurate results than the gross section analysis.
For each row of prestressing strands shown in Figure 9.8.5.4-1, the steel area is multiplied by (n − 1) to calculate
the transformed section properties, where n is the modular ratio between prestressing strand and concrete. Since
the modulus of elasticity of concrete is different at transfer and final time, the transformed section properties
should be calculated separately for the two stages. Using similar procedures as in Section 9.8.3.2.3, a sample
calculation is shown in Table 9.8.5.5-1.
At transfer:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 5.069
4,696
At final:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 4.25
5,422

9.8 - 16 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.5.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

Table 9.8.5.5-1
Properties of Composite Transformed Section at Final Time
Transformed yb Ayb A(ybtc − by)2 I I + A(ybtc − by)2
Area, in.2 in. in.3 in.4 in.4 in.4
Deck 414.18 39.25 16,257 72,714 1044 73,758
Haunch 37.48 36.25 1,359 3,938 0.78 3,939
Beam 1,330.00 22.13 29,433 19,919 166,569 186,488
Row 1 5.54 2.50 13.85 3,059 3,059
Row 2 9.24 4.50 41.58 4,271 4,271
Row 3 9.24 6.50 60.06 3,514 3,514
Row 4 9.24 8.50 78.54 2,830 2,830
Row 5 5.54 10.50 58.17 1,331 1,331
Row 6 3.69 32.50 119.93 156 156
∑ 1,824.2 47,421 279,346
Note: The moment of inertia of strand about its own centroid is neglected.
The transformed section properties are calculated as:
Noncomposite transformed section at transfer:
Ati = area of transformed section at transfer = 1,381 in.2
Iti = moment of inertia of the transformed section at transfer = 178,296 in.4
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at transfer = 12.88 in.
ybti = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam at transfer
= 21.64 in.
Sbti = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 8,239 in.3
Stti = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 12,416 in.3

Noncomposite transformed section at final time:

Atf = area of transformed section at final time = 1,373 in.2
Itf = moment of inertia of the transformed section at final time = 176,469 in.4
etf = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at final time = 12.96 in.
ybtf = distance from the centroid of the noncomposite transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam at final time = 21.72 in.
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at final time = 8,125 in.3
Sttf = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at final time = 12,358 in.3

Composite transformed section at final time:

Atc = area of transformed composite section at final time = 1,824 in.2
Itc = moment of inertia of the transformed composite section at final time = 279,346 in.4
etc = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed composite section at final time = 17.24 in.
ybtc = distance from the centroid of the composite transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam at
final time = 26.00 in.
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section at final time
= 10,744 in.3
Sttc = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast beam for transformed section at final
time = 27, 935 in.3
Sdtc = composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the deck for transformed section at final
time = 24,691 in.3

9.8 - 17 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.6 Prestress Losses/9.8.6.1 Elastic Shortening

9.8.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES

Total prestress loss:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
where
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel after transfer. In
this design example, the refined estimates of time-dependent losses are used.
9.8.6.1 Elastic Shortening
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.3a-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
where
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands = 28,500 ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete at transfer = 4,696 ksi
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing strands due to prestressing force
at transfer and the self weight of the member at sections of maximum moment.
If the gross (or net) cross-section properties are used, it is necessary to perform numerical iterations. The elastic
loss ΔfpES is usually assumed to be 10% of the initial prestress to calculate fcgp, which is then used in the equation
above to calculate a refined ΔfpES. The process is repeated until the assumed ΔfpES and refined ΔfpES converge.
However, when transformed section properties are used to calculate concrete stress, the effects of losses and
gains due to elastic deformations are implicitly accounted for. Therefore, ΔfpES should not be included in
calculating fcgp.
Force per strand before transfer = (area of strand)(prestress stress before transfer)
= (0.217)(202.5) = 43.94 ksi
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖2
𝑀𝑔 𝑒𝑡𝑖
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖
where
eti = eccentricity of strands at midspan with respect to the transformed section at transfer = 12.88 in.
Pi = total prestressing force before transfer = (46 strands)(43.94) = 2,021.2 kips
Mg should be calculated based on the overall beam length of 81 ft. Since the elastic shortening loss is a part
of the total loss, fcgp will be conservatively computed based on Mg using the design span length of 80 ft.
2,021.2 (2,021.2)(12.88)2 (1,108.0)(12)(12.88)
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + − = 1.464 + 1.881 − 0.960 = 2.385 ksi
1,381 178,296 178,296
Therefore, loss due to elastic shortening:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = (2.385) = 14.5 ksi
4,696
AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.3 indicates that the loss due to elastic shortening at transfer should be added to the time-
dependent losses to determine total losses. However, this loss at transfer is directly accounted for if transformed
section properties are used in the stress analysis.

9.8 - 18 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement/9.8.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

9.8.6.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

The following construction schedule is assumed in calculating the time-dependent losses:
Concrete age at transfer: ti = 1 day
Concrete age at deck placement: td = 90 days
Concrete age at final stage: tf = 20,000 days
The total time-dependent loss between time of transfer and deck placement is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of concrete, creep of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing strands.
9.8.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is calculated by:
ΔfpSR = ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 𝐸𝑝 𝐾𝑖𝑑 [LRFD 5.9.5.4.2a-1]
where
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between transfer and deck placement
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kid = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between transfer and deck
placement
The concrete shrinkage strain, ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 is taken as:
ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 = 𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑠 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3.-1]
where
The factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam:
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13(3.816) = 0.954
The minimum value of kvs is 1.0. Therefore use kvs = 1.000
V/S is the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam.
The humidity factor for shrinkage:
khs = 2.00 − 0.14H = 2.00 − 0.014(70) = 1.020
where H = average annual mean relative humidity (assume 70%)
The factor for the effect of concrete strength:
5 5
𝑘𝑓 = = = 0.714
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 1 + 6.0
The time development factor at deck placement:
𝑡 89
𝑘𝑡𝑑 = ′ = = 0.706 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + 𝑡 61 − 4(6.0) + 89
where t is the maturity of concrete (days) = td − ti = 90 − 1 = 89 days
εbid = (1.000)(1.020)(0.714)(0.706)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000247
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 (𝑒𝑝𝑔 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔
where
epg = eccentricity of prestressing strand with respect to the centroid of the girder, in.
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced at transfer

9.8 - 19 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.6.2.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.8.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete

For the time between transfer and final time:

Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = 1.9kvskhckfktdti-0.118 [LRFD Eq.5.4.2.3.2-1]
khc = 1.56 − 0.008H = 1.56 − 0.008(70) = 1.000
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 20000 − 1
ktd = ′ = = 0.998 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + (𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 ) 61 − 4(6.0) + (20000 − 1)
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(0.714)(0.998)(1)-0.118 = 1.354
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = = 0.823
28,500 9.982 1,330(13.37)2
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(1.354)]
4,696 1,330 166,569
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between transfer and deck placement is:
ΔfpSR = (0.000247)(28,500)(0.823) = 5.794 ksi
9.8.6.2.2 Creep of Concrete
The prestress loss due to creep of girder concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = 𝑓 Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 )𝐾 [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.2b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖 𝑖𝑑
where
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at time of deck placement due to loading introduced at transfer
= 1.9kvskhckfktdti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
= 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(0.714)(0.706)(1)-0.118 = 0.958
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = (2.385)(0.958)(0.823) = 11.412 ksi
4,696
9.8.6.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands
The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck placement is
determined as:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑡
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = ( − 0.55) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2c-1]
𝐾𝐿 𝑓𝑝𝑦
where
fpt = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer, taken not less than 0.55fy
KL = 30 for low-relaxation strands and 7 for other prestressing steel, unless more accurate
manufacturer's data are available
(202.5 − 14.5) (202.5 − 14.5)
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1= ( − 0.55) = 1.402 ksi
30 243
According to LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.2c, the relaxation loss may also be assumed equal to 1.2 ksi for low-relaxation
strands.

9.8.6.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time

The total time-dependent loss between time of deck placement and final time is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of beam concrete, creep of beam concrete, relaxation of prestressing strands, and shrinkage of
deck concrete.
9.8.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is calculated by:
ΔfpSD = εbdfEpKdf [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-1]

9.8 - 20 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.6.3.1 Shrinkage of Concrete/9.8.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

where
εbdf = concrete shrinkage strain of girder for time period between deck placement and final time
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kdf = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete and
bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between deck placement and final time
The total concrete shrinkage strain between transfer and final time is taken as:
εbif = kvskhskfktdf 0.48 × 10-3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]

= (1.000)(1.020)(0.714)(0.998)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000349

The girder concrete shrinkage strain between deck placement and final time is:
ε𝑏𝑑𝑓 = ε𝑏𝑖𝑓 − 𝜀𝑏𝑖𝑑 = 0.000349 − 0.000247 = 0.000102
The beam concrete transformed section coefficient between deck placement and final time is:
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐 (𝑒𝑝𝑐 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-2]
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 )]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
Ac = area of the composite section = 1,782 in.2
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section = 236, 890 in.4
epc = eccentricity of strands with respect to centroid of composite section
= 26.41 − 8.76 = 17.65 in.
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = = 0.830
28,500 9.982 1,782(17.65)2
1+ (1 + ) [1 + 0.7(1.354)]
4,696 1,782 263,890
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is:
ΔfpSD = (0.000102)(28,500)(0.830) = 2.413 ksi

9.8.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete

The prestress loss due to creep of beam concrete between deck placement and final time is:
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3b-1]
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 [Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ) − Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )]𝐾𝑑𝑓 + Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 [Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )]𝐾𝑑𝑓
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐸𝑐
where
Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = girder creep coefficient at final time due to loading at deck placement
= 1.9kvskhckfktdftd-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
𝑡 (20,000 − 90)
ktdf = 61 − 4𝑓 ′ + 𝑡 = 61 − 4(6.0) + (20,000 − 90) = 0.998
𝑐𝑖

Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(0.714)(0.998)(90)-0.118 = 0.796

Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to long-term losses between
transfer and deck placement, combined with deck weight and superimposed loads, ksi
2
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐
= −(Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 ) (1 + )−( + )
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐

9.8 - 21 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.6.3.2 Creep of Concrete/9.8.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

9.982 1,330(13.37)2
= −(5.794 + 11.412 + 1.402) (1 + )
1,330 166,569
576.8(12)(12.96) (96.0 + 165.6)(12)(17.24)
−( + ) = −1.041 ksi
176,469 279,346
The gross section properties are used in the equation to calculate Δfcd for the long-term losses since the
transformed section effect has already been included in the factor Kid when calculating the losses between initial
time and deck placement.
28,500 28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = (2.385)(1.354 − 0.958)(0.830) + (−1.041)(0.796)(0.830) = 1.142 ksi
4,696 5,422

9.8.6.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of deck placement and final time is
taken as:
ΔfpR2 = ΔfpR1 = 1.402 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3c-1]

9.8.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete

The prestress gain due to shrinkage of deck concrete is calculated by:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = Δ𝑓 𝐾 [1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 )] [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3d-1]
𝐸𝑐 𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
where Δfcdf = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to shrinkage of deck concrete, ksi
ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑑 1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝑒𝑑
Δfcdf = [ − ] [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3d-2]
1 + 0.7Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
εddf = shrinkage strain of deck concrete between placement and final time
Ad = area of deck concrete, in.2
Ecd = modulus of elasticity of deck concrete, ksi
Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = deck concrete creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced shortly after deck
placement
ed = eccentricity of deck with respect to the gross composite section, in.
Assume the initial strength of concrete at deck placement is 0.8(4.0 ksi) = 3.2 ksi, and use a volume-to-surface
ratio 2.839 for the deck:
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13(2.839) = 1.081 > 1.0 OK
5 5
kf = ′ = = 1.190
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖 1 + 3.2
𝑡 20,000 − 90
ktd = = = 0.998
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ + 𝑡 61 − 4(3.2) + (20,000 − 90)
εddf = kvskhskfktd0.48 × 10-3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
= (1.081)(1.020)(1.190)(0.998)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000629
Ψ𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 ) = 1.9kvskhckfktdti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]
= 1.9(1.081)(1.000)(1.190)(0.998)(1)-0.118 = 2.439

9.8 - 22 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.6.3.4 Shrinkage of Deck Concrete/9.8.6.6. Total Losses at Service Loads

Creep of deck concrete is assumed to start at 1 day.

5.5
0.000629(106.5)(5.5)(3,834) 1 17.65(42 − − 26.41)
Δfcdf = ( − 2 )
1 + 0.7(2.439) 1,782 263,890

= −0.155 ksi The negative sign indicates a prestressing gain.

The prestress gain due to shrinkage of the deck in the composite section:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = (−0.155)(0.830)[1 + 0.7(0.796)] = −1.053 ksi
5,422
Note: The effect of deck shrinkage on the calculation of prestress gain is discussed further in Section 9.1a.8.5.

9.8.6.4 Total Time-Dependent Loss

The total time-dependent loss, ΔfpLT, is determined as:
ΔfpLT = (ΔfpSR + ΔfpCR + ΔfpR1) + (ΔfpSD + ΔfpCD + ΔfpR2 + ΔfpSS) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.1-1]
= (5.794 + 11.412 + 1.402) + (2.413 + 1.142 + 1.402 − 1.053)
= 18.608 + 3.904 = 22.5 ksi

9.8.6.5 Total Losses at Transfer

AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.2.3a and C5.9.5.3 indicate that the losses or gains due to elastic deformation must be taken
equal to zero if transformed section properties are used in stress analysis. However, the losses or gains due to
elastic deformation must be included in determining the total prestress losses and the effective stress in the
prestressing strands.
Δfpi = ΔfpES = 14.5 ksi
Effective stress in tendons immediately after transfer, fpt = fpi − Δfpi = (202.5 − 14.5) = 188.0 ksi
Force per strand = (fpt)(area of strand) = (188.0)(0.217) = 40.80 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer, Ppt = 40.80(46) = 1,877 kips
Initial loss, % = (Total losses at transfer)/(fpi) = 14.5/202.5 = 7.2%
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, the strand force is that before
transfer:
Force per strand = (202.5)(0.217) = 43.94 kips
The total prestressing force before transfer Ppi = 43.94(46) = 2,021 kips

9.8.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads

Total loss due to elastic shortening at transfer and long-term losses is:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT = 14.5 + 22.5 = 37.0 ksi
The elastic gain due to deck weight, superimposed dead load, and live load (Service III) is:
𝑀𝑠 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝 (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝
=( + ) + 0.8 ( )
𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐
576.8(12)(12.96) (96.0 + 165.6)(12)(17.24) 28,500 (1,238.7 + 411.1)(12)(17.24) 28,500
=( + ) + 0.8 ( )
176,469 279,346 5,422 279,346 5,422
= 3.7 + 5.1 = 8.8 ksi
The effective stress in strands after all losses and gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 3.7 = 202.5 − 37.0 + 8.8 = 174.3 ksi

9.8 - 23 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.6.6. Total Losses at Service Loads/9.8.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
fpe ≤ 0.8 fpy = 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 174.3 ksi OK
The effective stress in strands after all losses and permanent gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 7.2 = 202.5 – 37.0+ 3.7= 169.2 ksi
Force per strand without live load gains = (fpe)(area of strand) = (169.2)(0.217) = 36.72 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after all losses = 36.72(46) = 1,689.1 kips
Final loss percentage = (total losses and gains)/(fpi) = (37.0 − 3.7)/(202.5) = 16.4%
Without consideration of prestressing gains at deck placement, the final loss percentage = total losses/(fpi) =
(37.0)/202.5) = 18.3%
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, all the elastic losses and gains are
implicitly accounted for.
Force per strand with only total time-dependent losses = (fpi − ΔfpLT)(area of strand) = (202.5 − 22.5)(0.217) =
39.06 kips
Total prestressing force, Ppe = (39.06)(46) = 1,797 kips

9.8.7 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER

Because transformed section is used, the total prestressing force before and after transfer, Ppi = 2,021 kips.
9.8.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.4]
Compression:
• 0.6𝑓𝑐′ = 0.6(6.0) = +3.600 ksi
where 𝑓𝑐′ = concrete strength at transfer = 6.000 ksi
Tension:
• without bonded auxiliary reinforcement
0.0948√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≤ 0.200 ksi; −0.0948√6.000 = −0.232 ksi
Therefore, −0.200 ksi (Controls)
• with bonded auxiliary reinforcement that is sufficient to resist 120% of the tension force in the cracked
concrete

0.24√𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = −0.24√6.000 = −0.588 ksi

9.8.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

This section is located at a distance equal to the transfer length from the end of the beam. Stresses at this location
need only be checked at transfer because this stage almost always governs. Also, losses with time will reduce the
concrete stresses, making them less critical.
Transfer length = 60(strand diameter) = 60(0.6) = 36 in. = 3 ft [LRFD Art. 5.11.4]
Due to camber of the beam at transfer, the beam self weight acts on the overall beam length, 81 ft. Therefore,
values for bending moment given in Table 9.8.4-1 cannot be used because they are based on the design span
length of 80 ft. Using Eq. 9.8.4.1.2-2, the bending moment at transfer length due to beam weight is:
Mg = 0.5wgx(L − x) = (0.5)(1.385)(3)(81 − 3) = 162.0 ft-kips
Compute stress in the top of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 2,021 2,021(12.88) (162.0)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 1,381 12,416 12,416
= 1.463 − 2.097 + 0.157 = −0.477 ksi

9.8 - 24 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section

Tensile stress limit for concrete with bonded reinforcement: −0.588 ksi OK
Compute stress in the bottom of beam:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖 𝑀𝑔 2,021 2,021(12.88) (162.0)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 1,381 8,239 8,239
= 1.463 + 3.159 − 0.236 = +4.386 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.600 ksi NG
Therefore, try debonding eight strands from the strand groups at 4.5 in. and 8.5 in. from the bottom for a
distance of 13 ft 0 in. from the end of the beam or 12 ft 6 in. from centerline of bearing.
To minimize the shock impact of detensioning and cracks at corners and bottom, assume the strand pattern
shown in Figure 9.8.7.2-1. LRFD Article 5.11.4.3 requires that the following conditions be satisfied if
debonding is used:
• Percentage debonded of total = 8/46 = 17% ≤ 25% OK
• Percentage debonded of row = 4/10 = 40% ≤ 40% OK
• All limit states should be satisfied OK
• Debonded strands should be symmetrically distributed OK
• Exterior strands in each horizontal line are fully bonded OK
Recompute the stresses at the transfer length section. Note that the transformed section properties here are
different from those at midspan after debonding. Using the same method as described in Section 9.8.5.5, the
transformed section properties at end of beam are computed as:
Ati = 1,372 in.2 ybti = 21.74 in. Sbti = 8,201 in.3 Stti = 12,503 in.3

Figure 9.8.7.2-1
Strand Pattern at End of Beam

Distance from the center of gravity of bonded strands to the bottom fiber of the beam is:
ybs = [6(2.5) + 6(4.5) + 10(6.5) + 6(8.5) + 6(10.5) + 4(32.5)]/(38) = 9.24 in.
and the strand eccentricity for the transformed section at end of beam is;
eti = 21.74 − 9.24 = 12.50 in.
Total prestressing force at release at end section = 38(43.94) = 1,669.7 kips
Concrete stress in top of beam:
1,669.7 1,669.7(12.50) (162.0)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.217 − 1.669 + 0.155 = −0.297 ksi
1,372 12,503 12,503

9.8 - 25 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.8.7.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

Tensile stress limit for concrete: −0.588 ksi OK

Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
1,669.7 1,669.7(12.50) (162.0)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.217 + 2.545 − 0.237 = 3.525 ksi
1,372 8,201 8,201
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.600 ksi OK
9.8.7.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands
All strands are effective at this location. Therefore, Ppi = 2,021 kips
Bending moment due to the self-weight of the beam at (13 + 3 = 16 ft) from the end of the beam is:
(0.5)(1.385)(16)(81 − ) = 720.2 ft-kips.
Therefore, top and bottom stresses are:
Concrete stress in top of beam:
2,021 (2,021)(12.88) (720.2)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.463 − 2.097 + 0.696 = +0.062 ksi
1,381 12,416 12,416
Compressive stress limit: +3.600 ksi OK
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
2,021 (2,021)(12.88) (720.2)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.463 + 3.159 − 1.049 = +3.573 ksi
1,381 8,239 8,239
Compressive stress limit: +3.600 ksi OK

9.8.7.4 Stresses at Midspan

Bending moment at midspan due to the beam self weight is:
Mg = 0.5(1.385)(40.5)(81 − 40.5) = 1,135.9 ft-kips
2,021 (2,021)(12.88) (1,135.9)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = 1.463 − 2.097 + 1.098 = +0.464 ksi
1,381 12,416 12,416
Compressive stress limit: +3.600 ksi OK
2,021 2,021(12.88) (1,135.9)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = 1.463 + 3.159 − 1.654 = +2.968 ksi
1,380.61,381 8,239 8,239
Compressive stress limit: +3.600 ksi OK

9.8.7.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer

Top Fiber Bottom Fiber
Stresses Stresses
ft, ksi fb, ksi
At transfer length section −0.297 +3.525
At end of debonded strands + transfer length +0.062 +3.573
At midspan +0.464 +2.968

9.8 - 26 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.8 Concrete Stresses at Service Loads/9.8.8.2.2 Concrete Stresses at the Top Fiber of the Deck

9.8.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS

Using transformed section properties and refined losses, Ppe = 1,797 kips

9.8.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]

Compression:
Due to permanent loads, (i.e. beam self weight, weight of joint concrete, weight of slab and haunch, weight of
future wearing surface, and weight of barrier), for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.45 𝑓𝑐′ = (0.45)(8.000) = +3.600 ksi
for deck: 0.45𝑓𝑐′ = (0.45)(4.000) = +1.800 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads (i.e. all dead loads and live loads), for load combination Service I:
for precast beams: 0.60𝑓𝑐′ = 0.6(8.000) = +4.800 ksi
for deck: 0.60𝑓𝑐′ = 0.60(4.000) = +2.400 ksi
Tension:
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III: −0.19√𝑓𝑐′
for precast beam: −0.19√8.000 = −0.537 ksi
9.8.8.2 Stresses at Midspan
9.8.8.2.1Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the Beam
To check top compressive stresses, two cases are considered:
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
Using bending moment values given in Table 9.8.4-1, compute the top fiber stresses:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − + +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
1,797 (1,797)(12.96) (1,108.0 + 576.8)(12) (96 + 165.6)(12)
= − + +
1,373 12,358 12,358 27,935
= 1.309 − 1.885 + 1.636 + 0.112 = +1.172 ksi
Compressive stress limit: +3.600 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 ) (1,238.7 + 411.1)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = +1.172 + = +1.172 + = 1.172 + 0.709 = +1.881 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐 27,935
Compressive stress limit: +4.800 ksi OK
9.8.8.2.2 Concrete Stress at the Top Fiber of the Deck
Note: Compressive stress in the deck slab at service loads never controls the design for typical applications. The
calculations shown below are for illustration purposes and may not be necessary in most practical applications.
1. Under permanent loads, load combination Service I:
(𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 ) (165.6 + 96.0)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = = = +0.127 ksi
𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 24,691
Compressive stress limit: +1.800 ksi OK
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
(𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 ) (𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 ) (1,238.7 + 411.1)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = + = +0.127 + = +0.929 ksi
𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 24,691
Compressive stress limit: +2.400 ksi OK

9.8 - 27 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III/9.8.9 Strength Limit State

9.8.8.2.3 Concrete Stress in Bottom of Beam, Load Combination Service III

𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 ) (𝑀𝑤𝑠 +𝑀𝑏 ) + 0.8(𝑀𝐿𝑇 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿 )
𝑓𝑏 = + − −
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
1,797 (1,797)(12.96) (1,108.0 + 576.8)(12) (165.6 + 96.0)(12) + 0.8(1,238.7 + 411.1)(12)
= + − −
1,373 8,125 8,125 10,744
= 1.309 + 2.866 − 2.488 − 1.766 = −0.079 ksi
Tensile stress limit: −0.537 ksi OK
9.8.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit
LRFD Article 5.5.3.1 states that in fully prestressed components other than segmentally constructed bridges, the
compressive stress due to Fatigue I load combination and one half the sum of effective prestress and permanent
loads shall not exceed 0.40𝑓𝑐′ , after losses.
From Table 9.8.4-2, the unfactored fatigue bending moment at midspan, Mf, is 490.6 ft-kips. Therefore, stress at
the top fiber of the beam due to fatigue load combination I is:
1.50(𝑀𝑓 ) 1.50 (490.6)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 = = = +0. .316 ksi
𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐 27,935
At midspan, the top compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 ) (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = − + +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
1,797 (1,797)(12.96) (1,108.0 + 576.8)(12) (165.6 + 96.0)(12)
= − + +
1,373 12,358 12,358 27,935
= 1.309 − 1.885 + 1.636 + 0.112 = 1.172 ksi
Therefore:
𝑓𝑏 1.172
𝑓𝑡𝑔𝑓 + = 0. .316 + = 0.902 < 0.40( 𝑓𝑐′ ) = 0.40(6.50) = 2.6 ksi OK
2 2
This condition should be satisfied at all locations along the beam.

9.8.8.4 Summary of Stresses at Midspan at Service Loads

Top of Deck, ksi Top of Beam, ksi
Bottom of
Service I Service I
Beam, ksi
Permanent Total Permanent Total
Service III
Loads Loads Loads Loads
At midspan +0.127 +0.929 +1.172 +1.881 −0.079
9.8.8.5 Effect of Deck Shrinkage
The calculations in Section 9.8.8.2 comply with the LRFD Specifications. However, PCI believes that it is not
appropriate to include the prestressing gain caused by the deck shrinkage, ΔfpSS, in calculating the prestress
losses. Alternatively, the effect of deck shrinkage should be analyzed by considering it as an external force applied
to the composite nontransformed section as illustrated Section 9.1a.8.5.

9.8.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Using values of unfactored bending moment given in Tables 9.8.4-1 and 9.8.4-2, the ultimate bending moment at
midspan is:
Mu = 1.25(1,108.0 + 576.8 + 96.0) + 1.5(165.6) + 1.75(1,238.7 + 411.1) = 5,361.6 ft-kips

9.8 - 28 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.9 Strength Limit State

Average stress in prestressing steel when fpe ≥ 0.5fpu:

𝑐
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 (1 − 𝑘 ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1]
𝑑𝑝
where
fps = average stress in prestressing strand, ksi
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing strand = 270.0 ksi
𝑓𝑝𝑦 243
k = 2 (1.04 − ) = 2 (1.04 − ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-2]
𝑓𝑝𝑢 270
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strands
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing strands, in.
For the 42 bottom strands, the distance between the center of gravity of the strands and the bottom fiber of the
beam, ybs, is:
ybs = [6(2.5) + 10(4.5) + 10(6.5) + 10(8.5) + 6(10.5)] / (42) = 6.50 in.
dp = hc − ybs = 42.00 − 6.50 = 35.50 in.
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis , in.
To compute c, assume rectangular section behavior and check if the depth of [LRFD C5.7.3.2.2]
the equivalent compression stress block, a, is less than or equal to ts:
where a = 1c
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′
𝑐=
𝑓𝑝𝑢 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-4]
0.85𝑓𝑐′ β1 𝑏 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝
where
a = depth of the equivalent stress block
Aps = area of prestressing strand = 42(0.217) = 9.114 in.2
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement = 0 in.2
𝐴′𝑠 = area of compression reinforcement = 0 in.2
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of deck concrete = 4.0 ksi
fy = specified yield strength of tension reinforcement = 60.0 ksi
𝑓𝑦′ = specified yield strength of compression reinforcement, ksi
β1 = stress factor of compression block [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.2]
= 0.85 for 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 4.0 ksi
= 0.85 − 0.05(𝑓𝑐′ − 4.0) ≥ 0.65 for 𝑓𝑐′ > 4.0 ksi
= 0.85
b = effective width of compression flange = 106.5 in.
Note: In computing the flexural strength of members with strands placed near the compression face of the
member, it is not correct to use the combined centroid of the entire strand group for establishing the effective
depth, dp, and the area of prestressing steel, Aps. This is because the top strands will have different strain from that
of the bottom strands. An accurate solution can be achieved using the detailed strain compatibility approach
which accounts for the steel strain at various distances from the neutral axis. However, a reasonable
approximation is to ignore all strands placed on the compression side.

9.8 - 29 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.9 Strength Limit State/9.8.10.1Maximum Reinforcement

9.114(270.0) + 0 − 0
𝑐= = 7.52 in.
270.0
0.85(4.0)(0.85)(106.5) + (0.28)(9.114) ( )
35.50
a = β1c = (0.85)(7.52) = 6.39 in. > ts = 5.5 in. NG
Therefore, compute c using T-section behavior.
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′ − 0.85𝑓𝑐′ (𝑏 − 𝑏𝑤 )ℎ𝑓
𝑐=
𝑓𝑝𝑢 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-3]
0.85𝑓𝑐′ β1 𝑏𝑤 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝
where
hf = depth of compression flange = ts = 5.5 in.
bw = width of web = 106.0 in.
9.114(270) + 0 − 0 − 0.85(4.0)(106.5 − 106.0)5.5
c = = 7.53 in.
270
0.85(4.0)(0.85)(106.0) + (0.28)(9.114) ( )
35.50
a = β1c = (0.85)(7.53) = 6.40 in. > ts = 5.5 in. OK
LRFD C5.7.2.2 states that if the compressive block includes two types of concrete, the lower of the concrete
strengths can be conservatively used.
Therefore, the average stress in the prestressing strand is:
7.53
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 270.0 (1 − 0.28 ) = 254.0 ksi
35.50
Nominal flexural resistance:
𝑎 𝑎 ℎ𝑓
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 (𝑑𝑝 − ) + 0.85𝑓𝑐′ (𝑏 − 𝑏𝑤 )𝑡𝑠 ( − )
2 2 2
The above equation is a simplified form of LRFD Equation 5.7.3.2.2-1 because no compression reinforcement or
nonprestressed tension reinforcement is considered.
6.40 6.40 5.5
(9.114)(254.0) (35.50 − ) 0.85(4.000)(106.5 − 106.0)(5.5) ( − )
𝑀𝑛 = 2 + 2 2
12 12
= 6,231.4 ft-kips
Factored flexural resistance:
Mr = ɸMn [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where
ɸ = resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
= 1.00, for tension controlled prestressed concrete sections
Mr = 6,231.4 ft-kips > Mu = 5,361.6 ft-kips OK

9.8.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT

9.8.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement
The check of maximum reinforcement limits in LRFD Article 5.7.3.3.1 was removed from the LRFD Specifications
in 2005.

9.8 - 30 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.8.11 Shear Design

9.8.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]

At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement must be adequate to develop
a factored flexural resistance, Mr, equal to the lesser of:
• 1.2 times the cracking strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and
• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan:
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 (𝑓𝑟 + 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 ) − 𝑀𝑑𝑛𝑐 ( − 1) ≥ 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐 𝑓𝑟 [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2-1]
𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓
where
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= 0.37√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.37√8.000 = 1.047 ksi

fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied
loads
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑓 1,797 (1,797)(12.96)
= + = + = 4.175 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 1,373 8,125

Mdnc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section

= Mg + Ms = 1,108.0 + 576.8 = 1,684.8 ft-kips
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section where the
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 10,744 in.3
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed noncomposite section where the
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 8,125 in.3
10,744 10,744
Mcr = (1.047 + 4.175) − (1,684.8) ( − 1) = 4,132.1 ft‐ kips
12 8,124

1.2Mcr = 1.2(4,132.1) = 4,958.5 ft-kips

Illustrated based on
At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is: 2011 LRFD
Specifications.
Mu = 5,361.6 ft-kips (as calculated in Section 9.8.9)
Editor’s Note: 2012
Thus, 1.33 Mu = 1.33(5,361.6) = 7,130.9 ft-kips
LRFD Specifications
Since 1.2Mcr < 1.33Mu , the 1.2Mcr requirement controls. changes will revise
minimum
Mr = 6,231.4 ft-kips > 1.2 Mcr = 4,958.5 OK
reinforcement.
Note: The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at every section.

9.8.11 SHEAR DESIGN

The area and spacing of shear reinforcement must be determined at regular intervals along the entire length of
the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design procedures are demonstrated below by determining
these values at the critical section near the supports.
Transverse shear reinforcement is required when:
Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]

9.8 - 31 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.11 Shear Design/9.8.11.1 Critical Section

where
Vu = total factored shear force, kips
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by tensile stresses in the concrete, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
ɸ = resistance factor = 0.9 for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]

9.8.11.1 Critical Section [LRFD Art. 5.8.3.2]

The critical section near the supports is taken as the effective shear depth, dv, from the internal face of support.
dv = distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (de − a/2), but [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.9]
not less than (0.9de) or (0.72hc)
where
de = the corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement
a = depth of compression block = 6.40 in. at midspan (assumed adequate )
hc = overall depth of the composite section = 42.0 in.
Note: Only 34 strands are effective at the critical section for shear, because eight strands are debonded for a
distance equal to 13 ft from the end of the beam and the top level of strands is ignored.
de = hc − ybs = 42.00 − 6.50 = 35.50 in.
dv = 35.50 − (6.40)/2 = 32.30 in.
≥ 0.9 de = 0.9(35.50) = 31.95 in.
≤ 0.72 hc = 0.72(42.00) = 30.24 in. OK
Therefore, dv = 32.30 in.
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is conservatively assumed to be zero. Therefore, the
critical section in shear is located at a distance of:
32.30 in. = 2.69 ft from centerline of support as shown in Figure 9.8.11-1.
(x/L) = 2.69/80 = 0.034L
Figure 9.8.11-1
Critical Section in Shear

9.8 - 32 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance/9.8.11.2.2 Values of β and θ

9.8.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance

The contribution of the concrete to the nominal shear resistance is:
Vc = 0.0316β√𝑓𝑐′ bvdv [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-3]
where β = a factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension (a value indicating
concrete contribution).
Several quantities must be determined before this expression can be evaluated.
9.8.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement
Calculate the strain at the centroid of the reinforcement, εs:
|𝑀𝑢 |
+ 0.5𝑁𝑢 + |(𝑉𝑢 − 𝑉𝑝 )| − 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑜
𝑑
ε𝑠 = 𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-4]
(𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 )
where
Mu = applied factored bending moment at the specified section, 0.034L
= 1.25(144.0 + 75.0 + 12.5) + 1.50(21.5) + 1.75(175.8 + 53.4) (Tables 9.8.4-1 and 9.8.4-2)
= 722.7 ft-kips
Mu need not to be taken less than (Vu − Vp)dv:
(Vu − Vp)dv = [(277.1 − 0)(32.30/12)] = 745.9 ft-kips
Since (Vu − Vp)dv ≥ Mu , Mu = 745.9 ft-kips Controls
Nu = applied factored normal axial force at the specified section, 0.034L = 0
Vu = applied factored shear force at the specified section, 0.034L
= 1.25(51.7 + 26.9 + 4.5) + 1.50(7.7) + 1.75(71.7 + 21.0) (Tables 9.8.4-1 and 9.8.4-2)
= 277.1 kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force
= 0 kips since strand pattern is straight
Aps = area of prestressing strands on the flexural tension side of the member = 34(0.217) = 7.378 in.2
(Only 34 of the 42 strands are effective in the flexural tension side because eight strands are
debonded).
fpo = a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by the locked-in
difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the surrounding concrete (ksi). For
pretensioned members, LRFD Article C5.8.3.4.2 indicates that fpo can be taken as 0.7fpu. (Note: use
this for both pretensioned and post-tensioned systems made with stress-relieved and low
relaxation strands).
= 0.7(270) = 189.0 ksi
|722.7(12)|
+ 0.5(0) + |(277.1 − 0)| − 7.378(189)
ε𝑠 = 32.30 = −3.996 × 10−3
(0 + 28,500(7.378))
εs is less than zero. Use εs = 0.

9.8.11.2.2 Values of β and θ

Assume the section contains at least the minimum amount of traverse reinforcement:
4.8 4.8
β= = = 4.8 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-1]
(1 + 750ε𝑠 ) (1 + 0)

9.8 - 33 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.11.2.2 Values of β and θ/9.8.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement

Angle of diagonal compressive stress is:

θ = 29 + 3,500εs = 29 + 3,500(0) = 29° [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-3]

9.8.11.2.3 Compute Concrete Contribution

The nominal shear resisted by the concrete is:
𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316β√𝑓𝑐′ 𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
where bv = effective web width = 2(13.00) = 26.00 in.
LRFD Article 5.8.2.9 states that bv is the minimum web width between the tensile and compressive forces due to
flexure. In this example, the beam web is slightly sloped. The minimum width at the bottom of the beam is
conservatively used in the calculation.
𝑉𝑐 = 0.0316(4.8)√8.0(26.00)(32.30) = 360.3 kips
9.8.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance

9.8.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement

Check if Vu > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
𝑉𝑢 = 277.1 kips > 0.5ɸ(Vc + Vp ) = 0.5(0.9)(360.3 + 0) = 162.1 kips
Therefore, transverse shear reinforcement must be provided.
9.8.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement
Vu /ɸ ≤ Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.3-1]
where
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement
= (Vu/ɸ) − Vc − Vp = (277.1/0.9) − 360.3 − 0.0 = −52.4 kips
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦ℎ 𝑑𝑣 (cot θ + cot α)(sin α)
𝑉𝑠 = [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4]
𝑠
where
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance, s, in.2
s = spacing of stirrups, in.
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis
= 90° for vertical stirrups
Since the required Vs is negative, the minimum traverse reinforcement requirement is used to determine the area
of the shear reinforcement. The area of transverse reinforcement should not be less than:
𝑏𝑣 𝑠 26.0(𝑠)
𝐴𝑣 ≤ 0.0316√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.0316√8.0 = 0.039(𝑠) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5-1]
𝑓𝑦ℎ 60.0
If s = 15 in., required Av = 0.59 in.2/ft
9.8.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement
Check maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement: [LRFD Art 5.8.2.7]
Check if vu < 0.125𝑓𝑐′
|𝑉𝑢 − ɸ𝑉𝑝 | |277.1 − 0|
𝑣𝑢 = = = 0.367 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.9-1]
ɸ𝑏𝑣 𝑑𝑣 (0.9)(26.0)(32.30)

9.8 - 34 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.11.3.3 Determine Spacing of Reinforcement/9.8.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement

0.125𝑓𝑐′ = (0.125)(8) = 1.000 ksi

Since vu < 0.125𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.7-1]
then, s ≤ 24 in. Controls
s ≤ 0.8 dv = 0.8(32.30) = 25.84 in.
Therefore, maximum s = 24.0 in. > s provided = 15 in. OK
Use No. 4 bar four-leg stirrups at 15 in., Av = 0.64 in.2/ft > 0.59 in.2/ft
0.80(60)(32.30) cot 29°
𝑉𝑠 = = 186.5 kips
15
9.8.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance
In order to ensure that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush prior to yielding of the transverse
reinforcement, the LRFD Specifications gives an upper limit of Vn as follows:
Vn = 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1, it can be concluded that
Vc + Vs must not be greater than 0.25 𝑓𝑐′ bvdv
360.3 + 186.5 = 546.8 kips ≤ 0.25(8)(26.0)(32.30) = 1,679.6 kips OK

9.8.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER

9.8.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear [LRFD Art. 5.8.4]
At the strength limit state, the horizontal shear at a section on a per unit basis can be taken as:
𝑉𝑢
𝑉ℎ𝑖 = [LRFD Eq. C5.8.4.2-7]
𝑑𝑣
where
Vhi = horizontal factored shear force per unit length of the beam, kips/in.
Vu = factored shear force at specified section due to superimposed loads after the deck is cast, kips
dv = the distance between the centroid of the tension steel and the mid-thickness of the slab = (de −
ts/2) = 35.50 − (5.5/2) = 32.75 in.
The LRFD Specifications does not identify the location of the critical section. For convenience, it will be
assumed here to be the same location as the critical section for vertical shear at point 0.034L.
Using load combination Strength I:
Vu = 1.25(51.7+26.9+4.5) + 1.50(7.7) + 1.75(71.4 + 21.0) = 277.1 kips [Tables 9.8.4-1 and 9.8.2-2]
Therefore, the applied factored horizontal shear is:
277.1
𝑉ℎ𝑖 = = 8.46 kips⁄in.
32.75
9.8.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance
Required Vni = Vhi/ɸ = 8.46/0.9 = 9.40 kips/in. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-1]

9.8.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement

The nominal shear resistance of the interface surface is:
Vni = cAcv + µ[Avf fyh + Pc] [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3]

9.8 - 35 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement/9.8.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

where
c = cohesion factor, ksi [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.3]
μ = coefficient of friction [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.3]
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear transfer, in.2
Avf = area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane, in.2
Pc = permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane, kips
fyh = specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
For cast-in-place concrete slabs placed on clean concrete girder surface intentionally [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.3]
roughened :
c = 0.28 ksi
μ = 1.0
The actual contact width, bv, between the slab and the beam is 106.0 in.
Acv = (106.0 in.)(1.0 in.) = 106.0 in.2
LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3 can be solved for Avf as follows:
9.40 = (0.28 × 106) + 0.6[Avf(60.0) + 0]
Solving for Avf
Avf (req'd) < 0
Since the resistance provided by cohesion is greater than the applied force, provide the minimum required
interface reinforcement.

9.8.12.3.1 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement

Minimum Avf ≥ (0.05Acv)/fyh [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.4-1]
From the design of vertical shear reinforcement, a No. 4 four-leg bar at 15-in. spacing is provided from the beam
extending into the deck. Therefore, Avf = 0.64 in.2/ft.
Avf = (0.64 in.2/ft) < (0.05Acv)/fyh = 0.05(106)/60.0 = 0.088 in.2/in. = 1.06 in.2/ft NG
However, LRFD Article 5.8.4.4 states that the minimum reinforcement need not exceed the amount needed to
resist 1.33Vhi/ɸ as determined using LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3.
(1.33 × 8.46/0.9) = (0.28 × 106.0) + 1.0[Avf(60.0) + 0]
Solving for Avf
Avf (req'd) < 0 OK

9.8.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance

Vni ≤ K1𝑓𝑐′ Acv or K2Acv
0.64
𝑉𝑛𝑖 provided = 0.28(106) + 1.0 ( (60.0) + 0) = 32.88 kips⁄in.
12
K1 𝑓𝑐′ Acv = (0.3)(4.0)(106.0) = 127.20 kips/in.
K2Acv = 1.8(106.0) = 190.8 kips/in.
Since provided Vni ≤ 0.3 𝑓𝑐′ Acv OK [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-4]
≤ 1.8 Acv OK [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-5]

9.8 - 36 (Nov 11 w/errata data April 12)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement/9.8.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing

9.8.13 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT

Longitudinal reinforcement should be proportioned so that at each section the following equation is satisfied:
𝑀𝑢 𝑁𝑢 𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ + 0.5 + (| − 𝑉𝑝 | − 0.5𝑉𝑠 ) cot θ [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.5-1]
𝑑𝑣 ɸ𝑓 ɸ𝑐 ɸ𝑣

where
Aps = area of prestressing strand at the tension side of the section, in.2
fps = average stress in prestressing strand at the time for which the nominal resistance is required, ksi
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.2
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars, ksi
Mu = factored moment at the section corresponding to the factored shear force, ft-kips
dv = effective shear depth, in.
ɸ = resistance factor as appropriate for moment, shear, and axial resistance.
Therefore, different ɸ factors will be used for the terms in LRFD Equation 5.8.3.5-1, depending on
the type of action being considered.
Nu = applied factored axial force, kips
Vu = factored shear force at section, kips
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement, kips
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, kips
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses

9.8.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing

For simple end supports, the longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member at inside face
of bearing should satisfy:
𝑉𝑢
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 ≥ ( − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 ) cot θ [LRFD Eq.5.8.3.5-2]
ϕ
Mu = 0 ft-kips
Nu = 0 kips
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is assumed to be zero. This assumption is conservative
for these calculations. Therefore, the failure crack assumed for this analysis radiates from the centerline of the
bearing, 6 in. from the end of the beam.
From Tables 9.8.4-1 and 9.8.4-2 using load combination Strength I, the factored shear force at this section is:
Vu = 1.25(55.4 + 28.8 + 4.8) + 1.50(8.3) + 1.75(74.1 + 22.5) = 292.8 kips
𝑉𝑢 292.8
( − 0.5𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑝 ) cot θ = ( − 0.5(186.5) − 0.0) cot 29° = 418.7 kips
ɸ 0.9
As shown in Figure 9.8.13.1-1, the assumed crack plane crosses the centroid of the 34 bonded strands at a
distance of (6 + 6.50cot 29° = 17.73 in.) from the end of the beam. Since the transfer length is 36 in. from the end
of the beam (60 times the strand diameter), the available prestress from the 34 bonded strands is a fraction of the
effective prestress, fpe, in these strands. Note: 34 effective strands and ybc = ybs = 6.50 in. comes from Section
9.8.11.1.

9.8 - 37 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing/9.8.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement

Figure 9.8.13.1-1
Assumed Failure Crack

Therefore, the available prestressing force is:

17.73
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 = [(34)(0.217) ((202.5 − 37.0) )] + 0 = 601.4 kips > 418.7 kips OK
36
Note: An alternative approach for the calculation of available prestressing force excluding the gains from deck
shrinkage is illustrated in Section 9.6.13.1.

9.8.14 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE [LRFD Art. 5.10.10]

9.8.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.10.10.1]
Design of the anchorage zone reinforcement is computed using the force in the strands just prior to transfer. Since
eight strands are debonded at the ends of the beam, the force in the remaining strands before transfer is:
Ppi = 38(0.217)(202.5) = 1,669.8 kips
The bursting resistance, Pr, should not be less than 4.0% of Ppi. [LRFD Art. 5.10.10.1]
Pr = fsAs ≥ 0.04Ppi = 0.04(1,669.8) = 66.8 kips
where
As = total area of vertical reinforcement located within a distance h/4 from the end of the beam, in.2
fs = allowable stress in steel, but taken not greater than 20 ksi
Solving for the required area of steel, As = 66.8/20 = 3.34 in.2
At least 3.34 in.2 of vertical transverse reinforcement should be provided within a distance of (h/4 = 36/4 = 9.0
in.) from the end of the beam.
Use five No. 4, four-leg bars at 2 in. spacing starting 2 in. from the end of the beam.
The provided As = 5(4)(0.20) = 4.00 in.2 > 3.34 in.2 OK
Note:
1. The distance at which the provided five bars extends from the end of the beam, including 2 in. distance
from end of the beam and 2 in. spacing in between bars, is 10 in., which is larger than the required h/4 =
9 in. However, 10 in. is close enough to 9 in. that it is okay to use this fifth bar in the provided area of
steel. Alternatively, a 1¾-in. spacing could be used but this results in an even more congested pattern of
reinforcement.
2. A general detail of the NEXT 36 F beam stipulates that No. 4 bars should be used to maximize the cover
on the side of the stem. If larger bars are acceptable by the engineer’s judgment, 9 in. would be enough to
encompass the required amount of steel.

9.8 - 38 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement/9.8.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight

9.8.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.10.10.2]

For a distance of 1.5h = 1.5(36) = 54 in., from the end of the beam, reinforcement is placed to confine the
prestressing steel in the bottom flange. The reinforcement may not be less than No. 3 deformed bars with spacing
not exceeding 6 in. The reinforcement should be of a shape that will confine (enclose) the strands.

9.8.15 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.6.2]

Deflections are calculated using the modulus of elasticity of concrete calculated in Section 9.8.3.1, and the gross
section properties.

9.8.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer

Force per strand after transfer = 40.80 kips
𝑃𝑝𝑡 𝑒𝑐 𝐿2
Δ𝑝 =
8𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δp = camber due to prestressing force at transfer, in.
Ppt = total prestressing force after transfer = 46(40.80) = 1,877 kips
ec = eccentricity of prestressing strand at midspan = 13.37 in.
L = overall beam length = 81.0 ft
Eci = modulus of elasticity at transfer = 4,696 ksi
Ig = gross moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast beam = 166,569 in.4
1,877(13.37)(81 ×⨯ 12)2
Δ𝑝 = = 3,79 in. ↑
(8)(4,696)(166,569)

9.8.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self Weight

5𝑤𝑔 𝐿4
Δ𝑔 =
384𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐼𝑔
where
Δg = deflection due to beam self weight, in.
wg = beam self weight = 1.385 kips/ft
Eci = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at transfer = 4,696 ksi
Ig = gross moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast beam = 166,569 in.4
L = beam length = 81.0 ft at transfer = 80.0 ft at erection
Deflection due to beam self weight after transfer:
1.385
5( ) (81 ×⨯ 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 1.71 in. ↓
(384)(4,696)(166,569)
Deflection due to beam self weight used to compute deflection at erection:
1.385
5( ) (80 × 12)4
Δ𝑔 = 12 = 1.63 in. ↓
(384)(4,696)(166,569)

9.8 - 39 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights/9.8.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

9.8.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights

5𝑤𝑠 𝐿4
Δ𝑠 =
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔
where
Δs = deflection due to slab and haunch weights, in.
ws = slab and haunch weight = 0.666 + 0.055 kips/ft = 0.721 kips/ft
L = design span = 80.0 ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at service loads = 5,422 ksi
Ig = gross moment of inertia of the precast beam = 166,569 in.4
0.721
5( ) (80 ×⨯ 12)4
Δ𝑠 = 12 = 0.74 in. ↓
(384)(5,422)(166,569)

9.8.15.4 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface Weights

5(𝑤𝑏 + 𝑤𝑤𝑠 )𝐿4
Δ𝑏+𝑤𝑠 =
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
Δb + ws = deflection due to barrier and wearing surface weights, in.
wb = barrier weight = 0.120 kips/ft
wws = wearing surface weight = 0.207 kips/ft
L = design span = 80.0 ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity of precast beam at service loads = 5,422 ksi
Ic = gross moment of inertia of the composite section = 263,890 in.4 (Table 9.8.3.2.3-1)
0.120 + 0.207
5( ) (80 ×⨯ 12)4
Δ𝑏+𝑤𝑠 = 12 = 0.21 in. ↓
(384)(5,422)(263,890)

9.8.15.5 Deflection and Camber Summary

At transfer, (Δp + Δg) = 3.79 − 1.71 = 2.08 in. ↑
Total deflection at erection, using PCI multipliers (see PCI Design Handbook)
= 1.8(3.79) − 1.85(1.71) = 3.66 in. ↑
Long-Term Deflection:
LRFD Article 5.7.3.6.2 states that the long-time deflection may be taken as the instantaneous deflection multiplied
by a factor of 4.0, if the instantaneous deflection is based on the gross moment of inertia. However, a factor of 4.0
is not appropriate for this type of precast construction. Therefore, it is recommended that the designer follow the
guidelines of the owner agency for which the bridge is being designed, or undertake a more rigorous, time-
dependent analysis.

9.8.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact

Live load deflection limit (optional) = Span/800 [LRFD Art.2.5.2.6.2]
12
= (80 ×⨯ ) = 1.20 in.
800

9.8 - 40 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.15.6 Deflection Due To Live Load and Impact

If the owner invokes the optional live load deflection criteria specified in LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2, the deflection is the
greater of: [LRFD Art 3.6.1.3.2]
• that resulting from the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, or
• that resulting from 25% of the design truck plus impact, ΔLT, taken together with the design lane load, ΔLL.
Note: LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2 states that the dynamic load allowance be included in the calculation of live load
deflection.
The LRFD Specifications state that all beams should be assumed to deflect equally under the applied live load and
impact. [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
Therefore, the distribution factor for deflection, DFD, is calculated as follows:
DFD = (number of lanes/number of beams) = 3/5 = 0.60 lanes/beam [LRFD Art. C2.5.2.6.2]
However, it is more conservative to use the distribution factor for moment, DFM.
Deflection due to lane load:
Design lane load, w = 0.64DFM = 0.64(0.803) = 0.514 kips/ft/beam
0.514
5𝑤𝐿4 5( ) (80 ×⨯ 12)4
Δ𝐿𝐿 = = 12 = 0.33 in. ↓
384𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐 (384)(5,422)(263,890)
Deflection due to Design Truck Load and Impact:
To obtain the maximum moment and deflection at midspan due to truck load, let the centerline of the beam
coincide with the middle point of the distance between the inner 32-kip axle and the resultant of the truck load, as
shown in Figure 9.8.15.5-1.
Figure 9.8.15.5-1
Design Truck Axle Load Position for Maximum Bending Moment

Using the elastic moment area or influence lines, deflection at midspan is:
ΔLT = (0.856)(IM)(DFM) = (0.856)(1.33)(0.803) = 0.914 in. ↓
Therefore, live load deflection is the greater of:
ΔLT = 0.914 in. (Controls)
0.25ΔLT + ΔLL = 0.25(0.914) + 0.33 = 0.56 in. ↓

9.8 - 41 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.8

DOUBLE-TEE BEAM (NEXT 36F), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
9.8.15.6 Deflection Due To Live Load and Impact

Therefore, live load deflection = 0.914 in. < allowable deflection = 1.20 in. OK

9.8 - 42 (Nov 11)

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.9
SLAB SYSTEM, SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK
Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses

9.9 Transformed Sections, Shear General Procedure, Refined Losses

9.9.1 INTRODUCTION
This design example will demonstrate the design of a single span slab system with a composite cast-in-place
concrete deck. This design example will be included in a future release.

9.9 - 1 (Nov 11)

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.9
SLAB SYSTEM, SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK

This page intentionally left blank

9.9 - 2 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
Transformed Sections, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.10.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9.10 - 3
9.10.1.1 Terminology ...................................................................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 3
9.10.2 MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................................................ 9.10 - 4
9.10.3 MINIMUM SLAB THICKNESS .............................................................................................................................................. 9.10 - 5
9.10.4 LOADS ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 5
9.10.4.1 Dead Loads......................................................................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 5
9.10.4.2 Wearing Surface and Construction Loads............................................................................................................ 9.10 - 5
9.10.4.3 Live Loads .......................................................................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 5
9.10.4.4 Load Combination .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 6
9.10.5 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL PANEL ......................................................................................... 9.10 - 7
9.10.5.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed Panel Section ................................................................................................ 9.10 - 7
9.10.5.2 Composite Section .......................................................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 7
9.10.6 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS.................................................................................................................................. 9.10 - 9
9.10.6.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan............................................................................................................................ 9.10 - 9
9.10.6.4 Strand Pattern ............................................................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 10
9.10.6.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties ............................................................................................................... 9.10 - 10
9.10.7 PRESTRESS LOSSES ............................................................................................................................................................. 9.10 - 12
9.10.7.1 Elastic Shortening ........................................................................................................................................................ 9.10 - 12
9.10.7.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement .......................................................... 9.10 - 13
9.10.7.2.1 Shrinkage of Precast Concrete ...................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 13
9.10.7.2.2 Creep of Precast Concrete ............................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 14
9.10.7.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ............................................................................................................. 9.10 - 14
9.10.7.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final time ....................................................... 9.10 - 15
9.10.7.3.1 Shrinkage of Precast Concrete ...................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 15
9.10.7.3.2 Creep of Precast Concrete ............................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 15
9.10.7.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands ............................................................................................................. 9.10 - 16
9.10.7.3.4 Shrinkage of CIP Concrete .............................................................................................................................. 9.10 - 16
9.10.7.3.5 Total Time-Dependent Loss ........................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 17
9.10.7.3.6 Total Losses at Transfer .................................................................................................................................. 9.10 - 17
9.10.7.3.7 Total Losses at Service Loads ........................................................................................................................ 9.10 - 18
9.10.8 CONCRETE STRESSES IN THE SIP PANEL AT TRANSFER .................................................................................. 9.10 - 18
9.10.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ........................................................................................................................................ 9.10 - 18
9.10.8.2 Stresses at Midspan .................................................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 19
9.10.9 CONCRETE STRESSES IN SIP PANEL AT TIME OF CASTING TOPPING SLAB ............................................ 9.10 - 19
9.10.9.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ........................................................................................................................................ 9.10 - 19
9.10.9.2 Stresses at Midspan after all Noncomposite Loads ...................................................................................... 9.10 - 19
9.10.9.3 Elastic Deformation .................................................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 20
9.10.10 CONCRETE STRESSES IN SIP PANEL AT SERVICE LOADS .............................................................................. 9.10 - 20
9.10.10.1 Stress Limits for Concrete ..................................................................................................................................... 9.10 - 20

9.10 - 1 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
Transformed Sections, Refined Losses
Table of Contents
9.10.10.2 Service Load Stresses at Midspan .......................................................................................................................9.10 - 20
9.10.10.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Surface of the CIP Slab ....................................................................................9.10 - 20
9.10.10.2.2 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the SIP Panel ...........................................................................................9.10 - 21
9.10.10.2.3 Concrete Stress at Bottom Fiber of the SIP Panel ...............................................................................9.10 - 21
9.10.11 FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF POSITIVE MOMENT SECTION................................................................................9.10 - 21
9.10.12 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT FOR POSITIVE MOMENT SECTION ...............................................................9.10 - 23
9.10.12.1 Maximum Reinforcement .......................................................................................................................................9.10 - 23
9.10.12.2 Minimum Reinforcement .......................................................................................................................................9.10 - 23
9.10.13 NEGATIVE MOMENT SECTION OVER INTERIOR BEAMS .................................................................................9.10 - 24
9.10.13.1 Critical Section ............................................................................................................................................................9.10 - 24
9.10.13.2 Bending Moment ........................................................................................................................................................9.10 - 24
9.10.13.3 Design of Section ........................................................................................................................................................9.10 - 25
9.10.13.4 Minimum Reinforcement .......................................................................................................................................9.10 - 25
9.10.13.5 Crack Control ...............................................................................................................................................................9.10 - 25
9.10.14 NEGATIVE MOMENT SECTION OVER EXTERIOR BEAMS ................................................................................9.10 - 26
9.10.14.1 Critical Section ............................................................................................................................................................9.10 - 26
9.10.14.2 Design of Section ........................................................................................................................................................9.10 - 26
9.10.14.3 Minimum Reinforcement .......................................................................................................................................9.10 - 29
9.10.14.4 Crack Control ...............................................................................................................................................................9.10 - 30
9.10.15 DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT..............................................................................................................................9.10 - 31

9.10 - 2 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.1 Introduction/9.10.1.1 Terminology

9.10 Transformed Sections, Refined Losses

9.10.1 INTRODUCTION
This example demonstrates the design of a 3½-in.-thick, precast, pretensioned, stay-in-place (SIP) deck panel
with a 4½-in.-thick cast-in-place (CIP) concrete topping. A ½-in.-thick wearing surface is considered to be an
integral part of the 4½-in. topping slab. The example bridge has 3-lanes with a total bridge width of 44 ft 6 in. The
deck slab is supported over four AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beams spaced at 12 ft on center and includes overhangs of
4 ft 3 in., as shown in Figure 9.10.1-1. The CIP concrete requires a design strength of 4.0 ksi. The SIP panel
requires a strength of 6.5 ksi at the time of transfer of the prestress force to the panel and a design strength of 8.0
ksi at the time of casting the CIP slab. A New Jersey-type barrier is included. The design is conducted in
accordance with the LRFD Specifications, Fifth Edition, 2010, and the 2010 Interim Revisions. Elastic stresses from
external loads are calculated using transformed sections. Time-dependent prestress losses are calculated using
refined estimates. The strip design method is used.
Figure 9.10.1-1
Bridge Cross Section

9.10.1.1 Terminology
The following terminology is used to describe cross sections in this design example:
noncomposite section—the precast concrete SIP panel cross section.
noncomposite nontransformed section—the precast concrete SIP panel cross section without the strands
transformed. Also called the gross section.
noncomposite transformed section—precast concrete SIP deck panel cross section with the strands transformed
to provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the panel concrete.
composite section—the precast concrete SIP panel cross section plus the CIP concrete slab and haunch.
composite nontransformed section—the precast concrete SIP panel cross section plus the CIP concrete slab and
haunch transformed to provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the panel concrete but without the
strands transformed.
composite transformed section—the precast concrete SIP panel cross section beam plus the CIP concrete slab and
haunch and the strands transformed to provide cross-sectional properties equivalent to the panel concrete.
The term "composite" implicitly includes the transformation of the CIP concrete slab and haunch.
The term "transformed" generally refers to transformation of the strands.

9.10 - 3 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.2 Materials

9.10.2 MATERIALS
Cast-in-place concrete composite slab: Actual thickness = 4½ in.
Structural thickness, ts = 4.0 in.
Note that a ½-in.-thick wearing surface is considered to be an integral part of the deck.
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 4.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight, wc = 0.150 kcf
Superstructure beams: AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beams shown in Figure 9.10.1-1
Beam spacing = 12.0 ft
Top flange width = 42 in.
Deck overhang = 4.25 ft from the centerline of the exterior beam
Precast, pretensioned concrete SIP deck panels:
Required concrete compressive strength at transfer, 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 6.5 ksi
Specified concrete compressive strength for use in design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 8.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight, wc = 0.150 kcf
Panel dimensions: 8 ft wide × 9 ft 6 in. long × 3½ in. deep as shown in Fig. 9.10.2-1.
Prestressing strands: ½-in.-dia., low-relaxation
Area of one strand = 0.153 in.2
Specified tensile strength, fpu = 270.0 ksi
Yield strength, fpy = 0.9fpu = 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Stress limits for prestressing strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
• before transfer, fpi ≤ 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi
• at service limit state (after all losses) fpe ≤ 0.80fpy = 194.4 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Ep = 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
Reinforcing bars:
Yield strength, fy = 60.0 ksi
Modulus of elasticity, Es = 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Top reinforcement clear cover = 2.5 in. [LRFD Table 5.12.3-1]
Bottom reinforcement clear cover = 1.0 in. > 0.8 in. OK [LRFD Table 5.12.3-1]
Future wearing surface: 2 in. additional concrete, unit weight = 0.150 kcf
New Jersey-type barrier: unit weight = 0.300 kips/ft/side

9.10 - 4 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.2 Materials/9.10.4.3 Live Loads

Figure 9.10.2-1
Details of the SIP Deck Panel on Supports

9.10.3 MINIMUM SLAB THICKNESS

For interior spans: 8 in. − 0.5 in. sacrificial layer = 7.5 in. = 𝑡𝑠 > 7.0 in. OK [LRFD Art. 9.7.1.1]
For overhangs: 8 in. [LRFD Art. 13.7.3.1.2]
Depth of the SIP panel: [LRFD Art. 9.7.4.3.1]
SIP thickness should be ≤ 55%(total depth) = 0.55(8.0) = 4.4 in. > 3.5 in. OK
Select the 3.5-in.-thick precast SIP panel with 4.5-in.-thick CIP slab. A ½-in.-thick wearing surface is an integral
part of the 4.5-in.-thick topping slab.

9.10.4 LOADS
The precast SIP panels support their own weight, any construction loads, and the weight of the CIP slab. For
superimposed dead and live loads, the precast panels are analyzed assuming that they act compositely with the
CIP concrete.
9.10.4.1 Dead Loads
Weight of 3.5-in.-thick SIP panel = (3.5/12)(0.150) = 0.044 ksf
Weight of 4.5-in.-thick CIP slab = (4.5/12)(0.150) = 0.056 ksf
Weight of New Jersey barrier = 0.300 kips/ft/side

9.10.4.2 Wearing Surface and Construction Loads

Weight of 2-in. wearing surface = (2/12)(0.150) = 0.025 ksf
Construction load (applied to the SIP precast panel only) = 0.050 ksf [LRFD Art. 9.7.4.1]
Note that LRFD Article 3.4.2.1 requires a load factor of at least 1.5 be used with construction loads.

9.10.4.3 Live Loads

LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.3 states that for decks where the primary strips are transverse and their span does not
exceed 15 ft, the transverse strips are designed for the wheels of the 32.0-kip axle of the design truck.
Multiple Presence Factor: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.2]
Single truck = 1.2
Two trucks = 1.0
Dynamic Load Allowance = 33% [LRFD Art. 3.6.2.1]
LRFD Table A4-1 gives the values of maximum positive and negative bending moments for different spans. This
table is valid for decks supported on at least three girders and having a width measured between the centerlines
of the exterior girders of not less than 14 ft. Multiple presence factors and the dynamic load allowance are

9.10 - 5 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.4.3 Live Loads/9.10.4.4 Load Combinations

included in the tabulated values. Values of negative bending moments provided by this table do not apply to the
deck overhang.
For the deck under consideration, where S = 12.0 ft, the maximum positive bending moment, with dynamic
allowance, MLL+I = 8.01 ft-kips/ft.
For the overhang, a minimum distance of 12 in. from center of wheel of the design truck to the inside face of
parapet should be considered [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3]. However, LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.4 states that for overhangs less
than 6.0 ft with continuous barrier, the outside row of wheels may be replaced with a uniformly distributed,
1.0-kip/ft line load, located 1.0 ft from railing face. In this example, the case of concentrated wheel loads is
considered.

9.10.4.4 Load Combination [LRFD Art. 3.4]

Total factored load is taken as:
𝑄 = ∑η𝑖 γ𝑖 𝑄𝑖 [LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]
where
ηi = a load modifier relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational [LRFD Art. 1.3.2]
importance. (Here, ηi is considered to be 1.0 for typical bridges.)
γi = load factors [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Qi = force effects from specified loads
Investigating different limit states given in LRFD Article 3.4.1, the following limit states are applicable:
Service I: check compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 1.00(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is the general combination for service limit state stress checks and applies to all conditions
other than Service III.
Service III: check tensile stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 0.80(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress checks that applies only to tension in
prestressed concrete structures to control cracks. Note that the 0.8 factor provided for the live load with dynamic
allowance is intended for application to longitudinal prestressed concrete beams only. Therefore, it is replaced
with a factor of 1.0 for use in this example.
Strength I: check ultimate strength: [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and 2]
Maximum Q = 1.25(DC) + 1.50(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Minimum Q = 0.90(DC) + 0.65(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
This load combination is the general load combination for strength limit state design.
Note: For simple-span bridges, the maximum load factors produce maximum effects. Use minimum load factors
for dead load (DC) and wearing surface (DW) when dead load and wearing surface stresses are opposite to those
of the live load.
Fatigue: [LRFD Art. 9.5.3 and 5.5.3.1]
Fatigue need not be investigated for concrete slabs in multi-beam bridges.

9.10 - 6 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.5 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Panel/9.10.5.2.2 Transformed Composite Section Properties

9.10.5 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL PANEL

9.10.5.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed Panel Section
Ag = area of cross section of the precast panel = (3.5)(12) = 42 in.2/ft
(3.5)3 12
Ig = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast panel = = 42.88 in.4 /ft
12
Sb = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast panel = (12)(3.5)2/6 = 24.5
in.3/ft
St = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast panel = (12)(3.5)2/6 = 24.5
in.3/ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity, ksi = 33,000𝐾1 (𝑤𝑐 )1.5 �𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]

where
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate taken as 1.0
wc = unit weight of concrete = 0.150 kcf
LRFD Table 3.5.1-1 states that, in the absence of more precise data, the unit weight of concrete may be taken
as 0.140 + 0.001𝑓𝑐′ for 5.0 < 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 15.0 ksi. For 𝑓𝑐′ = 8.0 ksi, the unit weight would be 0.1480 kcf. However,
precast concrete mixes typically have a relatively low water-cementitious materials ratio and high density.
Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150 kcf is used in this example. For high-strength concrete, this value may need
to be increased based on test results. For simplicity, a value of 0.150 kcf is also used for the cast-in-place
concrete.
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity is:
At transfer, 𝐸𝑐𝑖 = 33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5 √6.5 = 4,888 ksi
At service loads, 𝐸𝑐 = 33,000(1.00)(0.150)1.5 √8.0 = 5,422 ksi
9.10.5.2 Composite Section
The pretensioning reinforcement is ignored in the initial calculations of the composite section properties.
Ec (for the SIP panel) = 5,422 ksi
𝐸𝑐 (for the CIP slab) = 33,000(0.150)1.5 √4.0 = 3,834 ksi

9.10.5.2.1 Modular Ratio between CIP and SIP Concrete

𝐸𝑐 (slab)
Modular ratio between CIP slab and SIP panel concrete 𝑛 = = 3,834/5,422 = 0.707
𝐸𝑐 (panel)

9.10.5.2.2 Transformed Composite Section Properties

Transformed width of CIP slab = (0.707)(12) = 8.48 in./ft
Transformed area of CIP slab = (0.707)(12)(4.0) = 33.94 in. 2
Transformed moment of inertia of CIP slab = 0.707(12)(4.0)3 /12 = 45.25 in.2
Figure 9.10.5.2.2-1 shows the dimensions of the composite section. Since a ½-in.-thick wearing surface is
considered to be an integral part of the 4½-in.-thick CIP slab, only the structural depth of the CIP slab, 4 in., is
considered.

9.10 - 7 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.5.2.2 Transformed Composite Section Properties

Figure 9.10.5.2.2-1
Transformed Composite Section

Ac = total area of the composite section =12(3.5) + 8.48(4) = 42 + 33.92 = 75.92 in.2/ft
ybc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme bottom fiber of the precast panel
= [42(3.5/2) + 33.92(3.5 + 2)]/(75.92) = 3.43 in.
ytg = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the precast panel
= 3.50 − 3.43 = 0.07 in.
ytc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the CIP slab
= 3.5 + 4.0 − 3.43 = 4.07 in.
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section
= (42)(3.5)2/12 + 42(3.43 − 3.5/2)2 + (33.92)(4)2/12 + (33.92)(3.5 + 2 − 3.43)2 = 352 in.4/ft
Sbc = composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast panel
352
= (𝐼𝑐 /𝑦𝑏𝑐 ) = = 102.6 in.3 /ft
3.43

Stg = composite section modulus for the top fiber of the precast panel
= 352
�𝐼𝑐 /𝑦𝑡𝑔 � = = 5,028.6 in.3 /ft
0.07
Stc = composite section modulus for extreme top fiber of the CIP slab
= 1 1 352
� � (𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝑦𝑡𝑐 ) = � �� � = 122.3 in.3 ⁄ft
𝑛 0.707 4.07

Figure 9.10.5.2.2-1
Transformed Composite Section

9.10 - 8 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.6 Estimate Required Prestress/9.10.6.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

9.10.6 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS

The required number of strands is usually governed by concrete tensile stress at the bottom fiber for load
combination Service III.

9.10.6.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan

Bottom tensile stress due to applied dead and live loads, using the modified Service III load combination (see
Section 9.10.4.4), is:
𝑀𝑆𝐼𝑃 + 𝑀𝐶𝐼𝑃 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼
𝑓𝑏 = +
𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑐
where
fb = concrete tensile stress at bottom fiber of panel, ksi
MSIP = unfactored bending moment due to SIP panel self weight, ft-kips/ft
MCIP = unfactored bending moment due to CIP slab weight, ft-kips/ft
Mws = unfactored bending moment due to future wearing surface, ft-kips/ft
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips/ft
MLL+I = unfactored bending moment due to live load plus impact, ft-kips/ft
= 8.01 ft-kips/ft (Section 9.10.4.3)
For bending moments due to the weight of the SIP panel and CIP slab, which are acting on the noncomposite
section, the span length is taken conservatively as the panel length, 9 ft 6 in.
MSIP = (0.044)(9.5)2/8 = 0.496 ft-kips/ft
MCIP = (0.056)(9.5)2/8 = 0.632 ft-kips/ft
For the superimposed dead and live loads, LRFD Article 4.6.2.1.6 states that force effects should be calculated
based on analyzing the strip as a continuous beam supported by infinitely rigid supports. The maximum value of
positive moment applies to all positive moment sections [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.1.1]. Also, LRFD Article 4.6.2.1.6 states
that the effective span is the center-to-center distance between the supporting beams, which is 12.0 ft. Using
software for continuous beam analysis, bending moments due to wearing surface and barrier weight are as shown
in Figure 9.10.6.1-1.
To arrive at maximum effects, consider the interior span, where
Mws = 0.135 ft-kips/ft
Mb = 0.255 ft-kips/ft

Figure 9.10.6.1-1
Bending Moments in ft-kips/ft

9.10 - 9 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.6.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan/9.10.6.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

(0.496 + 0.632)12 (0.135 + 0.255 + 8.01)12

𝑓𝑏 = + = 0.552 + 0.982 = 1.534 ksi
24.5 102.6
9.10.6.2 Stress Limits for Concrete
Concrete tensile stress limit at service loads = 0.19�𝑓𝑐′ [LRFD Table 5.9.4.2.2-1]

= −0.19√8.0 = −0.537 ksi

9.10.6.3 Required Number of Strands
The required precompressive stress at bottom fiber of the panel is the difference between bottom tensile stress
due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress limit:
fpb = 1.534 − 0.537 = 0.997 ksi
If Ppe is the total effective prestress force after all losses, and the center of gravity of strands is concentric with the
center of gravity of the SIP panel:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒
0.997 = =
𝐴𝑔 42
Solving for Ppe, the required Ppe = 41.9 kips/ft = (41.9)(8.0) = 335.2 kips/panel
Using ½-in.-diameter, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strand and assuming 15% final losses, the final prestress force per
strand = fpi(area of strand)(1− final losses)
= (202.5)(0.153)(1 − 0.15) = 26.3 kips
The required number of strands = 335.2/26.3 = 12.8 strands/panel
Try (13) ½-in.-diameter, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands per panel.
9.10.6.4 Strand Pattern
The distance between the center of gravity of bottom strands and the bottom concrete fiber of the panel is:
ybs = 3.5/2 = 1.75 in.
The distance from the centroid of the panel to the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite panel:
yb = 3.5/2 = 1.75 in.
Strand eccentricity at midspan, ec = yb − ybs = 1.75 − 1.75 = 0 in.
9.10.6.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties
From the earliest years of prestressed concrete design, the gross section was conservatively used in analysis since
the prestressing forces were smaller and computer programs were not widely used. However, the use of
transformed section, which is obtained from the gross section by adding transformed steel area, yields more
accurate results than the gross section analysis.
For each row of prestressing strands, the steel area is multiplied by (n − 1) to calculate the transformed section
properties, where n is the modular ratio between prestressing strand and concrete. Since the modulus of
elasticity of concrete is different at transfer and final time, the transformed section properties should be
calculated separately in the two stages. Using the similar procedures as in Section 9.10.5.2, the transformed
section properties area calculated as shown in Table 9.10.6.5-1.
At transfer:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 4.831
4,888
At final:
28,500
𝑛−1= − 1 = 4.256
5,422

9.10 - 10 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.6.5 Steel Transformed Section Properties

Table 9.10.6.5-1
Properties of Composite Transformed Section at Final Time
Transformed yb Ayb A(ybtc − yb)2 I I + A(ybtc − yb)2
Area, in.2 in in.3 in.4 in.4 in.4
Panel 42.00 1.75 73.5 114.3 42.88 157.2
Slab 33.94 5.50 186.7 149.7 45.25 195.0
Row 1 1.06 1.75 1.86 2.9 2.9
∑ 77.0 262.1 355.1
Note: The moment of inertia of strand about itsown centroid is neglected.

The transformed section properties are calculated as:

Noncomposite transformed section at transfer:
Ati = area of transformed section at transfer = 43.2 in.2/ft
Iti = moment of inertia of the transformed section at transfer = 42.9 in.4/ft
eti = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at transfer = 0.0 in.
ybti = distance from the centroid of the transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the beam at
transfer = 1.75 in.
Sbti = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 24.5 in.3/ft
Stti = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at transfer = 24.5 in.3/ft
Noncomposite transformed section at final time:
Atf = area of transformed section at final time = 43.1 in.2/ft
Itf = moment of inertia of the transformed section at final time = 42.9 in.4/ft
etf = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed section at final time = 0.0 in.
ybtf = distance from the centroid of the noncomposite transformed section to the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam at final time = 1.75 in.
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed section at final time = 24.5 in.3/ft
Sttf = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed section at final time = 24.5 in.3/ft

Composite transformed section at final time:

Atc = area of transformed composite section at final time = 77.0 in.2/ft
Itc = moment of inertia of the transformed composite section at final time = 355.1 in.4/ft
etc = eccentricity of strands with respect to transformed composite section at final time = 1.65 in.
ybtc = distance from the centroid of the transformed composite section to the extreme bottom fiber of the
beam at final time = 3.40 in.
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the transformed composite section at final time
= 104.4 in.3/ft
Sttc = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the transformed composite precast panel at final time
= 3,551.0 in.3/ft
Sdtc = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the deck of the transformed composite section at final
time = 122.5 in.3/ft

9.10 - 11 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.7 Prestress Losses/9.10.7.1 Elastic Shortening

9.10.7 PRESTRESS LOSSES

Total prestress loss:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
where
ΔfpT = total loss in prestressing steel stress
ΔfpES = sum of all losses or gains due to elastic shortening or extension at the time of application of
prestress and/or external loads
ΔfpLT = long-term losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete, and relaxation of steel after transfer. In
this design example, the refined estimates of time-dependent losses are used.
Note that the SIP deck panel will be considered as the “girder” and the CIP composite slab will be considered as
the “deck” in the analysis.

9.10.7.1 Elastic Shortening

𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐸𝑆 = 𝑓 [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.2.3a-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝
where
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands = 28,500 ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete at transfer = 4,888 ksi
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons due to prestressing force at
transfer and the self weight of the member at sections of maximum moment.
If the gross (or net) cross-section properties are used, it is necessary to perform numerical iterations. The elastic
loss ΔfpES is usually assumed to be 10% of the initial prestress to calculate fcgp, which is then used in the equation
above to calculate a refined ΔfpES. The process is repeated until the assumed ΔfpES and refined ΔfpES are close
enough.
However, when transformed section properties are used to calculate concrete stress, the effects of loss and gains
due to elastic deformations are implicitly accounted for. Therefore, ΔfpES should not be included in calculating fcgp.
Force per strand before transfer = (area of strand)(prestress stress before transfer)
= (0.153)(202.5) = 30.98 kips
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑒𝑡𝑖2 𝑀𝑆𝐼𝑃 𝑒𝑡𝑖
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + −
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖 𝐼𝑡𝑖
where
eti = eccentricity of strands at midspan with respect to the transformed section at transfer = 0.0 in.
Ppi = total prestressing force before transfer = 30.98(13)/8 = 50.3 kips/ft
50.3
𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 = + 0 − 0 = 1.164 ksi
43.2
Therefore, loss due to elastic shortening:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑒𝑠 = � � (1.164) = 6.8 ksi
4,888
AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.3 indicates that the loss due to elastic shortening at transfer should be added to the time-
dependent losses to determine total losses. However, this loss must be taken equal to zero if transformed section
properties are used in stress analysis.

9.10 - 12 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.7.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement/9.10.7.2.1 Shrinkage of Precast Concrete

9.10.7.2 Time-Dependent Losses between Transfer and Deck Placement

The following construction schedule is assumed in calculating the time-dependent losses:
Concrete age at transfer: ti = 1 day
Concrete age at deck placement: td = 90 days
Concrete age at final stage: tf = 20,000 days
The total time-dependent loss between time of transfer and deck placement is the summation of prestress loss
due to shrinkage of concrete, creep of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing strands.
9.10.7.2.1 Shrinkage of Precast Concrete
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is calculated by:
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 = ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 𝐸𝑝 𝐾𝑖𝑑 [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.2a-1]
where
εbid = concrete shrinkage strain of panel for time period between transfer and deck placement
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kid = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between transfer and deck
placement
The concrete shrinkage, ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 , strain is taken as:
ε𝑏𝑖𝑑 = 𝑘𝑣𝑠 𝑘ℎ𝑠 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑡𝑑 0.48 × 10−3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3.-1]
where
The factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the beam:
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13 × 1.64 = 1.237
The minimum value of kvs is 1.0 OK
V/S is the volume-to-surface ratio of the SIP panel.
The humidity factor for shrinkage:
khs = 2.00 − 0.014H = 2.00 − 0.014(70) = 1.020
where H = relative humidity (assume 70%)
The factor for the effect of the concrete strength:
5 5
kf = = = 0.667
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ 1 + 6.5
The time development factor:
𝑡 89
ktd = = = 0.718 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑑
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ + 𝑡 61 − 4(6.5) + 89
where t is the maturity of concrete = td − ti = 90 − 1 = 89 days
(1.237)(1.020)(0.667)(0.718)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000290
εbid =
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2a-2]
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 (𝑒𝑝𝑔 )2
1+ �1 + � �1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 �𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ��
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔

9.10 - 13 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.7.2.1 Shrinkage of Precast Concrete/9.10.7.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

where
Aps = area of prestressing strands per ft = [(0.153)(13 strands)]/8 ft = 0.249 in.2/ft
epg = eccentricity of prestressing strand with respect to centroid of panel, in.
Ψ𝑏 � 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑖 � = panel creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced at transfer

For the time between transfer and final time:

Ψ𝑏 � 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑖 � = 1.9kvskhckfktdti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

khc = 1.56 − 0.008H = 1.56 − 0.008(70) = 1.000

𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 20,000 − 1
ktd = = = 0.998 = 𝑘𝑡𝑑𝑓
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖 + �𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 � 61 − 4(6.5) + (20,000 − 1)

Ψ𝑏 � 𝑡 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑖 � = 1.9(1.237)(1.000)(0.667)(0.998)(1)-0.118 = 1.565
1
𝐾𝑖𝑑 = = 0.932
28,500 0.249 42.0 (0)2
1+� �� � �1 + � [1 + 0.7(1.565)]
4,888 42.0 42.88

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between transfer and deck placement is:
ΔfpSR = (0.000290)(28,500)(0.932) = 7.703 ksi
9.10.7.2.2 Creep of Precast Concrete
The prestress loss due to creep of panel concrete between time of transfer and deck placement is determined as:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = 𝑓 Ψ (𝑡 , 𝑡 )𝐾 [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.2b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑔𝑝 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖 𝑖𝑑
where
Ψ𝑏 ( 𝑡 𝑑 , 𝑡 𝑖 ) = girder creep coefficient at time of deck placement due to loading introduced at transfer

= 1.9kvskhckfktddti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

= 1.9(1.237)(1.000)(0.667)(0.718)(1)-0.118 = 1.126
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 = (1.164)(1.126)(0.932) = 7.122 ksi
4,888

9.10.7.2.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands between time of transfer and deck placement is
determined as:
𝑓𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑡
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = � − 0.55� [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2c-1]
𝐾𝐿 𝑓𝑝𝑦
where
fpt = stress in prestressing strands immediately after transfer, taken not less than 0.55fy
KL = 30 for low-relaxation strands and 7 for other prestressing steel, unless more accurate
manufacturer's data are available
(202.5 − 6.8) (202.5 − 6.8)
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 = � − 0.55� = 1.666 ksi
30 243

According to LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.2c, the relaxation loss may also be assumed equal to 1.2 ksi for low-relaxation
strands.

9.10 - 14 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.7.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time/9.10.7.3.2 Creep of Precast Concrete

9.10.7.3 Time-Dependent Losses between Deck Placement and Final Time

The total time-dependent loss between time of deck placement and final time is the summation of prestress losses
due to shrinkage of panel concrete, creep of panel concrete, relaxation of prestressing strands, and shrinkage of
CIP deck concrete.

9.10.7.3.1 Shrinkage of Precast Concrete

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is calculated by:
ΔfpSD = εbdfEpKdf [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.3a-1]
where
εbdf = concrete shrinkage strain of panel between deck placement and final time
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strands, ksi
Kdf = transformed section coefficient that accounts for time-dependent interaction between concrete
and bonded steel in the section being considered for time period between deck placement and final
time
The total concrete shrinkage strain between transfer and final time is taken as:
εbif = kvskhskfktdf0.48 × 10-3 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.3-1]
= (1.237)(1.020)(0.667)(0.998)(0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000403
The concrete shrinkage strain between deck placement and final time is:
εbdf = εbif − εbid = 0.000403 − 0.000290 = 0.000113
The beam concrete transformed section coefficient between deck placement and final time is:
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 =
𝐸𝑝 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑐 (𝑒𝑝𝑐 )2 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3a-2]
1+ �1 + � �1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 �𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 ��
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐
where
Ac = area of the composite section = 75.92 in.2/ft
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section = 352 in.4/ft
epc = eccentricity of strands with respect to centroid of composite section, in.
= 3.43 − 1.75 = 1.68 in.
1
𝐾𝑑𝑓 = = 0.939
28,500 0.249 (75.92)(1.68)2
1+� �� � �1 + � [1 + 0.7(1.565)]
4,888 75.92 352
The prestress loss due to shrinkage of concrete between deck placement and final time is:
ΔfpSD = (0.000113)(28,500)(0.939) = 3.024 ksi
9.10.7.3.2 Creep of Precast Concrete
The prestress loss due to creep of girder concrete between deck placement and final time is determined as:
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝐷 = 𝑓𝑐𝑔𝑝 �Ψ𝑏 �𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑖 � − Ψ𝑏 (𝑡𝑑 , 𝑡𝑖 )�𝐾𝑑𝑓 + Δ𝑓𝑐𝑑 Ψ𝑏 �𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 �𝐾𝑑𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3b-1]
𝐸𝑐𝑖 𝐸𝑐
where
Ψ𝑏 �𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 � = panel creep coefficient at final time due to loading at deck placement
= 1.9kvskhckfktdftd-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

9.10 - 15 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.7.3.2 Creep of Precast Concrete/9.10.7.3.4 Shrinkage of CIP Concrete

𝑡 (20,000 − 90)
ktdf = 61 − 4𝑓 ′ + 𝑡 = 61 − 4(6.5) + (20,000 − 90) = 0.998
𝑐𝑖

Ψ𝑏 �𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 � = 1.9(1.237)(1.000)(0.667)(0.998)(90)-0.118 = 0.920

change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to long-term losses between
Δfcd =
transfer and deck placement, combined with deck weight and superimposed loads, ksi
2
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝐴𝑔 𝑒𝑝𝑔 𝑀𝐶𝐼𝑃 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐
= −�Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝐶𝑅 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑅1 � �1 + �−� + �
𝐴𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐
0.249 42.0(0)2 (0.632)(0) (0.255 + 0.135)(12)(1.65)
= −(7.703 + 7.122 + 1.666) �1 + �−� + �
42.00 42.88 42.9 355.1
= −0.120 ksi
The gross section properties are used in the equation to calculate Δfcd for the long-term losses since the
transformed section effect has already been included in the factor Kid when calculating the losses between initial
time and deck placement.
28,500 28,500
ΔfpCD = 1.164[1.565 − 1.126](0.939) + (−0.120)(0.920)(0.939) = 2.253 ksi
4,888 5,423

9.10.7.3.3 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands

The prestress loss due to relaxation of prestressing strands in composite section between time of deck placement
and final time is taken as:
ΔfpR2 = ΔfpR1 = 1.666 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3c-1]

9.10.7.3.4 Shrinkage of CIP Concrete

The prestress gain due to shrinkage of CIP deck concrete is calculated by:
𝐸𝑝
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = Δ𝑓 𝐾 �1 + 0.7Ψ𝑏 �𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 �� [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.3d-1]
𝐸𝑐 𝑐𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
where Δfcdf = change in concrete stress at centroid of prestressing strands due to shrinkage of deck concrete, ksi
ε𝑑𝑑𝑓 𝐴𝑑 𝐸𝑐𝑑 1 𝑒𝑝𝑐 𝑒𝑑
= � − � [LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.3d-2]
1 + 0.7Ψ𝑑 �𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 � 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐
Where
εddf = shrinkage strain of CIP deck concrete between placement and final time
Ad = area of CIP deck concrete, in.2/ft
Ecd = modulus of elasticity of CIP deck concrete, ksi
Ψ𝑑 �𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 � = CIP deck creep coefficient at final time due to loading introduced shortly after CIP deck
placement
ed = eccentricity of CIP deck with respect to the gross composite section, in.

Assume the initial strength of concrete at deck placement is 0.8(4.0 ksi) = 3.2 ksi, and use a volume-to-surface
ratio 4.0 (drying from top surface only) for the CIP deck:
kvs = 1.45 − 0.13(V/S) = 1.45 − 0.13(4.000) = 0.930 < 1.0
Therefore, use kvs = 1.000

9.10 - 16 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.7.3.4 Shrinkage of CIP Concrete/9.10.7.3.6 Total Losses at Transfer

5 5
kf = ′ = = 1.190
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑖 1 + 3.2
𝑡 20,000 − 90
ktd = = = 0.998
61 − 4𝑓𝑐𝑖′ + 𝑡 61 − 4(3.2) + (20,000 − 90)
εddf = kvskhskfktd0.48 × 10-3
= (1.000)(1.020)(1.190)(0.998)( 0.48 × 10-3) = 0.000581

Ψ𝑑 �𝑡𝑓 , 𝑡𝑑 � = 1.9kvskhckfktdti-0.118 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.3.2-1]

= 1.9(1.000)(1.000)(1.190)(0.998)(1)-0.118 = 2.256
Creep of the CIP deck concrete is assumed to start at 1 day
4
0.000581(12 × 4)(3,834) 1 (1.68) �7.5 − − 3.43�
Δfcdf = � − 2 � = 0.136 ksi
1 + 0.7(2.256) 75.92 352

The prestress loss due to shrinkage of the deck in the composite section:
28,500
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑆𝑆 = (0.136)(0.939)[1 + 0.7(0.920)] = 1.104 ksi
5,422

Note: The effect of CIP concrete shrinkage on the calculation of prestress gain is discussed further in Section
9.1a.8.5.
9.10.7.3.5 Total Time-Dependent Loss
The total time-dependent loss, ΔfpLT, is determined as:
ΔfpLT = (ΔfpSR + ΔfpCR + ΔfpR1) + (ΔfpSD + ΔfpCD + ΔfpR2 + ΔfpSS [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.1-1]
= (7.703 + 7.122+ 1.666) + (3.024 + 2.253 + 1.666 + 1.104) = 24.5 ksi

9.10.7.3.6 Total Losses at Transfer

AASHTO LRFD C5.9.5.2.3a and C5.9.5.3 indicate that the losses or gains due to elastic deformation must be taken
equal to zero if transformed section properties are used in stress analysis. However, the losses or gains due to
elastic deformation must be included in determining the total prestress losses and the effective stress in
prestressing strands.
Δfpi = ΔfpES = 6.8 ksi
Effective stress in tendons immediately after transfer, fpt = fpi − Δfpi = (202.5 − 6.8) = 195.7 ksi
Force per strand = (fpt)(area of strand) = (195.7)(0.153) = 29.94 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer Ppt = 29.94(13) = 389.2 kips/panel = 389.2/8 kips/ft
= 48.65 kips/ft
Initial loss, % = (Total losses at transfer)/(fpi) = 6.8/202.5 = 3.4%
When determining the concrete stresses using transformed section properties the strand force is that before
transfer:
Force per strand = (202.5)(0.153) = 30.98 kips
The total prestressing force before transfer, Ppi = 30.98(13) = 402.7 kips/panel = 50.34 kips/ft

9.10 - 17 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.7.3.7 Total Losses at Service Loads/9.10.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

9.10.7.3.7 Total Losses at Service Loads

Total loss due to elastic shortening at transfer and long-term losses (Service III) is:
ΔfpT = ΔfpES + ΔfpLT = 6.8 + 24.5 = 31.3 ksi
The elastic gain due to deck weight, superimposed dead load, and live load is:
𝑀𝐶𝐼𝑃 𝑒𝑡𝑓 (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝 (𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼 )𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑝
� + � + 0.8 � �
𝐼𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑐
(0.632)(12)(0) (0.255 + 0.135)(12)(1.65) 28,500 (8.010)(12)(1.65) 28,500
=� + � + 0.8 � � = 0.11 + 1.88
42.9 355.1 5,422 355.1 5,422
= 1.99 ksi
The effective stress in tendons after all losses and gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 0.11 = 202.5 – 31.3 + 2.0 = 173.2 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
fpe ≤ 0.8fpy = 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 173.2 ksi OK
The effective stress in strands after all losses and permanent gains:
fpe = fpi − ΔfpT + 0.11= 202.5 –31.3+ 0.11 = 171.3 ksi
Force per strand without live load losses = (fpe)(area of strand) = (171.3)(0.153) = 26.21 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after all losses = 26.21(13) = 340.73 kips/panel= 340.73/8
= 42.59 kips/ft
Final loss percentage = (total losses and gains)/(fpi) = (31.3 − 0.11)/(202.5) = 15.4 %
When determining the concrete stress using transformed section properties, all the elastic gains and losses are
implicitly accounted for:
Force per strand with only total time-dependent losses �𝑓𝑝𝑖 − ∆𝑓𝑝𝐿𝑇 �(area of strand) = (202.5 − 24.5)(0.153) =
27.23 kips
Total prestressing force, Ppe = (27.23)(13) = 353.99 kips/panel = 353.99/8 = 44.25 kips/ft

9.10.8 CONCRETE STRESSES IN THE SIP PANEL AT TRANSFER

9.10.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.4]
Compression:
• 0.6𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 0.6(6.5) = +3.900 ksi
where 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = concrete strength at transfer
Tension:
• without bonded auxiliary reinforcement:
0.0948�𝑓𝑐𝑖′ ≤ 0.200 = −0.0948√6.5 = −0.242 ksi
Therefore, −0.200 ksi (Controls)
• with bonded reinforcement that is sufficient to resist 120% of the tension force in the cracked concrete:

0.24�𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = −0.24√6.5 = −0.612 ksi

Because the strand group is concentric with the precast concrete panel, the midspan section is the critical section
that should be checked.

9.10 - 18 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.8.2 Stresses at Midspan/9.10.9.2 Stresses at Midspan after all Nomcomposite Loads

9.10.8.2 Stresses at Midspan

Effective prestress after transfer, Ppi = 50.34 kips/ft
Bending moment due to self weight of the panel, MSIP = 0.496 ft-kips/ft
Compute stress in the top of SIP panel:
𝑃𝑝𝑖 𝑀𝑆𝐼𝑃 50.34 0.496(12)
𝑓𝑡 = + = + = +1.408 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑖 43.2 24.5
Compressive stress limit: +3.900 ksi > +1.408 ksi OK
Bottom concrete stress of the SIP panel:
𝑃𝑖 𝑀𝑆𝐼𝑃 50.34 0.496(12)
𝑓𝑏 = − = − = +0.922 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑖 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑖 43.2 24.5
Compressive stress limit: +3.900 ksi > +0.922 ksi OK

9.10.9 CONCRETE STRESSES IN SIP PANEL AT TIME OF CASTING TOPPING SLAB

Using transformed section properties and refined losses, Ppe = 44.25 kips/ft

9.10.9.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

LRFD Article 9.7.4.1 states that flexural stresses in the SIP formwork due to unfactored construction loads should
not exceed 65% of the 28-day compressive strength for concrete in compression, or the modulus of rupture in
tension.
Note that the definition of construction loads according to the LRFD Specifications includes the weight of the SIP
panel, CIP topping, and an additional 0.050 ksf.
Therefore, the stress limit for concrete in compression, for load combination Service I:
0.65𝑓𝑐′ = +0.65(8.0) = +5.200 ksi
Stress limit for concrete in tension, for load combination Service I:
Modulus of rupture, 𝑓𝑟 = 0.24�𝑓𝑐′ = −0.24√8.0 = −0.679 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
9.10.9.2 Stresses at Midspan after all Noncomposite Loads
Bending moment due to the self weight of the SIP panel, all losses (creates highest concrete fiber stress and thus a
conservative calculation),the CIP topping and construction load:
MSIP = 0.496 ft-kips/ft
MCIP = 0.632 ft-kips/ft
Mconst = (0.050)(9.5)2/8 = 0.564 ft-kips/ft
Concrete stress at top fiber of the SIP panel:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑀𝑆𝐼𝑃 + 𝑀𝐶𝐼𝑃 + 𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 44.25 (0.496 + 0.632 + 0.564)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = + = + = +1.855 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 43.1 24.5
Compressive stress limit: +5.200 ksi > +1.855 ksi OK
Concrete stress at bottom fiber of the SIP panel:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑀𝑆𝐼𝑃 + 𝑀𝐶𝐼𝑃 + 𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 44.25 (0.496 + 0.632 + 0.564)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = − = − = +0.198 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 43.1 24.5
Compressive stress limit: + 5.200 ksi > + 0.196 ksi OK

9.10 - 19 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.9.3 Elastic Deformation/9.10.10.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Surface of the CIP Slab

9.10.9.3 Elastic Deformation (Art. 9.7.4.1)

LRFD Article 9.7.4.1, states that, for SIP panels spanning less than 10 ft, the elastic deformation due to dead load of
the panel plus the CIP topping should not exceed either the panel span divided by 180 or 0.50 in.
5 (𝑀𝑆𝐼𝑃 + 𝑀𝐶𝐼𝑃 )𝐿2
Elastic deformation =
48 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔
5 (0.496 + 0.632)(12)[(9.5)(12)]2
=
48 (5,422)(42.88)
12
= 0.08 in. < 0.50 in. < 9.5 = 0.63 in. OK
180

9.10.10 CONCRETE STRESSES IN SIP PANEL AT SERVICE LOADS

Using transformed section properties and refined losses, Ppe = 44.25 kips/ft

9.10.10.1 Stress Limits for Concrete [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]

Compression for load combination Service I:
• Due to permanent loads, (i.e. self weight of SIP panel, CIP slab, wearing surface, and barriers) = 0.45𝑓𝑐′
for the SIP panel: 0.45(8.000) = +3.600 ksi
for the CIP slab: 0.45(4.000) = +1.800 ksi
• Due to permanent and transient loads, (i.e. all dead and live loads) = 0.60𝑓𝑐′
for the SIP panel: 0.60(8.0) = +4.800 ksi
for the CIP slab: 0.60(4.000) = +2.400 ksi
• Tension for load combination Service III: 0.19�𝑓𝑐′

for the SIP panel = −0.19√8.000 = −0.537 ksi

9.10.10.2 Service Load Stresses at Midspan
Effective prestress after all losses, Ppe = 44.25 kips
The weights of the SIP panel and the CIP concrete act on the noncomposite section:
MSIP = 0.496 ft-kips/ft
MCIP = 0.632 ft-kips/ft
At the time of opening the bridge to traffic, the wearing surface, barriers, and live loads act on the composite
section.
Mws = 0.135 ft-kips/ft
Mb = 0.255 ft-kips/ft
MLL+I = 8.01 ft-kips/ft

9.10.10.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Surface of the CIP Slab

Due to permanent loads, Service I:
𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 (0.135 + 0.255)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = =+ = +0.038 ksi
𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 122.5
Compressive stress limit: +1.800 ksi > +0.038 ksi OK

9.10 - 20 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.10.2.1 Concrete Stress at Top Surface of the CIP Slab/9.10.11 Flexural Strength of Positive Moment Section

Due to permanent and transient loads, Service I

𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼 (0.135 + 0.255 + 8.01)(12)
𝑓𝑡𝑐 = =+ = +0.823 ksi
𝑆𝑑𝑡𝑐 122.5
Compressive stress limit: +2.400 ksi > +0.823 ksi OK

9.10.10.2.2 Concrete Stress at Top Fiber of the SIP Panel

Due to permanent loads, Service I:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑀𝑆𝐼𝑃 + 𝑀𝐶𝐼𝑃 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = + +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
(44.25) (0.496 + 0.632)(12) (0.135 + 0.255)(12)
=+ + + = 1.580 ksi
43.1 24.5 3,551.0
Compressive stress limit: +3.600 ksi > +1.580 ksi OK

Due to permanent and transient loads, Service I:

𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑀𝑆𝐼𝑃 + 𝑀𝐶𝐼𝑃 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼
𝑓𝑡𝑔 = + +
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑐
(44.25) (0.496 + 0.632)(12) (0.135 + 0.255 + 8.01)(12)
=+ + + = 1.608 ksi
43.1 24.5 3,551.0
Compressive stress limit: +4.800 ksi > +1.608 ksi OK

9.10.10.2.3 Concrete Stress at Bottom Fiber of the SIP Panel

𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑀𝑆𝐼𝑃 + 𝑀𝐶𝐼𝑃 𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼
𝑓𝑏 = − −
𝐴𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑓 𝑆𝑏𝑡𝑐
(44.25) (0.496 + 0.632)(12) (0.135 + 0.255 + 8.01)(12)
=+ − − = −0.491 ksi
43.1 24.5 104.4
Tensile stress limit: −0.537 ksi > −0.491 ksi OK

9.10.11 FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF POSITIVE MOMENT SECTION

Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM) = 1.25(MSIP + MCIP + Mb) + 1.5(Mws) + 1.75MLL+I
MSIP = 0.496 ft-kips/ft
MCIP = 0.632 ft-kips/ft
Mws = 0.135 ft-kips/ft
Mb = 0.255 ft-kips/ft
MLL+I = 8.01 ft-kips/ft
Mu = 1.25(0.496 + 0.632 + 0.255) + 1.5(0.135) + 1.75(8.01) = 15.9 ft-kips/ft
Average stress in prestressing strand when 𝑓𝑝𝑒 ≥ 0.5𝑓𝑝𝑢 :
𝑐
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = 𝑓𝑝𝑢 �1 − 𝑘 � [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1]
𝑑𝑝

9.10 - 21 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.11 Flexural Strength of Positive Moment Section

where
𝑓𝑝𝑦
k = 2 �1.04 − � [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-2]
𝑓𝑝𝑢
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strands [LRFD Table C5.7.3.1.1-1]
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber of the composite section to the centroid of the prestressing
tendons = 7.5 − 0.5(3.5) = 5.75 in.
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis , in.
To compute c, assume rectangular section behavior and check if the depth of [LRFD Art. C5.7.3.2.2]
the equivalent compression stress block, a, is less than or equal to ts:
𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑢 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 − 𝐴′𝑠 𝑓𝑦′ [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1.-4]
c = 𝑓𝑝𝑢
0.85𝑓𝑐′ β1 𝑏 + 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑝
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block = β1c
Aps = area of prestressing steel = 13(0.153) = 1.989 in.2
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel = 270.0 ksi
As = area of mild steel tension reinforcement = 0
fy = yield strength of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, ksi
𝐴′𝑠 = area of compression reinforcement = 0
𝑓𝑦′ = yield strength of nonprestressed compression reinforcement, ksi
𝑓𝑐′ = compressive strength of slab concrete = 4.0 ksi
β1 = stress factor of compression block [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.2]
= 0.85 for 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 4.0 ksi
= 0.85 − 0.05(𝑓𝑐′ − 4.0) ≥ 0.65 for 𝑓𝑐′ > 4.0 ksi
= 0.85
b = effective width of compression flange = 8.0(12) = 96.0 in.
1.989(270) + 0 − 0
c = = 1.77 in
270
0.85(4.0)(0.85)(96) + 0.28(1.989) � �
5.75
a = β1c = 0.85(1.77) = 1.50 in.
Therefore, the rectangular section behavior assumption is valid.
1.77
fps = (270.0) �1 − 0.28 � = 246.7 ksi
5.75
Check stress in prestressing strand according to available development length, ℓd:
2
ℓd = 𝐾 �𝑓𝑝𝑠 − 𝑓𝑝𝑒 � 𝑑𝑏 or [LRFD Eq. 5.11.4.2-1]
3
ℓ𝑑 2
fps = + 𝑓 (Eq. 9.10.11-1)
𝐾𝑑𝑏 3 𝑝𝑒

9.10 - 22 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.11 Flexural Strength of Positive Moment Section/9.10.12.2 Minimum Reinforcement

where
K = 1.0 for pretensioned panels
db = nominal strand diameter
fpe = effective stress in prestressing strands after losses = 171.3 ksi
Available development length at midspan of the SIP panel = 0.5(9.5) = 4.75 ft
4.75(12) 2
𝑓𝑝𝑠 = + (171.3) = 228.2 ksi (Controls)
0.5 3
Factored flexural resistance:
Mr = ɸMn [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where
ɸ = resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
= 1.00 for tension controlled prestressed concrete sections
Mn = nominal flexural resistance [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.2.3]
𝑎
Mn = 𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑠 �𝑑𝑝 − � [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.2-1]
2
Therefore, the design flexural strength is:
1.50
1.0(1.989)(228.2) �5.75 − �
ɸ𝑀𝑛 = 2
12
= 189.1 ft-kips/panel = 189.1/8 = 23.6 ft-kips/ft > Mu = 15.9 ft-kips/ft OK
The calculations were conducted for flexure in the midspan section. It is possible that intermediate sections
between midspan and the supports will have critical stresses due to only partial development of the strands.

9.10.12 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT FOR POSITIVE MOMENT SECTION

9.10.12.1 Maximum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
The check of maximum reinforcement limits in LRFD Article 5.7.3.3.1 was removed from the LRFD Specifications
in 2005.

9.10.12.2 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]

At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement must be adequate to develop
a factored flexural resistance, Mr, at least equal to the lesser of:
• 1.2 times the cracking strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of
rupture, and
• 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan
Mcr = (fr + fcpe)Sbtc − (Mdnc)(Sbtc/Sbtf − 1) ≥ Sbtcfr [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.2-1]
where
fr = modulus of rupture [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= 0.37�𝑓𝑐′ = 0.37√8.000 = 1.047 ksi

fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only, (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied
loads

9.10 - 23 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.12.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.10.3.2 Bending Moment

𝑃𝑝𝑒 44.25
= = = 1.027 ksi
𝐴𝑡𝑓 43.1
Mdnc = noncomposite dead load moment at the section
= MCIP + MSIP = 0.632 + 0.496 = 1.128 ft-kips/ft
Sbtc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the transformed composite section where the tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads = 104.4 in.3/ft
Sbtf = section modulus for the extreme fiber of transformed noncomposite section where the tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads = 24.5 in.3/ft

104.4 104.4
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = (1.047 + 1.027) � � − (1.128) � − 1� = 14.4 ft- kips⁄ft
12 24.5
1.2Mcr = 1.2(14.4) = 17.3 ft-kips/ft
Illustrated based on 2011
At midspan, the factored moment required by Strength I load combination is: LRFD Specifications.
Mu = 15.9 ft-kips/ft (as calculated in Section 9.10.11) Editor’s Note: 2012 LRFD
Specifications changes will
Therefore, 1.33Mu = 1.33(15.9) = 21.1 ft-kips/ft
revise minimum
Since 1.2Mcr < 1.33Mu, 1.2Mcr controls. reinforcement.
Mr = ɸMn = 23.6 ft-kips/ft > 1.2Mcr = 17.3 ft-kips/ft OK
Note: The LRFD Specifications requires that this criterion be met at every section.

9.10.13 NEGATIVE MOMENT SECTION OVER INTERIOR BEAMS

9.10.13.1 Critical Section
The design section for negative moments and shear forces, for precast I-shaped concrete beams, is at a distance of
¹/3 of the flange width from the centerline of the support but not exceeding 15 in. [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.1.6]
1
Since ¹/3 the beam flange width = (42) = 14 in. < 15 in., the design section for negative moment is at a distance
3
of 14 in. (1.17 ft) from the centerline of the beam.

9.10.13.2 Bending Moment [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.1.6]

LRFD Article 4.6.2.1.6 states that force effects be calculated based on analyzing the strip as a continuous beam
supported by infinitely rigid supports. The maximum value of moment applies at all sections (LRFD Article
4.6.2.1.1). Using appropriate software for beam analysis, the bending moment is:
DC: Because the weight of the barrier produces positive moment at the interior girders, as shown in Figure
9.10.6.1-1, bending moment due to this load is conservatively ignored.
DW: Due to wearing surface, Mws = 0.148 ft-kips/ft
LL + IM From LRFD Table A4.1-1, for S = 12.0 ft, maximum negative bending moment at 14 in. from beam
center line by linear interpolation, with impact and multiple presence factor, MLL+I = 6.347 ft-kips/ft
Therefore, the negative service bending moment, Mservice, is:
Mservice = 0.148 + 6.347 = 6.495 ft-kips/ft
Negative factored bending moment:
Mu = 1.5(0.148) + 1.75(6.347) = 11.329 ft-kips/ft

9.10 - 24 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.13.3 Design of Section/9.10.13.5 Crack Control

9.10.13.3 Design of Section

Assume No. 5 reinforcing bars and 2.5-in. clear cover.
de = 7.5 − 0.5(0.625) − 2.5 = 4.688 in.
Rn = (Mu/ɸbde2) = (11.329)(12)/[(0.9)(12)(4.688)2] = 0.573 ksi
m = (fy/0.85𝑓𝑐′ ) = (60.0)/[(0.85)(4.0)] = 17.65

1 2𝑚𝑅𝑛 1 2(17.65)(0.573)
ρ= �1 − �1 − �= �1 − �1 − � = 0.01053
𝑚 𝑓𝑦 17.65 60.0

As = ρ(bde) = (0.01053)(12)(4.688) = 0.59 in.2/ft

Use No. 5 bars at 6-in. centers, As = 0.31(12/6) = 0.62 in.2/ft
Check:
a = (Asfy)/(0.85b𝑓𝑐′ ) = (0.62)(60)/[(0.85)(12)(4.0)] = 0.91 in.
ɸMn = 0.9(Asfy)(d − a/2) = 0.9(0.62)(60)[4.688 − 0.5(0.91)]/12
= 11.810 ft-kips/ft > Mu = 11.329 ft-kips/ft OK
Note: The critical section for negative moment is 42/3 =14 in. from the beam centerline and the panel starts at 15
in. away. Therefore, the strength of the cast-in-place concrete is used in the above calculations.

9.10.13.4 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]

For the negative moment section, the LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.2-1 can be reduced to:
Mcr = Stcfr
where
fr = 0.37�𝑓𝑐′ = 0.37√4.0 = 0.740 ksi
Stc = 122.3 in.3
Note: Gross section properties should be used here for negative moment section.
Mcr = 0.740(122.4)/12 = 7.548 ft-kips
1.2Mcr = 12 (7.548) = 9.058 ft-kips
Illustrated based on 2011 LRFD Specifications.
Mu = 11.329 ft-kips, as calculated in Section 9.10.13.2.
Editor’s Note: 2012 LRFD Specifications changes
Thus, 1.33Mu = 1.33(11.329) = 15.1 ft-kips
will revise minimum reinforcement.
Since 1.2Mcr < 1.33 Mu, the 1.2Mcr requirement controls.
Mr = 11.810 ft-kips > 1.2Mcr = 9.058 ft-kips OK

9.10.13.5 Crack Control [LRFD Art 5.7.3.4]

According to the LRFD Specifications, the spacing, s, of nonprestressed reinforcement must satisfy the following
limitation:
700γ𝑒
𝑠≤ − 2𝑑𝑐 [LRFD Eq.5.7.3.4-1]
β𝑠 𝑓𝑠𝑠
in which
𝑑𝑐
β𝑠 = 1 +
0.7(ℎ − 𝑑𝑐 )

9.10 - 25 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.13.5 Crack Control/9.10.14.2 Design of Section

where
γe = exposure factor = 1.00 for Class 1 exposure condition
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of the flexural
reinforcement located closest thereto, in.
= 2.5 + 0.5 (0.625) = 2.813 in.
fss = tensile stress in steel reinforcement at the service limit state, ksi
= Mservice/(jdeAs)
where
j = a factor relating lever arm to effective depth = 1 − k/3
k = �(ρ𝑎 𝑛)2 + (2ρ𝑎 𝑛) − ρ𝑎 𝑛
𝐴𝑠 0.62
ρa = actual reinforcement ratio = = = 0.011
12(𝑑𝑒 ) 12(4.688)
n = Es/Ec = 29,000/3,834 = 7.56
Therefore:

𝑘 = �[(0.011)(7.56)]2 + 2(0.011)(7.56) − (0.011)(7.56) = 0.33

j = 1 − 0.33/3 = 0.89
fss = Mservice/(jdeAs) = (6.495)(12)/[(0.89)(4.688)(0.62)] = 30.1 ksi
h = overall thickness or depth of the component, in. = 7.5 in.
2.813
Therefore, β𝑠 = 1 + = 1.857
0.7(7.5 − 2.813)
The spacing limitation for the nonprestressed reinforcement can now be checked:
700(1.00)
𝑠= − 2(2.813) = 6.90 in. > 6 in. OK
(1.857)(30.1)

9.10.14 NEGATIVE MOMENT SECTION OVER EXTERIOR BEAMS

9.10.14.1 Critical Section
The critical section for negative moment over the beams is at a distance of 14 in., 1.17 ft, from the centerline of the
beam (Section 9.10.13.1).
Therefore, cantilever span is 4.25 − 1.17 = 3.08 ft

9.10.14.2 Design of Section

LRFD Article A13.4.1 states that three design cases need to be checked when designing the overhang regions.
These cases are:
• Case 1: check overhang for horizontal vehicular collision load Extreme Load Combination II:
The deck overhang is designed to provide a flexural resistance in combination with an axial force, T, that exceeds
the flexural resistance at the base of the barrier, Mc.
From design of the barrier (not shown in this example): [LRFD Art. A13.3]
Flexural resistance of the barrier at its base, Mc = 17.200 ft-kips/ft
Total transverse resistance of the barrier, i.e. collision horizontal force at top of barrier, Rw = 166.0 kips

9.10 - 26 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.14.2 Design of Section

The force, Rw, is distributed over a width of Lc at the top fiber of the barrier = 13.36 ft
Height of the barrier, H = 32 in.
Assume that this force is distributed at an angle of 45° from the top fiber of the barrier to its base, thus:
Collision force at deck slab level:
𝑅𝑤
T = [LRFD Eq. A13.4.2-1]
𝐿𝑐 + 2𝐻
where Lc = critical length of yield line failure pattern = 160.32 in.
166.0
T = 160.32 + 2(32) = 0.74 kips⁄in. = 8.88 kips⁄ft

Note that the slab thickness is ignored.

Design the section at the inner face of barrier; i.e. Section 1-1 in Case a in Figure 9.10.14.2-1:
Factored bending moment, Mu, at face of barrier due to collision force and dead loads:
Mu = Mc + 1.25(MCIP + Mb)
= 17.200 + 1.25[(0.5)[8(0.150)/12](15/12)2 + 0.300(15 − 5)/12] = 17.610 ft-kips/ft

Figure 9.10.14.2-1
Loading Cases for the Overhang

Case a Case b
Try No. 6 bars at 5 in. centers, As = 0.44(12)/5 = 1.056 in.2/ft
For No. 6 bars and 2.5 in. clear cover, the effective depth,
de = 7.5 − 0.5(0.75) − 2.5 = 4.625 in. The depth of slab is conservatively taken as 7.5 in.
b = 12 in.
Check development length of steel reinforcement:
1.25𝐴𝑏 𝑓𝑦 1.25(0.44)(60) [LRFD Art. 5.11.2.1]
ℓ𝑑 = = = 16.5 in.
�𝑓𝑐′ √4.0

9.10 - 27 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.14.2 Design of Section

Since the width of the barrier, 15 in., is less than the length required to fully develop the No. 6 bars, available
stress of the No. 6 bar should be reduced as follows:
fss = 60(15/16.5) = 54.55 ksi
Alternatively, a 90° hook could be provided at the end of the bar.
Asfss = 1.056(54.55) = 57.60 kips/ft
T = 8.88 kips/ft
C = Asfs − T = 57.60 − 8.88 = 48.72 kips/ft
where C = compression force for flexural resistance
a = C/(0.85b𝑓𝑐′ ) = 48.72/[0.85(12)(4.0)] = 1.19 in.
ɸ = 1.0 (for extreme event, LRFD Art. 1.3.2.1)
ɸMn = ɸ[Asfs(de − a/2) − T(de/2 − a/2)]
= 1.0[57.60(4.625 − 1.19/2) − 8.88(4.625/2 − 1.19/2)]/12
= 18.073 ft-kips/ft > Mu = 17.610 ft-kips/ft OK
For the critical section over the exterior beam, Section 2-2 in Case 1 in Figure 9.10.14.2-1:
At the inner face of the barrier, the flexural resistance of the barrier at its base, 17.200 ft-kips/ft, is distributed
over a length Lc, while the collision axial force T is distributed over a length of (Lc + 2H) where H is the height of
the barrier. Assume that the moment at the face of the barrier and the axial force are distributed at an angle of 30°
in the slab from the inner face of the barrier to the design section. The collision bending moment at the critical
section is:
𝑀𝑐 𝐿𝑐 17.200(160.32)
= = 14.847 ft- kips⁄ft
𝐿𝑐 + 2(22) tan 30° 160.32 + 2(22) tan 30°
The factored bending moment at Section 2-2 due to collision force and dead loads is:
Mu = 14.847 + 1.25(MCIP + Mb) + 1.5 Mws = 14.847 + 1.25[(0.5)(8 × 0.150/12)(22 + 15)2/(12)2+ 0.300(22 +
10)/12] + 1.5[(0.5)(2 × 0.150/12)(22/12)2] = 16.504 ft-kips/ft
Collision axial force at Section 2-2 is:
𝑅𝑤
𝑇=
𝐿𝑐 + 2𝐻 + 2(22) tan 30°
166.0
= = 0.665 kips⁄in. = 7.98 kips⁄ft
160.32 + 2(32) + 2(22) tan 30 °
Check No. 6 bars at 5-in. centers:
As = 0.44(12)/5 = 1.056 in.2
de = 7.5 − 0.5(0.75) − 2.5 = 4.625 in.
T = 7.98 kips/ft
C = Asfy − T = 1.056(60) − 7.98 = 55.38 kips/ft
a = C/(0.85b𝑓𝑐′ ) = 55.38/[0.85(12)(4.0)] = 1.36 in.
ɸ = 1.0 (for extreme event, LRFD Art. 1.3.2.1)
ɸMn = ɸ[Asfy(de − a/2) − T(de/2 − a/2)]
= 1.0[63.36(4.625 − 1.36/2) − 7.98(4.625/2 − 1.36/2)]/12
= 19.744 ft-kips/ft > Mu = 16.504 ft-kips/ft OK
• Case 2: check overhang for vertical collision force [LRFD Art. A13.4.1]

9.10 - 28 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.14.2 Design of Section/9.10.14.3 Minimum Reinforcement

For concrete parapets, the case of vertical collision never controls.

• Case 3: check overhang for dead and live loads: [LRFD Art. A13.4.1]
DC:
Due to weight of slab, MCIP = (8 × 0.150/12)(37/12)2/2 = 0.475 ft-kips/ft
Due to barrier load, Mb = 0.300(32/12) = 0.800 ft-kips/ft
DW:
Due to wearing surface, Mws = (2 × 0.150/12)(22/12)2/2 = 0.042 ft-kips/ft
LL + IM:
For maximum negative moment, the truck wheel should be at 12 in. from the face of the [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3.1]
barrier, as shown in Case b in Figure 9.10.14.2-1.
The wheel load is distributed over a length of (45.0 + 10.0 X), inches. [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.1.3]
where X = distance from load to point of support, ft = 10/12 = 0.833 ft
Therefore, the width is 45 + 10(0.833) = 53.33 in. = 4.44 ft
Dynamic allowance = 33% [LRFD Art. 3.6.2.1]
Multiple presence factor for single truck = 1.2 [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.2]
Maximum negative bending moment at Section 2-2, with impact and multiple presence factor is:
MLL+I = (16/4.44)(0.833)(1 + 0.33)(1.2) = 4.791 ft-kips/ft
Therefore, the negative service bending moment at Section 2-2:
Mservice = 0.475 + 0.800 + 0.042 + 4.791 = 6.108 ft-kips/ft
Negative factored bending moment at Section 2-2:
Mu = 1.25(0.475 + 0.800) + 1.5(0.042) + 1.75(4.791) = 10.041 ft-kips/ft
Check No. 6 bars at 5 in. centers:
As = 1.056 in.2
de = 7.5 − 0.5(0.75) − 2.5 = 4.625 in.
a = (Asfy)/(0.85b𝑓𝑐′ ) = (1.056)(60)/[(0.85)(12)(4.0)] = 1.55 in.
ɸMn = 0.9(Asfy)(de − a/2)
= (0.9)(1.056)(60)(4.625 − 1.55/2)/12 = 18.295 ft-kips/ft > Mu = 10,041 ft-kips/ft OK

9.10.14.3 Minimum Reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]

For the negative moment section, the LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.2-1 can be reduced to:
Mcr = Scfr
where
fr = 0.37�𝑓𝑐′ = 0.37√4.0 = 0.740 ksi

Sc = (12) (7.5)2/6 = 112.5 in.3

Note: Gross section properties of the CIP slab are used here for negative moment section.
Mcr = 0.740(112.5)/12 = 6.938 ft-kips

9.10 - 29 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.14.3 Minimum Reinforcement/9.10.14.4 Crack Control

1.2Mcr = 1.2(6.938) = 8.326 ft-kips

Mu = 10.041 ft-kips (as calculated in Section 9.10.14.2)
Thus, 1.3Mu = 1.33(10.041) = 13.4 ft-kips
Since 1.2Mcr < 1.33Mu, the 1.2Mcr requirement controls.
Mr = 18.295 ft-kips > 1.2Mcr = 8.326 ft-kips OK

9.10.14.4 Crack Control [LRFD Art 5.7.3.4]

According to the LRFD Specifications, the spacing, s, of nonprestressed reinforcement must satisfy the following
limitation:
700𝛾𝑒
𝑠≤ − 2𝑑𝑐 [LRFD Eq.5.7.3.4-1]
β𝑠 𝑓𝑠𝑠
in which
𝑑𝑐
β𝑠 = 1 +
0.7(ℎ − 𝑑𝑐 )
where
γe = exposure factor = 1.00 for Class 1 exposure condition
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of the flexural
reinforcement located closes thereto, in.
= 2.5 + 0.5(0.75) = 2.875 in.
fss = tensile stress in steel reinforcement at the service limit state, ksi
= Mservice/(jdeAs)
where
j = a factor relating lever arm to effective depth = 1 − k/3
k = �(ρ𝑎 𝑛)2 + (2ρ𝑎 𝑛) − ρ𝑎 𝑛
𝐴𝑠 1.056
ρa = actual reinforcement ratio = = = 0.019
12(𝑑𝑒 ) 12(4.625)
n = Es/Ec = 29,000/3,834 = 7.56
Therefore:

𝑘 = �[(0.019)(7.56)]2 + 2(0.019)(7.56) − (0.019)(7.56) = 0.41

j = 1 − 0.41/3 = 0.86
fss = Mservice/(jdeAs) = (6.108)(12)/[(0.86)(4.625)(1.056)] = 17.5 ksi
h = overall thickness or depth of the component, in. = 7.5 in.
2.875
Therefore, β𝑠 = 1 + = 1.888
0.7(7.5 − 2.875)
The spacing limitation for the nonprestressed reinforcement can now be checked:
700(1.00)
𝑠= − 2(2.875) = 15.44 in. > 6.0 in. OK
(1.888)(17.5)

9.10 - 30 (Nov 11)

 Note: Extracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.10

PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANEL SYSTEM
9.10.15 Distribution Reinforcement

9.10.15 DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT

The LRFD Specifications does not provide guidelines for the distribution reinforcement required for a SIP panel
system. However, LRFD Article 9.7.3.2 gives guidance for deck slabs, which have four layers of reinforcement, as
follows:
220
(Distribution reinforcement⁄primary reinforcement), % = ≤ 67%
√𝑆
where S = clear span + distance from extreme flange tip to the face of the web
= (12.0 − 42/12) + 2(18/12) = 11.5 ft [LRFD Art.9.7.2.3]
Therefore, the percentage of distribution reinforcement = 220/√11.50 = 64.9 < 67%
Based on the area of the strands, which are the main positive reinforcement in the SIP panel, the distribution
reinforcement = (0.649)(13)(0.153)/8.0 = 0.16 in.2/ft.
If the strand area is converted to equivalent nonprestressed reinforcement area, the required distribution
reinforcement = 0.16(243/60) = 0.65 in.2/ft. Note that the yield strength of each material is used as the basis for
equivalence.
This amount of reinforcement is 45% higher than that required by the Empirical Design Method, LRFD Article
9.7.2.5, where a total amount of (0.27 + 0.18) = 0.45 in.2/ft is provided in two layers.
Therefore, the designer may opt to use No. 5 bars at 5.5-in. centers to satisfy LRFD Article 9.7.3.2 or No. 5 bars at
8.0-in. centers to satisfy LRFD Article 9.7.2.5.

9.10 - 31 (Nov 11)

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9.10 - 32 (Nov 11)

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.11
FLORIDA I-BEAM, SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK

9.11 Florida I-Beam (FIB-102), 200-ft Single Span with Composite Deck
and Straight Strands
9.11.1 INTRODUCTION
This design example will be included in a future release.

9.11 - 1 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.11
SLAB SYSTEM, SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK

This page intentionally left blank

9.11 - 2 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.12
WASHINGTON STATE WIDE FLANGE GIRDERS (WF100G), SINGLE SPAN

9.12 Washington State Wide Flange Girder (WF100G), Single Span,

Lightweight Concrete Girders
9.12.1 INTRODUCTION
This design example will be included in a future release.

9.12 - 1 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL___________________________________________ CHAPTER 9, DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.12
WASHINGTON STATE WIDE FLANGE GIRDERS (WF100G), SINGLE SPAN

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Table of Contents

NOTATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10-5

10.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 10-9
10.2 HISTORY OF ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS ....................................................................................................................................... 10-9
10.3 SPECIFICATIONS .................................................................................................................................................................................. 10-10
10.4 LOADS AND MOVEMENTS FOR DESIGN .................................................................................................................................... 10-10
10.4.1 Rotational Movements.............................................................................................................................................................. 10-10
10.4.1.1. Rotation Axes ...................................................................................................................................................................... 10-10
10.4.1.2 Sources of Rotation ........................................................................................................................................................... 10-12
10.4.1.3 Accounting for Rotation in Bearing Design ............................................................................................................ 10-12
10.4.2 Translational Movements ....................................................................................................................................................... 10-13
10.4.3 Vertical Loads ............................................................................................................................................................................... 10-14
10.4.4 Horizontal Loads ......................................................................................................................................................................... 10-14
10.5 PLANNING THE BEARING LAYOUT ............................................................................................................................................. 10-15
10.5.1 General............................................................................................................................................................................................. 10-15
10.5.2 Bearing Configurations............................................................................................................................................................. 10-16
10.5.2.1 Fixed Bearings ..................................................................................................................................................................... 10-16
10.5.2.2 Movable Bearings .............................................................................................................................................................. 10-16
10.5.2.2.1 Flexible Bearings ....................................................................................................................................................... 10-16
10.5.2.2.2 Sliding Bearings ......................................................................................................................................................... 10-16
10.5.2.3 Guided bearings.................................................................................................................................................................. 10-17
10.5.2.4 Force Control Bearings .................................................................................................................................................... 10-17
10.5.2.5 Special Considerations for Box Beams ..................................................................................................................... 10-18
10.5.2.6 Special Considerations for Fixed and Guided Bearings .................................................................................... 10-18
10.6 TYPES OF ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS .......................................................................................................................................... 10-18
10.6.1 Plain Elastomeric Pads ............................................................................................................................................................. 10-19
10.6.2 Fiberglass-Reinforced Pads .................................................................................................................................................... 10-19
10.6.3 Cotton Duck-Reinforced Pads................................................................................................................................................ 10-19
10.6.4 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings............................................................................................................................. 10-19
10.7 BEHAVIOR OF ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS ................................................................................................................................ 10-19
10.7.1 Elastomeric Materials ............................................................................................................................................................... 10-19
10.7.1.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................... 10-19
10.7.1.2 Shear Modulus..................................................................................................................................................................... 10-20
10.7.1.3 Low-Temperature Grades .............................................................................................................................................. 10-21
10.7.2. Mechanics of Elastomeric Bearings ................................................................................................................................... 10-22
10.7.2.1 Behavior of an Elastomeric Layer .............................................................................................................................. 10-22
10.7.2.2 Elastic Stress-Strain Behavior in Compression .................................................................................................... 10-24
10.7.2.3 Creep Strains ........................................................................................................................................................................ 10-25
10.7.3 Stability............................................................................................................................................................................................ 10-25
10.7.4 Tapered Bearings ........................................................................................................................................................................ 10-26

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Table of Contents

10.8 DESIGN OF ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS ....................................................................................................................................... 10-27

10.8.1 Applicable Specifications ......................................................................................................................................................... 10-27
10.8.2 Testing Requirements ............................................................................................................................................................... 10-28
10.8.3 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings—Design Using Method B ....................................................................... 10-29
10.8.3.1 Loads and Movements ..................................................................................................................................................... 10-30
10.8.3.2 Design for Shear Displacements.................................................................................................................................. 10-32
10.8.3.3 Design for Combined Loading ...................................................................................................................................... 10-32
10.8.3.4 Design for Hydrostatic Tension ................................................................................................................................... 10-33
10.8.3.5 Stability .................................................................................................................................................................................. 10-34
10.8.3.6 Steel Reinforcement ......................................................................................................................................................... 10-35
10.8.3.7 Anchorage ............................................................................................................................................................................. 10-35
10.8.3.8 Bearing Design Example—Method B ........................................................................................................................ 10-36
10.8.3.8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 10-36
10.8.3.8.2 Loads and Movements ............................................................................................................................................ 10-36
10.8.3.8.3 Elastomer Thickness for Shear Displacements ........................................................................................... 10-40
10.8.3.8.4 Trial Bearing Size ...................................................................................................................................................... 10-40
10.8.3.8.5 Design for Combined Loading ............................................................................................................................. 10-41
10.8.3.8.6 Design for Hydrostatic Tension .......................................................................................................................... 10-42
10.8.3.8.7 Stability ......................................................................................................................................................................... 10-42
10.8.3.8.8 Steel Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................................ 10-43
10.8.3.8.9 Anchorage .................................................................................................................................................................... 10-43
10.8.3.8.10 Low-Temperature Requirements ................................................................................................................... 10-44
10.8.3.8.11 Testing Requirements .......................................................................................................................................... 10-44
10.8.3.8.12 Summary .................................................................................................................................................................... 10-44
10.8.4 Design Using Method A ............................................................................................................................................................ 10-44
10.8.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................................... 10-44
10.8.4.2 Material Properties ........................................................................................................................................................... 10-45
10.8.4.3 Testing Requirements...................................................................................................................................................... 10-45
10.8.4.4 Loads and Movements ..................................................................................................................................................... 10-45
10.8.4.5 Design of Plain Elastomeric Pads, Fiberglass-Reinforced Pads, and Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric
Bearings ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10-45
10.8.4.6 Design of Cotton Duck Reinforced Pads .................................................................................................................. 10-45
10.8.4.7 Bearing Design Example―Method A ......................................................................................................................... 10-47
10.8.4.7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 10-47
10.8.4.7.2 Elastomer Thickness for Shear Displacements ........................................................................................... 10-48
10.8.4.7.3 Design for Compressive Stress ........................................................................................................................... 10-48
10.8.4.7.4 Steel Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................................ 10-49
10.8.4.7.5 Stability ......................................................................................................................................................................... 10-50
10.8.4.7.6 Low-Temperature Requirements ...................................................................................................................... 10-50

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Table of Contents

10.8.4.7.7 Design Shear Force and Anchorage .................................................................................................................. 10-50

10.8.4.7.8 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................................... 10-51
10.8.5 Tapered Bearings ........................................................................................................................................................................ 10-51
10.9 BEARING SELECTION GUIDE .......................................................................................................................................................... 10-52
10.10 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 10-53

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Notation

NOTATION
A = plan area of elastomeric bearing
A = factor for evaluating stability of bearings
Aslab = area of cross section of slab
B = factor for evaluating stability of bearings
C = constant used in evaluation hydrostatic tension stress
crot = constant relating beam deflection to end rotation
D = diameter of a circular bearing
Da = constant relating axial stress on bearing to shear strain
Dr = constant relating rotation on bearing to shear strain
Ec = effective modulus of elastomeric bearings in compression, assuming incompressible
behavior
Ec,tot = effective modulus of elastomeric bearings in compression, accounting for bulk
compression
Egird = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing strand material
Eslab = modulus of elasticity of slab concrete
(EI)tr = transformed moment of inertia of composite beam
Fy = yield strength of steel reinforcement
fb,tr = bending stress in beam due to transfer of prestress
G = shear modulus of the elastomer
Hs = horizontal service load on the bearing
hri = thickness of ith elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing
hr max = thickness of thickest elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing
hrt = total elastomer thickness in an elastomeric bearing
hs = thickness of steel laminate in steel-laminated elastomeric bearing
K = bulk modulus of the elastomer
kshear = shear stiffness of bearing
L = length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (parallel to longitudinal bridge axis)
n = number of internal elastomer layers
P = axial load
Pcy = cyclic axial load
PD = dead load for service limit state at each bearing
PL = live load for service limit state at each bearing
Pm = maximum compressive load considering all appropriate load combinations

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Notation

Pst = static axial load

Pv = vertical load on bearing
r = radius of gyration
S = shape factor of thickest layer of an elastomeric bearing
Si = shape factor of the ith internal layer of an elastomeric bearing
tp = thickness of cotton duck pad
W = width of the bearing in the transverse direction
yb = distance from centroid to bottom face of beam section
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
α = parameter in calculation of hydrostatic tension
α = skew angle of bridge
α = dimensionless parameter in design of cotton duck pads
γa = shear strain in the elastomer due to axial load
γr = shear strain in the elastomer due to rotation
γs = shear strain in the elastomer due to shear displacement
γtot = total shear strain in the elastomer
ΔCR+SH = creep and shrinkage movement
Δdiff,sh = vertical deflection due to differential shrinkage between beam and slab
ΔFTH = constant amplitude fatigue threshold for Category A as specified in LRFD Article 6.6
Δfp = change is stress in the prestressing strands
ΔH = horizontal displacement on the bearing
ΔL = change in length
ΔLL = vertical deflection of the beam due to live load
ΔO = maximum service horizontal displacement of the bridge deck
ΔS = maximum shear deformation of the elastomer
Δs = shear deformation due to compressive load on tapered bearing
Δslab = vertical deflection of the beam due to slab weight
ΔT = change in temperature
ΔT = horizontal displacement due to temperature
Δv = vertical deflection of beam at midspan
εa = total of static and cyclic average axial strain taken as positive for compression in
which the cyclic component is multiplied by 1.75 from the applicable service load
combinations in LRFD Table 3.4.1-1
εc = instantaneous compressive strain of a cotton duck pad
εsh,free = free shrinkage strain of concrete

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BEARINGS
Notation

εt = maximum compressive strain due to combined compression and rotation of cotton

duck pad at the service limit state
θ = taper of tapered bearing pad
θB = allowance for uncertainties in bearing rotation
θcy = cyclic rotation
θend = end rotation of beam about the transverse axis
θf = flexural rotation of beam
θi = rotation of the ith layer of the bearing = θs/n if all layers have the same thickness
θt = torsional rotation of beam
θx = rotation of beam about the x axis of the bridge
θy = rotation of beam about the y axis of the bridge
θs = maximum service rotation due to total load
θst = static rotation
λ = compressibility index
μ = coefficient of friction
 = Poisson’s ratio
σa = average axial stress in the load combination being evaluated
σD = average compressive stress due to dead load
σhyd = hydrostatic stress
σL = average compressive stress due to live load
σs = service average compressive stress due to total load
σTL = average compressive stress due to total dead plus live loads

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10.1 Introduction/10.2 History of Elastomeric Bearings

Bearings
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Bearings are devices used to connect a bridge superstructure to its substructure. The primary function of a
bearing is to transfer concentrated vertical forces from the superstructure into the substructure; however, in
many cases it must also permit rotation and translation to occur freely between the substructure and
superstructure. In practice, the bearing’s resistance to such movements is small, but not exactly zero.
Consequently, the LRFD Specifications requires consideration of the moments and horizontal forces that are
introduced into the substructure as a result of bearing movements. Because the forces applied by the bearings are
usually much smaller than the members’ capacities, they are of little consequence.
In many applications, bearings must allow translational movements of the superstructure relative to the
substructure without inducing significant horizontal forces into the substructure. Accommodation of thermal
expansion provides an example. In other situations, such as when wind or vehicle braking forces act on the
superstructure, the bearings must be designed to restrain the translational movements and resist the horizontal
loads. Under seismic load, the flexibility of the bearings may lengthen the period of the structure and so change
the induced forces, but the bearing may still be required to resist those reduced forces.
This chapter describes design and selection procedures for bearings. For the vast majority of bridges constructed
using precast, prestressed concrete beams, plain elastomeric pads (PEPs) or elastomeric bearings reinforced with
steel plates will be the bearings of choice. Most of the discussion in this chapter is dedicated to these types of
bearings.
For longer-span precast concrete bridges or for bridges with special loading requirements, it may be necessary
for the designer to consider the use of pot, disc, or spherical bearings. These bearings are often referred to
collectively as high-load multi-rotational (HLMR) bearings. They offer the benefits of supporting higher stresses
and accommodating larger rotations than typical elastomeric bearings. Because of initial costs and maintenance
requirements, the use of HLMR bearings should generally be limited to only those situations where plain or
reinforced elastomeric bearings are not suitable.
This chapter does not address diaphragm details that connect superstructure and substructure elements or
pintles and sole plates that restrain translation. These details are considered systems or subsystems that change
the statical scheme of the structure and should be analyzed separately.

10.2 HISTORY OF ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS

Elastomeric bearings have been widely used in the United States since the 1950s. The first recorded use was in
1957, when neoprene pads were used to support prestressed concrete beams in Victoria, Tex. (Muscarella and
Yura, 1995). The earliest use of elastomeric pads worldwide is reported to have been in Australia, where plain
rubber pads were used to support a viaduct that was constructed in 1889 (Lindley, 1981). Those pads were
reported to still be in service, with very little deterioration, in 1981.
The design of elastomeric bearing pads was first addressed by AASHTO in the eighth edition of the Standard
Specifications, which was published in 1961. That edition permitted only neoprene pads and contained only a
single page of design information for elastomeric bearings. In contrast, the LRFD Specifications ninth edition
(AASHTO, 2020B) and Standard Specifications 17th edition (AASHTO, 2002) both contain detailed design
procedures for elastomeric bearings. The requirements are based largely on research conducted at the University
of Washington (Roeder, et al., 1987; Roeder, et al., 1990; Stanton, et al., 2008). The changes in the AASHTO
Specifications since 1987 have encouraged the use of steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings (SREBs) over plain
elastomeric bearings in all but the most lightly loaded conditions, because the SREBs have much greater capacity
and reliability.

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10.2 History of Elastomeric Bearings/10.4.1.1 Rotation Axes

Until 1992, tapered elastomeric pads were allowed by the Standard Specifications and were routinely used to
accommodate the nonparallel bearing surfaces that result from the longitudinal grade of a bridge. Currently,
however, the use of tapered pads is restricted by both the LRFD Specifications and the Standard Specifications.

10.3 SPECIFICATIONS
AASHTO offers two design specifications, the Standard Specifications and the LRFD Specifications, and both
contain provisions for designing bearings. Both specifications have existed in parallel since 1994, when the LRFD
Specifications were first published, but the Standard Specifications have not been maintained with the same
regularity. Their most recent full edition (the 17th) was published in 2002, and the last interim revisions were
published in 2005. The goal is to have all designers use the LRFD Specifications, and it has for the most part been
achieved. In 2009, the provisions for bearings were changed significantly in the LRFD Specifications but not in the
Standard Specifications, so the two specifications are now quite different from each other. For that reason, and to
avoid confusion, this chapter is based solely on the provisions of the ninth edition of the LRFD Specifications
(AASHTO, 2020B).

10.4 LOADS AND MOVEMENTS FOR DESIGN

The LRFD Specifications requires that rotational and translational movements of the bridge be considered in the
design of bearings.

10.4.1 Rotational Movements

10.4.1.1. Rotation Axes
Rotations can occur about all three axes, but those associated with beam bending are generally the largest.
Transverse axis rotation of the bearing is associated with bending of the beam about its major axis.
Longitudinal axis rotation of the bearing (about the beam’s longitudinal axis) occurs in all bridges, but its
magnitude is usually significant only in skew or curved bridges. The value should be taken from the overall
structural analysis but, as a first approximation, it may be taken as:
θ𝑡 = θ𝑓 tan α (Eq. 10.4.1.1-1)
where
θt = torsional rotation of the beam
θf = flexural rotation of the beam
α = skew angle (α = 0.0 when the line of support is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bridge)
The torsional rotation may be larger than the bending rotation in a bridge with skew greater than 45 degrees.
Equation (10.4.1.1-1) can be derived with reference to Figure 10.4.1.1-1. The total rotation of the deck can be
described by rotations θx and θy about axes parallel and perpendicular to the support, or by θt and θf. Because the
supports are rigid vertically, θy is zero. Then the flexural and torsional components are given by:
θ𝑓 = θ𝑥 cos α − θ𝑦 sin α = θ𝑥 cos α (Eq. 10.4.1.1-2a)
θ𝑡 = θ𝑦 cos α + θ𝑥 sin α = θ𝑥 sin α (Eq. 10.4.1.1-2b)

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BEARINGS
10.4.1.1 Rotation Axes

Figure 10.4.1.1-1
Bearings at a Skewed Support
Support

θy = 0
Beam (typ)

θt

θx

θf

This relationship of rotations also suggests that the designer has choices for the bearing orientation. Three are
illustrated in Figure 10.4.1.1-2. Rectangular bearings placed with the long edge parallel to the supports (Fig.
10.4.1.1-2b) will cause the entire rotation to occur about the weak axis of the beam. This is desirable because it
minimizes the stress in the elastomer. However, this orientation means that the bearing is not perpendicular to
the beam, in which case it must either be parallelogram-shaped (Fig. 10.4.1.1-2a) or rectangular and quite small
(Fig. 10.4.1.1-2b) to avoid projecting beyond the beam flange. Parallelogram-shaped bearings are undesirable
because they are inefficient at carrying load, and are nonstandard and expensive to manufacture. The orientation
commonly used aligns a rectangular bearing with the longitudinal axis of the beam (Fig. 10.4.1.1-2c), even
though some stress is induced by torsional rotation of the beam acting about the strong axis of the bearing.
Making the bearings as wide as possible also provides the beams with torsional stability during erection. Lateral
stability of the beam at erection must be investigated and parameters such as construction tolerances and the roll
stiffness of the bearing must be considered. Long beams supported at their ends on compressible bearings can be
unstable and may require bracing, See Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete
Bridge Girders [CB-02-16] (PCI, 2016).

Figure 10.4.1.1-2
Possible Bearing Alignments at a Skewed Support

beam support

bearing

(a) (b) (c)

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10.4.1.1 Rotation Axes/10.4.1.3 Accounting for Rotation in Bearing Design

Twisting of the bearing about a vertical axis occurs in skew bridges, when the whole deck twists due to thermal or
other loadings. However the strains induced by this rotation are small compared with those from other sources
and are typically ignored.

10.4.1.2 Sources of Rotation

For precast, prestressed concrete beams, the primary sources of bearing rotations are:
• Nonparallelism of the bearing surfaces. The surface that supports the bearing and the bottom flange of the
beam may not be parallel, either by design or unintentionally. Typical causes of this nonparallelism
include the camber of the beams at the time of erection, the longitudinal grade of the bridge, and the
unintended sloping of the supporting surface as a result of construction tolerances. The LRFD
Specifications requires an allowance for unintended nonparallelism of at least 0.005 radians unless an
approved quality control plan justifies a smaller value [LRFD Art. 14.4.2.1]. For large, stiff bearings, this
rotation induces significant stresses, and some agencies have chosen to reduce the value even without a
quality control plan, presumably on the basis that their bearings are typically installed to higher accuracy.
That practice is ill advised: 0.005 radians represents a slope of about ⅛ in. in 2 ft, or only one-tenth of a
bubble length on a typical spirit level, and it is likely that some bearings are not installed to that accuracy.
• Dead load deflections. When dead loads such as the deck weight are applied to the beams, the resulting
deflection causes end rotations. The deflection and associated rotation are typically in the direction that
reduces the effects of initial camber. They may have both short-term and long-term components.
• Live load deflections (without impact). The LRFD Specifications Article 14.4.1 states that a dynamic load
allowance need not be included for bearings.
• Thermal camber changes. Daily fluctuations in camber are caused by solar heat gain on the top of the
deck, whereas the shaded underside of the deck experiences a smaller temperature increase.
• Differential shortening of the slab relative to the beam. A cast-in-place slab on a precast concrete beam will
shrink relative to the beam and will cause downward deflection with corresponding end rotations. Post-
tensioning the slab (for example, a full-depth precast concrete slab) will have a similar effect and adds to
the consequences of differential shrinkage.
The bearing is generally much more flexible in rotation than the beam that it supports. Thus, its stiffness has little
effect on the global displacements of the structure and the beam end rotation is generally taken as that which
would occur if the support were truly pinned. The bearing’s low rotational stiffness also causes the restraining
moment induced in the member and the substructure to be small compared with the capacities of those elements.
Moments on those elements are frequently ignored in design, but should be considered in those rare cases in
which they adversely affect the substructure or superstructure.

10.4.1.3 Accounting for Rotation in Bearing Design

The strains in the elastomer caused by the rotation must be accounted for in the bearing design. Their potential
for damage to the bearing depends on their magnitude and the number of cycles applied. The LRFD Specifications
treats static and cyclic loads differently. In all beams, rotations due to live load deflections are cyclic, whereas
those due to dead load deflections are static, so the former are more damaging for a given magnitude of rotation.
While daily thermal cycles are strictly cyclic, they are treated by the LRFD Specifications as static because the
number of cycles is so small compared with the number of truck loading cycles.
The live load rotations are typically quite small. In a simply supported beam under truck loading, the end rotation
can be shown to be directly related to the midspan deflection (see Appendix F in Stanton, et al. [2008]), which the
LRFD Specifications restricts to a value of L/800. The end rotation due to live load is then implicitly limited to
approximately 0.004 radians. In precast concrete beam bridges, the beam stiffness is usually more than the
minimum, so the live load rotation is usually less than 0.004 radians. At the interior supports of continuous
beams, the rotations are typically much smaller than those in simply supported beams and are therefore unlikely
to contribute significantly to the total strain in the elastomer.
Static rotations are caused by unintended nonparallelism, dead loads, thermal loading, and creep and shrinkage.
Some beams remain simply supported throughout their lifetimes, while others are erected as simply supported

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10.4.1.3 Accounting for Rotation in Bearing Design/10.4.2 Translational Movements

but are subsequently made continuous for live load, in which case the rotations that occur before continuity is
achieved must be properly accounted for, since they will likely constitute the majority of the total rotation.
If the end rotation due to dead load is large enough to lead to an undesirably thick bearing, a beveled plate or a
beveled recess in the bottom flange of the beam may reduce the design rotation imposed on the bearing and
provide relief. However, recent editions of the LRFD Specifications may render such a device unnecessary in many
cases because the LRFD Specifications no longer prohibits lift-off of the beam from one side of the bearing. (The
previous prohibition was a consequence of the design equations, rather than being stated explicitly in words, and
was therefore not obvious to the casual reader). The changes also permit relatively large rotations if the
accompanying compressive load is small, and these are precisely the conditions that prevail immediately after
setting the beams and that often lead to the need for a beveled plate.
Rotation results in an increased compressive strain at one edge of the bearing and a reduced compressive strain
(or even net tensile strain) at the opposite edge. The design of the bearing must consider the total anticipated
rotation to avoid overcompression at the edge of the bearing. In cases where the bearing is attached to both the
beam and support in a way that prevents lift-off, hydrostatic tension stresses in the bearing must also be checked.
In circular bearings, the rotations about the two perpendicular axes are additive, and their vector sum should be
used for design of the bearing. In rectangular bearings, the peak strains due to compression and rotation occur at
the midpoints of the sides, and drop to zero at the corners. Thus, the peak strains due to the two rotation
components are not additive and rotation about each axis, in combination with axial load, may be considered
independently. In this regard, design of an elastomeric bearing differs from design of a column for axial load and
biaxial bending.

10.4.2 Translational Movements

Translational movements of the bearing may occur in two directions:
• Longitudinal translations. These occur directly due to change in length of the superstructure and
indirectly due to movement of the bottom flange caused by end rotation of the beam.
• Transverse translations These occur primarily in curved and skew bridges.
The movements are typically caused by a combination of the following effects:
• Temperature changes. As the ambient temperature changes, the superstructure will expand and contract.
For daily thermal changes, concrete bridges experience smaller movements than steel structures do,
primarily because concrete bridges have a higher thermal mass and consequently respond more slowly
to ambient temperature changes. However, as discussed in Section 13.3.3, as prestressed concrete girders
become deeper and webs become thinner, the difference between the thermal expansion rates of steel
and concrete diminishes. For seasonal changes, the time scale is slow enough that the thermal mass
makes little difference, and the two bridge types experience similar movements. The magnitude of the
thermal movement is computed based on extreme temperatures defined in the LRFD Specifications
compared with the ambient temperature at the time of construction. The temperature extremes to be
used in design are determined using LRFD Article 3.12.2. Care should be exercised with skew bridges, in
which thermal changes can cause deformations in unexpected directions (Moorty and Roeder, 1992;
Okumus, et al., 2018).
• Shrinkage and creep of concrete. Shrinkage and creep of the precast concrete beams causes an overall
shortening of the superstructure. If the beams are precast and the deck slab is cast-in-place, differential
shrinkage of the slab will cause some additional overall shortening. It also causes downward deflection,
which in turn leads to end rotation and longitudinal movement of the bottom flange. Since this
component of movement is outward, it opposes the inward movement due to overall shortening of the
beam and the net movement at the bearing may be small. Shrinkage and creep deformations theoretically
continue forever, but field measurements show that in a prestressed concrete I-beam bridge the great
majority of the deformation is complete within a year. Creep and shrinkage movements may be estimated
using the methods given in Chapter 8 of this manual.

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10.4.2 Translational Movements/10.4.4 Horizontal Loads

•
For the global translational movements caused by volume changes due to temperature, shrinkage, and creep, etc.,
the movements at individual bearings are computed based on the distance of that bearing from the apparent
point of fixity of the superstructure. The apparent point of fixity is the point of zero longitudinal movement. It may
be determined analytically using the relative stiffnesses of the superstructure and the substructure, the frictional
and shearing resistance of the bearings, and other relevant effects. However, most designers simply choose one of
the following locations as the point of apparent fixity:
• The midlength of the superstructure between expansion joints
• The central pier for a bridge with an even number of spans between expansion joints
• The midpoint of the central span for a bridge with an odd number of spans between expansion joints
A small error in the selection of the point of apparent fixity for volume changes will have little effect on the overall
performance of the bridge and its bearings.

10.4.3 Vertical Loads

In the LRFD Specifications, vertical design loads for bearing design are based on load combinations and load
factors for the service limit state, rather than the strength limit state. Furthermore, the LRFD Specifications states
that no dynamic load allowance needs to be included. Dead loads and live loads should be tabulated separately.
Combinations of loads and displacements that occur simultaneously should be identified so that critical
combinations, such as low axial force and high rotation (or vice versa), can be considered in design.

10.4.4 Horizontal Loads

In addition to the applied vertical load, horizontal forces must be considered in the design of bearings. Horizontal
forces on bearings result from two sources:
• Horizontal design loads. Loads such as wind on the superstructure and traffic, and centrifugal and braking
forces must be transmitted to the substructure by the bearings.
• Forces induced by bearing deformations. If the superstructure shortens, the movable bearing deforms in
shear and a force is induced. That force induces an equal and opposite force in the bearing at the other
end of the beam.
The LRFD Specifications no longer contains explicit design procedures for resisting horizontal loads on
elastomeric bearings. However, LRFD Articles 14.7.5.3.7 and 14.7.6.3.8, Method B and A, respectively, require that
“Elastomeric expansion bearings shall be provided with adequate seismic and other extreme event resistant
anchorage to resist the horizontal forces…” LRFD Article 14.7.5.4 also contains a requirement that in bearings
without externally bonded steel plates, a restraint system shall be used to secure the bearing against horizontal
movement if with if
θ𝑠 3ε𝑎
≥ [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.4-1]
𝑛 𝑆𝑖
where
n = number of interior layers of elastomer, where internal layers are defined as those layers which are
bonded on each face
Si = shape factor of the ith internal layer of an elastomeric bearing
εa = total of static and cyclic average axial strain taken as positive for compression in which the cyclic
component is multiplied by 1.75 from the applicable service load combinations in LRFD Table 3.4.1-1
θS = total of static and cyclic maximum service limit state design rotation angles of the elastomer specified in
LRFD Article 14.4.2.1 in which the cyclic component is multiplied by 1.75 (rad)

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10.4.4 Horizontal Loads/10.5.1 General

This rotation is about three times the rotation at the start of lift-off and it would be prudent to lower the threshold
for providing restraint against horizontal load.
Anchorage is discussed in Section 10.8.3.7 of this manual.

10.5 PLANNING THE BEARING LAYOUT

10.5.1 General
The best bearing is no bearing. Bearings of any sort provide the opportunity for errors during design,
manufacturing, and installation, so connecting the beams directly to the bent caps or abutments, without
bearings, is the best choice if it can be done. For single-span bridges with a span less than about 30 ft, this may be
possible because the thermal deformations are small enough. In a longer single-span bridge, the abutments are
likely to be too stiff longitudinally to accommodate the deck expansion without inducing excessive forces, so
bearings will be necessary. However, in a multiple-span bridge the central piers may be quite tall and may be
flexible enough to provide all the longitudinal movement needed regardless of the span.
The designer generally determines the bearing types at each support based on the configuration of the structure,
the anticipated movement, the expected superstructure behavior, and any substructure limitations. Then, the
movements are evaluated at each support. The designer provides a bearing that is either movable or fixed with
respect to translational movements in a given direction. Bearings that are fixed with respect to one horizontal
direction may be movable with respect to another perpendicular direction and are referred to as being “guided.”
When fixed (or guided) bearings are selected, the designer must provide lateral strength adequate to resist all
applied loads and restrain unwanted translation.
When movable bearings are selected, the designer must choose between accommodating this movement through
elastic shear deformations of the bearing or by providing low-friction, sliding surfaces. In most situations,
shearing of the bearing will be the preferred solution. When large movements are present, a sliding bearing is
preferred in order to avoid the use of a thick bearing.
In a multiple-span bridge, the engineer should decide where the point of apparent fixity should be, estimate the
movements from that point, and select suitable joints and bearings. The bearings located further from the point of
fixity will experience larger movements, and bearings with greater movement capacity will be needed there.
Because the beam is likely to be discontinuous at the abutment, that bearing will have to accommodate rotation as
well as the largest horizontal displacement in the bridge. If elastomeric bearings are used without sliders, the end
bearing is typically the thickest.
The installation temperature is usually not known at design time, so the engineer knows only the total design
displacement between the two extreme temperatures but not the individual elongation and shortening relative to
the installation temperature. Several options are available. The bearing can be provided with a displacement
capacity larger than the minimum necessary, so that the bearings and beams may be installed within a reasonable
range of temperature (to be stated on the plans) and still have enough movement capacity in each direction. An
alternative is to erect the span at any arbitrary temperature and make provision for subsequently lifting the
superstructure when the temperature is at the middle of the expected range, thereby relieving the movement
offset. Another alternative is to install the bearings with an imposed offset that is related to the real installation
temperature. The latter is feasible with sliding bearings, but it is quite difficult to achieve reliably with
elastomeric bearings because the bearings must be held in a deformed state while they are installed.
In general, the bearings should be designed to have a short length (the direction parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the bridge) because this minimizes the bearing moments and stresses due to flexural rotation under service
conditions. They should also be as wide as possible to promote torsional stability of the beam during erection. A
common approach is to make the bearing about 3 in. narrower than the bottom flange of the beam, and then to
select the length based on the area required to achieve an acceptable compressive stress. If the load is light, this
approach may lead to a length that is impractically short, in that the ratio of bearing height to length may be
excessive and lead to instability by rolling over in the longitudinal direction. The solution is then to select the
length needed to provide stability against rollover, in which case the compressive stress will be lower and the

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10.5.1 General/10.5.2.2.2 Sliding Bearings

rotation stresses will be higher than the minimum values that would be possible if each were considered
separately.
The expected life of an elastomeric bearing is not known with certainty. Some have been removed after
approximately 50 years and found to be in good working order with only a slight, measurable increase in stiffness
as a result of aging. The bearing discussed by Lindley (1981) was made from a natural rubber compound that was
chemically quite primitive, but it was still in good working order even after almost 100 years, albeit with surface
blemishes. Thus, a well-designed and fabricated bearing may reasonably be expected to last the life of the bridge.
However, it is still prudent to provide space on the pier cap for jacking the superstructure should bearing
replacement ever be necessary.

10.5.2 Bearing Configurations

10.5.2.1 Fixed Bearings
At a fixed bearing, the superstructure is prevented from moving horizontally relative to the substructure. The
fixity is usually achieved by external means, such as steel angles that bear against the beam flange or concrete
shear blocks between the beams.

10.5.2.2 Movable Bearings

Movable bearings are intended to accommodate translational movements of the superstructure while imparting
relatively small horizontal forces to the substructure and superstructure. Movable bearings are classified as either
flexible or sliding, as described in the following sections.

10.5.2.2.1 Flexible Bearings

Flexible bearings accommodate translational movements through elastic shear deformation of a deformable
material. Elastomers are the only such materials presently permitted by the LRFD Specifications. The LRFD
Specifications requires that elastomer thickness must be at least 2.0 times the horizontal displacement [LRFD Eqs.
14.7.5.3.2-1 and 14.7.6.3.4-1]. The shear stiffness of the bearing is given by:
𝐺𝐴
𝑘𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 = (Eq. 10.5.2.2.1-1)
ℎ𝑟𝑡
where
G = shear modulus of the elastomer, ksi
A = plan area of the elastomeric bearing, in.2
hrt = total thickness of the elastomer, in.
Low horizontal resistance is therefore achieved with a bearing that has a large thickness and a small plan area.
However, the ratio of thickness to plan dimensions is limited by stability considerations, which are discussed in
Section 10.7.3. Bearings up to about 4 in. thick, with a displacement capacity of ±2 in., are common. Thicker
bearings can be made (the thickest known bearing is about 24 in.), but the difficulty and cost of fabrication, and
the bearing weight, increase rapidly with thickness.

10.5.2.2.2 Sliding Bearings

In most bridges constructed with precast, prestressed concrete beams, flexible bearings are capable of handling
the required movements. However, when the translational movements exceed the practical capacity of flexible
bearings, a sliding surface may be used on top of the bearing. The slider will accommodate most of the
translational movement, leaving the elastomeric part of the bearing to accommodate the rotation and the small
translation that occurs before the start of slip at the sliding surface. The slider usually consists of a
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)–stainless steel interface. In bearings with a metal structure, such as pot, disc, or
spherical bearings, the PTFE is typically recessed into a carbon steel plate that is vulcanized to the top of the
bearing and the stainless steel sliding on top of it. In an elastomeric bearing or a cotton duck pad, the PTFE may
be applied directly to the elastomeric component. The stainless steel must be longer than the PTFE to ensure full

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10.5.2.2.2 Sliding Bearings/10.5.2.4 Force Control Bearings

contact during sliding, and the interface should, if possible, be installed with the stainless steel on top facing
downward, so that it does not gather dust and other contaminants.
The LRFD Specifications Article 14.7.2.5 provides friction coefficients only for highly polished (No. 8 mirror finish)
stainless steel. Taylor and Stanton (2010) found that a No. 2B finish, which is unpolished and therefore less
expensive and more readily available, gave results that were in many ways just as good.
It should be recognized that a slider has some friction, in which case small longitudinal movements (such as those
caused by truck passage over the span) will be accommodated by shear deformation of the elastomer before
sliding starts, while larger movements (such as thermal elongations) will be accommodated by sliding. This
unavoidable allocation of movements is fortunate because there is some evidence that a large number of small
sliding movements cause more wear of the PTFE surface than the same total slide path applied in fewer, larger
movements. It can be shown that the shear displacement at which sliding starts is:
μσ𝑎
Δ𝑠 = ℎ (Eq. 10.5.2.2.2-1)
𝐺 𝑟𝑡
where
μ = coefficient of friction between PTFE and stainless steel
σa = average compressive stress on the elastomer, ksi
G = shear modulus of the elastomer, ksi
hrt = total thickness of the elastomer, in.

10.5.2.3 Guided bearings

A guided bearing is free to move in one direction but is restrained against movement in the other. These
requirements may exist, for example, if the superstructure must be allowed free longitudinal movement for creep
and shrinkage but must resist transverse wind forces with little movement. The guidance may be achieved in
several ways, such as concrete shear blocks between beams or steel angles that bear against the sides of the
bottom flange. In both cases, provision should be made for free sliding against the guide. A pair of inclined flexible
bearings, as shown in Figure 10.5.2.3-1, has also been used for the purpose.
Figure 10.5.2.3-1
Horizontally Opposed Inclined Bearings to Resist Transverse Movement

10.5.2.4 Force Control Bearings

While most bridge bearings are designed for vertical forces and slowly applied horizontal movements caused by
temperature, creep, and shrinkage, they can also be designed to limit horizontal seismic forces using the
principles of seismic isolation. Either flexible or sliding bearings may be used for the purpose. If a flexible bearing
is used, its shear stiffness is selected to give the structure a long natural period that lies beyond the period of the
primary ground motion. The structure then experiences little earthquake excitation so the forces induced in it are
low. To control the displacements in the bearing, damping is introduced. This can be done by including a yielding
lead plug in the bearing, using high-damping rubber, or adding an external damping device.

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10.5.2.4 Force Control Bearings/10.6 Types of Elastomeric Bearings

Lead-core elastomeric bearings can also be used to alleviate high thermal loads on substructures while
maintaining the desired fixity for short-term service loads. This is due to the ability of lead to creep for slowly
applied loading such as expansion or contraction of bridge superstructures. These slowly applied thermal
displacements will, therefore, result in much lower forces transmitted to the substructure than if the
displacement were applied rapidly.
There are several types of proprietary sliding seismic-isolation systems. In one system, the superstructure rests
on a sliding element with a convex surface. After a lateral displacement occurs, the tendency is for the structure to
return to its original position because of the curved surface (This is sometimes referred to as a friction-pendulum
system). In another system, springs are used to return the structure to its near-original position. In both systems,
the movement is damped and the energy is dissipated. Another proprietary sliding bearing system called the
Friction Pendulum System (https://www.earthquakeprotection.com/products) has also been widely used for
seismic isolation. The superstructure rests on a sliding element in a shallow stainless steel dish. The surface of the
dish is a partial sphere, so the sliding element tends to return to the center of the dish. The system possesses a
natural period that is defined by the radius of curvature of the stainless steel dish, and the friction between the
PTFE and stainless steel provides the necessary damping.
More information on the design of force control bearings, particularly for limiting seismic loads, can be found in
the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design (2014); Buckle and Mayes, 1996; HITEC, 1996;
Stanton and Roeder, 1991; and Nagarajaiah, et al., 1989.

10.5.2.5 Special Considerations for Box Beams

Historically, bearings for adjacent box beam bridges have consisted of either continuous strips of unreinforced or
reinforced elastomeric material placed across the full width of the support, or four individual bearings, two at
each end of each box beam. Both arrangements present challenges, caused partly by the fact that box beams are
very stiff in torsion so the slightest difference in slope between the two ends causes uneven bearing forces. The
problem is accentuated in skew bridges. A solution has been used in New England region (Culmo, 2002) in which
each beam is set on only three bearings, with two at one end and one at the other. This arrangement is statically
determinate and eliminates the problem of uneven loading. The end with two bearings is typically alternated at
adjacent beams.
Unreinforced elastomeric strips present an additional potential problem because they tend to shift over time,
possibly causing the concrete beam to bear directly on the concrete support.
If the box beams are to be bolted or post-tensioned transversely, alignment of the ducts is necessary. The bearing
system should be designed so that its deformations do not jeopardize the alignment of the ducts. This is
particularly important if the supports are sloped (for example to provide roadway cross slopes) or if the bridge is
skewed. In both of those cases the beam displacements and rotations due to bearing deformations are more
difficult to predict and control.

10.5.2.6 Special Considerations for Fixed and Guided Bearings

If fixed or longitudinally guided bearings are used, allowance should be made for transverse expansion and
contraction, especially in wide bridges. If every bearing at a pier were guided to permit only longitudinal
movement, large transverse forces might be set up in the guide system. This can be avoided if only a small number
of bearings near the midwidth of the bridge are guided, and the bearings under the outer beams are free to move
in both directions.
Curved and skew bridges present particular planning challenges. Centrifugal (and wind) forces must be resisted
to avoid excessive transverse movement, but the fixed, guided, and free bearings must be planned so that they
allow free movement in the desired directions needed and do not “fight” each other.

10.6 TYPES OF ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS

Elastomeric bearings may be either made from elastomer alone, or may be reinforced with steel plates, layers of
cotton duck, or layers of fiberglass.

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10.6.1 Plain Elastomeric Pads/10.7.1.1 General

10.6.1 Plain Elastomeric Pads

Plain elastomeric pads (PEPs) are the most economical option, but are suitable only for supporting relatively light
vertical loads. In addition, they cannot accommodate large rotations or translations. As the selection guide in
Section 10.9 indicates, PEPs are only applicable within a relatively narrow range of situations.

10.6.2 Fiberglass-Reinforced Pads

Fiberglass-reinforced bearing pads (FGPs) are reinforced with discrete layers of fiberglass and their behavior is
conceptually similar to that of steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings (SREBs). Because fiberglass is not susceptible
to corrosion, edge cover is not needed, so the pads can be made in large sheets and cut to size as needed. This
offers advantages in terms of cost and delivery time. However, the bond between the fiberglass and elastomer is
not as good as the bond between steel and elastomer; therefore, the compressive load capacity of FGPs is only
slightly higher than that of PEPs. Furthermore, at the time of writing, FGPs are not commercially available.

10.6.3 Cotton Duck-Reinforced Pads

Cotton duck pads (CDPs) are constructed of closely spaced layers of cotton duck impregnated with elastomer. The
layers of cotton duck are specified to be spaced at no more than 1/60 in. and lead to theoretically very high shape
factors, if the layer is considered to consist of the elastomer between the layers of cotton. In practice, the cotton is
not very stiff in resisting outward bulging, so the friction on the top and bottom surface of the pad also
contributes to restraining the bulging. Thus, the shape factor effect is not clearly defined in a CDP. However, it has
a high compressive stress capacity but little ability to deform in shear or rotation. Provision of a PTFE slider
provides translational capacity, but does nothing to improve the rotation capacity. CDPs are not widely used in
prestressed concrete beam bridges.

10.6.4 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings

Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings (SREBs) are the most versatile type of elastomeric bearings and can be
designed to have high compressive stress capacities and to accommodate large horizontal movements. They can
also be designed to accommodate quite large rotations, but these detract from the compressive load carrying
capacity. SREBs are the bearing type most commonly used for precast, prestressed concrete beam bridges.
One bound on the dimensions of the bearing is provided by permissible stresses. However, the size may also be
controlled by stability. The width is usually made as large as possible to provide torsional stability to the beam
during erection, and the length may be governed by the need to avoid bearing instability in the longitudinal
direction. Its area may then be such that the applied stress is lower than the permissible stress.
The first cost of SREBs is typically higher than for other types of elastomeric bearings because SREBs must be
molded individually. However, their record of long-term performance is excellent.

10.7 BEHAVIOR OF ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS

10.7.1 Elastomeric Materials
10.7.1.1 General
An elastomer is an elastic polymer. Its behavior is classified as elastic because the material returns to its original
configuration when the load is removed. The name “polymer” implies a chemical structure that consists of long,
repeating, chain molecules. Natural rubber and neoprene are the elastomers most commonly used in bridge
bearings. For most bearings, the differences in behavior between neoprene and natural rubber are not significant,
and in the absence of specific requirements from the designer, the elastomer is usually chosen by the bearing
manufacturer to best meet the overall performance requirements.
The elastomeric compounds used in bearings include many additives, and these, as well as the raw elastomer,
affect the properties of the compound. A vulcanization agent such as sulfur is added to cross link the elastomer
molecules and prevent creep; oils are added to soften the rubber during processing; carbon black acts as a filler

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10.7.1.1 General/10.7.1.2 Shear Modulus

and increases stiffness; and chemicals are added to increase resistance to ozone and oxidation. The compound is
then vulcanized, or cured, by subjecting the mixed materials to heat and pressure, at temperatures of about 280
°F (Lee, 1994). Large bearings are more difficult to cure because of their thermal mass and the low thermal
conductivity of the elastomer. There is a danger of overcuring the outside before the inside is fully cured, and
careful temperature control is needed.
In general, neoprene has a higher resistance than natural rubber to ozone deterioration and is more resistant to
attack from many chemicals, but it becomes stiff and brittle at low temperatures more readily than does natural
rubber. Thus, natural rubber may be preferred in very cold climates. Natural rubber is also the elastomer of
choice for almost all seismic isolation bearings because of its greater strain capacity.
During the 1990s, some bearings were found to “walk” or slip out of place. This behavior was attributed to the
addition to the compound of anti-ozonant waxes (Muscarella and Yura, 1995), which were used in both neoprene
and natural rubber bearings, although in greater quantities in the natural rubber bearings because of their
perceived greater sensitivity to ozone. As the waxes migrate to the surfaces of the bearings, they tend to reduce
the friction that holds the bearings in position. The real need for ozone protection is open to question because the
bearing identified by Lindley (1981) contained no such protection and had suffered ozone stiffening only to a
depth below the surface of about ⅛ in. after almost 100 years in service. Although anti-ozonants are not formally
required in neoprene, paraffin and other waxes have nonetheless been found in neoprene bearings. McDonald, et
al. (2000) recommend that elastomeric bearings should only be ordered from manufacturers that do not add
paraffin to their products. In addition, at least one state agency in the U.S. has a “no-wax” specification (Iowa DOT,
2022). Because the real dangers of slipping appear to outweigh the possibility of chemical deterioration due to
ozone attack, it would seem preferable to avoid the use of waxes.

10.7.1.2 Shear Modulus

The stiffness of the elastomer is the most important material parameter in bearing design, and may be specified
either by the shear modulus (in psi) or by the hardness (on the empirical Shore A scale). Shear modulus is
measured in a special rig, defined in ASTM D4014. Hardness is measured using a simple indenter (ASTM D2240),
which measures the penetration under a given load. The shear modulus is the quantity on which the design is
based and is therefore the one that is needed, but the hardness test is simpler and faster to conduct. While the two
are linked (Gent, 1958), the correlation is not exact, in part because the hardness values obtained from a
durometer are somewhat user-dependent. Thus, the LRFD Specifications encourages the use of the more precise
shear modulus by giving a range of shear moduli that might be expected for any given hardness, but requires that
the least advantageous G value from that range be used in the various steps of the design [LRFD Art. 14.7.6.2]. The
ranges of hardness and shear modulus are shown in Table 10.7.1.2-1 [LRFD Table 14.7.6.2-1]. This process is
therefore slightly conservative and imposes a small penalty on bearings designed by hardness.
It is very important to specify either hardness or shear modulus, but not both. Specifying both could lead to a
combination of values that cannot be achieved by a single elastomer. Specification by shear modulus is the
preferred method because it is more accurate; also, it imposes no penalty in practice since every manufacturer of
bearings suitable for use under beams has the equipment to run the material test for shear modulus.
LRFD Specifications Article 14.7.6.2 permits elastomers with a nominal hardness between 50 and 60 durometer to
be used for SREBs and elastomers used in PEPs, SREBs, and FRPs with a slider to have a nominal hardness
between 50 and 70 durometer.

Table 10.7.1.2-1 [LRFD Table 14.7.6.2-1]

Elastomer Properties at Different Hardnesses
Durometer hardness (Shore A) 50 60 70
Shear modulus G at 73 °F (ksi) 0.095–0.130 0.130–0.200 0.200–0.300
(Creep deflection at 25 years) ÷ (initial
0.25 0.35 0.45
deflection)

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10.7.1.3 Low-Temperature Grades

10.7.1.3 Low-Temperature Grades

The material properties of most elastomers vary with temperature. In particular, both neoprene and natural
rubber stiffen and become brittle at low temperatures. It is important to use an elastomer that is suitable for the
temperatures expected at a specific bridge site. The LRFD Specifications requires that bearings be fabricated from
AASHTO low-temperature grades of elastomer conforming to the requirements of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Construction Specifications and the AASHTO M251 Standard Specification for Plain and Laminated Elastomeric
Bridge Bearings.
In the absence of specific requirements from either the owner or the design agency, Table 10.7.1.3-1, together
with Figure 10.7.1.3-1, may be used to establish the minimum low-temperature grade required [LRFD Table
14.7.5.2-1 and LRFD Fig. 14.7.5.2-1]. The LRFD Specifications permits the use of a lesser-grade material if a device
such as a sliding surface is used to reduce the forces or if the substructure is designed for the additional forces
that may result.
Table 10.7.1.3-1 [LRFD Table 14.7.5.2-1]
Low-Temperature Zones and Elastomer Grades
Low-Temperature Zone A B C D E
50-year low temperature (°F) 0 –20 –30 –45 <–45
Maximum number of consecutive days when
3 7 14 N/A N/A
temperature does not rise above 32 °F
Minimum low-temperature elastomer grade 0 2 3 4 5*
Minimum low-temperature elastomer grade when
0 0 2 3 5*
special force provisions are incorporated
*Grade 5 elastomer may be difficult to obtain.
Figure 10.7.1.3-1
Temperature Zones (from LRFD Fig. 14.7.5.2-1)

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10.7.2 Mechanics of Elastomeric Bearings/10.7.2.1 Behavior of an Elastomeric Layer

10.7.2. Mechanics of Elastomeric Bearings

10.7.2.1 Behavior of an Elastomeric Layer
Elastomers used in bearings are virtually incompressible, that is, they have a very low G/K ratio, where K is the
bulk modulus. This means that a piece of the material changes shape very readily but has high resistance to
changing volume under pressure, so it behaves somewhat like a fluid. Poisson’s ratio, , is essentially 0.5.
A single layer of elastomer resting on a lubricated surface and subjected to vertical load will respond by a
reduction of thickness and a corresponding increase in lateral dimensions caused by the Poisson effect as shown
in Figure 10.7.2.1-1a. The relationship between vertical stress and strain would be:
σ = 𝐸ϵ (Eq. 10.7.2.1-1)
where
𝐸 = 2(1 + 𝜈)𝐺 ≈ 3𝐺 (Eq. 10.7.2.1-2)
Such a bearing would be too flexible in compression for practical use.
Figure 10.7.2.1-1
Compression of an Elastomer Layer

(a) Lubricated surface (b) Bonded plates

If the elastomer layer is bonded to steel plates on the top and bottom, as in Figure 10.7.2.1-1b, the lateral
expansion is prevented at the top and bottom surfaces. The vertical displacement can then be accommodated only
by lateral bulging between the plates. The plates thus stiffen the system significantly in compression. However,
they do not change its shear stiffness, and this allows the designer to create a layered system with the desirable
properties of high axial stiffness and low shear stiffness.
The bulging deformations induce shear strains in the elastomer, which are largest at the corners of the layer. They
are the critical strains in the material, and, in the extreme, cause shear tearing in the elastomer along the interface
between the plate and elastomer, as illustrated in Figure 10.7.2.1-2. In thick layers of elastomer, significant
bulging (and a correspondingly high level of shear strain) occurs under axial compression. Under the same load,
thinner layers of elastomer will bulge less and will therefore experience smaller shear strains. Layers that are thin
compared with their plan dimensions are therefore stiffer and stronger in resisting vertical loads.
Figure 10.7.2.1-2
Shear Failure in Elastomer

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10.7.2.1 Behavior of an Elastomeric Layer

The shape factor S for a layer of elastomer is the parameter that characterizes the restraint of bulging and its
effect on the mechanical properties. The shape factor is defined as the area of the horizontal loaded surface
divided by the area of the vertical perimeter surface that is free to bulge. For a rectangular bearing without holes,
the shape factor is computed as:
𝐿𝑊
𝑆= [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.1-1]
2ℎ𝑟𝑖 (𝐿 + 𝑊)
where
L = length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (parallel to the longitudinal bridge axis), in.
W = width of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (perpendicular to the longitudinal bridge axis), in.
hri = thickness of ith elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing, in.
For a circular bearing, the shape factor is computed as:
𝐷
𝑆= [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.1-2]
4ℎ𝑟𝑖
PEPs derive their resistance to lateral expansion by friction at the top and bottom bearing surfaces. In the absence
of friction, the lateral expansion would occur freely, and no bulging would occur. In practice, the frictional
restraint in a PEP is insufficient to prevent all lateral expansion, so both slip and bulging occur, and the pad’s
behavior lies between that of a steel reinforced bearing and a lubricated plain elastomer layer as is illustrated in
Figure 10.7.2.1-3. The slip occurs in the outer region of the pad, and the outer edge moves outward from its
original, unloaded location.
Because the frictional resistance is partial and uncertain, the allowable stress on a PEP is lower than that on a
SREB with the same shape factor.
Figure 10.7.2.1-3
Partial Slip at the Surface of a Plain Pad

Slip No slip Slip

CDPs gain some of their resistance to vertical load from the lateral restraint provided by the cotton layers, and
some from the friction on the top and bottom of the pad.
Rotation causes bulging deformations that are similar in concept to compressive deformations. Under pure
rotation (no compression) the elastomer bulges out on one side and in on the other, as shown in Figure 10.7.2.1-
4b. These bulges cause shear strains, again at the corners of the layer, which add to those due to compression. A
high shape factor causes the bearing layer to be very stiff and strong in resisting rotation, and induces high shear
strains for even a small rotation. Thus, a high shape factor is beneficial for resisting compression loads but
disadvantageous in allowing rotation; therefore, design of an elastomeric bearing is likely to be a compromise
between axial and rotational demands. Layer shape factors in the range 6 to 12 are likely to provide the optimum
design in most precast, prestressed concrete beams.
Shear displacements (Fig. 10.7.2.1-4a) cause shear strains that are nearly constant throughout the bearing.
Holes in bearings are strongly discouraged because they provide stress concentrations in the steel plates.
However, if holes are required and the elastomer around their edges is free to bulge, the shape factor equation
should be modified by deducting the area of the holes from the numerator and adding the area associated with

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10.7.2.1 Behavior of an Elastomeric Layer/10.7.2.2 Elastic Stress-Strain Behavior in Compression

the perimeter of the holes to the denominator (see [LRFD Eq. C14.7.5.1-1 and C14.7.5.1-2]). If the hole is needed
only for fabrication purposes and is subsequently filled completely with elastomer, no modification to the shape
factor is needed.
Figure 10.7.2.1-4
Shear Strains in an Elastomeric Bearing

10.7.2.2 Elastic Stress-Strain Behavior in Compression

Early AASHTO Specifications limited the compressive strain in the bearing to 7%, on the basis that larger strains
caused damage to the bearing. That limit is no longer used, partly because the strain in a well-designed bearing
will be significantly lower than 7%, and partly because the shear strains, and not the compressive strains, in the
elastomer are the best indicators of potential damage.
An elastomeric bearing has a load-deflection curve in compression that is nonlinear stiffening. Part of the
nonlinearity is due to geometric effects caused by the fact that the deformed geometry may differ significantly
from the undeformed geometry. Furthermore, in a test, the elastomer exhibits “bedding in” effects, which make
establishing a true zero for displacement very difficult. (This is one reason why requiring a compressive load-

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10.7.2.2 Elastic Stress-Strain Behavior in Compression/10.7.3 Stability

displacement test for establishing the stiffness of a bearing is of limited value.) An approximation for the effective
modulus based on the initial geometry of the layer is:
Ec = 4.8GS2 [LRFD Eq. C14.6.3.2-1]
where
Ec = effective modulus in compression, ksi
G = shear modulus of the elastomer, ksi
S = shape factor
The effective modulus Ec depends on the bulging of the elastomer and accounts only for that behavior, assuming
complete incompressibility. For bearings with a shape factor less than about 5, the error introduced by that
assumption is smaller than that due to other uncertainties, so the approximation is acceptable. However, as the
shape factor increases, change in volume by bulk compression of the elastomer starts to account for a significant
proportion of the total vertical deformation, and the following approximation of Ec,tot, which includes the effects of
bulk compression, could be used (Gent and Lindly, 1959):
𝐾 𝐸𝑐
𝐸𝑐,𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (Eq. 10.7.2.2-1)
𝐾 + 𝐸𝑐
where K = bulk modulus, ksi
Of course, in a bearing with a high shape factor, the compressive deformation will be very small anyway, and its
exact magnitude may not be important.
The most important deflection is the one due to live load. Because live load deflection occurs after the application
of dead load, and because the load-deflection curve is nonlinear stiffening, an estimate of the live load deflection
that is based on the initial stiffness will overpredict the true value and thus be conservative.
In a well-designed bearing the vertical stiffness is high, so the vertical deflection, including both elastic and creep
components, is low. Vertical deflection is important primarily for maintaining good ride characteristics, but no
mandatory limit is given in the LRFD Specifications. The LRFD Article C14.7.5.3.6 suggests that relative live-load
deflection across a joint should be limited to ⅛ in. Since many bridge decks contain surface irregularities (for
example, expansion joints) that are significantly larger than this value, it is evident that compressive deflection in
bearings is usually not a critical design constraint.

10.7.2.3 Creep Strains

In addition to instantaneous elastic strains, the elastomeric materials used in bearings will exhibit creep behavior.
The approximate ratio of ultimate creep deflections to initial deflections for various elastomers is provided in
Table 10.7.1.2-1 [LRFD Table 14.7.6.2-1]. Creep is seldom a controlling parameter. It affects the shear
deformations more than the change in volume, so it is likely to be more prevalent in bearings with low shape
factors.

10.7.3 Stability
A bearing is an elastomeric column, and may buckle if the slenderness or compressive stress is too high. The
mechanics of buckling are more complicated for bearings than for conventional columns because the shear
flexibility of a bearing plays a major role. Haryngx (1948–1949) was the first to develop a model for buckling of
continuous, linear, shear-flexible systems, and Gent (1964) adapted it for discrete layers such as those found in
elastomeric bearings. Stanton, et al. (1990) then adapted Gent’s formulation to include nonlinear corrections to
account for the fact that, under the high stresses normally required to cause buckling, the geometry changes
significantly. The resulting equations are given in the LRFD Specifications and are quite complicated. In some
cases, those equations lead to a predicted buckling stress that is negative. The implication of a negative stress is
that buckling will never occur at any stress and may be ignored. This curious behavior is associated with shear-
flexible systems and is described in Article 2.19 of Timoshenko and Gere (1961). It may be thought of as arising

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10.7.3 Stability/10.7.4 Tapered Bearings

because the column shortens under load. The shorter column has a higher buckling strength, and, for certain
column geometries, the strength increases faster than the load, rendering buckling impossible.
The LRFD Specifications includes two methods for checking stability. For bearings designed using Method A, the
total thickness of the pad shall not exceed one-third of the smallest plan dimension of a rectangular pad or one-
fourth the diameter of a round pad [LRFD Art. 14.7.6.3.6]. For bearings designed using Method B, explicit
equations are included. However, if the bearing satisfies the Method A criteria, it will almost certainly satisfy the
more complex explicit checks.

10.7.4 Tapered Bearings

Until 1992, tapered bearings were permitted by the Standard Specifications. Currently, however, both the
Standard Specifications and the LRFD Specifications do not allow the use of tapered layers in elastomeric bearings
[LRFD Art. 14.7.5.1]. The reasons are related to performance. First, the greater layer thickness on one side creates
lower compressive stiffness there, so the load is unevenly distributed across the bearing and exacerbates the
internal stresses. Under cyclic loading, it may also promote “walking” of the bearing. Second, some bearings with
tapered layers tested by Roeder, et al. (1987) were found to debond prematurely from the internal steel plates.
This was attributed to the presence of the tapered layers.
If the applied static rotation is too large to be accommodated by deformation of the bearing, a steel tapered plate
or a sloping recess in the bottom flange of the beam may be used to correct for it, and the deformation capacity of
the bearing can then be used to accommodate live-load rotations. If a tapered plate or recess is used, care should
be taken to orient it correctly. A reversed tapered plate or recess (see Fig. 10.7.4-1) creates stresses in the
bearing that are more severe than those in a system with no tapered plate.
Figure 10.7.4-1
Reversed Recess in Beam at Bearing

The bearing should always be set on a horizontal support and have its surfaces and internal steel plates
horizontal. Any tapered plate should be placed on top of it. If the internal plates were to be inclined, a portion of
the vertical load would have to be carried by the bearing in shear, and, because the shear stiffness is low, the
deformations would be significant.
Muscarella and Yura (1995) studied the behavior of tapered elastomeric bearings and has provided
recommendations for their continued use, which are given in Section 10.8.5. It should be noted that use of tapered

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10.7.4 Tapered Bearings/10.8.1 Applicable Specifications

bearing layers is not permitted in Method B of the LRFD Specifications [LRFD Art. 14.7.5.1] and not specifically
addressed in Method A except that “internal layers shall be of the same thickness” [LRFD Art. 14.7.6.1], so cannot
be recommended, particularly because the cost of replacing a damaged bearing is typically many times the first
cost of the bearing itself. However, Texas Department of Transportation uses tapered elastomeric bearings for
grades up to 5%, because fabricating tapered bearings is less expensive than machining a steel bevel plate
(Khaleghi, et al., 2022).

10.8 DESIGN OF ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS

10.8.1 Applicable Specifications
Bearing design is controlled by the LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2020B); materials requirements and testing are
defined in AASHTO M251 Standard Specification for Plain and Laminated Elastomeric Bridge Bearings; and the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications (AASHTO, 2020A) dictates the ASTM and other tests that the
bearings must satisfy. These three documents are maintained by different committees, and consequently they are
sometimes less than optimally correlated.
The LRFD Specifications has for many years included two methods by which bearings may be designed. Method A
is intended to be relatively simple, at the expense of some conservatism, and can be applied to steel-reinforced
bearings (SREBs), fiberglass-reinforced bearings (FRBs), cotton duck pads (CDPs), and plain pads (PEPs). Method
B applies only to SREBs. It is more computationally complex, generally results in higher capacities, and the
bearings designed by this procedure are subject to somewhat more rigorous testing.
Both design methods underwent major revisions in the 2009 Interim Revisions of the LRFD Specifications fourth
edition to reflect findings of NCHRP Report 596 (Stanton, et al., 2008). The primary objective of that research was
to reevaluate design for rotation and, in particular, to rationalize the provisions for load combinations consisting
of light loads and large rotations. These load combinations are common during construction and may lead to lift-
off on one side of the bearing. In previous editions of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, lift-off was
prohibited, albeit indirectly, which meant that in many cases no elastomeric bearing could be designed to satisfy
the requirements at both the initial conditions and the final service conditions. Testing showed that lift-off is not
inherently harmful to a bearing, and that the important criterion is not lift-off on the tension side of the bearing,
but rather excessive bulging on the compression side, caused by combined axial load and rotation (Stanton, et al.,
2008).
The Method B methodology was changed considerably in the 2009 Interim Revisions to make the design process
more transparent. The previous absolute limit of 1.75 ksi on average compressive stress was removed. In the
current LRFD Specifications shear strains in the elastomer due to compression, rotation, and shear are each
calculated explicitly and are then added. Cyclic shear strain components are multiplied by an amplification factor
of 1.75 to reflect the additional debonding damage incurred relative to static shear strain of the same magnitude.
The resulting total shear strain must be less than a specified limiting value [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-1]. In addition,
the shear strain due to permanent compression alone is subject to a second, independent limit [LRFD Eq.
14.7.5.3.3-2]. The outcome is that a bearing can be designed to carry a high compressive stress if it has a high
shape factor and experiences only a small rotation. The design provisions revised in the 2000s encourage the use
of shape factors higher than those that had typically been used in the past (about 6 and 4, respectively). The
change is supported by both theory and the excellent performance of high-shape-factor bearings in the tests
(Stanton, et al., 2008).
In the past, the primary deterrent to using Method B was the time and expense associated with additional testing,
particularly a long-duration (15 hours) compressive load test. Subsequent elimination of the requirement for
long-duration compressive load tests of Method B-designed bearings led to its more widespread use. NCHRP
Report 596 (Stanton, et al., 2008) recommended that more rigorous testing be required for bearings having a plan
area exceeding 1,000 in.2 or a total elastomeric height exceeding 8 in. consequent to heat transfer issues that
could adversely affect vulcanization during manufacturing and the more significant consequences of bearing
failure. The LRFD Specifications Article C14.7.5.1 states that bearings exceeding these plan and height parameters

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BEARINGS
10.8.1 Applicable Specifications/10.8.2 Testing Requirements

should be designed using Method B, which is subject to somewhat more stringent testing and quality control than
bearings designed using Method A.
Method A was also changed as part of the 2009 Interim Revisions. Provisions for accounting explicitly for
rotations were eliminated, making the procedure much simpler computationally. Maximum compressive stress
limitations were imposed to ensure that combined rotation and compression would not overstress the elastomer
and to allow bearings designed by this procedure to be eligible for the less-stringent testing and quality control
requirements.

10.8.2 Testing Requirements

The LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications (AASHTO, 2020A) requires that testing be conducted in accordance
with the AASHTO M251 materials specification. Testing is required both for constituent materials and for some
finished bearings. Both types of tests are defined in the AASHTO M251 materials specification.
Uncertainty constitutes the rationale underlying requirements for additional testing. Uncertainty exists in many
aspects of design such as the accuracy of the design methodology and the precision with which the material
properties are known. Uncertainty is also present in fabrication and construction; for example, the adequacy and
completeness of the elastomeric vulcanization and curing process, or the dimensional control of the bearing
components. It was previously assumed that bearings designed by Method B were stressed more highly, in which
case some of their reserve capacity was already expended. To compensate, measures to reduce the uncertainty in
their remaining capacity were deemed necessary. The easiest way of achieving that goal was to impose rigorous
testing to confirm the quality of fabrication.
The 2009 Interim Revisions to the LRFD Specifications changed both design Methods A and B, with the result that
for common bearing types and sizes, approximately the same stress levels could be achieved using either design
method. Thus, the choice of design method was no longer a good criterion for deciding the rigor of the testing
regimen. However, very large bearings create special problems in manufacturing that increase the need for
testing. During the vulcanization process, heat and pressure are applied to the outside surfaces of the bearing.
Inefficient heat transfer may inhibit vulcanization of the core of the bearing. For this reason, NCHRP Report 596
recommended more rigorous testing, including long-duration (15 hours) compression testing, for bearings having
plan areas exceeding 1,000 in.2 or total elastomeric heights exceeding 8 in.
Short-duration load tests on every steel-reinforced elastomeric bearing, regardless of design method, are
advisable. The current AASHTO M251 materials specification requires that each sampled bearing designed using
Method B be subjected to a short-duration load test. The short-duration load test can usually be conducted,
quickly and easily, in the fabrication facility. This test is a useful indicator of obvious fabrication flaws such as
misplaced internal steel plates. The cost of the short-duration load test is low and the benefit is high.
By contrast, long-duration load tests occupy fabrication equipment for a significant amount of time (generally 15
hours) and may require a special test machine, which can be very costly. It is therefore appropriate that long-
duration testing should be required only when there is some reasonable cause for questioning the integrity of the
bearing. As stated earlier herein, NCHRP Report 596 recommended long-duration load testing for any bearing
having a plan area exceeding 1,000 in.2 or a total elastomeric height exceeding 8 in. This is not required in the
current AASHTO M251 materials specification.
Testing requirements for elastomeric bearings are summarized in Table 10.8.2-1.

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10.8.2 Testing Requirements/10.8.3 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings – Design using Method B/

Table 10.8.2-1
Testing Requirements for Elastomeric Bearings
Low-Temperature Grades 0, 2, and 3 Low-Temperature Grades 4 and 5
Test PEPs, FGPs, Small PEPs, FGPs, Small
Large SREBs* Large SREBs*
SREBs SREBs
Elastomer material tests at
ambient temperature
(manufacturer may submit R R R R
certificate in lieu of shear
modulus testing)
Instantaneous thermal
R R R R
stiffening
Low-temperature brittleness R† R† R R
Low-temperature
R‡ R‡ R R
crystallization
Short-duration load test (each
R O R O
bearing)
Long-duration load test
R O R R
(randomly selected bearings)
Shear modulus G O O O O
Note: FGP = fiberglass-reinforced bearing pad; O = optional (required only when specified by the engineer); PEP
= plain elastomeric pad; R = required; SREB = steel-reinforced elastomeric bearing.
*Greater than 1,000 in.2
†Not required for Grades 0 and 2.
‡Not required for Grade 0.

10.8.3 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings—Design Using Method B

Figure 10.8.3-1 shows the configuration of a typical SREB. The following describes the procedure for designing
bearings using Method B [LRFD Art. 14.7.5].
Method B may be used for any SREB, but it is especially intended for use with SREBs that are large, have unusual
geometry, or experience high stress or deformation, because it accounts more precisely than Method A for the
strains in the elastomer.
The method consists of checking the stresses in the elastomer, the stresses in the steel plates, overall stability, and
anchorage against sliding. The elastomer is checked by computing the peak shear strains in it and ensuring that
they do not exceed three independent limits: for strains due to shear displacement alone, for strains due to static
compressive stress alone, and for strains due to combined loading (compression, rotation, and shear). A fourth
limit associated with internal fracture caused by hydrostatic tension applies only to bearings with bonded
external plates. It seldom controls, both because external plates are seldom used in concrete bridges, and because
the conditions that promote hydrostatic tension include light compressive load (or net tension) combined with
large rotations. While these conditions may occur during erection of a steel bridge, they seldom occur in concrete
bridges.

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10.8.3 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings – Design using Method B/10.8.3.1 Loads and Movements

Figure 10.8.3-1
Typical Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing

Method B bearings are required to use elastomers that have a shear modulus of between 80 and 175 psi [LRFD
Art. 14.7.5.2] and a nominal hardness of between 50 and 60 durometer on the Shore A scale.

10.8.3.1 Loads and Movements

The loads and movements for which the bearing is designed should be tabulated in a rational form. Figure
10.8.3.1-1 [LRFD Fig. C14.4.1-1] is provided as an example. Vertical dead loads and live loads (without impact)
should be identified separately because, in the design procedure, the live loads are amplified by an additional
factor to account for the damage done by repetitive loading. Horizontal loads, if required to be resisted by the
bearing, should also be identified. Figure 10.8.3.1-1 will be useful for the majority of design situations for
elastomeric bearings. For more sophisticated bearing designs, various combinations of vertical and lateral loads
must be considered. For example, the vertical load and rotation during beam erection should be considered in
addition to the service load combinations.
Translations and rotations due to live loads, dead loads, and time-dependent effects should be computed and
tabulated.

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10.8.3.1 Loads and Movements

Figure 10.8.3.1-1
Sample Form—Schedule of Loads and Movements [LRFD Fig. C14.4.1-1]
Bridge Name or Reference
Bearing Identification Mark
Number of Bearings Required
Seating Material Upper Surface
Lower Surface
Upper Face Serviceability
Allowable Average Contact Strength
Pressure (psi) Serviceability
Lower Face
Strength
Max.
Vertical Perm.
Service Limit State Min.
Design Load Transverse
Effects (kip) Longitudinal
Vertical
Strength Limit State Transverse
Longitudinal
Irreversible Transverse
Service Limit State Longitudinal
Reversible Transverse
Translation Longitudinal
Irreversible Transverse
Strength Limit Longitudinal
State Transverse
Reversible
Longitudinal
Irreversible Transverse
Rotation Longitudinal
Service Limit State
(radians) Transverse
Reversible
Longitudinal
Upper Surface Transverse
Maximum
Longitudinal
Bearing
Dimensions Lower Surface Transverse
(in.) Longitudinal
Overall Height
Vertical
Tolerable Movement of Bearing
under Transient Loads (in.) Transverse
Longitudinal
Permitted Resistance to Transverse
Translation under Service Limit
State (kip) Longitudinal
Permitted Resistance to Rotation Transverse
under Service Limit State (kip/ft)
Longitudinal
Type of Attachment to Structure Transverse
and Substructure Longitudinal

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10.8.3.2 Design for Shear Displacements/10.8.3.3 Design for Combined Loading

10.8.3.2 Design for Shear Displacements

The minimum acceptable elastomer thickness is often controlled by design for shear displacements. The total
thickness of the elastomer layers in the bearing must satisfy the following:
hrt ≥ 2ΔS [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.2-1]
where
hrt = total elastomeric thickness, in.
ΔS = maximum shear deformation of elastomer at the service limit state, in.
The shear displacement demand on the bearing is taken as the maximum possible displacement caused by creep,
shrinkage, prestressing, and thermal effects [LRFD Art. 14.7.5.3.2]. In most precast, prestressed concrete beams,
the greatest displacement will be in the shortening direction because shrinkage and creep cause shortening.
Calculation of the displacement should take into account the effects of any pier flexibility or construction
procedures, including the temperature at which the beams are set, because that may reduce the shear
deformation demand on the bearing.

10.8.3.3 Design for Combined Loading

The peak shear strains in the elastomer due to axial load, rotation, and shear displacements are computed, and
their sum must satisfy the specified limit. The shear strain due to axial load (usually compression) γa is given by:
𝜎𝑠
𝛾𝑎 = 𝐷𝑎 (
𝐺𝑆
) [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-3]

For a rectangular bearing, the shear strain due to rotation γr is given by:
𝐿 2
γ𝑟 = 𝐷𝑟 ( ) θ𝑖 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-6]
ℎ𝑟𝑖
For a circular bearing, the calculation is:
D 2
γ𝑟 = 𝐷𝑟 ( ) θ𝑖 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-8]
hri
The shear strain due to shear displacement γs is given by:
Δ𝑆
γ𝑠 = [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-10]
ℎ𝑟𝑡
where
D = diameter of a circular bearing, in.
Da, Dr = numerical constants
G = shear modulus of the elastomer, ksi
hrt = total thickness of the internal elastomer layers, in.
S = shape factor of thickest layer of an elastomeric bearing
γ = shear strain, in./in. (subscripts a, r, and s designate axial load, rotation, and shear, respectively)
ΔS = service shear displacement of the bearing, in.
𝜃𝑠
θi = rotation in layer i of the bearing, radians, =
𝑛

θs = rotation of the bearing under service load

σa = axial stress on the bearing, ksi

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10.8.3.3 Design for Combined Loading/10.8.3.4 Design for Hydrostatic Tension

The LRFD Specifications offers two sets of values for the numerical constants Da and Dr in the foregoing equations.
In the simpler set, which is suitable for hand calculations, the values for a rectangular bearing are Da = 1.4 and Dr
= 0.5. For a circular bearing, Da = 1.0 and Dr = 0.375. In the more complex set, the Da and Dr values are functions
of the compressibility index λ and the bearing aspect ratio L/W [LRFD Art. C14.7.5.3.3-1 through 5]. Their use
leads to less-conservative designs, but they require more computational effort if they are used in a hand
calculation. They are suitable for use in a spreadsheet or other computer application. The compressibility index λ
reflects the degree to which the elastomer is not completely incompressible. It is given by:

3𝐺
λ = 𝑆√ [LRFD Eq. C14.7.5.3.3-6]
𝐾

The compressibility index becomes more important as the shape factor increases, so the additional benefit offered
by the use of the more complex set of constants is greater for a bearing with a high shape factor. For a completely
incompressible material λ= 0.0.
These shear strains are computed separately for cyclic and static loads. Only loads due to traffic are considered
cyclic so, for example, daily thermal displacements are treated as static. A distinction could be made between the
AASHTO truck loading and lane loading on the basis that lane loading creates cycles of deformations with lower
amplitudes. The LRFD Specifications is silent on the matter; therefore, both loads should be treated as cyclic. The
strains must satisfy the following:
(γ𝑎,𝑠𝑡 + γ𝑟,𝑠𝑡 +γ𝑠,𝑠𝑡 ) + 1.75(γ𝑎,𝑐𝑦 + γ𝑟,𝑐𝑦 +γ𝑠,𝑐𝑦 ) ≤ 5.0 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-1]
γ𝑎,𝑠𝑡 ≤ 3.0 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-2]
where the subscripts st and cy refer to the static and cyclic components of the load. The factor 1.75 applied to the
cyclic component of the shear strains reflects the fact that cyclic loading causes damage to the elastomer more
readily than does static loading. LRFD Equation 14.7.5.3.3-1 addresses debonding or tearing of the elastomer due
to combined loading, whereas LRFD Equation 14.7.5.3.3-2 is intended to prevent damage in a bearing with high
dead load. The latter is likely to control only in long-span bridges where the dead load is a significant proportion
of the total load. The checks should be made for rotation about both primary axes of the bearing. The combination
with rotation about the longitudinal axis of the beam (torsional deformation) is likely to control only in bridges
with large skew angles.
A question arises over the way to interpret the rotations, especially when the allowance for nonparallelism is
included. If the beams camber upward under full dead load, the end rotation is also upward. However, the end
rotation due to truck loading will cause downward rotation, so the total rotation may be less than the dead load
rotation. There is thus a need for a rational way of accounting for the rotation components. The rotation tests on
which the LRFD Specifications are based were conducted using a fixed static rotation θst plus a cyclic rotation ±θcy.
The real loading should thus be broken down into comparable components.
First, the largest total rotation, including the nonparallelism allowance acting in its most disadvantageous sense
and the live load rotation, should be established. Both directions should be investigated and the larger of the two
absolute values should be selected. θst should be taken as that total rotation minus the (unamplified) cyclic
rotation. The nominal live load rotation due to both truck and lane loading should be multiplied by 1.75 and
added to the static rotation to give the total design rotation. The procedure is illustrated in the design example in
Section 10.8.3.8.

10.8.3.4 Design for Hydrostatic Tension

If the bearing is positively attached to the beam (for example, through a bonded external steel plate), it must be
checked for potential internal fracture caused by hydrostatic tension in the elastomer. If the beam or sole plate
can lift off from the bearing, the check is not necessary. Because prestressed concrete beams are generally set on
their bearings with no such attachment, the check will seldom be necessary.
The hydrostatic stress must satisfy:
σℎ𝑦𝑑 ≤ 2.25𝐺 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-11]

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10.8.3.4 Design for Hydrostatic Tension/10.8.3.5 Stability

The hydrostatic stress is computed as:

σℎ𝑦𝑑 ≤ 3𝐺𝑆 3 θ𝑖 𝐶α [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-12]
where
4 1 1.5
𝐶α = {(α2 + ) − α(1 − α2 )} [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-13]
3 3
ε𝑎
and α= [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-14]
𝑆θ𝑖
where εa, the average axial strain (taken as positive in compression) is computed using:
σ𝑠
ε𝑎 = [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-15]
3𝐵𝑎 𝐺𝑆 2
Constant Ba may be taken as 1.6 for all bearings. An alternative, more precise value, which is a function of the
aspect ratio and compressibility index, is given in the commentary to the LRFD Specifications [LRFD Art. C14.5.3.3-
7 and 8].
Hydrostatic tension is caused by axial tension loading on the bearing, large rotation, or a combination of the two.
It may occur on the “uplift” side of the bearing even if the axial load is compressive, if the rotation is large enough.
Load combinations that lead to excessive hydrostatic tension are expected to be rare, especially with prestressed
concrete beams.
The LRFD Specifications allows the service average compressive stresses to be computed on the basis of the gross,
external dimensions of the bearing. This is an acceptable approximation when the elastomeric side cover lies in
the common range of ⅛ to ¼ in. If thicker side cover is used, it is recommended that the dimensions of the steel
plates be used to define both the shape factor and the compressive stress.

10.8.3.5 Stability
To prevent buckling of the bearing, the LRFD Specifications limits the average compressive stress to half the
predicted buckling stress. Bearings that satisfy LRFD Equation 14.7.5.3.4-1 are considered to be stable at any
stress, and require no additional investigation of stability:
2A ≤ B [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.4-1]

where
ℎ𝑟𝑡
1.92 (
𝐿)
A = [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.4-2]
√1 + 2.0𝐿
𝑊
2.67
B = L [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.4-3]
(𝑆 + 2.0) (1 +
4.0𝑊 )
where
hrt = total elastomer thickness in bearing, in.
L = length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (parallel to longitudinal bridge axis), in.
S = shape factor of one layer of an elastomeric bearing
W = width of bearing in the transverse direction (perpendicular to longitudinal bridge axis), in.
If LRFD Equation 14.7.5.3.4-1 is not satisfied, one of the following equations must be satisfied depending on the
conditions of restraint for horizontal translation.

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10.8.3.5 Stability/10.8.3.7 Anchorage

If the superstructure is free to translate horizontally (that is, if the bearing being investigated can buckle in a
sideways mode), the following equation must be satisfied:
𝐺𝑆
σ𝑠 ≤ [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.4-4]
2𝐴 − 𝐵
If the superstructure is fixed against horizontal translation because, for example, it is fixed at one end, the
following equation must be satisfied:
𝐺𝑆
σ𝑠 ≤ [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.4-5]
𝐴−𝐵
A negative or infinite result on the right side of the equation indicates that the bearing is stable under any stress.
Note that if a bridge has fixed bearings at one end and unrestrained bearings at the other, the unrestrained
bearings will be free to sway transversely but will be prevented from longitudinal displacement by the bearings at
the other end. The foregoing equations address instability in the longitudinal direction. Potential instability in the
transverse direction can be investigated by interchanging L and W.

10.8.3.6 Steel Reinforcement

The internal steel plates experience horizontal tension when the bearing is loaded in vertical compression,
because they restrain the lateral movement of the elastomer. Therefore, they must be strong enough for that
purpose. The internal steel plates must also be thick enough to not warp during fabrication of the bearing. To
guard against that, they shall be at least 0.0625 in. thick [AASHTO M251 Sect. 4.5], but many fabricators use 11
gauge (0.1196 in.) as a standard because it is thick enough for almost all bearings and it allows them to buy the
steel in quantity. A plate size that is practical for fabrication will often be adequate for strength.
The following equation is intended to ensure adequate plate strength at the service limit state:
3ℎ𝑟,𝑚𝑎𝑥 σ𝑠
ℎ𝑠 ≥ [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.5-1]
𝐹𝑦
where
hs = thickness of steel reinforcement, in.
Fy = yield strength of steel reinforcement, ksi
hr,max = thickness of thickest elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing, in.
To prevent fatigue failure of the steel reinforcement, LRFD Equation 14.7.5.3.5-2 must also be satisfied:
2ℎ𝑟,𝑚𝑎𝑥 σ𝐿
ℎ𝑠 ≥ [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.5-2]
Δ𝐹𝑇𝐻
where
ΔFTH = constant amplitude fatigue threshold for Category A, as specified in LRFD Article 6.6, ksi
σL = average compressive stress due to live load, ksi
If holes are necessary, the computed minimum thickness of the reinforcement must be increased by a factor equal
to twice the gross width of the plate divided by the net width.

10.8.3.7 Anchorage
Bearings that are required to transmit horizontal forces must be checked for slipping, and restraint must be
provided if needed.
For bearings with external bonded plates, restraint is most easily provided by securing the plates to the girder
and the support using bolting, welding, or other methods.
For bearings without external plates, restraint may be provided by friction or by a supplementary system, such as
anchor bolts. The LRFD Specifications does not give a value for the available coefficient of friction. However, a

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10.8.3.7 Anchorage/10.8.3.8.2 Loads and Movements

friction coefficient of 0.20 has been found to be reasonable but must be verified by the manufacturer. However,
friction of polymers is a complex subject and does not obey the common Coulomb friction laws. For example, the
friction coefficient of a polymer is not a constant; rather, it varies with the contact pressure. It also varies with the
material and roughness of the contact surface. Further complications are introduced if anti-ozonant wax is used in
the elastomer formulation because it has been found to diffuse to the surface of the bearing, where it acts as a
lubricant and promotes slip.
In the light of those difficulties, it would be prudent to secure actively any bearing that must resist significant
horizontal forces.

10.8.3.8 Bearing Design Example—Method B

10.8.3.8.1 Introduction
This example demonstrates the design of an elastomeric bearing in accordance with Method B in the LRFD
Specifications. The need for long-duration testing will depend on the size of the bearing.
The bridge is the same as the one in Design Example 9.1a (not Design Example 9.1a6) in Chapter 9 and is, for this
example, located in Rosemount, Minn. It consists of six 120-ft simple span BT-72 beams on 9 ft centers, with an 8-
in.-thick, cast-in-place concrete deck. It has no skew, and all movement is accounted for at one end. The beams
have a 26-in.-wide bottom flange. Choose a suitable movable elastomeric bearing.
Criteria in addition to those given in Example 9.1a are:
• The design temperature range is to be taken from the LRFD Article 3.12.2.
• Of the shrinkage and creep that occur between transfer and casting the slab, assume that two-thirds
occurs before the beams are erected.
• Assume free differential shrinkage of 400 ×10−6 in./in. of the deck slab relative to the beams. This is the
difference in free shrinkage between the slab and the girder after slab casting. The free shrinkage of a
concrete component is the shrinkage that would occur if the component were not restrained (for
example, by being connected to another element).
Bearing type: Use a rectangular, steel-reinforced elastomeric bearing with a shear modulus of 0.100 ksi.

10.8.3.8.2 Loads and Movements

In the following analysis, the loads and movements are developed in some detail, using data from Chapter 9,
Example 9.1a (not Example 9.1a.6). If less-precise estimates are used in the interests of simplicity, they should be
conservative.
The primary design requirements are the vertical load, horizontal displacement, and rotation about the
transverse axis of the beam. Because the bridge has no skew, torsional beam rotations are ignored, but the
allowance for nonparallelism must still be included about that axis. The combinations of load, displacement, and
rotation change over time, but two situations are likely to be critical: directly before the slab is cast when some of
the prestressing has been lost, and after all prestress losses have occurred and live load is applied. The bearing
will be checked for those two situations.

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10.8.3.8.2 Loads and Movements

Table 10.8.3.8.2-1
Design Loads and Movements
PV PV ∆V ∆V Rotation Rotation ∆H ∆H ∆H ∆H
Time Incr. Cum. Rotation After
Event Incr. Cum. Incr. Cum. radians radians CG Incr. Incr. Cum.
Erection
kips kips in. in. in. in.
(10−3) (10−3) in. in.
Start End
Start End
Prestress 0 −3.66 −3.66 −8.90 −9.8.90
transfer transfer −0.94
Girder Start End
0 1.46 −2.20 3.55 −5.35 −0.99
Self wt. transfer transfer

End
Cr + Sh Erection 47.9 47.9 −1.12 −3.32 −2.72 −8.07 −0.83 −1.82 0.00
transfer

Cr + Sh Erection Before Slab 0 47.9 −0.56 −3.88 −1.36 −9.43 −0.42 −2.24 −0.42

Slab + DL Before slab After slab 73.3 121.2 1.82 −2.06 4.42 −5.01 0.00 0.32 −1.92 −0.10

Diff Sh After slab Infinite 0 121.2 0.98 −1.08 2.38 −2.63 −0.33 0.26 −1.99 −0.17

Thermal Infinite Infinite 0 121.2 0.00 0.00 0.00 −2.63 −0.73 0.00 −2.72 −0.90

After LL
LL lane Infinite 33.9 155.1 0.39 −0.69 0.95 −1.68 0.00 0.11 −2.61 −0.79
lane
After LL After LL
LL truck 58.7 213.8 0.56 −0.13 1.36 −0.32 0.00 0.15 −2.46 −0.64
lane truck

Table 10.8.3.8.2-1 summarizes the response quantities (loads, movements, and rotations) at different times. For
each quantity, an increment is computed and added to the cumulative total. The values were obtained as follows.
The beam self-weight reaction; the additional dead load reactions from the weights of the slab, haunch, barriers,
and wearing course; and the truck and lane load reactions; were all taken directly from Example 9.1a. No live load
impact fraction was used [LRFD Art. 14.4.1].
The beam end rotations, which define the bearing rotations, are not computed in Example 9.1a. However, it can be
shown (Appendix F in Stanton, et al., 2008) that:
∆𝑣
θ𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑡 (Eq. 10.8.3.8.2-1)
𝐿
where
Δv = the midspan deflection, in.
L = the span length, in.
The value of crot varies slightly with the type of loading. For prestressing with constant eccentricity, crot = 4.0. For
prestressing harped at midspan, crot = 3.0. For a uniform load, crot = 3.2. In the interests of simplicity, the end
rotations are computed here using crot = 3.5 in all cases. One of the consequences of this relationship is that if the
midspan live load deflection is limited to L/800, the end rotation due to live load will be no greater than 3.5/800
= 0.0044 radians. The live load deflection of a prestressed concrete beam is usually less than L/800, and for live
load, crot ≈ 3.2; therefore, the live rotation applied to the bearing will be less than 0.0040 radians, and that value
may be used as a conservative estimate if a better value is not available. However, in this example the individual
components of rotation were obtained from the corresponding vertical deflections. The rotation values in the
table are given in 10−3 radians.

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10.8.3.8.2 Loads and Movements

The vertical deflection components from which the end rotations were computed were taken from Example 9.1a.
Downward deflections are treated as positive here, so upward camber is negative. The elastic camber at transfer
is −3.66 in., and the corresponding self-weight deflection is +1.46 in. Using the PCI multipliers (see Sect. 8.7.1) to
approximate the effects of creep and shrinkage, the example gives additional deflections of 0.80 times the
prestressing camber and 0.85 times the self-weight deflection between transfer and slab casting. It is assumed
here (see the problem statement) that two-thirds of that additional deflection occurs between transfer and beam
erection, and the remaining one-third occurs between beam erection and slab casting. Thus, the increment before
beam erection is:
2
Δ𝑣,𝑖𝑛𝑐 = (0.80(−3.66) + 0.85(1.46)) = −1.12 in. (Eq. 10.8.3.8.2-2)
3
The deflection increment between beam erection and slab casting is the remaining one-third of the total, or half
the value given in Eq. (10.8.3.8.2-2), giving −0.56 in. Those values are shown in Table 10.8.3.8.2-1. The value of
1.82 in., shown for elastic vertical deflection due to slab self weight, also includes the deflections due to the weight
of the slab, haunch, barriers, and wearing surface, each computed using the appropriate moment of inertia.
After the slab is cast, it shrinks relative to the beam. Because the slab is bonded to the beam, the relative
shrinkage causes positive curvature and downward deflection of the composite section. A simple analysis that
ignores the haunch and any steel in the beam and slab shows that the beam undergoes constant curvature along
its length, and a corresponding midspan deflection given by:
𝐿2 𝐸𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 𝐴𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 𝑦̅ε𝑠ℎ,𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 (1,440)2 (4,266)(810)(21.78)(0.0004)
Δ𝑣 = = (Eq. 10.8.3.8.2-3)
8 (𝐸𝐼)𝑡𝑟 8 (5,008)(1,205,935)
= 1.29 in.
where
Aslab = cross-sectional area of the slab, in.2
Eslab = modulus of elasticity of the slab concrete, ksi
(EI)tr = flexural stiffness of the composite, transformed section, k-in.2
𝑦̅ = distance between the centroid of the transformed section and the centroid of the slab, in.
εsh,free = free shrinkage of the slab relative to the beam, in./in.
Here, all the values were taken from Example 9.1a, except for the differential shrinkage between slab and beam,
which was taken to be 0.0004 in./in., as stated in the assumptions to this example.
A more precise calculation, using the same principles but using a numerical solution, included the haunch and the
steel in the beam and slab. It gave a downward deflection of 0.98 in., which is the value used here. In it, the slab
was assumed to shrink by a total of 0.0005 in./in., and the beam by 0.0001 in./in., after the slab was cast. The steel
in the elements restrains some of the shrinkage and therefore reduces the deflection.
The instantaneous deflections due to lane loading (0.39 in.) and truck loading (0.56 in. after removing impact)
were taken directly from Example 9.1a.
Horizontal displacement of the bearing arises from two sources: change in length of the beam at its centroid and
end rotation of the beam about its centroid. In Table 10.8.3.8.2-1, increments in the former are given in the
column labeled ΔH CG Incr., whereas increments in the latter are given in the column labeled Δ Rotation Incr. In
both cases, negative values correspond to shortening of the beam’s bottom flange. Where possible, the values
were taken from Example 9.1a. In some cases, the two components (caused by axial shortening at the centroid
and by end rotation multiplied by the bottom flange distance) were computed together in Example 9.1a, so they
are reported together in Table 10.8.3.8.2-1.
The shortening of the bottom flange at transfer was obtained from the stress change in the concrete there, given
in Section 9.1a.7.2 as 3.328 ksi at midspan. The stress really varies slightly along the span, but the midspan value
was taken as representative for these purposes. The change in length is given by:

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10.8.3.8.2 Loads and Movements

𝑓𝑏,𝑡𝑟 𝐿 (3.328)(1,440)
∆𝐿𝑏,𝑡𝑟 = =− = −0.99 in. (Eq. 10.8.3.8.2-4)
𝐸𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑑 4,823
where
Egird = modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at the time of transfer, ksi
fb,tr = bending stress in the concrete due to transfer, ksi
ΔLb,tr = change in length, in.
This value includes both the shortening due to prestressing and the elongation due to self weight.
Creep and shrinkage between transfer and slab casting together cause a stress loss in the tendon of 6.019 +
15.445 = 21.464 ksi (Section 9.1a.6.2.2). The change in length ΔLten at the tendon centroid is therefore:
∆𝑓𝑝 𝐿 (21.416)(1,440)
∆𝐿𝑡𝑒𝑛 = =− = −1.08 in. (Eq. 10.8.3.8.2-5)
𝐸𝑝 28,500
where
Δfp = change in stress in the prestressing strands, ksi
Ep = modulus of elasticity of the prestressing strands, ksi
The negative value indicates shortening. The corresponding ΔLbf at the bottom flange is:
𝑒𝑝 𝑦𝑏 (28.35)(36.60)
(1 + 2 )
(1 + )
𝑟 (26.68)2
∆𝐿𝑏𝑓 = (∆𝐿 𝑡𝑒𝑛 ) = (−1.08 ) = −1.25 in. (Eq. 10.8.3.8.2-6)
𝑒𝑝2 (28.35)2
(1 + 2 ) (1 + )
𝑟 (26.68)2
where
ep = eccentricity of the prestressing strands relative to the center of gravity of the transformed beam section
at transfer, in.
r = radius of gyration of the beam cross section, in.
yb = distance from center of gravity to extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite, nontransformed precast
concrete beam, in.
For consistency with the vertical deflections and rotations, two-thirds of this change (−0.83 in.) is assumed to
occur between transfer and beam erection, and the remaining one-third (−0.42 in.) between erection and slab
casting. This change in length must all be accommodated at the movable bearing.
The movement ΔLslab,due to slab casting consists of the end rotation multiplied by the bottom flange distance,
given by:
∆𝐿𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 = θ𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑏 = (0.00442)(36.60) = 0.16 in. (Eq. 10.8.3.8.2-7)
This change represents an outward movement, or elongation, so is taken as positive. This movement happens at
each end of the girder, so the total movement of one end relative to the other is 0.32 in. Because one end is fixed,
the value at the movable end is 0.32 in.
The differential shrinkage causes a strain change of −230 × 10−6 at the centroid of the transformed section, or a
change in length there of −0.33 in. The associated vertical deflection is 0.98 in. which leads to an end rotation of
0.0024 radians. The additional component of longitudinal movement ΔLrot due to that rotation is:
∆𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑡 = θ𝑦𝑏 = (0.0024)(55.58) = 0.13 in. (Eq. 10.8.3.8.2-8)
Note that yb, the bottom flange distance, used here is the value for the composite section. Again, because one end
of the bridge is fixed but rotation occurs at both ends, the displacement at the movable bearing is twice this value,

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10.8.3.8.2 Loads and Movements/10.8.3.8.4 Trial Bearing Size

or 0.26 in. It represents an outward movement, so it is positive. Thus, the total movement due to differential
shrinkage is (−0.33 + 0.26) = −0.07 in.
Thermal contraction in cold weather causes the beam to shorten. Changes in camber due to thermal gradients are
ignored here because the solar gain on the deck is small in the winter, and only the movement due to overall
change in length is considered. LRFD Article 14.7.5.3.2 stipulates that unless the bearing is reset at the average
temperature, it shall be designed for 65% of the total thermal movement range computed in accordance with
LRFD Article 3.12.2.
The maps [LRFD Figs. 3.12.2.2-1 and 2] show the minimum and maximum temperatures for Rosemount, Minn., to
be −20 °F and +110 °F, respectively. Thus, the change in length ΔLT is:
∆𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿αΔ𝑇 = (1,440)(0.000006)(0.65)((110) − (−20)) = 0.73 in. (Eq. 10.8.3.8.2-9)
Strictly, this change in length should be considered in both directions (lengthening and shortening), but since it is
to be combined with creep and shrinkage, shortening will control.
Patterning the notation after the LRFD Specifications, the total movement ΔO due to temperature, creep and
shrinkage, and differential shrinkage [LRFD Art. 14.7.5.3.2] is therefore:
∆𝑂 = ∆ 𝑇 + ∆𝐶𝑅+𝑆𝐻𝑅 + ∆𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓,𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑟 = (−0.73) + (−0.42) + (−0.07) = −1.22 in. (Eq. 10.8.3.8.2-10)
Note that this value excludes the elongation due to the weight of the slab and live loads, because LRFD Article
14.7.5.3.2 does not specify them. Excluding them is conservative because those loadings cause elongation of the
bottom flange. However, when the combined loading specified in LRFD Article 14.7.5.3.3 is used, the elongations
caused by live load must be accounted for. They must also be multiplied by 1.75 to account for the damaging
nature of cyclic loading. Under those circumstances the elongation controls, and the critical length change Δcrit is
given by:
∆𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = ∆ 𝑇 + ∆𝐶𝑅+𝑆𝐻𝑅 + ∆𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 + ∆𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓,𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑟 + 1.75∆𝐿𝐿
= 0.73 + (−0.42) + 0.32 + (−0.07) + (1.75)(0.11 + 0.15)
= +1.02 in. (Eq. 10.8.3.8.2-11)

It should be recognized that the longitudinal displacements that cause shear deformation in the bearing are only
those that occur after the beam has been set on the bearings. Thus, the last column of Table 10.8.3.8.2-1 shows
the net longitudinal displacements after subtracting the value at erection. However, this principle does not apply
to rotations or vertical loads.
The load combinations chosen for use in the design are therefore:
• Initial conditions just before deck casting. (P = 47.9 kips, θ = −0.00943 radians, ΔCR+SHR = −0.42 in.)
• Final service condition with truck and lane loads. (P = 213.8 kips, θ = −0.00032 radians, Δcrit = +1.02 in.)

10.8.3.8.3 Elastomer Thickness for Shear Displacements

The supports are considered to be rigid with respect to horizontal movements, so the total thickness of the
elastomer must accommodate all of the movement. For the limit on shear displacements, LRFD Article 14.7.5.3.2
only requires consideration of the changes in length due to temperature, creep, shrinkage, and post-tensioning.
The total length change ΔO, calculated above, is 1.22 in. Because the supports are rigid:
∆𝑆 = ∆𝑂 = 1.22 in. (Eq. 10.8.3.8.3-1)
The elastomer thickness must satisfy:
ℎ𝑟𝑡 ≥ 2∆𝑆 = 2(1.22) = 2.44 in. [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.2-1]

10.8.3.8.4 Trial Bearing Size

The bearing should be as wide as possible to promote torsional stability of the beam during erection. The beam
bottom flange is 26 in. wide. Try a 23-in.-wide bearing, so as to leave 1.5 in. on each side to accommodate any

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10.8.3.8.4 Trial Bearing Size/10.8.3.8.5 Design for Combined Loading

chamfer of the beam’s bottom flange. Using a trial hrt of 2.6 in., 0.25-in.-thick top and bottom cover, and an
estimated seven 11-gage steel plates, the total bearing height will be approximately 2(0.25) + 2.6 + 7(0.12) =
3.94 in. The simple stability check of Method A, according to which the total bearing height must not exceed one-
third of the length, thus suggests a length of at least 11.8 in. Assuming that the Method B stability criteria will lead
to a slightly smaller bearing, try 23 × 10 in., with hrt = 2.6 in. Assume six internal layers, each 0.433 in. thick. (In
practice, a more standard thickness, such as 0.50 in., would likely be chosen. Here, the bearing size is kept to a
minimum to demonstrate the possibilities using these design methods. Minimizing the bearing size inevitably
leads to some nonstandard values.) The shape factor for each layer is then:
𝐿𝑊 23(10)
𝑆= = = 8.048 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.1-1]
2ℎ𝑟𝑖 (𝐿 + 𝑊) 2(0.433)(23 + 10)

10.8.3.8.5 Design for Combined Loading

The service load combination is evaluated first because it contains the highest axial load. The static axial load is
caused by beam self weight, haunch, deck, barriers, wearing course, and lane load, and is given by:
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 47.9 + 73.3 = 121.2 kips (Eq. 10.8.3.8.5-1)
The live load is caused by the lane and truck loading, and is:
𝑃𝑐𝑦 = 33.9 + 58.7 = 92.6 kips (Eq. 10.8.3.8.5-2)
The axial stress, including the amplification of the live load for cyclic effects, is:
𝑃𝑠𝑡 + 1.75(𝑃𝑐𝑦 ) 121.2 + 1.75(92.6) 283.2
σ𝑎 = = = = 1.232 ksi (Eq. 10.8.3.8.5-3)
𝐴 23(10) 230
The corresponding shear strain is:
σ𝑎 1.232
γ𝑎 = 𝐷𝑎 = 1.40 ( ) = 2.143 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-3]
𝐺𝑆 0.100(8.048)
Thus, γ𝑎 ≤ 3.0 and the LRFD Specifications requirement is satisfied [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-2]
Computing the rotation raises some subtle questions. The primary one is that some of the components of the total
rotation counteract each other and a way must be found for computing values for the design static and cyclic
rotations that reflects the intent of the LRFD Specifications, especially in view of the fact that the static allowance
for nonparallelism should be taken in the sense that is least advantageous. A simple approach would be to add the
absolute values of all rotation components, but it would likely be very conservative. Here, the signs of the rotation
components are taken into account when the values are added, and the nonparallelism allowance is tried in both
senses (positive and negative). From Table 10.8.3.8.2-1 the computed static rotation, without the nonparallelism
allowance is −2.63 × 10−3 radians. The negative sign indicates that it is associated with upward camber. The
amplified live load rotation is:
θ𝑐𝑦 = 1.75(0.95 + 1.36) × 10−3 = 0.00404 radians (Eq. 10.8.3.8.5-4)
If the nonparallelism allowance of 0.005 radians is taken as negative, the static rotation becomes −0.00763
radians, to which must be added the cyclic +0.00404 radians. Thus, during the passage of a truck plus lane load,
the rotation varies from −0.00763 to −0.00359 radians. If the allowance is taken as positive, the values are
+0.001901 to +0.006964 radians. Of these values, the largest, namely 0.00763 radians, is accepted as the design
rotation. Then the shear strain due to rotation is:
𝐿 2 10 2 (0.00763)
γ𝑟 = 𝐷𝑟 ( ) θ𝑖 = 0.5 ( ) = 0.339 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-6]
ℎ𝑟𝑖 0.433 6
The trial bearing has six interior elastomer layers, so n is taken here as 6. LRFD Article 14.7.5.3.3 permits n to be
increased by 1 if the top and bottom cover layers are at least one-half the thickness of the interior layers, on the
basis that they will accommodate some of the total rotation. In this case the 0.25-in.-thick cover layers satisfy the

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10.8.3.8.5 Design for Combined Loading/10.8.3.8.7 Stability

criterion, but the value of n was left unchanged. This choice is conservative because the true shear strain caused
by rotation will be slightly smaller than the calculated value.
The shear strain due to shear displacement used here must include all components, including those caused by
applied dead and live loads. In Section 10.8.3.8.2, the total horizontal displacement was found to be 1.02 in. (Eq.
10.8.3.8.2-11).
Therefore the shear strain due to shear displacement γs is given by:
Δ𝑠 1.02
γ𝑠 = = = 0.392 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.3-10]
ℎ𝑟𝑡 2.6
The combined shear strain is:
γ𝑡𝑜𝑡 = γ𝑎 + γ𝑟 + γ𝑠 = 2.143 + 0.339 + 0.392 = 2.874 ≤ 5.000 (Eq. 10.8.3.8.5-5)
It can be seen that the axial load provides the largest contribution (2.143) to the total shear strain. It could be
reduced, at the expense of increasing the shear strain due to rotation, by using thinner layers and a higher shape
factor. By trial and error, the lowest total shear strain was found to occur with 16 layers at 0.1625 in. each. Such a
bearing would be extremely robust, but would be heavier and more expensive due to the extra steel layers.
Further trial and error, in which the bearing length was varied, shows that a bearing 23 × 8 in., with six layers
0.433 in. each, also works. It leads to a shape factor S = 6.849 and a total shear strain of approximately 4.0. That
bearing is accepted for use here.
The strains were also checked in the transverse direction. The value of γa was the same, γs was 0.0, but γr was
found to be relatively high. This occurs because the bearing is stiff in rotation about its strong axis, but the
nonparallelism allowance of 0.005 radians must still be accommodated. The total shear strain in the transverse
direction is still below 5.000, and it is the transverse direction that controls the design.
Even though lift-off is indicated just before deck casting, the shear strains are acceptable. Thus the service
condition controls the design.

10.8.3.8.6 Design for Hydrostatic Tension

The bearing has no bonded external plates. Therefore, hydrostatic tension does not need to be considered.

10.8.3.8.7 Stability
The LRFD Specifications depends on parameters A and B. For sway in the longitudinal direction, they are given by:
ℎ𝑟𝑡 2.6
1.92 ( 1.92 ( )
𝐿 )= 8 = 0.479
A = [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.4-2]
√1 + 2.0𝐿 √1 + 2.0(8)
𝑊 23

2.67 2.67
B = 𝐿
=
8
= 0.278 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.4-3]
(𝑆 + 2.0) (1 +
4.0𝑊 ) (6.849 + 2.0) (1 +
(4.0)(23)
)

where
hrt = total elastomer thickness in bearing, in.
L = length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (parallel to longitudinal bridge axis), in.
S = shape factor of one layer of an elastomeric bearing
W = width of bearing in the transverse direction (perpendicular to longitudinal bridge axis), in.
If the bridge deck is fixed against horizontal translation, as it is in the longitudinal direction, the simplest and
most conservative stability check in the LRFD Specifications is:
2A ≤ B [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.4-1]
2(0.479) ≰ 0.278 NG

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10.8.3.8.7 Stability/10.8.3.8.9 Anchorage

Passing this test would have indicated that the bearing could never buckle at any stress and is therefore
unconditionally stable. If LRFD Equation 14.7.5.3.4-1 is not satisfied, the bearing may still be stable if the applied
compressive stress is less than the allowable compressive stress, which depends on the horizontal restraint
conditions. If the bridge is not free to translate horizontally, for example because the bridge is fixed at one end,
the requirement is:
𝐺𝑆 0.100(6.849)
σ𝑠 ≤ = = 3.407 ksi [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.4-5]
𝐴 − 𝐵 0.479 − 0.278
Since the applied stress is:
213.8
σ𝑠 = = 1.162 ksi (Eq. 10.8.3.8.7-1)
23(8)
LRFD Equation 14.7.5.3.4-5 is easily satisfied and the bearing is stable. In the transverse direction, in which the
deck is assumed not to be restrained against horizontal translation:
ℎ𝑟𝑡 2.6
1.92 ( 1.92 ( )
𝑊) = 23 = 0.083
A = [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.4-2]
√1 + 2.0𝑊 √1 + 2.0(23)
𝐿 8

2.67 2.67
B = = = 0.176 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.4-3]
𝑊 23
(𝑆 + 2.0) (1 +
4.0𝐿) (6.849 + 2.0) (1 +
(4.0)(8)
)

0.168 = 2A ≤ B = 0.176 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.4-1]

So, in that direction, the bearing is unconditionally stable.

10.8.3.8.8 Steel Reinforcement

The thickness of the steel plates for static strength is determined by
3.0ℎ𝑟,𝑚𝑎𝑥 σ𝑠 3.0(0.433)(1.162)
ℎ𝑠 ≥ = = 0.0457 in. [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.5-1]
𝐹𝑦 36
where
hs = thickness of steel reinforcement, in.
Fy = yield strength of steel reinforcement, ksi
hr,max = thickness of thickest elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing, in.
To prevent fatigue failure, the thickness must also satisfy:
2.0ℎ𝑟,𝑚𝑎𝑥 σ𝐿 2.0(0.433)(0.503)
ℎ𝑠 ≥ = = 0.018 in. [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.5-2]
Δ𝐹𝑇𝐻 24
where
ΔFTH = constant amplitude fatigue threshold for Category A, as specified in LRFD Article 6.6, ksi
92.6 kips
σL = average compressive stress due to live load = = 0.503 ksi
23(8)
14-gauge plates (hs = 0.0747 in.) are sufficient.

10.8.3.8.9 Anchorage
The maximum shear displacement occurs in the absence of live load but with the extreme low temperature, and it
equals −0.90 in. The maximum horizontal force is therefore:

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10.8.3.8.9 Anchorage/10.8.4.1 General

𝐺𝐴Δ𝑠 (0.100)(184)(0.90)
𝐻𝑠 = = = 6.37 kips (Eq. 10.8.3.8.9-1)
ℎ𝑟𝑡 2.6
This load occurs under dead load alone, in which case the friction coefficient needed to prevent slipping is:
𝐻𝑠 6.37
μ≥ = = 0.053 (Eq. 10.8.3.8.9-2)
𝑃𝐷 121.2
This is significantly lower than the friction coefficient of 0.20 discussed in Section 10.8.3.7, so resistance to slip is
taken to be adequate without additional restraint. Checks under other load combinations confirm that it will not
slip under any conditions.

10.8.3.8.10 Low-Temperature Requirements

From Figure 10.7.1.3-1, Rosemount, Minn., lies within Zone C. If no special force provisions are made, a Grade 3
elastomer will be required, as indicated in Table 10.7.1.3-1. Alternatively, if special force provisions are made,
then a Grade 2 elastomer may be used.

10.8.3.8.11 Testing Requirements

The thickness of the bearing is less than 8 in. and its plan area is less than 1,000 in.2, so it does not count as large.
Therefore no special test requirements exist.

10.8.3.8.12 Summary
Plan dimensions: 8 × 23 in. overall
Steel reinforcement: Seven 14-gauge steel plates: 7.5 × 22.5 × 0.0747 in.
Elastomer: Six internal elastomer layers each 0.433 in. thick
2 cover elastomer layers each 0.25 in. thick
Low-temperature Grade 4, G = 0.100 ksi
Total thickness 3.62 in.
Total weight 49 lb

10.8.4 Design Using Method A

10.8.4.1 General
The following procedures refer to pads and bearings designed in accordance with LRFD Article 14.7.6. The design
procedure may be used for:
• Plain elastomeric pads (PEPs) (see Sect. 10.6.1)
• Pads reinforced with discrete layers of fiberglass (FGPs) (see Sect. 10.6.2)
• Cotton duck pads (CDPs) with closely spaced layers of cotton duck (see Sect. 10.6.3) and manufactured and
tested under compression in accordance with Military Specification MIL-C-882.
• Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings (SREBs) (see Sect. 10.6.4) without bonded external plates, in which
S2/n < 22, and for which the primary rotation is about the weak axis, where S = the shape factor of the
thinnest internal layer and n = the number of internal layers of elastomer.
The restriction on S2/n for SREBs is intended to prevent use of Method A for bearings in which rotations of typical
magnitudes would cause excessive shear strain. The basis for this restriction is explained in Stanton, et al. (2008).
This restriction is necessary because the method does not include an explicit calculation of shear strain due to
rotation. If a SREB is subjected to unusually large rotations or complex load combinations, or if it has externally
bonded steel plates that are attached to the beam, Method B should be used.

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10.8.4.2 Material Properties/10.8.4.6 Design of Cotton Duck Reinforcement Pads

10.8.4.2 Material Properties

Elastomers for PEPs must have a shear modulus of 80 to 250 psi and a nominal hardness of 50 to 70 durometer
on the Shore A scale. SREBs designed by Method A must use elastomers with a shear modulus of 80 to 175 psi and
have a nominal hardness of between 50 and 60 durometer on the Shore A scale.

10.8.4.3 Testing Requirements

PEPs designed using Method A are not required to undergo either short-duration or long-duration load testing,
unless low-temperature Grade 4 or 5 elastomers are used (refer to Table 10.8.2-1).

10.8.4.4 Loads and Movements

The sources of design loads and movements are identical to those described in Section 10.4. Note that, in Method
A, the strains due to cyclic load effects are not multiplied by the amplification factor of 1.75 used in Method B.

10.8.4.5 Design of Plain Elastomeric Pads, Fiberglass-Reinforced Pads, and Steel-Reinforced

Elastomeric Bearings
The procedures for designing PEPs, FGPs, and SREBs are similar to each other, although the limiting strain values
differ. Thus, the design methods for all three types are addressed together here. The following paragraphs reflect
the requirements of LRFD Article 14.7.6.3, which addresses design Method A.
For shear displacements, PEPs, FGPs, and SREBs must satisfy:
ℎ𝑟𝑡 ≥ 2Δ𝑆 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.4-1]
For stability, the total thickness of the pad or bearing shall not exceed the least of L/3, W/3, or D/4.
PEP must satisfy:
σs ≤ 1.0GS [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.2-1]
σs ≤ 0.800 ksi [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.2-2]
where s = average compressive stress due to total dead plus live loads at service limit state
FGP must satisfy:
σs ≤ 1.25GS [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.2-3]
and σs ≤ 1.00 ksi [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.2-4]
SREB must satisfy:
σs ≤ 1.25GS [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.2-7]
and σs ≤ 1.25 ksi [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.2-8]
where
G = shear modulus of the elastomer, ksi
hrt = total elastomer thickness in an elastomeric bearing, in.
S = shape factor of the thickest layer of the bearing
ΔS = maximum shear displacement of the bearing at the service limit state, in.
σs = service average compressive stress due to total load, ksi
Steel reinforcement must conform to the requirements specified for Method B (see Sect. 10.8.3.6).
There are no design requirements for rotation.

10.8.4.6 Design of Cotton Duck Reinforced Pads

For shear displacements, CDP must satisfy:

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10.8.4.6 Design of Cotton Duck Reinforcement Pads

ℎ𝑟𝑡 ≥ 10Δ𝑆 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.4-2]

CDPs have a much lower tolerance for shear deformation than do PEPs, FGPs, or SREBs. Thus, in many cases they
are equipped with sliding interfaces to accommodate any horizontal movement.
For stability, the total thickness of the pad must not exceed the least of L/3, W/3, or D/4.
Compressive stress must satisfy:
σ𝑠 ≤ 3.0 ksi [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.2-5]
and σ𝐿 ≤ 2.0 ksi [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.2-6]
where
σs = average compressive stress due to total load from applicable service load combinations
σL = average compressive stress at the service limit state due to live load
The total compressive strain at the service limit state due to combined compression and rotation must satisfy:
θ𝑠 𝐿
ε𝑐 + < 0.20 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.5b-1]
2𝑡𝑝
where
σ𝑠
ε𝑐 =
𝐸𝑐 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.5b-2]

σs = service average compressive stress due to total load associated with the maximum rotation, ksi
Ec = effective modulus in compression of CDP bearing pad, ksi. (Ec may be taken as 30 ksi in lieu of pad-
specific test data).
hrt = total elastomer thickness in an elastomeric bearing, in.
L = length of CDP pad in the plane of rotation, in.
tp = total thickness of CDP pad, in.
ΔS= maximum shear deformation of elastomer at the service limit state, in.
εc = maximum uniaxial strain due to compression under total load from applicable service load combinations
in LRFD Table 3.4.1-1, in./in.
θs = maximum service rotation due to total load, radians
Note that, unlike the requirements for PEPs and FGPs, design Method A imposes rotation requirements on CDPs.
Research on CDPs (Lehman, et al., 2005) found that cotton duck pads were adversely affected by lift-off on one
side due to large rotations. To avoid it, the rotation must be limited to:
2𝑡𝑝 ε𝑐
θ𝑠 ≤ 0.80 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.5b-3]
𝐿
2𝑡𝑝 ε𝑐
and θ𝐿 ≤ 0.20 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.5b-4]
𝐿
These two sets of equations relate the average compressive strain and the rotation. The relationship is illustrated
in Figure 10.8.4.6-1, using values for combined loading. The (εc, θsL/2tp) pair must lie above the “ec.nolift” line
and below the “ec.absmax” line. Similar relationships exist for live load, but the numerical values are different. If
Young’s modulus is taken at its default value of 30 ksi the maximum compressive strain, εc, must be ≤ 0.10. This is
also shown in the figure as the “ec.abs.max” line. It is evident that the combined loading equation [LRFD Eq.
14.7.6.3.5b-1] is never an active constraint and that design is always controlled by a combination of the no-lift-off
condition [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.5b-3] and the absolute maximum stress of 3.0 ksi.

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10.8.4.6 Design of Cotton Duck Reinforcement Pads/10.8.4.7.1 Introduction

Figure 10.8.4.6-1
Design Limits for Cotton Duck Pads
0.2
0.18 Cotton Duck Pad Design
0.16
0.14
0.12
c

0.1
0.08
0.06 OK ec.absmax
0.04 ec.nolift
0.02 ec.comb
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
sL/(2tp)

The largest possible total rotation capacity is available when the pad is loaded to the largest possible compressive
stress of 3 ksi, in which case:
2𝑡𝑝
θ𝑠 = 0.08 (Eq. 10.8.4.6-1)
𝐿

10.8.4.7 Bearing Design Example―Method A

10.8.4.7.1 Introduction
This example demonstrates the design of an elastomeric bearing using Method A. It uses the same bridge as was
used in Section 10.8.3.8, which in turn uses the bridge from Design Example 9.1a (not Design Example 9.1a6) in
Chapter 9.
The bridge consists of six simply supported BT-72 beams at 9-ft centers with an 8-in.-thick cast-in-place concrete
deck. The span is 120 ft, it has no skew, and all movement is accounted for at one end. The beams have a 26-in.-
wide bottom flange. Choose a suitable movable elastomeric bearing.
Criteria in addition to those given in Example 9.1a are:
• The design temperature range is to be taken from LRFD Article 3.12.2.
• Of the shrinkage and creep that occur between transfer and casting the slab, assume that two-thirds occurs
before the beams are erected.
• Assume free differential shrinkage of 400 ×10−6 in./in. of the deck slab relative to the beams.
Bearing type:
Use a rectangular, steel-reinforced elastomeric bearing with a Shore A hardness of 50 durometer.
Method A does not account for rotations explicitly. Much of the design work in the Method B Design Example
involved determining the loads, displacements, and rotations at different stages of construction and subsequent
service. The LRFD Specifications is not explicit in its guidance about the level of detail with which to determine
these parameters when Method A is used, but the intended simplicity of the design method implies the need for a
less computationally intensive procedure. This is especially true if the beam and bearings are to be designed by
different agencies, in which case the detailed information may not be readily available to the bearing designer. It
is thus proposed to consider the following:
• Vertical loads
• Change in length due to creep and shrinkage, determined from the corresponding prestress losses

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10.8.4.7.1 Introduction/10.8.4.7.3 Design for Compressive Stress

• Change in length due to thermal effects.

Longitudinal displacements of the bearing due to beam end rotations caused by thermal gradient, differential
shrinkage, and vertical load will be ignored. The first two are not commonly computed and tend to cause low
displacements anyway, because the average change in length of the whole composite beam acts in the opposite
direction to the movement of the bottom flange due to end rotation, and the two effects largely cancel out. (This
was seen in the calculation of horizontal movement due to differential shrinkage in Sect. 10.8.3.8.2.) The
horizontal movements due to vertical dead and live load on the beam depend on end rotation, which is ignored by
Method A. They are also typically less than the horizontal displacements due to creep and shrinkage or thermal
effects.
The loads and movements are thus:
PD = 121.2 kips (includes beam, haunch, slab, barriers, and wearing surface)
PL = 92.6 kips (includes lane and truck load without impact)
ΔCR+SHR = −0.42 in. (one-third of the creep and shrinkage movement between transfer and slab casting)
ΔT = −0.79 in. (due to temperature drop of 91 °F from beam-setting temperature)

10.8.4.7.2 Elastomer Thickness for Shear Displacements

The total movement is:
∆𝑂 = ∆𝐶𝑅+𝑆𝐻𝑅 + ∆ 𝑇 = (−0.42) + (−0.79) = −1.21 in. (Eq. 10.8.4.7.2-1)
Assume that the substructure is rigid compared to the bearing, so the shear deformation ΔS in the bearing will be
equal to the total movement ΔO:
∆𝑠 = ∆𝑂 = −1.21 in. (Eq. 10.8.4.7.2-2)
Total thickness of elastomer:
ℎ𝑟𝑡 ≥ 2∆𝑆 = (2)(1.21) = 2.42 in. [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.4-1]
Initially assume ½-in.-thick interior elastomeric layers and ¼-in.-thick exterior elastomeric layers.

10.8.4.7.3 Design for Compressive Stress

The following limits apply:
σs ≤ 1.25GSi [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.2-7]
σs ≤ 1.25 ksi [LRFD Eq. 14.7.6.3.2-8]
Since shear deformation is not prevented, the stress limits may not be increased.
For torsional stability of the beam at erection, use the widest bearing possible. Allow 1.5 in. between the edge of
the beam and the edge of the bearing, giving a bearing width W = 26 − 2(1.5) = 23 in.
For preliminary purposes, the stress σs in the bearing can be computed as:
𝑃𝐷 + 𝑃𝐿
σ𝑠 = (Eq. 10.8.4.7.3-1)
𝐿𝑊
where
PD = dead load reaction, kips
PL = live load reaction, kips
L = length of bearing, in.
W = width of bearing, in.
Eq. 10.8.4.7.3-1 can be solved for L, assuming the maximum value of σs:

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10.8.4.7.3 Design for Compressive Stress/10.8.4.7.4 Steel Reinforcement

𝑃𝐷 + 𝑃𝐿 121.2 + 92.6
𝐿≥ = = 7.44 in. (Eq. 10.8.4.7.3-2)
σ𝑠 𝑊 (1.25)(23.0)
The length of the bearing may also be limited by the stability requirements. Since the total elastomer thickness
must be less than L/3 for stability:
𝐿 ≥ 3ℎ𝑟𝑡 = 3(2.42) = 7.26 in. (Eq. 10.8.4.7.3-3)
Try L = 11 in. and compute the actual stress σs:
𝑃𝐷 + 𝑃𝐿 213.8
σ𝑠 = = = 0.845 ksi ≤ 1.25 ksi OK (Eq. 10.8.4.7.3-4)
𝐿𝑊 (11.0)(23.0)
Determine the lower limit on shape factor S by solving the second expression in LRFD Equation 14.7.6.3.2-7:
σ𝑠 0.845
𝑆 ≥ = = 7.116 (Eq. 10.8.4.7.3-5)
1.25𝐺 (1.25)(0.095)
Note that G = 95 psi, the lowest value in the range, must be used here to obtain the maximum shape factor
because the elastomer properties were defined by hardness. If they had been defined by the shear modulus, the
exact value of G could have been used. It is therefore advantageous to define the properties by the shear modulus.
Determine the maximum acceptable layer thickness hr,max by solving LRFD Equation 14.7.5.1-1:
𝐿𝑊 (11.0)(23.0)
ℎ𝑟,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ = = 0.523 in. (Eq. 10.8.4.7.3-6)
2𝑆(𝐿 + 𝑊) (2)(7.116)(11.0 + 23.0)
The minimum number of interior layers = [2.42 in. − 2(0.25 in.)]/0.523 in. = 3.67. If 0.4375-in.-thick (7/16-in.-
thick) layers are used, the minimum number of interior layers = [2.42 in. −2(0.25 in.)]/0.4375 in. = 4.36.
Therefore, use five interior layers of 0.4375 in. (7/16 in.) each, in conjunction with two exterior layers of 0.25 in.
each, to give a total elastomer thickness of 2.688 in.
Compute final shape factor:
𝐿𝑊 (11.0)(23.0)
𝑆= = = 8.504 [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.1-1]
2ℎ𝑟𝑖 (𝐿 + 𝑊) (2)(0.4375)(11.0 + 23.0)
Check limitation on use of Method A [LRFD Art. 14.7.6.1]:
𝑆 2 (8.504)2
= = 12.1 < 22 OK (Eq.10.8.4.7.3-7)
𝑛 6

10.8.4.7.4 Steel Reinforcement

Use mild steel with 36 ksi yield stress (Fy) and a 24 ksi fatigue limit ΔFTH, from LRFD Table 6.6.1.2.5-3.
LRFD Article 14.7.6.3.7 indicates that steel reinforcement of bearings designed using Method A must conform to
the requirements of Method B [LRFD Art. 14.7.5.3.5]. Note that the stresses are based on loads that are not
amplified for cyclic load effects.
Check the strength of the plates at the service limit state:
3hri σs (3)(0.4375)(0.845)
hs ≥ = = 0.031in. [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.5-1]
Fy 36.0
Check that fatigue requirements for the plate are satisfied, which requires computation of the live load stress σ L:
𝑃𝐿 92.6
σ𝐿 = = = 0.366 ksi (Eq. 10.8.4.7.4-1)
𝐿𝑊 (11.0)(23)

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10.8.4.7.4 Steel Reinforcement/10.8.4.7.7 Design Shear Force and Anchorage

2ℎ𝑟𝑖 σ𝐿 (2)(0.4375)(0.366) [LRFD Eq. 14.7.5.3.5-2]

ℎ𝑠 ≥ = = 0.013 in.
Δ𝐹𝑇𝐻 24.0
LRFD Equation 14.7.5.3.5-1 governs, so the plate thickness must be at least 0.031 in.
The minimum thickness permitted by the AASHTO M251 materials specification is 1.52 mm, which corresponds
to 16 gauge. Keeping such plates flat during molding and curing is difficult. Select 14-gauge steel plate:
hs = 0.0747 in. OK

10.8.4.7.5 Stability
LRFD Article 14.7.6.3.6 requires that the total thickness of a rectangular bearing not exceed the least of L/3 or
W/3. For this bearing, L/3 will be the governing value.
Total elastomer thickness = 2(0.25) + 5(0.4375) = 2.69 in.
Total reinforcement thickness = 6(0.0747) = 0.45 in.
Total thickness of bearing = 2.69 + 0.45 = 3.14 in.
Maximum bearing thickness = L/3 = 11/3 = 3.67 in. > 3.14 in. OK

10.8.4.7.6 Low-Temperature Requirements

From Figure 10.7.1.3-1, Rosemount, Minn. lies within Zone C. If no special force provisions are made, a Grade 3
elastomer will be required as indicated in Table 10.7.1.3-1. If special force provisions are made, a Grade 2
elastomer may be used.

10.8.4.7.7 Design Shear Force and Anchorage

The requirements for anchorage depend on the low-temperature grade of elastomer used. The service design
shear force, using the value of G at 73 °F, is:
Δ𝑠 1.2
𝐻𝑠 = 𝐺𝐴 = (0.130)[(11.0)(23.0)] ( ) = 14.67 kips (Eq. 10.8.4.7.7-1)
ℎ𝑟𝑡 2.69
Note that G = 130 psi. The high value in the range must be used to compute the design shear force because the
elastomer properties were defined by hardness, rather than shear modulus. The total elastomer thickness hrt
consists of both the interior layers (five layers at 0.4375 in. each) and the top and bottom cover (0.25 in. each).
Rosemount, Minn., lies in low-temperature Zone C (LRFD Art. 14.7.5.2). If no force-control device such as a sliding
interface is to be provided, the elastomer must satisfy the low-temperature requirements for Grade 3. Then the
friction coefficient needed to prevent slip would be:
𝐻𝑠 14.67
𝜇≥
𝑃𝐷
=
121.2
= 0.121 (Eq. 10.8.4.7.7-1)

This is less than the value of 0.20 (see Sect. 10.8.3.7), so the bearing will be prevented from slipping by friction
alone and no special anchorage is required. Because Grade 3 requirements can be satisfied without difficulty by
most bearing manufacturers, this represents a good design choice. If a suitable Grade 3 elastomer is not available,
the bearing may be made from a Grade 2 elastomer [LRFD Art. 14.7.5.2], but the design horizontal force must be
increased by a factor of 4 from the value given in Eq. (10.8.4.7.7-1). This is likely to trigger the need for special
restraining devices such as anchor bolts through the bearing to prevent slipping. It will also induce larger forces
in the components of the bridge superstructure.
A second alternative would be to use a Grade 2 elastomer but provide a force-control device such as a sliding
interface to accommodate most of the horizontal movement and to limit the horizontal force on the bearing.

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10.8.4.7.8 Summary/10.8.5 Tapered Bearings

10.8.4.7.8 Summary
Dimensions: 11.0 × 23.0 × 3.14 in. overall
Steel reinforcement: Six steel plates: 10.75 × 22.75 × 0.0747 in. (14 gauge)
Elastomer: Five internal layers at 0.4375 in. each
Two cover layers at 0.25 in.
50 durometer (Shore A scale)
Low-temperature Grade 3

10.8.5 Tapered Bearings

Tapered elastomeric layers in bearing are not permitted when using Method B of the LRFD Specifications (see
Sect. 10.7.4). Nonetheless, Muscarella and Yura (1995) conducted tests on tapered bearings and concluded that
they behave in essentially the same way as flat bearings in almost all regards. That conclusion is not shared by all
researchers in the discipline, and tapered layers in elastomeric bearings are used at the risk of the designer. The
following recommendations are based on the work of Muscarella and Yura (1995).
Tapered pads exhibit a non-negligible horizontal shearing deflection associated with vertically applied loads. This
additional shearing deflection must be accounted for in the design of the bearing. The magnitude of this shearing
deflection was found to be closely approximated by the following equation:
0.40θ𝑃𝑚 ℎ𝑟𝑡
Δ𝑠 = (Eq. 10.8.5-1)
𝐺𝐴
where
Δs = shear deformation due to compressive load on tapered bearing, in.
Θ = taper of tapered bearing pad, radians
Pm = maximum compressive load considering all appropriate load combinations, kips
hrt = total thickness of elastomer, in.
G = shear modulus of elastomer, ksi
A = plan area of elastomeric bearing, in.2
The following recommendations are made for the use of tapered bearings:
1. A tapered top cover layer of elastomer should be permitted provided that the designer takes into account
the additional horizontal deflection that occurs under vertical load. As described in Section 10.8.4.5, it
will usually be necessary to increase the total thickness of the elastomer hrt by twice the computed
horizontal deflection calculated by Eq. (10.8.5-1).
2. The average compressive stress on the bearing due to permanent loads should be between 500 and 1,000
psi.
3. A slope mismatch of up to 0.01 radians, including the 0.005 radians allowance for nonparallelism, may be
permitted between a tapered bearing and the beam. This degree of mismatch will not result in significant
separation between the bearing and the beam if compressive stresses on the bearing are maintained
above 500 psi.
4. Compressive deformations for tapered pads can be computed as though the bearings are flat and then
increased by 10% for each 0.01 radians of taper.
5. The shape factor S for the bearing should be between approximately 9.5 and 10.5.
6. The elastomer should have a Shore A hardness between 50 and 55 durometer.

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10.8.5 Tapered Bearings/10.9 Bearing Selection Guide

7. Tapered pads should be constructed with horizontal, parallel steel reinforcement plates. The taper
should be built into the bearing by tapering only the top cover layer of elastomer. See Figure 10.8.5-1.
8. The average thickness of the tapered cover layer of elastomer shall not exceed 0.333 in.

Figure 10.8.5-1
Tapered Bearing with Parallel Steel Reinforcement

10.9 BEARING SELECTION GUIDE

Table 10.9-1, based on Roeder and Stanton (1996) and NSBA, (2022), summarizes the most common types of
bearings found in bridges constructed with precast, prestressed concrete beams. Approximate load ranges,
translational and rotational movements, and economical considerations are provided for each of these common
bearing types. A bridge bearing must be explicitly designed for its specific vertical, longitudinal, and transverse
loads. The values in Table 10.9-1 are intended to guide the designer to the appropriate type of bearing. DOTs
and owner agencies may have their own requirements.

Table 10.9-1
Practical and Approximate Demand Limits for Different Bearing Types
Load Translation Rotation Costs
Bearing Type Min. Max. Min. Max. Limit
Initial Maintenance
kips kips in. in. radians
Plain elastomeric pad 0 100 0.0 0.50 0.010 Low Low
Cotton duck pad 0 315 0.0 0.25 0.003 Low Low
Steel-reinforced
50 800 0.0 4.00* 0.040 Low Low
elastomeric bearing
Pot, disc, and spherical Moderate to
250 5,000 0.0 Varies 0.020 Moderate
bearings high
Flat
polytetrafluoroethylene 200 10,000 1.0 ≥4.00 0.020 Low Moderate
(PTFE) slider
Adapted from Roeder and Stanton (1996) and NSBA (2022).
*Based on economics and stability
Note: If a PTFE sliding surface is combined with another bearing type, the composite bearing has the translation
capacity of the PTFE sliding surface.

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10.10 References

10.10 REFERENCES
1. AASHTO. M251. Standard Specification for Plain and Laminated Elastomeric Bridge Bearings (AASHTO M
251M/M 251). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.

2. AASHTO. 2002. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition plus 2005 Interim Revisions.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.

3. AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 4th Edition with 2009 Interim Revisions.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.

4. AASHTO. 2011. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 5th Edition with 2011 Interim Revisions.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.

5. AASHTO. 2014. Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design, 4th Edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.

6. AASHTO. 2020A. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 4th Edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
7. AASHTO. 2020B. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 9th Edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
8. ASTM D2240. Standard Test Method for Rubber Property-Durometer Hardness (D2240). ASTM International,
West Conshohocken, PA.

9. ASTM D4014. Standard Specification for Plain and Steel-Laminated Elastomeric Bearings for Bridges (D2240).
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.

10. Buckle, I. G., and R. L. Mayes. 1996. “Seismic Isolation: History, Application, and Performance―A World View.”
Earthquake Spectra, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI), Oakland, CA. V. 6, No. 2 (May), pp.
161-201. http://doi.org/10.1193/1.1585564

11. Culmo, M. P. 2002. “Three Bearing Concept for Prestressed Concrete Adjacent Box Beam Bridges.” Paper 104,
Proceedings, Concrete Bridge Conference, Nashville, TN. National Concrete Bridge Council, Skokie, IL, 10 pp.

12. Gent, A. N. 1958. “On the Relation Between Indentation Hardness and Young’s Modulus.” Rubber Chemistry
and Technology, Institution of the Rubber Industry, now the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining,
London, UK. V. 34, No. 2, pp. 46-57. https://doi.org/10.5254/1.3542351.

13. Gent, A. N. 1964. “Elastic Stability of Rubber Compression Springs.” Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science,
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Westminster, London, UK. V. 6, No. 4, pp. 318-326.
https://doi.org/10.1243%2FJMES_JOUR_1964_006_046_02.

14. Gent, A. N., and P. B. Lindley. 1959. “The Compression of Bonded Rubber Blocks.” Proceedings of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers, Westminster, London, UK. V. 173, pp. 111-122.
https://doi.org/10.1243%2FPIME_PROC_1959_173_022_02.

15. Haryngx, J. A. 1948–1949. “On Highly Compressible Helical Springs and Rubber Rods, and Their Application
for Vibration-free Mountings,” Parts I, II, III. Philips Research Reports, maintained by Leibniz Institute for Solid
State and Materials Research Dresden, Dresden, Germany.

16. HITEC. 1996. Guidelines for the Testing of Seismic Isolation and Energy Dissipating Devices. Report No. 40162.
Highway Innovative Technology Evaluation Center, Civil Engineering Research Foundation, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.

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10.10 References

17. IowaDOT. 2022. LRFD Bridge Design Manual. IowaDOT, Ames, IA.

18. Khaleghi, B., Z. Fu, E. Kestory, A. Mongi, R. Nix, L. Warren, R. Zeldenrust, J. Stanton, and J. Walsh. 2019.
Experiences in the Performance of Bridge Bearings and Expansion Joints Used for Highway Bridges. NCHRP
Project 20-68A, Scan 17-03. Transportation Research Board. Washington, D.C.

19. Lee, D. J. 1994. Bridge Bearings and Expansion Joints, 2nd Edition. E & FN Spon, London, UK. 212 pp.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781482266993.

20. Lehman, D. E., C. W. Roeder, and R. Larson. 2005. “Design of Cotton Duck Bridge Bearing Pads.” ASCE Journal
of Bridge Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V. 10, No. 5 (September), pp. 555-563.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0702(2005)10:5(555).

21. Lindley, P. B. 1981. “Natural Rubber Structural Bearings.” ACI Special Publication SP 70-20, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. V. 70, pp. 353-378.

22. McDonald, J., E. Heymsfield, and R. R. Avent. 2000. “Slippage of Neoprene Bearing Pads.” ASCE Journal of
Bridge Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V. 5, No. 3, (August), pp. 216-223.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0702(2000)5:3(216).

23. Moorty, S., and C.W. Roeder. 1992. “Temperature Dependent Bridge Movements.” Journal of Structural
Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V. 118, No. 4 (April), pp. 1090-1105.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1992)118:4(1090).

24. Muscarella, J. V. and J. A. Yura. 1995. An Experimental Study of Elastomeric Bridge Bearings with Design
Recommendations. Report 1304-3. Center for Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin, Austin,
TX.
http://www.utexas.edu/research/ctr/pdf_reports/1304_3.pdf

25. Nagarajaiah, S., M. C. Constantinou, and A. M. Reinhorn. 1989. Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis of Three-
Dimensional Base Isolated Structures. Report No. NCEER-89-0019. National Center for Earthquake
Engineering Research, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY.
https://www.eng.buffalo.edu/mceer-reports/89/89-0019.pdf

26. NSBA. 2022. Steel Bridge Design Handbook. “Chapter 15 Bearing Design. National Steel Bridge Alliance,
Chicago, IL.

27. Okumus, P., M. G. Oliva, and M. D. Arancibia. 2018. Design and Performance of Highly Skewed Deck Girder
Bridges. Report No. 0092-16-05. Wisconsin Department of Transportation. Madison, WI.
https://wisconsindot.gov/documents2/research/0092-16-05-final-report.pdf.

28. PCI. 2016. Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (CB-02-
16), Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-02-16.

29. Roeder, C. W., and J. F. Stanton. 1996. Steel Bridge Bearing Selection and Design Guide. National Steel Bridge
Alliance, Chicago, IL.

30. Roeder, C. W., J. F. Stanton, and T. Feller. 1990. Low Temperature Behavior and Acceptance Criteria for
Elastomeric Bridge Bearings. NCHRP Report 325. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
https://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_325.pdf.

31. Roeder, C. W., J. F. Stanton, and A. Taylor. 1987. Performance of Elastomeric Bearings. NCHRP Report 298.
Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
https://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_298.pdf

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10.10 References

32. Stanton, J. F., G. Scroggins, A. W. Taylor, and C. W. Roeder. 1990. “Stability of Laminated Elastomeric Bearings.”
ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanics, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V. 116, No. 6 (June),
pp. 1351-1371. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(1990)116:6(1351).

33. Stanton, J. F., and C. W. Roeder. 1991. “Advantages and Limitations of Seismic Isolation.” Earthquake Spectra,
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, CA. V. 7, No. 2 (May), pp. 301-309.
https://doi.org/10.1193%2F1.1585630.

34. Stanton, J. F., C. W. Roeder, P. Mackenzie-Helnwein, C. White, C. Kuester, and B. Craig. 2008. Rotation Limits for
Elastomeric Bearings. NCHRP Report No. 596. National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Washington,
DC. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_596.pdf.

35. Taylor, J. C., and J. F. Stanton. 2010. Friction Coefficients for Stainless Steel PTFE (Teflon) Bearings. Report No.
WHRP 10-01, Wisconsin Highway Research Program, Madison, WI, 111 pp.
https://wisconsindot.gov/documents2/research/WisDOT-WHRP-project-0092-08-13-final-report.pdf.

36. Timoshenko, S. P., and J. M. Gere. 1961. Theory of Elastic Stability, 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY,
603 pp.

37. U.S Department of Defense. 1989. Cloth, Duck, Cotton or Cotton-Polyester Blend, Synthetic Rubber,
Impregnated, and Laminated, Oil Resistant. Military Specification MIL-C-882E. 15 pp. https://assist.dla.mil.
(Requires site registration.)

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Table of Contents

NOTATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11-5

11.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 11-9
11.2 HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE ............................................................................................................................................... 11-11
11.2.1 High-Strength Concrete ...................................................................................................................................................... 11-11
11.2.1.1 Benefits................................................................................................................................................................................... 11-12
11.2.1.2 Costs......................................................................................................................................................................................... 11-13
11.2.1.3 Effects of Section Geometry and Strand Size ......................................................................................................... 11-13
11.2.1.4 Compressive Strength at Transfer ............................................................................................................................. 11-16
11.2.1.5 Using Post-Tensioning to Reduce Pretensioning Requirements .................................................................. 11-17
11.2.1.6 Tensile Stress Limit at Service Limit State ............................................................................................................. 11-17
11.2.1.7 Prestress Losses ................................................................................................................................................................. 11-17
11.2.2 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete .......................................................................................................................................... 11-18
11.2.3 Examples of Bridges with Lightweight Concrete .......................................................................................................... 11-18
11.3 CONTINUITY .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 11-19
11.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 11-19
11.3.2 Method 1—Conventional Deck Reinforcement ............................................................................................................. 11-20
11.3.3 Method 2—Post-Tensioning .................................................................................................................................................. 11-21
11.3.4 Method 3—Using High-Strength Rods to Couple Beams .......................................................................................... 11-23
11.3.5 Examples of Bridges with Continuity at Piers ................................................................................................................ 11-25
11.4 SPLICED-BEAM STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................................. 11-26
11.4.1 Introduction and Discussion .................................................................................................................................................. 11-26
11.4.2 Types of Beams ............................................................................................................................................................................ 11-27
11.4.3 Span Arrangements and Splice Location .......................................................................................................................... 11-28
11.4.4 Details at Beam Splices ............................................................................................................................................................. 11-29
11.4.4.1 Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Splices ...................................................................................................................... 11-29
11.4.4.1.1 “Stitched” Splice ........................................................................................................................................................ 11-31
11.4.4.1.2 Structural Steel Strongback at Splice ............................................................................................................... 11-34
11.4.4.1.3 Structural Steel Hanger at Splice ....................................................................................................................... 11-35
11.4.4.2 Match-Cast Splice ............................................................................................................................................................... 11-35
11.4.5 System Optimization ................................................................................................................................................................. 11-35
11.4.5.1 Minimum Web Width to Accommodate Post-Tensioning ............................................................................... 11-36
11.4.5.2 Haunched Pier Beam Segments ................................................................................................................................... 11-37
11.4.6 Design and Fabrication Details ............................................................................................................................................. 11-37
11.4.7 Construction Methods and Techniques ............................................................................................................................ 11-38
11.4.7.1 Splicing and Shoring Considerations ........................................................................................................................ 11-38
11.4.7.2 Construction Sequencing and Impact on Design ................................................................................................. 11-39
11.4.7.2.1 Single Spans................................................................................................................................................................. 11-39
11.4.7.2.2 Multiple Spans ............................................................................................................................................................ 11-40
11.4.8 Grouting of Post-Tensioning Ducts ..................................................................................................................................... 11-41

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11.4.9 Deck Removal Considerations ...............................................................................................................................................11-41

11.4.10 Post-Tensioning Anchorages ...............................................................................................................................................11-42
11.5 EXAMPLES OF SPLICED-BEAM BRIDGES...................................................................................................................................11-43
11.5.1 PHX Sky Train Stage 2, Phoenix, Arizona (2022) ..........................................................................................................11-43
11.5.2 Chief Joseph Dam Bridge, Bridgeport, Washington (2016) ......................................................................................11-44
11.5.3 U.S. Route 27–Moore Haven Bridge, Florida (1999) ....................................................................................................11-46
11.5.4 Interstate 91 Bridges, Rockingham, Vermont (2021) .................................................................................................11-46
11.5.5 Coplay-Northampton Bridge, Leigh County, Pennsylvania (2019) .......................................................................11-47
11.5.6 State Route 22 over Kentucky River Bridge, Gratz, Kentucky (2010) .................................................................11-49
11.6 POST-TENSIONING ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................................................11-51
11.6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................11-51
11.6.2 Losses at Post-Tensioning .......................................................................................................................................................11-52
11.6.2.1 Friction Loss..........................................................................................................................................................................11-52
11.6.2.2 Anchorage Set Loss ............................................................................................................................................................11-52
11.6.2.3 Example Calculations of Friction Loss and Anchorage Set Loss ....................................................................11-53
11.6.2.3.1 Friction Loss ................................................................................................................................................................11-54
11.6.2.3.2 Anchorage Set Loss ...................................................................................................................................................11-54
11.6.2.3.2.1 Length Affected by Seating Is within Lab ..............................................................................................11-54
11.6.2.3.2.2 Length Affected by Seating Is within Lac ...............................................................................................11-55
11.6.2.4 Elastic Shortening Loss ....................................................................................................................................................11-55
11.6.3 Time-Dependent Analysis ........................................................................................................................................................11-56
11.6.4 Equivalent Loads for Effects of Post-Tensioning ...........................................................................................................11-56
11.6.4.1 Conventional Analysis Using Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Loads .....................................................11-56
11.6.4.2 Refined Modeling Using a Series of Nodal Forces ................................................................................................11-59
11.6.4.2.1 Example .........................................................................................................................................................................11-60
11.6.4.3 Design Considerations ......................................................................................................................................................11-62
11.6.5 Shear Design in Presence of Post-Tensioning Ducts ....................................................................................................11-62
11.7 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES ...............................................................................................................................................11-63
11.7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................11-63
11.7.2 Post-Tensioning Anchorages in I-Beams ..........................................................................................................................11-64
11.7.3 Post-Tensioning Anchorages in U-Beams .........................................................................................................................11-67
11.8 DESIGN EXAMPLE: TWO-SPAN BEAM SPLICED OVER PIER ............................................................................................11-68
11.8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................11-68
11.8.2 Materials and Beam Cross Section .......................................................................................................................................11-69
11.8.3 Cross-Section Properties ..........................................................................................................................................................11-71
11.8.3.1 Noncomposite Section ......................................................................................................................................................11-71
11.8.3.2 Composite Section ..............................................................................................................................................................11-71
11.8.4 Shear Forces and Bending Moments ...................................................................................................................................11-73
11.8.5 Required Pretensioning ............................................................................................................................................................11-73

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11.8.6 Modeling of Post-Tensioning ................................................................................................................................................. 11-75

11.8.6.1 Post-Tensioning Profile................................................................................................................................................... 11-75
11.8.6.2 Equivalent Loads ................................................................................................................................................................ 11-77
11.8.7 Determination of Required Post-Tensioning ................................................................................................................. 11-79
11.8.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete .............................................................................................................................................. 11-80
11.8.7.2 Positive-Moment Section................................................................................................................................................ 11-80
11.8.7.3 Negative-Moment Section .............................................................................................................................................. 11-81
11.8.8 Strength Limit State ................................................................................................................................................................... 11-82
11.8.8.1 Positive-Moment Section................................................................................................................................................ 11-82
11.8.8.2 Negative-Moment Section .............................................................................................................................................. 11-83
11.8.9 Shear Design.................................................................................................................................................................................. 11-84
11.8.10 Determination of Prestress Losses ................................................................................................................................... 11-85
11.8.11 Limits of Reinforcement ........................................................................................................................................................ 11-86
11.8.11.1 Positive-Moment Section ............................................................................................................................................. 11-86
11.8.12 Comments and Remaining Steps ....................................................................................................................................... 11-87
11.9 CASE STUDY: SINGLE-SPAN SPLICED BEAM........................................................................................................................... 11-88
11.9.1 Input Data and Design Criteria ............................................................................................................................................. 11-88
11.9.2 Construction Stages ................................................................................................................................................................... 11-89
11.9.3 Flexure at Service Limit State ................................................................................................................................................ 11-90
11.9.4 Flexure at Strength Limit State ............................................................................................................................................. 11-92
11.9.5 Discussion ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 11-93
11.10 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 11-93

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Notation

NOTATION
A = area of the beam cross section
Ac = total area of the composite section
Aps = area of prestressing steel [LRFD]
Av = area of a transverse reinforcement within distance, s [LRFD]
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block [LRFD]
bv = width of the web adjusted for the presence of ducts [LRFD]
bw = width of the component’s web [LRFD]
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of the post-tensioning force
at location denoted by subscript
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis [LRFD]
DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments [LRFD]
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities [LRFD]
dv = effective shear depth [LRFD]
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete [LRFD]
Eci = modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer [LRFD]
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing (pretensioning or post-tensioning) tendons [LRFD]
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars [LRFD]
e = base of Napierian logarithm
e = eccentricity of strands at transfer length or location denoted by subscript
ec = eccentricity of strands at the midspan
F = vertical load
fb = concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete for use in design [LRFD]
𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = specified compressive strength of concrete at the time of initial loading or prestressing [LRFD]
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress forces only (after allowance for [LRFD]
all prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads
fpb = compressive stress at bottom fiber of the beam due to prestress force
fp = stress in post-tensioning strands at location denoted by additional subscript
𝑓𝑝′ = stress in post-tensioning strands after anchor set loss at location denoted by additional subscript
fpj = stress in the prestressing steel at jacking [LRFD]
fps = average stress in prestressing steel at the time for which the nominal resistance of [LRFD]
component is required
fpt = stress in prestressing steel immediately after transfer [LRFD]
fpu = ultimate strength of prestressing steel [LRFD]

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Notation

fpy = yield strength of prestressing steel [LRFD]

fr = modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD]
fs = stress limit for post-tensioning strands prior to seating
ft = concrete stress at top fiber of the beam for the noncomposite section
ftg = concrete stress at top fiber of the beam for the composite section
fy = specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars [LRFD]
h = overall thickness or depth of a component [LRFD]
h = distance from top fiber to centroid of post-tensioning force at location denoted by subscript
hc = total height of composite section
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast concrete beam [LRFD]
Ic = moment of inertia for the composite section
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance [LRFD]
K = wobble friction coefficient [LRFD]
L = span length [LRFD]
LL = vehicular live load [LRFD]
M = moment at location denoted by subscript
Mb = unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight
Mcr = cracking moment [LRFD]
Md = bending moment at section due to unfactored dead load
Mdnc = total unfactored dead load moment acting on the monolithic or noncomposite section [LRFD]
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight
MLL+I = unfactored bending moment due to live load plus impact
Mn = nominal flexural resistance [LRFD]
Mr = factored flexural resistance of a section in bending [LRFD]
MS = unfactored bending moment due to deck slab and haunch weights
Msecondary = secondary bending moment due to post-tensioning
Mu = factored moment at the section [LRFD]
Mws = unfactored bending moment due to wearing surface
n = modular ratio between steel and concrete (Es/Ec) or modular ratio between the deck [LRFD]
concrete and girder concrete (Ecdeck/Ecgirder)
n = number of 0.6-in.-diameter strands per tendon
P = prestressing force
Pi = total pretensioning force immediately after transfer
Ppe = total pretensioning force after all losses
PPT = total post-tensioning force after all losses
Sb = noncomposite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam

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Notation

Sbc = composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
Sc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the composite section where tensile stress is [LRFD]
caused by the external applied loads
Snc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the monolithic or noncomposite section where [LRFD]
tensile stress is caused by the external applied loads
St = section modulus for extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam
Stc = composite section modulus for the top fiber of the slab
Stg = composite section modulus for the top fiber of the precast concrete beam
s = spacing of reinforcing bars [LRFD]
ts = structural thickness of concrete slab
V = shear force
Vb = unfactored shear force due to barrier weight per beam
Vc = nominal shear resistance of the concrete [LRFD]
Vg = unfactored shear force due to girder weight
VLL+I = unfactored shear force due to live load plus impact
Vn = nominal shear resistance of the section considered [LRFD]
Vp = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing force, [LRFD]
positive if resisting the applied shear
Vs = shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement [LRFD]
Vs = unfactored shear force due to slab and haunch weight per beam
Vsecondary = secondary shear force due to post-tensioning
Vu = factored shear force at section [LRFD]
Vws = unfactored shear force due wearing surface weight per beam
wc = unit weight of concrete [LRFD]
weq = equivalent load for post-tensioning
x = distance from the support to the section under question
x = length influenced by anchorage set
x = length of a prestressing tendon from the jacking end to any point under consideration [LRFD]
yb = distance from the centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast beam
ybc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme bottom fiber of the precast
concrete beam
ybs = distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom fiber of the precast concrete beam
yt = distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam
ytg = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the top fiber of the precast concrete beam
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis [LRFD]
α = total angular change of prestressing steel path from jacking end to a point under [LRFD]
investigation

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Notation

β = factor relating effect of longitudinal strain on the shear capacity of concrete, as [LRFD]
indicated by the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension
β1 = ratio of the depth of the equivalent uniformly stressed compression zone assumed [LRFD]
in the strength limit state to the depth of the actual compression zone
ΔfpA = loss in prestressing steel stress due to anchorage set [LRFD]
Δfpa = prestress loss at point a
ΔfpES = loss in prestressing steel stress due to elastic shortening [LRFD]
ΔfpF = loss in prestressing steel stress due to friction [LRFD]
ΔL = anchorage set
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses [LRFD]
μ = coefficient of friction [LRFD]
λ = concrete density modification factor [LRFD]
 = resistance factor [LRFD]
w = reduction factor for compressive stress limit at service limit state after losses [LRFD]

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11.1 Introduction

Extending Spans
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Precast, prestressed concrete beams have been used widely for highway bridges throughout the United States and
the world. The simplest and most economical application for precast concrete beam bridges is where full-span
beams are used. The full-span beams have most often been used as simple spans, although continuity has also
been established between spans using a continuity diaphragm at interior piers and various methods to
accommodate both negative and positive moments. Even longer spans can be achieved when continuous spans
are constructed by placing a deeper or haunched beam segment at a pier and splicing beam segments on both
sides.
For simple span, precast, prestressed concrete bridges using conventional materials, the maximum spans for each
standard section type are shown in Chapter 6. However, the excellent durability and structural performance, low
maintenance, and low cost of bridges using precast, prestressed concrete beams have encouraged designers to
find ways to use them for even longer spans. Methods to achieve longer spans are presented in this chapter.
Extending the span ranges of prestressed concrete beams beyond typical limits may involve the use of the
following:
• High-strength concrete (HSC)
• Larger strand size or strength
• Modified sections and dimensions, such as
− Widening the web
− Thickening or widening the top flange
− Thickening the bottom flange
− Increasing the section depth (haunch) at interior piers
− U-beams
− Adding positive continuity and short negative post-tensioned tendons
• Lightweight concrete (LWC)
• Post-tensioning
• Continuity at piers
• Splicing beam segments, including pier segments
Over the years, advances in technology have enabled efficiencies that have helped increase the market share for
precast, prestressed concrete bridges. Figures 11.1-1 and 11.1-2 illustrate this trend in the 100 to 150 ft and 150
to 200 ft span ranges, respectively.

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11.1 Introduction

Figure 11.1-1
Bridge Types and Market Share for 100 to 150 ft Spans (Adapted from National Bridge Inventory Data)

Figure 11.1-2
Bridge Types and Market Share for 150 to 200 ft Spans (Adapted from National Bridge Inventory Data)

As designers attempt to use longer, full-span beams, they must evaluate limitations on casting, handling, and
transportation. For example, some precasters are limited to the lengths or tensioning capacities of their casting
beds.
Some states impose vehicle size and weight restrictions that limit hauling of longer beams, although precast
concrete beams with lengths up to 223 ft (West, 2019) and weights in excess of 150 tons have been shipped by
truck. There are unique haul rigs that are capable of expanding their footprint and have a capacity of 340 kips (see
Fig. 3.5.1-1).
In other cases, the size of the erection equipment may be limited by either availability to the contractor or access
to the site. There are sites where access will not allow long beams to reach the bridge.

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11.1 Introduction/11.2.1 High-Strength Concrete

The stability of the beam for handling, transportation, and erection may be another limitation. Several resources
can help designers evaluate and address stability concerns. PCI’s Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of
Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (PCI Committee on Bridges, 2016) discusses beam stability and
methods such as temporary top strands (Brown, 2022) for improving the stability of the beam. The User Manual
for Calculating the Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (PCI Committee on Bridges,
2020B) and accompanying software are available from PCI at no cost.
If the delivery of span-length beams is not feasible, one option may be to produce and ship shorter beam
segments and then splice the beam segments together at or near the jobsite or in their final location. The splices
are located in the spans, away from the piers. The beam segments are typically post-tensioned for the full length
of the bridge unit, which can be either a simple span or a multiple-span continuous unit.
While the introduction of splices and post-tensioning makes construction more complex and adds cost, precast
concrete bridges of this type have been found to be very cost competitive with other systems and materials. The
longest span in a modern concrete spliced-beam bridge in the United States is currently the 325-ft-long river span
in a four-span, 909-ft-long bridge over the Kentucky River near Gratz, Kentucky. This bridge, completed in 2011,
was originally designed using a steel plate girder, but it was redesigned at the recommendation of the precaster to
reduce project costs. The savings achieved on this bridge clearly demonstrate the comparative economy of the
concrete spliced-beam system. See Section 11.5.6 for further details about this bridge.
Splicing and continuity are important tools for extending span ranges, and they may involve additional design
considerations not discussed elsewhere in this manual. Therefore, a significant portion of this chapter is devoted
to providing designers with the information for these bridge types, including design theory, post-tensioning
analysis and details, segment-to-segment joint details, and examples of recently constructed spliced-beam
bridges. The chapter also includes a design example to help designers understand the various design criteria and
have the ability to develop preliminary superstructure designs.
A significant resource for the design of precast, prestressed concrete beams for extended spans is Extending Span
Ranges of Precast Prestressed Concrete Girders (Castrodale and White, 2004). This final report from a National
Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) project contains considerable information on methods for
extending span ranges, as well as a discussion of issues related to the design of spliced beam bridges, including
three design examples. The report also identifies nearly 250 spliced-beam bridges constructed in the United
States and Canada.
Although curved beams and bridges are not covered in this chapter, some of the concepts for extending spans that
are discussed herein, such as splicing beam segments, are the same or similar. PCI’s Guide Document for the Design
of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI Committee on Bridges, 2020A) and the companion
eLearning webinars T350, T353, T356, and T358, as well as PCI’s Curved Precast Concrete Bridges State-of-the-Art
Report (PCI Committee on Bridges, 2012) are excellent resources. All PCI eLearning webinars are available to the
public at no cost from https://oasis.pci.org.

11.2 HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE

High-performance concrete (HPC) has been defined in a number of ways, but, in general, it includes modifications
to concrete mixtures that improve the efficiency, durability, or structural capability when compared with
components made with conventional concrete. A number of HPC tools can be used to extend the spans of precast,
prestressed concrete beams. NCHRP Synthesis 441 High Performance Concrete Specifications and Practices for
Bridges (Russell, 2013) presents specifications and practices used by state transportation agencies and identifies
items that have improved concrete performance, as well as those that have not. In this chapter, the discussion will
be limited to the use of HSC and LWC.

11.2.1 High-Strength Concrete

HSC has several advantages over conventional-strength concrete. Chapter 2 describes in detail the properties and
uses of various concrete materials and HSC and ultra-high-performance concretes. Figure 11.2.1-1 shows a
bridge where using 10-ksi HSC allowed the elimination of a girder line, which reduced total beam costs as well as
the dead load carried by the substructure. The simply supported, 209-ft main span consisted of 96-in.-deep
Florida I-beams with seventy-two 0.6-in.-diameter strands. The precaster added additional temporary strands to

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11.2.1 High-Strength Concrete/11.2.1.1 Benefits

the top flange of the beam to facilitate stability during transportation (Brice, 2018). The structure was originally
designed as twin, continuous steel plate girder bridges (Lallathin, 2015).
Figure 11.2.1-1
The U.S. Route 17-92 Interchange at State Road 436 in Seminole County, Fla., consists of three simply
supported spans with a main span of 209 ft

11.2.1.1 Benefits
Compared with conventional concrete, HSC offers an array of benefits, including the following:
• Increased compressive strength
• Increased modulus of elasticity
• Increased tensile strength
In addition, HSC is nearly always enhanced by these other benefits:
• Less creep
• Less shrinkage strain
• Lower permeability
• Improved durability
Specifically, beams made with HSC when compared to beams made with conventional concrete exhibit the
following structural benefits:
• Permit the use of higher levels of prestress and, therefore, a greater capacity to carry gravity loads. That
increased load-carrying capacity, in turn, allows the use of
− fewer beam lines for the same width of bridge,
− longer spans for the same beam depth and spacing, and
− shallower beams for a given span.
• For the same level of initial prestress, axial shortening and short-term and long-term deflections are
reduced.
• For the same level of initial prestress, reduced creep and shrinkage result in lower prestress losses, which
can reduce the required number of strands.
• Higher tensile strength results in a slight reduction in the required prestressing force if the tensile stress
limit controls the design.

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11.2.1 2 Costs/11.2.1.3 Effects of Section Geometry and Strand Size

11.2.1.2 Costs
The benefits of HSC are not attained without cost implications. For example, when high concrete compressive
strength is used to increase member capacity, a higher prestress force may be required. This, in turn, offsets the
effect of a lower creep coefficient and results in larger losses and deflections. Furthermore, when very long and
shallow members are used, live-load deflections, as well as constructability and stability, must be investigated
during design.
Although HSC is more expensive per cubic yard than conventional concrete, the advantages of HSC can make it
cost competitive. In some areas, increasing concrete strength from 7.0 to 14.0 ksi could double the cost of the
concrete. However, a modest increase from 7.0 to 10.0 ksi might increase concrete costs by only 10% to 20%.
Some agencies limit design concrete strength to 10.0 ksi. It is difficult to generalize about costs, strengths, and
availability of HSC. The materials, experience, and equipment may vary regionally.
Costs associated with the production of HSC should be weighed against the reduction in volume. In some
instances, the net result of using HSC may be both initial savings and long-term durability enhancements.
Producers located near a project (and their state and regional associations) should be consulted early in the
project planning stages to provide input.
Generally, the technology to produce high-strength precast concrete is advancing very rapidly. Other factors that
impact cost and should be taken into consideration when using HSC to produce longer, larger beams include the
following:
• Achieving high transfer strengths could extend the production cycle to more than one day.
• High prestress forces may exceed available bed capacity for some plants.
• Larger capacity equipment than normally available may be required to handle, transport, and erect
longer and heavier beams.

11.2.1.3 Effects of Section Geometry and Strand Size

Increasing strand size or adding strands increases the pretensioning force and increases the member’s capacity to
resist design loads. However, the increased pretensioning force requires a higher concrete strength at transfer
and HSC may be a cost-effective way to achieve this. High concrete strength at prestress transfer permits the
application of a larger pretensioning force, which in turn. The number of strands that can be used is limited by the
size of the bottom flange. In most regions, beams are now available with large bottom flanges that can
accommodate the required number of strands for long spans. The Nebraska NU, Washington WF, and Florida I-
beam girders, among others, have significantly large bottom flanges as compared to AASHTO-type sections.
Figure 11.2.1.3-1 compares cross sections of selected beam shapes. The cross sections in Figure 11.2.1.3-1 are
representative of many others.

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11.2.1.3 Effects of Section Geometry and Strand Size

Figure 11.2.1.3-1
Beam Shapes with Large Bottom Flanges to Accommodate More Strand

Prestressed concrete beams are commonly designed using 0.6-in.-diameter, low-relaxation Grade 270 strands. In
some areas, 300-ksi strand or 0.7-in-diameter strand is being used. The Minnesota Department of Transportation
(MnDOT) requires 300-ksi strand for their designs, not only to increase capacity, permit longer spans, increase
beam spacing, or require fewer strands, but it also allows the use of a lower initial prestress force to expand the
temperature range for tensioning (MnDOT, 2021). NCHRP Research Report 994 Use of 0.7-in. Diameter Strands in
Precast Pretensioned Girders (Shahrooz, et al., 2022), provides guidelines for designing, detailing, and fabricating
prestressed concrete bridge girders with 0.7-in.-diameter strand based on analytical and experimental research.
The report also proposes provisions for a future edition of the LRFD Specifications. See Chapter 2 for detailed
information on strand.
Another method of increasing beam length or spacing is to harp some of the strands. Harping positions the
strands efficiently by raising moment capacity and compressive prestress at the bottom of the beam at the
midsection while not increasing tensile stresses at the top at the ends. In addition, harping may allow the concrete
compressive strength at transfer to be reduced.
Not all precasters have the ability to pretension 300-ksi or 0.7-in-diameter strand or accommodate harped strand
layouts. Designers should check with local precasters to see whether any of these design options are available.

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11.2.1.3 Effects of Section Geometry and Strand Size

Figure 11.2.1.3-2
Maximum Span of NU2000 Beam

The maximum span varies with the beam spacing and number of strands. The number of strands must increase to
allow for a greater span length. Likewise, as the beam spacing increases, the number of strands must also
increase. Figure 11.2.1.3-2 shows a comparison of strand size, maximum span, beam spacing, and concrete
strength for a NU2000 (78.7-in.-deep) beam. Figure 11.2.1.3-3 displays maximum spans and spacings for the
Florida I-Beam (FIB).
At a small beam spacing of about 6 to 8 ft, the potential for increased span length with high-strength concrete may
be limited by the number of strands that can be placed in the bottom flange. For the NU beam with 6.0 ksi
concrete and beam spacing of 6 ft, 58 strands are required to achieve the maximum span length of 161 ft. Fifty-
eight is the maximum number of strands that can be placed in the bottom flange of the NU beam. If the concrete
strength is increased to 12.0 ksi, the maximum span will increase only 12 ft, about 7.5% greater than the original
maximum span. However, when the beam spacing is increased to 14 ft, the number of strands can be increased
from 46 for concrete with a design strength of 6.0 ksi to 58 for 12.0-ksi concrete, with an increase in span from
105 to 124 ft.

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11.2.1.3 Effects of Section Geometry and Strand Size/11.2.1.4 Compressive Strength at Transfer

Figure 11.2.1.3-3
Florida I-Beam (FIB) Maximum Spans and Spacings (Figure: Florida Department of Transportation)

The effectiveness of HSC is largely dependent on the number of strands that the bottom flange can hold. The more
strands contained in the bottom flange, the farther the beam can span and the greater its capacity to resist
positive moment. It is recognized that designers do not always have a large number of choices of available beam
sections. Nonetheless, a beam that provides for the greatest number of strands in the bottom flange is preferred
when using HSC.
Longer spans and wider beam spacing are not the only considerations. MnDOT developed a series of MH girders
for the 75- to 105-ft-span range, where steel girders would have been selected previously. The MH beams, with
their shallow 30, 35, and 40 in. depths, avoid significant grade raises without the need for shoulder piers
(Western and Ehrlich, 2021; Hass and Ehrlich, 2019).

11.2.1.4 Compressive Strength at Transfer

Higher concrete compressive strength at transfer allows a beam to contain more strands and increases the
capability of the beam to resist design loads. To achieve the longest span for a given beam size, designers should
use concrete with the compressive strength needed to resist the effect of the maximum number of strands that
can be accommodated in the bottom flange. As mentioned in Section 11.2.1.3, harping may allow the use of a
lower compressive strength at transfer. However, a precaster’s availability to achieve high concrete compressive
strengths at transfer or to harp strands varies throughout the United States. The specified strength at transfer
should not be set higher than required for the span being designed. To arbitrarily specify strength at transfer as a
percentage of final design strength is not rational and may unduly increase the required duration of the
production cycle at the manufacturing plant, which would in turn increase the cost of the beams. Early

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11.2.1.4 Compressive Strength at Transfer/11.2.1.7 Prestress Losses

compressive strength is influenced by local materials and sometimes by production facilities and regional
practices. Before beginning design, the designers should consult producers about available concrete strengths.
Designers should also check to see whether the owner or jurisdiction has an upper limit for transfer strength. In
addition, designers should consider concrete strength requirements for lifting girders from the casting bed,
including their lateral stability (Brice, et al., 2009; PCI Committee on Bridges, 2016). The required concrete
strength for this process may govern the strength at transfer.

11.2.1.5 Using Post-Tensioning to Reduce Pretensioning Requirements

When it is necessary to reduce compressive strength at transfer or when there are limitations on the capacity of
the pretensioning bed, the total amount of prestress can be provided in two stages: pretensioning during
production followed by post-tensioning after production. Combining pre- and post-tensioning is generally more
expensive than only using pretensioning during production, but the combination has been used effectively to
solve strength and plant constraints.

11.2.1.6 Tensile Stress Limit at Service Limit State

Numerous test results on HSC have shown a modulus of rupture as high as 12√𝑓𝑐′ compared to the 7.5√𝑓𝑐′ design
value for conventional concrete (ACI Committee 363, 2010). See Chapter 8 for additional discussion of prestress
losses and the service limit state. As shown in Figure 11.2.1.6-1, the use of higher tensile stress limits has
relatively small effect on the maximum achievable spans of prestressed concrete I-beams. Brice, et al. (2013)
studied the effects of owners’ design policies or practices, such as tensile stress limits, on the design of
prestressed concrete bridge girders and found that girder spacing was more sensitive than span capability.
Figure 11.2.1.6-1
Variation of Maximum Span of NU1100 Beams with Spacing and Tensile Stress Limits

11.2.1.7 Prestress Losses

Depending on the specific aggregates used, the general characteristics of HSC are reduced creep, reduced
shrinkage strain, and increased modulus of elasticity. Consequently, at the same level of prestress, prestress
losses may be lower for HSC than for conventional concrete. However, higher levels of prestress are generally
used in HSC members.

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11.2.1.7 Prestress Losses/11.2.3 Examples of Bridges with Lightweight Concrete

The LRFD Specifications provides two methods for determining time-dependent losses of pretensioned girders:
the approximate estimate method (LRFD Art. 5.9.3.3) and the refined estimate method (LRFD Art. 5.9.3.4). Both
methods are described in Chapter 8. When pretensioning and post-tensioning are combined or construction is
staged, only a time-step method should be used.

11.2.2 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete

Structural lightweight aggregate (LWA) concrete has been used extensively to reduce the weight of precast
concrete components (see Sect. 2.4.7 for discussion of LWA concrete and LWC). The weight of a concrete beam
accounts for about one-third of the beam’s total load and increases in proportion as the span increases. Reducing
self-weight allows the beam to carry greater superimposed loads and to span farther. Useful publications on LWA
concrete applications are provided by the Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate Institute (ESCSI; www.escsi.org).
LWA concrete with a specified strength of 10.0 ksi has been used in Norway and Canada (Meyer and Kahn, 2001).
Research performed at the Georgia Institute of Technology (Meyer and Kahn, 2002) included a study of the
advantages of lightweight HSC up to 12.0 ksi. The production and testing of full-size beams have verified the
important design and long-term properties of LWA concrete. When lighter weight is combined with higher
strength and improved durability, the benefits are compounded. Design Example 9.11.b illustrates the use of LWA
concrete. The approximate method for determining prestress losses cannot be used for LWC beams (LRFD Art.
5.9.3.3).

11.2.3 Examples of Bridges with Lightweight Concrete

The reasons for using LWC are often project specific. Examples of LWC bridges include the following:
• The Interstate 5 Portland Avenue Bridge in Tacoma, Wash. (Fig. 11.2.3-1): On this project, LWC was used
to extend the span of simply supported WSDOT WF100G girders to 223 ft. The top flange was widened
from 4 ft 1 in. to 5 ft 1 in. and included 10 temporary top strands to improve girder stability during
handling, transportation, and erection. The concrete mixture had a fresh density of 0.125 kip/ft3 and design
compressive strengths of 8.4 ksi at transfer and 10.0 ksi at 28 days. There were 46 straight strands and 35
harped strands. All strands were 0.6-in. diameter (West, 2019).
Figure 11.2.3-1
Interstate 5 Portland Avenue Bridge in Tacoma, WA.

• The Ohio State Road 235 over Fairborn Cement Company Haul Road: This145 ft single-span bridge was
constructed of Ohio DOT WF72-49 prestressed girders using 0.125 kip/ft3 concrete to reduce shipping
weight (Springer and Tremblay, 2020).

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11.2.3 Examples of Bridges with Lightweight Concrete/11.3.1 Introduction

• The Atkinson Boulevard over CSXT Railroad and Interstate 64 Bridge in Newport News, Va.: This 12-span
bridge is over 1,742 ft long, is fully continuous and constructed with 85-in.-deep prestressed bulb tees up
to 156 ft 2 in. long and spaced at 9 ft 11 in. Both the girders and the cast-in-place deck are made with LWA
concrete with a maximum density of 0.120 kip/ft3. The use of LWA concrete reduced the number of strands
required, which helped control camber growth (Beavers, et al., 2021).
• The Interstate 5 over Skagit River Replacement Bridge in Mount Vernon, Wash. (Fig. 11.2.3-2): This bridge
spans 160 ft and, in order to use the existing substructure, LWA concrete was used for the prestressed, 65-
in.-deep decked bulb-tee girders, diaphragms, and barriers. Using cast-in-place concrete connections
between girder top flanges allowed a lower live-load distribution factor because of a monolithic deck model
rather that a hinged-deck model and permitted a 7-ft 3-in. girder spacing, which eliminated a line of girders
from the original design. Design concrete strength was 9.0 ksi, with 7.0 ksi at transfer. Density of the LWA
concrete was 0.122 kip/ft3. Post-tensioned temporary strands were placed in the top flange to mitigate
stresses during handling, transportation, and erection. An entire span was slid-in to reduce road closure
time (Vanek, et al., 2015).
Figure 11.2.3-2
Interstate 5 over Skagit River Bridge in Mount Vernon, WA.

11.3 CONTINUITY
11.3.1 Introduction
Precast, prestressed concrete beams are most often placed on their supports as simple-span beams. In this
configuration, the beams support their self-weights and the weight of deck formwork. Usually, the weight of the
deck slab is also supported by the simple span. If the details used allow for rotation of beam ends, further dead
and live loads applied to the bridge may also be applied to the simple span.
Simple-span systems may not perform well in all applications. When the deck slab is placed continuously over
abutting girder ends at a pier, but the girder ends are allowed to rotate, significant deck cracking can occur. This
cracking, as well as alternative joints placed at this location, can lead to leakage through the deck and
deterioration of the girder ends, bearings, and the substructure. This situation is especially critical in cold-
weather regions where deicing chemicals are used. Leading Practices for Detailing Bridge Ends and Approach
Pavements to Limit Distress and Deterioration (DeRuyver, et al., 2020) documents the details and practices,
including link slabs, that 14 states use at the ends of bridges to achieve a jointless, albeit not continuous,
structure. These practices minimize structural distress, reduce maintenance, and repair costs, and improve
performance of the bridge.

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11.3.1 Introduction/11.3.2 Method 1 - Conventional Deck Reinforcement

When beams are made continuous, structural efficiency and long-term performance are significantly improved.
fib Bulletin 94: Precast Concrete Bridge Continuity Over Piers (fib and PCI, 2020) presents methodology, connection
details, sample calculations, and examples for establishing continuity over piers. Three methods have been used
to create continuity in precast, prestressed concrete beam bridges:
• Deck reinforcement
• Post-tensioning
• Coupling beams with high-strength threaded rods
Depending on when the post-tensioning is applied, the latter two methods can provide the structural benefit of
making the beam continuous to resist the deck weight—a considerable portion of the total load. This significantly
improves the structural performance of the bridge.
Discussion of the features of each of the three methods follows.

11.3.2 Method 1—Conventional Deck Reinforcement

Continuity can be established by casting abutting beam ends on the pier into cast-in-place concrete diaphragms.
Reinforcement is placed in the cast-in-place deck to resist the negative design moments that develop. Section
3.2.3.2.2 provides more details of this method. Design considerations and calculations are shown in Design
Example 9.2.
This method has been used successfully in a number of states since the 1950s. It is the simplest of the existing
methods because it does not require additional equipment or specialized labor to make the connections between
beams to establish continuity. The beam acts as a simple span under its own weight and the weight of the deck
slab, but acts as a continuous beam for other dead loads and the live load. Because the deck is mildly reinforced
and not pretensioned, it is primarily designed to meet the strength limit state. However, the reinforcement should
also be designed with proper spacing and cover to control cracking.
Establishing continuity at the piers is more complicated than just adding deck reinforcement over the pier. LRFD
Article 5.12.3.3 has requirements for designing a bridge composed of simple-span prestressed concrete girders to
be made continuous for loads placed after the installation of a continuity diaphragm at the pier. These
requirements include minimum width of closure pour, details for positive- and negative-moment connections,
and consideration of restraint moments that develop due to time-dependent or other deformations. Some
agencies or owners have required the prestressed beams to be a minimum age before the continuity diaphragm is
cast. fib Bulletin 94 (fib and PCI, 2020) provides sample calculations for restraint moments and example details for
continuity (see Fig. 11.3.2-1).
Figure 11.3.2-1
Reinforcement Detail over Pier (fib Bulletin 94)

Some prestressed concrete girders, such as deck bulb tees, do not have cast-in-place decks. Research has shown
that splicing reinforcement that extends from the top flanges into a diaphragm closure joint filled with ultra-high-
performance concrete can provide a connection having the required negative-moment capacity for continuity.
Extended, hooked strands in the bottom flanges provide the required positive-moment capacity (Steinberg, et al.,
2022). This type of connection would also be beneficial in accelerated bridge construction.

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11.3.2 Method 1 - Conventional Deck Reinforcement/11.3.3 Method 2 - Post-Tensioning

As discussed in Section 5.6.4 of the Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam
Bridges (PCI Committee on Bridges, 2020A), which applies to straight bridges as well as curved bridges, making
the girders continuous over a pier has implications for the design of the substructure and must be considered
early in the design process.

11.3.3 Method 2—Post-Tensioning

Providing continuity using post-tensioning is more expensive than the previous method per unit volume of beam
concrete, but it can be used to lengthen spans. The method generally requires full-length post-tensioning of the
bridge; therefore, the beam web must be wider than the 6 in. that is typical for many pretensioned beams. It also
requires enlargement of the webs at the ends of some beams (end blocks) to accommodate post-tensioning
anchorage hardware, or special anchorage details in the back wall of the abutment as shown in Figure 11.3.3-1.
There are special considerations and requirements for the design and installation of post-tensioning. The
designer should consult both the Post-Tensioning Institute and American Segmental Bridge Institute’s
Specification for Multistrand and Grouted Post-Tensioning (PTI and ASBI, 2019) and the Specification for Grouting
of Post-Tensioned Structures (PTI, 2019) for applicable provisions to achieve the desired performance and service
life.
Figure 11.3.3-1
Post-Tensioning Details of the Coplay-Northampton Bridge, Northampton, PA.

a) Typical Reinforcement for Post-tensioning Anchorage.

b) Post-tensioning Ducts Spliced Prior to Placement of Closure Joint. c) End Block at the Abutment End Must
Accommodate the Hardware and Post-
tensioning Forces.

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11.3.3 Method 2 - Post-Tensioning

The combination of plant pretensioning and subsequent post-tensioning offers an opportunity for structural
optimization of simple spans made continuous, where the prestressing is introduced in stages corresponding to
the introduction of design loads. The conventional system is to design a precast, pretensioned concrete beam as a
simple span for self-weight and deck weight, and to make spans continuous through longitudinal deck
reinforcement for superimposed dead loads and live loads. Alternatively, the same beam can be pretensioned to
resist self-weight as a simple span and then spliced and post-tensioned to resist all other loads as a continuous
beam. This optimization can result in the reduction of one or two beam lines or a reduction in structural depth
while maintaining the same beam spacing. Several bridges have been built using the combination of two types of
prestressing. Figure 11.3.3-2 presents a schematic diagram of post-tensioning for this concept. See Sections 11.5
and 11.9 for example bridges.
Figure 11.3.3-2
Post-tensioning Continuity Method over Piers (fib Bulletin 99 [fib and PCI, 2021])

Significant advantages of post-tensioning are the abilities to do the following:

• Splice beam segments into longer spans.
• Create efficient, multiple-span continuous bridges.
• Precompress the deck in the negative-moment regions to virtually eliminate transverse surface cracking
in the deck at piers under service loads.
• Improve structural efficiency by having a continuous beam for the deck weight and all subsequent loads.
• Use post-tensioning to resist part of the self-weight of the beam.
• Use plant pretensioning only to mitigate stresses and improve stability during handling, shipping, and
erection of beams. This relatively small amount of prestress results in small cambers and minimizes the
need for high concrete strength at transfer.
Because of these advantages, much of the remainder of this chapter is devoted to the use, analysis, and design of
post-tensioning for extending the spans of precast concrete beam bridges.
In general, the construction of a post-tensioned beam bridge proceeds in the following manner:
1. The pretensioned beams or beam segments are erected.
2. The post-tensioning ducts are spliced, and then the beam splices or diaphragms are formed, cast, and cured.
3. Some or all of the post-tensioning tendons are installed, tensioned, and grouted, unless flexible fillers are
used.
4. The cast-in-place composite deck is cast.
5. If there is a second stage of post-tensioning, those tendons are installed, tensioned, and grouted.
The timing of the application of post-tensioning defines the following three general schemes for spliced-girder
bridge design and construction:
Scheme 1: Apply all of the post-tensioning before the deck is placed.
Advantages:
• The beam system will be continuous for the weight of the deck, which makes the beams more
efficient.
• Minimal pretensioning is required in the beam segments themselves for self-weight and
handling, which reduces the required concrete strength at transfer.
• One stage of post-tensioning minimizes the specialized labor required for such operations.
• Future deck replacement is less complicated because the beams have been designed to handle
the prestressing without the composite action of the deck.

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11.3.3 Method 2 - Post-Tensioning/11.3.4 Method 3 – Using High-Strength Rods to Couple Beams

Disadvantages:
• Higher concrete strengths in the girders and cast-in-place splices may be required at the time
of jacking the post-tensioning tendons because the weight of the deck is not present to offset
the effects of prestress.
• The deck will not be prestressed, which will increase the potential for cracking in the negative-
moment regions over the piers. This region of the deck can be designed with mild reinforcement
in accordance with Article 5.9 of the LRFD Specifications, much like Method 1 in Section 11.3.2.
Scheme 2: Apply all of the post-tensioning after the deck has cured.
Advantages:
• The deck can be prestressed to minimize cracking in the negative-moment region over the piers.
(Issues associated with applying post-tensioning after the deck has cured are discussed in
Section 11.4.9.)
• One stage of post-tensioning minimizes the specialized labor required for such operations.
• Concrete strengths in the girders and cast-in-place splices can be minimized because the weight
of the deck is present to offset the effects of prestress.
Disadvantages:
• The spliced beam segments will not be continuous for the weight of the deck.
• The beam segments must be designed to carry the weight of the deck in simple span, which
increases the required pretensioning.
• Future deck replacement is complicated because the bare beams were not designed to handle
the prestressing without the composite action of the deck.
Scheme 3: Apply the post-tensioning in two stages: one before deck placement and one after the deck has
cured.
Advantages and disadvantages:
• This scheme can maximize the advantages of both of the previous schemes while minimizing
the disadvantages.
• The primary disadvantage of this scheme is the added cost of mobilizing a second round of
specialized labor for the post-tensioning operation.
• First-stage post-tensioning must be large enough to control concrete stresses throughout the
continuous member for the loads applied before the next post-tensioning stage. Issues
associated with applying post-tensioning after the deck has been placed are discussed in
Section 11.4.9.
In cases where all post-tensioning is applied before the deck is placed, tensile stresses in the deck are not usually
checked. The provisions of LRFD Article 5.9.2.3 may be used to reinforce an area in tension using mild steel
reinforcement.
In cases where the deck is subject to tensile stresses by the application of post-tensioning and the tensile stresses
in negative-moment regions exceed design requirements, one of the following could be considered:
• Increase post-tensioning to bring deck concrete stresses within limits and recheck positive-moment
regions for code compliance.
• Increase the specified concrete strength of the deck.

11.3.4 Method 3—Using High-Strength Rods to Couple Beams

In this unique method, nonprestressed, high-strength threaded rods are extended from the top of the beam and
spliced or coupled over the piers to provide resistance to negative moments from the weight of the deck slab.
Conventional longitudinal reinforcement—as described in Section 11.3.2, Method 1—is placed in the deck slab to
resist the additional negative moments due to superimposed dead and live loads. Therefore, this method provides
continuity for deck weight, superimposed dead load, and live load. Positive-moment provisions of LRFD Article
5.12.3.3 must still be met.

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11.3.4 Method 3 – Using High-Strength Rods to Couple Beams

An earlier version of the connection shown in Figure 11.3.4-1 has undergone full-scale testing was shown to be
structurally effective and simple to construct (Ma, et al., 1998). A similar detail was used on a Florida Department
of Transportation four-span, double-tee bridge on U.S. Route 41 over the Imperial River in Bonita Springs, Fla.
Figure 11.3.4-1
Threaded-Rod Connection in Top Flange of I-Beam (Other Reinforcement Not Shown)

This method was also implemented in a value-engineering change to the Clarks Bridge project in Omaha, Neb., in
2002. The contractor redesigned the structure from a haunched steel plate girder system that varied from 4 to 6 ft
deep, to a modified, 50-in.-deep prestressed concrete bulb tee. The four-span bridge (100, 148, 151, and 128 ft)
has a composite deck thickness of 8 in. and a beam spacing of 10.75 ft to match the original steel beam design. For
the longest span, this bridge has a span-to-depth ratio of 31. The bridge also has unique cast-in-place pier tables,
which are composite with the cast-in-place extensions of the beams to support the beams, and later with the
bridge deck. Figure 11.3.4-2a shows a typical beam with high-strength threaded rods extended from the top
flange. Figure 11.3.4-2b shows the beams on their pier tables with extended rods spliced between ends of the
beams (Hennessey and Bexten, 2002).
Figure 11.3.4-2
Clarks Bridge, Omaha, NE

a) Beam with High-Strength b) High-Strength Threaded Rods Are Spliced for Negative-moment
Threaded Rods Reinforcement

The use of high-strength rods to couple beams combines the simplicity of deck reinforcement with some of the
structural efficiency of post-tensioning and can increase the span of a given beam size by about 10%.

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11.3.5 Examples of Bridges with Continuity at Piers

11.3.5 Examples of Bridges with Continuity at Piers

As discussed in Section 11.3.1, when beams are made continuous, structural efficiency and long-term
performance are significantly improved. The following bridges are examples of structures with continuity at
piers:
• Sound Transit light-rail project in Bellevue, Wash. (2021 PCI Design Award): The spans were made
continuous at the piers, which allowed up to 182-ft spans and eliminated five 9-ft-diameter shafts from the
initial design (Fig. 11.3.5-1).
• Project Neon in Las Vegas, Nev.: The spans are up to 162 ft with a maximum girder spacing of 13 ft 7.5 in.
The project contains curved bridges constructed with chorded girders made continuous for composite
loads through the use of continuity diaphragms at the piers (Fig. 11.3.5-2). The deck is composed of 4-
in.-thick precast concrete deck panels topped with 5.5 in. of cast-in-place concrete (Baker and Eggen,
2019A; Baker and Eggen, 2019B).
Figure 11.3.5-1 Figure 11.3.5-2
The Sound Transit Light-rail Project in Bellevue, WA, Project Neon in Las Vegas, NV, Used Chorded
with Spans up to 182-ft Using Girders Made Girders Made Continuous for Curved Bridges
Continuous over Fixed Piers

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11.4 Spliced-Beam Structural Systems/11.4.1 Introduction and Discussion

11.4 SPLICED-BEAM STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

11.4.1 Introduction and Discussion
In many parts of the United States, spans greater than about 180 ft cannot always be achieved economically with
one-piece, precast, pretensioned concrete beams because of production, transportation, or lifting limitations or
beam-stability considerations during those processes. If the project is located near a waterway, it may be possible
to transport longer beams by barges and even erect them from barges. For transportation reasons, owners
sometimes tend to specify spliced structural steel elements for spans over 330 ft.
In situations that require these longer spans, precast concrete beams that are only pretensioned are usually not a
viable option. However, spliced, post-tensioned I-beam or U-beam systems may provide cost-effective
alternatives, and owner agencies should be encouraged to develop designs using these types of systems as
alternatives to steel plate beams. In several states, owners have found that allowing bids for both a spliced
concrete beam and a steel plate beam alternative results in healthy competition and significant savings. Even
when the steel alternate is the successful one, its bid price has been shown to be substantially lower than before
competing against a concrete alternative. This has proven to more than justify the cost of preparing alternatives
for contractor bidding. Alternative concrete designs have often resulted in the concrete solution being selected for
construction and further reward the owner through lower long-term maintenance costs.
Many designers, contractors, and owners are becoming familiar with the efficiency and economy of spliced
concrete beams. This spliced-beam system is different than connecting simple-span beams with a continuity
diaphragm at a pier or concrete segmentally constructed bridges. The spliced-beam system described here and
addressed in LRFD Article 5.12.3.4 entails splicing precast concrete beam segments and has been used to span up
to 325 ft, as in the case of the Gratz Bridge in Kentucky. (See Section 11.5.6 for further details about this bridge.)
The system has been demonstrated to be economical and cost competitive with structural steel and has
advantages with regard to durability and aesthetics. Section 11.5 showcases several spliced-beam bridges.
To provide simple spans, precast, pretensioned concrete beam segments are sometimes post-tensioned together
(spliced) at or near the project site and lifted as one piece onto final supports (see Sect. 11.9). In most cases,
however, the precast concrete beam segments are erected on temporary towers to span the full distance between
supports. When the beam segments are post-tensioned together, they lift from the temporary falsework and span
between their permanent pier and abutment supports.
For continuous spans, pier segments are erected and the midspan segment is then either suspended from the pier
segments using strongbacks or internal corbels, or supported by temporary towers. The segments are then
spliced together with closure pours and post-tensioning. Figure 11.4.1-1 shows the erection of the midspan
beam segment on the PHX Sky Train Extension project, which used internal corbels to support the midsection
until splicing was completed (Van Kampen, 2020). See Section 11.5 for specific project details.
Figure 11.4.1-1
A Drop-in Girder Segment Being Erected on Corbels Projecting from the Ends of Pier Girder Segments
for the PHX Sky Train Extension Project

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11.4.1 Introduction and Discussion/11.4.2 Types of Beams

As discussed in Section 11.3.3, when these continuous, spliced-beam, post-tensioned bridges have a second stage
of post-tensioning after the deck is cast, they offer an advantage over steel and ordinary pretensioned, precast
concrete bridges because they have precompressed concrete in the deck at the negative-moment regions. While
competitive with steel designs, these systems require more design and construction steps and are generally, but
not always, more expensive than concrete systems that are only pretensioned. However, durability and
performance are better.
When pretensioning and post-tensioning are combined, additional losses will occur due to the interaction of
different prestressing forces. This concept is illustrated in Sections 11.6 and 11.8.

11.4.2 Types of Beams

Shapes typically used in spliced-beam bridge applications are shown in Figure 11.4.2-1. Prestressed concrete I-
beams are the most popular, mainly due to their moderate self-weight, ease of fabrication, and availability. For
these reasons, much of the discussion that follows will focus on I-beams.
Figure 11.4.2-1
Shapes Used for Spliced-Beam Bridges

a) I-beams

b) U-beams

c) Box beams

For continuous superstructures, the need is evident for optimum I-beam sections. The I-beam geometry must
perform well in both the positive- and negative-moment regions. This is clearly a different goal than for shapes
that were developed specifically for simple spans. Simple-span beams generally have inadequate sections for
negative-moment resistance and have webs that are too thin for post-tensioning ducts. As discussed in Section
11.4.5.1, a minimum web width to accommodate the post-tensioning tendon ducts and shear reinforcement is
required.
Figure 11.4.2-2 shows a unique solution where the beam segment over the pier is a variable-depth member. The
precast concrete I-beams achieve a slender, light-looking element at midspan, but the beam segment over the pier
is deeper to resist the negative moment. While this solution has the benefit of improved section properties at the
interior piers, construction is more complex than for more conventional precast concrete construction. However,
where midspan structure depth is severely restricted, a section like this has been an economical solution for
several bridges (see Sect. 11.4.5).

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11.4.2 Types of Beams/11.4.3 Span Arrangements and Splice Location

Figure 11.4.2-2
Variable-Depth Pier Beam Segment on the Interstate 91 Rockingham Bridge in Vermont

U-beams that are later closed with a precast concrete or cast-in-place lid are increasingly popular because of their
aesthetic appeal, and they are also being used for curved beams. Many splice details and cross sections are the
same for straight and curved U-beams. See Chapter 12 of this manual and the Guide Document for the Design of
Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI Committee on Bridges, 2020A) for further information.
The use of box beams is often limited due to weight.

11.4.3 Span Arrangements and Splice Location

By considering spliced-beam segments, the designer has more flexibility to select the most advantageous span
lengths; beam depths; the number and locations of piers; beam segment lengths for handling, hauling, and
construction; and splice locations. As discussed in Section 11.3.3, a commonly used splicing technique is to post-
tension a series of beam segments that are simply supported on piers or abutments. This achieves continuity for
deck weight and superimposed loads. In addition to enhancing the structural efficiency of this system, post-
tensioning can be used to ensure that the deck stresses are below the cracking limit, which improves durability
considerably.
Another feature of spliced-beam segments is their ability to adapt to horizontally curved alignments. By casting
the beam segments in appropriate lengths and providing the necessary transverse diaphragms, spliced beams
may be chorded along a curved alignment. This is illustrated in Figure 11.3.5-2 and Figure 11.4.3-1 that show
Project Neon in Las Vegas, Nev., with girders arranged along chords of an 875-ft-radius horizontal curve. The
chorded solution results in an efficient framing system. Chapter 12 provides more details for constructing curved
bridges from straight beam segments.
Figure 11.4.3-1
Project Neon, Las Vegas, NV

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11.4.4 Details at Beam Splices/11.4.4.1 Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Splices

11.4.4 Details at Beam Splices

A wide variety of joint details has been used for splicing beams. Figure 11.4.4-1 shows several splice
configurations.
Figure 11.4.4-1
I-Beam Splice Configurations (Post-Tensioning Not Shown)

Most precast concrete beam splices are cast in place and similar to the splice shown in Figure 11.4.4-1b. Cast-in-
place splices allow the designer more construction tolerances and sufficient space to splice post-tensioning ducts.
These details typically use a 12- to 24-in.-wide closure pour, except within a diaphragm (see LRFD Art. 5.12.3.4.2b
for minimum gap width). The space is typically filled with high-early-strength concrete.

Figure 11.4.4-1d shows an epoxy-coated, match-cast joint. This detail is unnecessary, and its use is discouraged
because of the difficulty of adequately matching two pretensioned beam ends with camber.

Figure 11.4.4-1e illustrates a detail that is used with continuous post-tensioning and is also sometimes used
when the designer desires to have an expansion joint in the bridge. For an expansion joint, the post-tensioning
tendons are terminated at the joint. While this detail has been used successfully for a number of bridges, it is
uncommon.
With proper concrete mixture designs and proportions, the required strength and quality of jobsite concrete can
be achieved for beam splices with post-tensioning or where beam segments are set on shoring or corbels during
staged construction.

11.4.4.1 Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Splices

Cast-in-place, post-tensioned splices are most commonly used in spliced-beam structural systems because of their
simplicity and their ability to accommodate fabrication and construction tolerances. The beam segments are
erected on falsework, the ducts are coupled, and post-tensioning tendons are installed. Concrete for the deck slab
may be placed at the same time as the concrete for the splice, or, more often, the deck concrete may be placed
after the splice and following the first stage of post-tensioning. Figure 11.4.4.1-1 shows schematic details of cast-
in-place, post-tensioned splices. Figure 11.4.4.1-2 shows the ends of two beam segments before splicing
activities are complete. The serrated (ribbed) face of the shear key of one of the beam segments is evident.

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11.4.4.1 Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Splices

Figure 11.4.4.1-1
Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Splice Schematic Details

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11.4.4.1 Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Splices/11.4.4.1.1 “Stitched” Splice

Figure 11.4.4.1-2
On the Coplay-Northampton Bridge, Northampton, PA, the 1-ft-wide gap between girder segments for
post-tensioning duct splicing was later filled with 9.0-ksi cast-in-place concrete. Strongback can be seen.
(Photo: AECOM)

11.4.4.1.1 “Stitched” Splice

A schematic view of a “stitched” splice is shown in Figure 11.4.4.1.1-1. In this type of splice, the precast,
pretensioned concrete beam segments are post-tensioned across the splice; sometimes, short tendons (known as
spot post-tensioning) or threaded high-strength threaded bars are used. It should be noted that precise alignment
of the post-tensioning ducts is essential for the effectiveness of the post-tensioning. If proper alignment is not
achieved, considerable frictional losses can result. Oversized ducts are often used to provide additional tolerance.
Because of the short length of the tendons, anchor seating losses could be unacceptably large. To reduce anchor
seating losses, the use of a power wrench to tension the threaded bars is recommended. End blocks are required
at the ends of the beams at each splice location to house the post-tensioning hardware and provide the “end-zone”
reinforcement to resist concentrated stresses due to the anchorages. This type of splice may be suitable for long
bridges where continuous tendon post-tensioning over the full length produces excessive friction losses.

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11.4.4.1.1 “Stitched” Splice

Figure 11.4.4.1.1-1
“Stitched” Splice

The Manette Bridge in Bremerton, Wash., used a traditional post-tensioned midspan splice with a haunched pier
segment that had crisscrossed post-tensioning (Fig. 11.4.4.1.1-2 and 11.4.4.1.1-3). This unique spliced-beam
arrangement allowed a 250-ft main span. The full depth of the pier beam segment is 12 ft 6 in. The width of the
thickened section is 4 ft 1 in. and the bottom flange width is 3 ft 2.5 in. when not thickened.
Figure 11.4.4.1.1-2
Pier Beam Segments with Accommodations for Crisscrossed Post-Tensioning for the Manette Bridge,
Bremerton, WA. (Photo: Washington State Department of Transportation)

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11.4.4.1.1 “Stitched” Splice

Figure 11.4.4.1.1-3
Post-Tensioning Details (Section E-E, bottom) of the Haunched Pier Beam Segment of the Manette Bridge
(Figure: Washington State Department of Transportation)

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11.4.4.1.2 Structural Steel Strongback at Splice

11.4.4.1.2 Structural Steel Strongback at Splice

Some projects have used a temporary structural steel strongback assembly in place of dapped ends or temporary
support towers or falsework. Figure 11.4.4.1.2-1 shows a strongback securing one end and another strongback
in place to receive a drop-in beam segment on the Interstate 91 Rockingham Bridge in Vermont.
Figure. 11.4.4.1.2-1
Strongback Used to Support Drop-in Beam Segments on the Interstate 91 Rockingham Bridge in Vermont
(Photo: HDR)

Structural steel strongbacks are rigidly connected to the top of the “drop-in” or end segments. They are used to
hang these beam segments from the cantilevered pier segments until the splice joint is cast and the beam
segments are post-tensioned. The strongback is attached to the drop-in beam segment with threaded-rod yokes.
It bears on the top of the end of the cantilevered pier segment. Additional supports are used across the joint at the
webs to maintain alignment and to prevent the tendency of the cantilevered beam segment to roll under the
weight of the drop-in beam segment. This lateral restraint of the bottom flange is very important. Engineers of
record, specialty engineers, and erection crews must clearly understand the sequence of strongback hardware
installation prior to unhooking the drop-in beam segment from the crane.
For the joint details, alignment of the ducts is important. The strongback is removed after the joint is cast and the
beam segments are post-tensioned together. This strongback device is especially recommended for situations
where falsework is not economical. The strongback requires detailed structural design and careful erection due to
the large forces involved. Figure 11.4.4.1.2-2 shows a typical strongback detail.

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11.4.4.1.2 Structural Steel Strongback at Splice/11.4.5 System Optimization

Figure 11.4.4.1.2-2
Strongback at Splice

11.4.4.1.3 Structural Steel Hanger at Splice

Another method used to avoid falsework towers is a unique adaptation of the steel corbel, used for many years in
the precast concrete building industry. In the bridge industry, steel shapes are embedded in both ends of the
beam segments at a joint. The embedments in the pier beam segment support hangers that have also been
embedded in the drop-in beam segment. This solution requires high control of fabrication and erection
tolerances, alignment of ducts, and care in construction. The details include “keepers” to assist with alignment and
prevent dislodging the hangers from the seats. Additional alignment brackets or similar controls are required to
provide for stability as in the strongback details previously described. Embedded steel corbels were used in the
construction of the PHX Sky Train U-Beam Bridges (Van Kampen, 2020), which is described in Section 11.5.1.

11.4.4.2 Match-Cast Splice

Match-cast beam segments were used in early applications of spliced-beam bridges to eliminate the time and
expense of cast-in-place joints. However, if beam segments are pretensioned they will camber and all effects of
match casting are lost. Because of this and the high quality of concrete mixtures now used for the closure pours,
match casting is seldom used today and its use is discouraged.
See LRFD Article 5.12.3.4.2c for requirements for the details of match-cast joints. Other necessary details to
consider for match-cast beam segments include the following:
• Coupling of post-tensioning ducts. This requires the forming of small recesses around the duct where it
meets the header.
• Sealing of the coupling zone against leakage of post-tensioning grout.
• Camber in the pretensioned beams that causes the ends to rotate. The rotation must be accounted for
during fit-up of the beams at the joints.

11.4.5 System Optimization

The main reason for splicing and post-tensioning precast concrete beam segments is to overcome size and weight
limitations for handling, shipping, and erection. For example, in a bridge with two spans of 180 ft, it may be an
option to produce and ship three 120-ft-long beam segments—one pier beam segment between two end beam

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11.4.5 System Optimization/11.4.5.1 Minimum Web Width to Accommodate Post-Tensioning

segments. Structural demands, site limitations, and transportation must be considered in determining the actual
beam segment lengths and splice locations.
For very long spans, the critical section is generally at the pier due to large negative moments or large shear
forces. The beam segments at the pier may need to be deepened to accommodate these moments and forces (see
Sect. 11.4.5.2). This added depth will considerably increase the weight of the pier beam segment, and, therefore,
special planning and attention to production, transportation, and erection will be necessary. Figures 11.4.2-2,
11.4.4.1.1-2, and 11.4.4.1.2-1 show haunched pier beam segments.
Deepening the pier beam segment can be accomplished in one of three ways: by maintaining the web depth and
thickening the bottom flange; by maintaining the bottom-flange thickness and increasing the web depth; or by
varying the depths of the web and the bottom flange. The first method is the easiest to fabricate, but adds
considerable weight to the segment, which may be detrimental to shipping. The other two methods may be
challenging to fabricate but the beam segment will be lighter. These three options should be carefully evaluated
and local precasters consulted before a final decision is made for the configuration of the pier beam segment.
Other options include the following:
• Placement of a cast-in-place bottom slab (Fig. 11.3.4-2)
• Gradual widening of a member toward the support
• Using higher-strength concrete
• Adding compression reinforcement in the bottom flange

11.4.5.1 Minimum Web Width to Accommodate Post-Tensioning

Web width should be as small as possible to optimize cross-section shape and minimize weight. However, the web
width must be large enough to accommodate a post-tensioning duct, auxiliary reinforcement, and minimum cover
for corrosion protection.
Splicing precast concrete beams requires that web thicknesses be proportioned to accommodate post-tensioning
ducts. LRFD Article 5.4.6.2 requires that the inside diameter of the duct shall be at least 0.25 in. larger than the
nominal diameter of a single bar or strand tendon. For multistrand tendons, the inside cross-sectional area of the
duct shall be at least 2.0 times the net area of prestressing steel cross-sectional area, except when the tendons are
placed by the pull-through method—in which case the duct area shall be at least 2.5 times the net area of the
prestressing steel. Also, the size of the ducts in structural concrete shall not exceed 0.54 times the least gross
thickness at the duct. Using this criterion, web thicknesses that vary from 7.5 to 10 in. can be used to
accommodate 3- and 4-in.-diameter post-tensioning ducts. The choice of web thickness must also consider shear,
torsion, and principal tensile stresses. See LRFD Article 5.9.5.
Another requirement of the PTI M55.1-19 Specification for Grouting of Post-Tensioned Structures (PTI, 2019) and
other agencies, is a minimum inside duct area based on a ratio of tendon cross-sectional area for the pull-through
method of tendon installation, and a separate requirement for the push-through method of tendon installation. An
example from Nebraska satisfied the minimum requirement of 2.5 times the tendon cross-sectional area for the
standard fifteen 0.6-in.-diameter tendons used. The corresponding minimum inside duct area is calculated as
2.5(15)(0.217) = 8.14 in.2 This corresponds to a required inside diameter of 3.22 in.
The Washington State Department of Transportation chose a web width of 7.87 in. for their WF-series of spliced
beams (Seguirant, 1998). Figure 11.4.5.1-2 shows how this width was derived. The 4.33-in.-diameter duct can
accommodate commercially available post-tensioning systems of up to nineteen 0.6-in.-diameter strands per
tendon, or twenty-nine ½-in.-diameter strands per tendon. The corresponding distance between the duct and the
concrete surface of 1.77 in. is more than twice the maximum aggregate size of ¾ in. used in Washington state.

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11.4.5.1 Minimum Web Width to Accommodate Post-Tensioning/11.4.6 Design and Fabrication Details

Figure 11.4.5.1-2
Web Configuration, Washington State WF-Series Spliced Beams

Many of the spliced straight I-beam bridges built over the past four decades have not met the duct diameter and
web width requirements that were in place at the time of construction. In the past versions of this manual and in
the State-of-the-Art of Precast/Prestressed Concrete Spliced Girder Bridges (PCI Committee on Bridges, 1992), the
numerical examples do not meet the current LRFD requirement on the minimum web width. However, the
inclusion of these examples is not intended to encourage designers to violate the LRFD and PTI Specification
requirements. Also, there have been arguments on whether the requirement affects bridge durability. If this
requirement is not satisfied, it is important that the designers are aware of this requirement during the early
phase of the design.
Much of the previous discussion and its figures could unintentionally lead the reader to believe that minimum
required web width only applies to I-beams with grouted post-tensioning systems. U-beams, including curved U-
beams, are becoming more popular and the minimum web-width requirements apply to them as well.
Furthermore, flexible fillers are sometimes used or may be required instead of grout. Florida Department of
Transportation requires replaceable tendons and has created a set of concept drawings for spliced U-beams that
use replaceable external tendons. However, these drawings could also be used with grouted external tendons.
Specific post-tensioning details for diabolos and laced and modified-laced tendon layouts are included in the
drawings (Fallaha and Nickas, 2017).

11.4.5.2 Haunched Pier Beam Segments

In situations where it is not possible to avoid a splice joint in the span, and prismatic constant-depth pier beam
segments are not adequate, haunched pier segments can be used effectively. For these haunched segments to be
efficient, Girgis, et al. (2002) has shown that typically the haunch depth should be about 1.75 times the standard
depth and the haunch length 20% of the span. Shallower depths or shorter lengths may need to be used to satisfy
clearance criteria, but they will be less efficient. Disadvantages to haunched pier segments may include custom
form casting and larger-than-usual bulkheads for pretensioning top strands to obtain negative-moment beam
capacity. See Figures 11.4.2-2 and 11.4.4.1.1-2.

11.4.6 Design and Fabrication Details

Cast-in-place splice joints are the standard practice. The ends of the beams at splices should have formed shear
keys similar to those shown in Figure 11.4.4.1-1, if required. Ducts for post-tensioning should be made of
semirigid galvanized metal, high-density polyethylene, or polypropylene. They must be adequately supported
within the beam during casting to maintain alignment and minimize friction losses. The Specification for
Multistrand and Grouted Post-Tensioning (PTI and ASBI, 2019) and Specification for Grouting of Post-Tensioned
Structures (PTI, 2019) are excellent resources for post-tensioning requirements.

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11.4.7 Construction Methods and Techniques/11.4.7.1 Splicing and Shoring Considerations

11.4.7 Construction Methods and Techniques

11.4.7.1 Splicing and Shoring Considerations
In a conventionally reinforced or post-tensioned splice away from the piers, it is usually necessary to temporarily
support one or both ends of an intermediate beam segment. For bridges over inaccessible terrain or for water
crossings, structural steel strongbacks like those described in Section 11.4.4.1.2 or hangers as illustrated in
Section 11.4.4.1.3 can be used for temporary support instead of using towers. A common solution for a three-span
channel crossing is to use towers for the side spans where land is accessible during construction, and strongbacks
or hangers in the center span.
Important factors to consider when deciding whether to use falsework, strongbacks, or hangers to support the
segments in place or to splice the segments on the ground include the following:
• Space at the site is needed to position the segments, cast the joints, and post-tension the beam.
• The assembled beam will be heavy and require larger cranes.
• Access for trucks and cranes is needed.
• Falsework towers may need to be excessively tall.
• The stability of beam segments or spliced unit must be considered. For in-place splicing the beam segment
may require different lifting points (closer to the ends) for erection than were needed for earlier in-plant
handling. For on-the-ground splicing, the spliced unit is longer and therefore more vulnerable to stability
issues. In either situation, the stability of the erected segment or unit must be considered.
The advantages of splicing on the ground versus in-place is the saving of the cost of falsework and considerations
to safety when working high above the ground. On the ground, the splice is readily accessible to the workers and
is close to material and equipment, which results in improved labor productivity.
Splicing on the ground requires a large, level area and temporary supports such as concrete pads. Beam segments
need to be accurately aligned during splicing. Figure 11.4.7.1-1 shows beams segments aligned, ducts spliced,
and reinforcement installed for splicing on the ground.
Figure 11.4.7.1-1
Beam Segments Aligned for Splicing on the Ground

In-place splicing requires stiff falsework constructed with the capability to make adjustments for final elevations.
Figure 11.4.7.1-2 shows falsework supporting the ends of a pier beam and drop-in beam. Precise vertical
alignment of the beam segments is usually accomplished by using shims or screw jacks between the falsework
and the beam segments. The major advantages of in-place splicing over splicing on the ground are that the beam
segments are handled only once, the segments require smaller lifting equipment, and assembly space at the site is
not required.

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11.4.7.1 Splicing and Shoring Considerations/11.4.7.2.1 Single Spans

Figure 11.4.7.1-2
Coplay-Northampton Bridge, Northampton, PA, Beam Segment Ends Supported on Falsework for Splicing
(Photo: AECOM)

11.4.7.2 Construction Sequencing and Impact on Design

11.4.7.2.1 Single Spans

Single-span beams can be composed of two or more beam segments. Using three beam segments as an example,
as shown in Figure 11.4.7.2.1-1, the beam segments are installed on temporary towers and braced. Next, the
splice joints are cast, tendons inserted in ducts, and post-tensioning applied, completing the assembly of the
beam. Before the splice joints are cast, the end elevations of the beam segments must be carefully positioned to
allow for calculated long-term deflection. This also impacts the aesthetic appearance of the profile due to camber
in the beam. These elevations also determine the amount of concrete needed for the haunches—the space
between the top of the top flange and the bottom of the deck.
When the post-tensioning is applied, the full-span spliced beam cambers upward and lifts up and away from the
temporary towers. The beam reactions that were being carried by the temporary towers are now carried by the
spliced girder, so they must be considered in the analysis.
Figure 11.4.7.2.1-1
Three Beam Segments Supported on Falsework for Splicing

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11.4.7.2.2 Multiple Spans

11.4.7.2.2 Multiple Spans

The same issues apply to multispan spliced beams erected on temporary towers as with single spans. Figure
11.4.7.2.2-1 shows the erection sequencing of a two-span overpass where traffic does not allow for temporary
towers at the splice joint.
Figure 11.4.7.2.2-1
Two-Span Bridge Construction Sequence

The pier beam segment is installed on the pier and adjacent towers, and a connection is made to the pier. Ideally,
for a unit with three or more spans, the pier connection should be one that allows for translation and rotation of
the beam at the time of post-tensioning. However, a fully integral joint can be used as long as the supports at the
abutment allow for movement during tensioning of the post-tensioning tendons. To establish the appropriate
construction sequence and logistics, the assumptions used in the analysis by the designer should result in plan
notes for the contractor.
Placement of the first end beam segment, as shown in Step 3 of Figure 11.4.7.2.2-1, creates moments in the pier
beam segment, and overturning effects on the tower and pier that must be evaluated. When an end-beam segment
is erected on the second span, the temporary overturning effect is reduced or eliminated. After the concrete in the
splice has achieved the specified compressive strength and the post-tensioning tendons are stressed, the tower
reactions must be considered as applied loads to the continuous two-span system. The balance of construction
sequencing is as described earlier.
Because the deck is most likely cast in sections, an additional design consideration is the deck-casting sequence.
Selecting a sequence that takes advantage of the beams becoming composite with the deck in certain portions of
the structure can control stresses and deflections.

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11.4.8 Grouting of Post-Tensioning Ducts/11.4.9 Deck Removal Considerations

11.4.8 Grouting of Post-Tensioning Ducts

Grouting of the ducts after tensioning is a critical step in the construction process. Inadequate attention to
grouting can lead to issues that can compromise the integrity of the bridge. Good workmanship in grouting and
proper design details ensure proper performance of the structure and longevity.
Grouting of ducts should be performed as soon as possible after completion of the post-tensioning. Leaving the
tendons ungrouted for an extended period of time could allow accumulation of moisture and chlorides in coastal
areas, and lead to the onset of corrosion. Moisture accumulation in the ducts may result in water lenses and
ultimately in air pockets that could compromise the durability of the system.
Specific grouts and grouting techniques must be strictly observed to achieve high-quality construction. For
example, the grout must be flowable and must be pumped at a pressure high enough to displace the air in the
ducts, yet low enough to avoid cracking or blowouts of the concrete cover over the ducts. Air vent tubes must be
placed at strategic locations to prevent air entrapment.
There are two specifications that represent the state of the art in material and installation requirements for
multistrand and grouted post-tensioning systems and should be used in design and construction. PTI/ASBI M50.3-
19 Specification for Multistrand and Grouted Post-Tensioning (PTI and ASBI, 2019) includes tendon protection
levels that allow the owner to determine the appropriate degree of corrosion protection necessary for the
environment and design life. It also addresses certification requirements for personnel involved in the installation
and grouting of the post-tensioning system. PTI M55.1-19 Specification for Grouting of Post-Tensioned Structures
(PTI, 2019) provides minimum requirements for the grout materials and testing, guidance on preparing a
grouting plan, as well as post-grouting inspection requirements. See the Summer 2019 and Winter 2017 issues of
ASPIRE for detailed information on grouted post-tensioning systems.
Because proper grouting is such an important step in the construction process, it should be performed by
experienced and well-qualified personnel. The American Segmental Bridge Institute (ASBI) has developed
grouting training courses and a personnel certification program, which are recommended and often required.

11.4.9 Deck Removal Considerations

The future removal of a bridge deck that has been in service has been a subject of concern among bridge owners
who are interested in using spliced-beam and segmental box-beam bridges. In the snowbelt areas of the United
States, due to the large number of freezing-and-thawing cycles and the liberal use of deicing chemicals, it has been
common to expect that a bridge deck will deteriorate to the point of needing replacement in 20 to 30 years.
A thorough discussion of the three different schemes for applying post-tensioning—before the deck is cast, after
the deck is cast, or two-thirds before casting the deck and one-third after casting the deck—is in Section 11.3.3.
If the deck is in place when the beams are post-tensioned, it becomes an integral part of the resistance system.
Removal of the deck for replacement may temporarily overstress the bare beam. A deck replacement project
would therefore require an elaborate analysis and possibly a complicated temporary support scheme until the
new deck is in place. However, if this approach is properly analyzed and the economics are verified, there is no
reason why it should not be considered. Computing power and available software make this approach a viable
alternative.
Some states have avoided this consideration by requiring designers to apply the post-tensioning in its entirety
before the deck is placed (Nebraska Department of Transportation, 2001). An additional benefit of this single-
stage post-tensioning is that it simplifies scheduling and coordination of construction because. It eliminates
multiple mobilizations for specialized subcontractors.
However, when compared with single-stage post-tensioning, multistage post-tensioning has significant benefits in
terms of structural efficiency. A convenient option is to divide the post-tensioning into thirds: two-thirds applied
to the bare beam and one-third applied to the composite section. This approach is demonstrated in the design
example in Section 11.8. There are several benefits to this division. The deck is subject to compression that
controls transverse cracking and extends its “first” life before it might need replacement. Also, the ratio of initial
post-tensioning on the composite system to total post-tensioning (0.33) is partially offset by the gain in concrete
strength of the beam and time-dependent prestress loss, which is approximately 20%. Therefore, the beams
would not be appreciably more overstressed than they were when initially post-tensioned.

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11.4.9 Deck Removal Considerations/11.4.10 Post-Tensioning Anchorages

It may be desirable to apply all of the post-tensioning after the deck becomes part of the composite section. This
case would be similar to the conditions of a segmental box-beam system where the top flange is an integral part of
the cross section when the post-tensioning tendons are tensioned. In the United States and abroad, this solution
has been proven to provide a deck surface of excellent durability, which might not require any provisions for deck
removal and replacement. The position of the ASBI is to provide a small additional thickness of sacrificial concrete
in the original deck that can be removed and replaced with a wearing overlay if chloride diffusion measurements
warrant such action. However, if the designer wishes to do so, the analysis of deck removal and replacement as
part of the original design of the bridge is entirely possible.
Analysis for deck removal and replacement generally requires use of a continuous-beam computer program
(Tadros, et al., 1977). First, concrete stresses in the deck at time of anticipated deck removal are calculated with
due consideration of time-dependent effects. Then, analysis is performed on the continuous precast concrete unit
with consideration to two sets of loads: the deck weight reversed, and the deck stress resultants reversed. The
resulting stress increments in the beam are then added to the stresses just before deck removal and the net values
are checked against maximum stress limits.
Deck removal and replacement are temporary loading cases requiring temporary measures. If the concrete tensile
stress exceeds the stress limit, one should check whether there is sufficient reinforcement to control cracking. If
concrete compressive stress exceeds the 0.60ϕw𝑓𝑐′ limit specified in LRFD Article 5.9.2.3.2a, a temporary support
may be required.

11.4.10 Post-Tensioning Anchorages

Post-tensioning anchorages require the use of end blocks, which are thickened webs for a short length at the
anchorages. End blocks can increase production costs of beams considerably due to the need for special forms
and forming changes during production. I-beams with end blocks are also heavier to handle and transport,
especially if the dimensions are selected according to LRFD Article 5.9.5.6.1, which states that the end block
length should be at least equal to the beam depth and its width adequate to resist bursting stresses. Generally, for
bulb-tee sections, these dimensions are taken to be at least equal to the smaller of the widths of the two flanges.
Figure 11.4.10-1 shows end blocks for an I-beam. The beam in the center shows the typical cross section.
It is possible to use the cast-in-place diaphragm at the abutment to house the anchorage located there. This
practice is used in the Pacific Northwest because of the availability of contractors experienced with cast-in-place,
post-tensioned concrete. For regions where post-tensioning is not prevalent, it is preferred to have the anchorage
hardware placed by the precast concrete producer to control quality, reduce contractor risk, and reduce
construction time. Post-tensioning anchorage zones are discussed further in Section 11.7.
Figure 11.4.10-1
Beam End Block

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11.5 Examples of Spliced-Beam Bridges/11.5.1 PHX Sky Train Stage 2, Phoenix, Arizona

11.5 EXAMPLES OF SPLICED-BEAM BRIDGES

The Curved Precast Concrete Bridges State-of-the-Art Report (PCI Committee on Bridges, 2012) contains
information on spliced-girder bridge projects. The following sections briefly describe recent and notable spliced-
beam bridges.

11.5.1 PHX Sky Train Stage 2, Phoenix, Arizona (2022)

The 2.2-mile-long extension of the train system at Sky Harbor Airport in Phoenix, Ariz., includes 6,988 ft of
guideway bridges to connect Terminal 3 to the rental car facility. Part of the project is a 676-ft-long, five-span
continuous, post-tensioned structure, which is described herein. Other precast, prestressed concrete
components—rectangular box girders and voided slabs—were also used on the project.
The terminal had to remain in use during the project, so the window for erection activities and options for
falsework tower locations for supporting girders were extremely limited. Therefore, the solution was to stage
construction and use embedded corbels to hang the drop-in girder segments (see Fig. 11.5.1-1 and 11.5.1-2).
The use of embedded corbels allowed crews to make the erection connection using two bolts per corbel, which
was much faster than installing strongbacks and did not require their dismantling.
Figure 11.5.1-1
The embedded corbels of the cantilevered pier segments are ready to receive the drop-in unit. Post-
tensioning ducts that will be spliced are also visible.

Figure 11.5.1-2
Hold-Down Bracing Runs Through the Shoring Tower on the Backside of the Pier Segments and Anchors to
the Concrete Apron Below

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11.5.1 PHX Sky Train Stage 2, Phoenix, Arizona/11.5.2 Chief Joseph Dam Bridge, Bridgeport, Washington

The five-span unit is composed of three girder lines with eight U-girder segments in each line. The two longest
spans are 163.5 and 197.7 ft, and each has a drop-in U-girder segment. The typical U-girder segment on the
project is 60 in. deep; however, in the spliced span, the U-girder is 78 in. deep. The U-girder segments ranged in
length from 53 to 100 ft and weighed up to 210 kips.
The U-girder segments were pretensioned with straight, 0.6-in.-diameter strands with a combination of
debonding and top strands to control top tensile stresses at transfer. Post-tensioning was used in the cantilevered
pier segments to provide the negative-moment capacity needed to support the drop-in segments. These tendons
were also incorporated into the final design. After splices (closure pours) were completed, six continuity tendons
running the full length of the five-span unit were tensioned and grouted in each girder line (Mish, 2020).
Although embedded corbels are not uncommon in the construction of precast concrete buildings, they are not
typically used in the bridge industry. The steel corbels were designed using the methodology from the PCI Design
Handbook, 7th Edition (PCI Industry Handbook Committee, 2010), but with the load and resistance factors from
the LRFD Specifications. Each of the four corbels (two in the pier segment and two in the drop-in segment)
consisted of a 12 × 4 × ⅝ in. hollow structural section tube that was 3 ft 9 in. long, with an 8 × 6 × ⅜ in. bearing
plate with either slots or holes for bolts. Van Kampen (2020) provides additional corbel, post-tensioning, and
staged-construction details.
The collaboration of the project team was a key component of the success of the project. The designer, contractor,
precaster, and precast concrete design engineer met regularly to develop concepts and procedures that were
incorporated into the final design and construction process.

11.5.2 Chief Joseph Dam Bridge, Bridgeport, Washington (2016)

The Chief Joseph Dam Bridge in Bridgeport, Wash., is a 240-ft-long, single-span bridge. There are five girder lines.
Each line consists of three precast, prestressed concrete WSDOT WF100PTG girder segments (49, 136, and 49 ft
in length) that were spliced and post-tensioned to form the two-lane, 32-ft-wide bridge.
Many alternatives were evaluated to replace the existing, historic structure, which had a 130-ft-long and 20-ft-
deep timber Howe deck-truss truss main span, and a precast concrete, spliced-girder, post-tensioned structure
was selected. Project challenges included limited site access, environmental requirements that ruled out
construction activities in the creek between existing piers, and requirements related to the archeological
significance of the ravine, which mandated that the roadway alignment not be changed. Furthermore, the historic
truss had to be removed whole or dismantled without entering the creek. Another consideration was that the
owner was concerned about the cost of long-term maintenance for a steel bridge.
The spliced-girder concept allowed for shorter girder segments to be transported to the site and allowed the use
of the existing piers for temporary supports for the splicing operation (Fig. 11.5.2-1 and 11.5.2-1). The heaviest
girder segment weighed 190 kips.

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11.5.2 Chief Joseph Dam Bridge, Bridgeport, Washington

Figure 11.5.2-1
Reinforcing steel and post-tensioning ducts installed in the 100 in.-deep WSDOT “supergirder.” For the
end segments, the girder web was widened at the end to accommodate the post-tensioning anchorages.
(Photo: KPFF Consulting Engineers)

Figure 11.5.2-2
The existing timber Howe deck truss was moved to the temporary work trestle and used as the platform to
erect the girder segments. Detailed inspection and analysis were performed to ensure that the existing
truss could safely support the loads. (Photo: KPFF Consulting Engineers)

The 100-in.-deep girder segments were fabricated using 10.8-ksi high performance concrete. The girder segments
were pretensioned to ensure zero tension in the bottom fiber during shipping and erection. The post-tensioning,
which was applied before the cast-in-place deck was placed to limit weight on the existing piers and allow for
future deck rehabilitation, consisted of four 19-strand tendons using 0.6-in.-diameter strands. The somewhat
unusual tendon profile had two parabolic curves in the end segments, but was straight in the middle. This profile
reduced stresses in the 2-ft-wide cast-in-place closure pour. The design strength of the concrete in the closure
pours was 6.0 ksi at post-tensioning and 7.5 ksi at 28 days. Due to the remote site location, the designers were
concerned that the availability of high-strength concrete would be limited. (Pang, 2018)

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11.5.3 U.S. Route 27-Moore Haven Bridge, Florida/11.5.4 Interstate 91 Bridges, Rockingham, Vermont

11.5.3 U.S. Route 27–Moore Haven Bridge, Florida (1999)

At the time of its construction, the Moore Haven Bridge across the Caloosahatchee River, had record span lengths for
a precast, prestressed concrete bridge. The bridge consists of 11 total spans with a three-span continuous girder
over the water. The original design of the three-span unit was steel with a total length of 740 ft and a total width of
105 ft. The main span is 320 ft. Figure 11.5.3-1 shows several photos of the redesigned concrete structure.
Figure 11.5.3-1
Moore Haven Bridge

Each three-span continuous unit consists of five beam segments: two haunched beam segments, one center drop-
in beam segment, and two end-beam segments. The haunched beams are 138 ft long and vary in depth from 6.75
to 15 ft. The drop-in beam is 182 ft long and 8 ft deep. The end beams are 141 ft long and 6.75 ft deep. The beams
were constructed in straight segments and made continuous using post-tensioning. The spliced-girder portion of
the bridge is also located within the horizontal curve.

11.5.4 Interstate 91 Bridges, Rockingham, Vermont (2021)

In Rockingham, Vt., twin 863-ft-long, four-span, post-tensioned, precast concrete spliced-girder bridges carry
Interstate 91 across a deep ravine (Fig. 11.5.4-1). Each bridge is 41 ft 1 in. wide and has five girder lines spaced
at 8 ft. Each girder line consists of seven beam segments—four 79-in.-deep Northeast bulb-tee (NEBT-79)
segments and three haunched pier segments based on the NEBT-79 structure but with a thickened bottom flange
to create a maximum 10 ft depth. Each of the 96-ft-long haunched segments weighs 187 kips.

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11.5.4 Interstate 91 Bridges, Rockingham, Vermont/11.5.5 Coplay-Northampton Bridge, Leigh County, Pennsylvania

Figure 11.5.4-1
Interstate 91 Twin Bridges, Rockingham, VT. (Photo: HDR)

There are two 245-ft main spans in each bridge. Each of those spans has a 145-ft-long drop-in beam segment that
weighs approximately 174 kips. During erection, the beam segments were temporarily hung from the haunched
pier segments using strongbacks. After all beam segments were erected and closure diaphragms cast, each girder
line was post-tensioned with three bonded tendons of nineteen 0.6-in.-diameter strands. The concrete design
strength of the NEBT-79 segments and cast-in-place closure pours is 9.0 ksi.
The twin structures were designed for a 100-year life expectancy without significant rehabilitation. As such, some
of the mild reinforcement of the superstructure, including the stirrups of the NEBT-79 beam segments, is stainless
steel (French, 2021).

11.5.5 Coplay-Northampton Bridge, Leigh County, Pennsylvania (2019)

The Coplay-Northampton Bridge is the result of an extensive superstructure replacement in which prestressed
concrete PA bulb tees with stems widened to 8.5 in. for post-tensioning replaced steel girders. Based on the span
lengths, which were dictated by the reuse of the existing river piers, the originally proposed design specified steel
replacement girders. However, precast concrete was evaluated and determined to be economically competitive
(Fig. 11.5.5-2).
The eight-span, 1116-ft-long structure has a three-span, 548-ft-long (181, 181, and 186 ft), fully continuous,
spliced, post-tensioned main unit (Fig. 11.5.5-2). The cross section of the main unit consist of five beam lines
spaced at a maximum of 10-ft 4 in. Two other multispan units were made continuous for live load.
The haunched pier segments vary in depth from 79 in. to 115 in. Shipping considerations limited the length of all
beam segments to 125 ft and the depth to 115 in.

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11.5.5 Coplay-Northampton Bridge, Leigh County, Pennsylvania

Figure 11.5.5-1
Delivery and Erection of Pier Beam Segments for the Coplay-Northampton Bridge

Figure 11.5.5-2
Tensioning Operations after Post-Tensioning Strands Were Installed (Note the End Blocks)

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11.5.5 Coplay-Northampton Bridge, Leigh County, Pennsylvania/11.5.6 State Route 22 over Kentucky River Bridge, Gratz, Kentucky

Figure 11.5.5-2 (cont.)

Tensioning Operations after Post-Tensioning Strands Were Installed (Note the End Blocks)

The post-tensioning, which was installed before the deck was placed, of the three-span unit consisted of four
tendons of fifteen 0.6-in.-diameter strands each. The Federal Highway Administration made this bridge project a
demonstration project for the use of electrically isolated tendon systems (EIT). The EIT technology uses special
anchorage hardware for the tendons and links the reinforcement to form an electrically continuous loop through
the entire beam. Through this technology, it can be verified that the tendon is fully encapsulated after tensioning
and grouting. Furthermore, monitoring can continue into the future (McNavage, 2020; Shutt, 2019).

11.5.6 State Route 22 over Kentucky River Bridge, Gratz, Kentucky (2010)
This 909-ft-long bridge was originally designed as a steel structure, but it was redesigned as a precast,
prestressed concrete spliced-girder structure after a precaster asked if a concrete alternative could be submitted.
As documented by the owner’s approved value-engineering change proposal and by using creative construction
techniques, the spliced, post-tensioned, precast concrete girder alternative resulted in a savings of over $800,000
as compared to the projected cost of the original steel design.
The four-span (175, 200, 325, and 200 ft) bridge has four girder lines with eight beam segments per line. The 325-
ft main span, which holds the U.S., North American record for the longest prestressed concrete spliced I-beam
span, consists of a 185-ft-long drop-in beam segment spliced with haunched pier segments on each end (Fig.
11.5.6-1 and 11.5.6-2). The haunched pier beam segments vary in depth from 9 to 16 ft, and all other bulb-tee
beam segments have a constant 9 ft depth.

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11.5.6 State Route 22 over Kentucky River Bridge, Gratz, Kentucky

Figure 11.5.6-1
Temporary towers supported steel beams spanning over the piers, which in turn supported a gantry with
strand jacks to lift the pier segments and move them laterally into place.

Figure 11.5.6-2
The haunched bulb-tee pier beam segments vary from 9 to 16 ft in depth. The lifting of a pair of main-span
beam segments can be seen in the background.

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11.5.6 State Route 22 over Kentucky River Bridge, Gratz, Kentucky/11.6.1 Introduction

There were many unique aspects of the project. Most of the beam segments were barged directly from the
precaster’s facility to the project site. Because of site restrictions, the haunched pier segments and the main-span
drop-in segments had to be erected without cranes. A system that used strand jacks was designed. Shoring towers
supported straddle beams, which supported a gantry beam on trolleys. The strand jacks lifted the haunched pier
segments, and then the trolleys moved them laterally into position. Later, the strand jacks were moved to the ends
of the pier segments and used to lift the drop-in segments from the barge. For stability, the 185-ft-long drop-in
segments were lifted as a braced pair, with each pair weighing 258 tons.
A 7.5-ksi 28-day design strength was used for all beam segments. Normalweight concrete was used for all beam
segments except for the 185-ft drop-in segments, which used a 125 lb/ft3 concrete mixture.
After all beam segments were erected, full-length post-tensioning was installed in two stages. Stage 1, which
occurred before the deck was cast, required three tendons of fifteen 0.6-in.-diameter strands per girder line. After
the deck concrete achieved 4.0-ksi design strength, one tendon of the same composition was installed (Slagle,
2011).

11.6 POST-TENSIONING ANALYSIS

11.6.1 Introduction
This section discusses some of the aspects of the analysis and design of post-tensioned beams that differ
significantly from those for pretensioned beams. They include the following:
• Losses in post-tensioning tendons. Additional sources of prestress losses unique to post-tensioning are
friction and anchorage-set losses, which are discussed in this chapter. Chapter 8 provides a detailed
discussion of prestress losses.
• Interaction of losses between pretensioned strands and post-tensioned tendons must be considered.
• Time-dependent analysis. The method of analysis should take into account the effects of creep and
shrinkage of concrete, a relaxation of steel, and the properties of the concrete when they occur.
• The effect of post-tensioning on continuous beams. The method of analysis should properly account for
secondary moments due to post-tensioning.
• The effect of post-tensioning ducts on shear capacity and section properties, especially if flexible fillers
are used.
Other significant items that must be considered in the design and analysis of post-tensioned beams include the
following:
• Methods used to show post-tensioning on plans. Some jurisdictions indicate the centroid of the group
whereas others illustrate each tendon. There is a difference between the center of gravity of the duct and
the tendon.
• The responsibilities of the engineer of record and of the supplier of the anchorages (see LRFD Art.
5.9.5.6.4).
• Analysis and design of anchorage zones. The design must include consideration of potential conflicts
between the anchorage hardware with its accompanying reinforcement and other reinforcement in the
anchorage zone.
• Estimation of deflection, camber, and end rotation of beams during multiple construction stages.
• Web thickness to accommodate ducts.
Although software programs are usually used for the analysis of post-tensioned structures, it is important that the
user understands the basics and is able to perform checks. Some of the aforementioned subjects are discussed
elsewhere in this chapter, including in the design examples. Additional information on the design of post-
tensioned structures, including time-dependent analysis, can be found in the Post-Tensioning Manual (PTI, 2006),
Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI Committee on Bridges,
2020A) and the companion e-Learning webinars T350, T353, T356, and T358; Curved Precast Concrete Bridges
State-of-the-Art Report (PCI Committee on Bridges, 2012), and fib 94 Bulletin: Precast Concrete Bridge Continuity
over Piers (fib and PCI, 2020). All PCI eLearning webinars are available to the public at no cost from
https://oasis.pci.org. Design aids on post-tensioning are also available from PTI, Federal Highway Administration,
and ASBI.

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11.6.1 Introduction/11.6.2.2 Anchorage Set Loss

Two specifications govern material and installation requirements for multistrand and grouted post-tensioning
systems. PTI M55.1-19 Specification for Grouting of Post-Tensioned Structures (PTI, 2019) provides requirements
for the grout materials and testing, and guidance on preparing a grouting plan including post-grouting inspection
requirements. PTI/ASBI M50.3-19 Specification for Multistrand and Grouted Post-Tensioning (PTI and ASBI, 2019)
includes information on the degree of corrosion protection necessary for the structure’s environment and design
life. It also addresses certification requirements for personnel involved in the installation and grouting of the
post-tensioning system. Also see Sections 11.4.6 and 11.4.8.

11.6.2 Losses at Post-Tensioning

In the design of post-tensioned structures, the engineer of record has responsibilities as laid out in LRFD Article
5.9.6.4. Even if the contract documents indicate the anchorage locations, geometry of a tendon path, and the
design forces at one or more locations along the path, the engineer of record is still responsible for approving
working drawings submitted by a post-tensioning specialist or supplier. However, this does allow the contractor
to select the post-tensioning system and procedures that lead to the best economy for the project without
neglecting safety. Long-term losses for post-tensioned spliced beam segments are determined according to LRFD
Article 5.9.3.5. Kelley (2020) provides a more detailed description of each type of loss.

11.6.2.1 Friction Loss

To analyze the friction loss in a tendon, the stress or force along the tendon path is plotted. When a tendon is
jacked from one or both ends, the stress along the tendon decreases away from the jack due to the effects of
friction (see the example in Sect. 11.6.2.3). The loss of stress may be expressed by the following equation:
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐹 = 𝑓𝑝𝑗 (1 − 𝑒 −(𝐾𝑥+μα) ) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.2.2b-1]
where
fpj = stress in the prestressing tendon at jacking, ksi
e= base of Napierian logarithm
x= length of a prestressing tendon from the jacking end to any point under consideration, ft
K= wobble friction coefficient, typically about 0.0002/ft for all types of [LRFD Table 5.9.3.2.2b-1]
ducts
μ= coefficient of friction due to local deviations from tendon path, typically [LRFD Table 5.9.3.2.2b-1]
about 0.2/radian for rigid and semirigid galvanized metal sheathing
and polyethylene ducts
α= sum of the absolute values of angular change of post-tensioning tendon from jacking end, or from
the nearest jacking end if tensioning is done equally at both ends, to the point under investigation,
radians

11.6.2.2 Anchorage Set Loss

Loss of prestress due to anchorage set occurs in the vicinity of the jacking end of post-tensioned members as the
post-tensioning force is transferred from the jack to the anchorage block. During this process, the wedges move
inward as they seat and grip the strand. This results in a loss of elongation and therefore a loss of force in the
tendon.
The value of the strand shortening, generally referred to as anchorage set ΔL, varies from about 0.125 to 0.375 in.,
depending on the anchorage hardware and jacking equipment. An average value of 0.25 in. may be assumed in
design, but it shall be shown in the contract documents and verified during construction (see LRFD Art. 5.9.3.2.1).
The anchorage set loss is highest at the anchorage. It diminishes gradually due to friction effects as the distance
from the anchorage increases. Anchorage set loss is more significant in shorter tendons. On very short tendons,
the anchorage set loss can be nearly as high as the initial tendon elongation. Therefore, the initial prestress could
be ineffective.

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11.6.2.3 Example Calculations of Friction Loss and Anchorage Set Loss

11.6.2.3 Example Calculations of Friction Loss and Anchorage Set Loss

Calculation of the estimated friction and anchorage set losses is demonstrated in the example herein. It is
important to note that the losses as determined in the example are estimates.
Figure 11.6.2.3-1a shows the elevation of the end span of a multispan beam unit. Its length is 155 ft. The tendon
profile consists of three portions, Lab, Lbc, and Lcd, each with a different curvature.
A jacking stress fpa = 0.78fpu = 210.6 ksi is often used for design. The jacking stress, fpa, will change after anchor set
and concrete fiber stresses will need to be checked. The illustrations in Figure 11.6.2.3-1 show the stresses in the
tendon at different locations and for different conditions. The stress limit for low-relaxation strand prior to
seating is 0.9 fpy, and fpy = 0.90fpu (LRFD Tables 5.9.2.2-1 and 5.4.4.1-1, respectively). A friction coefficient μ =
0.20/radian, and a wobble coefficient K = 0.0007/ft are assumed. This value of K is significantly overestimated in
this example for presentation of the anchorage set loss. The typical value is 0.0002/ft, as stated in Section 11.6.2.1
and LRFD Table 5.9.3.2.2b-1, and is shown as a comparison.
Figure 11.6.2.3-1
Tendon Stresses Before and After Anchorage Set Loss

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11.6.2.1 Friction Loss/11.6.2.3.2.1 Length Affected by Seating Is within Lab

11.6.2.3.1 Friction Loss

The stresses in each of the tendon segments before seating are calculated using LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.2b-1. Although x
is the length of the tendon, for this example the horizontal distance will be used as a reasonable estimate. The
results are as follow:
• Strand stress at location a fpa = 210.6 ksi
• Strand stress at location b fpb = 198.4 ksi
• Strand stress at location c fpc = 184.1 ksi
• Strand stress at location d fpd = 178.6 ksi
The stress diagram, before accounting for anchorage set loss as shown in Figure 11.6.2.3-1b, consists of three
linear segments. Note that the slope of each linear segment (Lab, Lbc, and Lcd) is different, partly because the stress
is a function of the tendon curvature.

11.6.2.3.2 Anchorage Set Loss

The vertical distance or height of the hatched area in Figure 11.6.2.3-1c (K = 0.0007/ft) and 11.6.2.3-1d (K =
0.0002/ft) represents the drop in tendon stress over the affected beam length x after the post-tensioning tendon
is anchored. This length x may be shorter than Lab or as long as the beam length between anchorages. After
seating, the highest stress will be at the right end of the hatched area. The stresses before seating and after seating
are symmetrical about a horizontal line passing through fpx, the tendon stress at distance x where there is no
longer the effect of anchorage-set loss. This symmetry results because the friction effects are equal in both
directions—as the tendon is being pulled out of the beam during stressing or pulled back into the beam during
seating of the anchorage. Because the distance x is not yet known, it is calculated by numerical iteration until the
following condition (Hooke’s Law) is satisfied:
ΔL = hatched area/Ep (Eq. 11.6.2.3.2-1)

11.6.2.3.2.1 Length Affected by Seating Is within Lab

First, assume that x, measured from point a, is equal to Lab = 62 ft, and the base of the triangular hatched area is
2(210.6 − 198.4). Dividing the hatched area in Figure 11.6.2.3-1c by the steel modulus of elasticity (assumed to
be 28,500 ksi): (½)(2)(210.6 − 198.4)(62)(12)/28,500 = 0.318 in., which is greater than the assumed anchorage
set of ΔL = 0.25 in. Thus, the length affected by seating is within Lab, and the hatched area is bounded by two
straight lines having the same slope except that one slope is negative and the other is positive.
In this case, a closed-form solution is possible using Eq. 11.6.2.3.2-1:

Δ𝐿(𝐸𝑝 )(𝐿𝑎𝑏 )
𝑥=√ (Eq. 11.6.2.3.2.1-1)
(𝑓𝑝𝑎 − 𝑓𝑝𝑏 )

Substituting for ΔL, fpa, fpb, Ep, and Lab, the values 0.25 in., 210.6 ksi, 198.4 ksi, 28,500 ksi, and 62 ft, respectively, x
= 54.93 ft, which is less than 62 ft, as expected.
Based on similar triangles, the corresponding anchorage set loss ΔfpA is:
2(𝑓𝑝𝑎 − 𝑓𝑝𝑏 )(𝑥)
Δ𝑓𝑝𝐴 = (Eq. 11.6.2.3.2.1-2)
𝐿𝑎𝑏
Substituting the value of x = 54.93 ft and ΔfpA = 21.6 ksi, see Figure 11.6.2.3-1c.
Therefore,
fpx = fpa − 0.5 ΔfpA= 210.6 − 0.5(21.6) = 199.8 ksi
The limit for stress in the prestressing steel along the length of the [LRFD Table 5.9.2.2-1]
component away from anchorages and couplers is 0.74fpu = 199.8 ksi, and

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11.6.2.3.2.1 Length Affected by Seating Is within Lab/11.6.2.4 Elastic Shortening Loss

The stress, 𝑓𝑝𝑎

′
, in post-tensioning strands at point a (the jacking end) after anchorage set loss is determined as
follows:
′
𝑓𝑝𝑎 = fpa − ΔfpA= 210.6 − 21.6 = 189.0 ksi ≤ 0.70fpu = 189.0 ksi
The limit for stress in the prestressing steel at anchorages and couplers is [LRFD Table 5.9.2.2-1]
0.70fpu = 189.0 ksi
It is a coincidence that both of these stresses are the same as their limits.

11.6.2.3.2.2 Length Affected by Seating Is within Lac

To illustrate the case where the length affected by seating is greater than the distance to the low point in the
tendon profile Lab (that is, the hatched area extends past 62 ft), the example will be reworked with μ =
0.20/radian and K = 0.0002/ft, which are the typical values according to LRFD Table 5.9.3.2.2b-1. With these
values, fpb, fpc, and fpd can be found (LRFD Eq. 5.9.3.2.2b-1) to be equal to 204.6, 197.4, and 192.9 ksi, respectively.
If the same check is performed (Eq. 11.6.2.3.2-1) as before, ΔL = (½)(2)(210.6 − 204.6)(62)(12)/28,500 = 0.157
in., which is less than 0.25 in., and the effect of the anchorage set extends past 62 ft (that is, fpx lies on the second
line segment between b and c). In this case, two quantities are unknown: x and ΔfpA. An iterative procedure will be
used to reach a solution.
The first condition that the stress diagrams before and after seating are symmetrical about a horizontal line
passing through fpx, still exists. Therefore:
2(𝑓𝑝𝑏 − 𝑓𝑝𝑐 )(𝑥 − 𝐿𝑎𝑏 )
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑏 = (Eq. 11.6.2.3.2.2-1)
𝐿𝑏𝑐
Δ𝑓𝑝𝑎 = 2(𝑓𝑝𝑎 − 𝑓𝑝𝑏 ) + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑏 (Eq. 11.6.2.3.2.2-2)
The second condition is that the hatched area divided by the steel modulus of elasticity is equal to the anchor
seating ΔL (same concept as Eq. 11.6.2.3.2-1):
1 1 1
Δ𝐿 = [ (Δ𝑓𝑝𝑎 + Δ𝑓𝑝𝑏 )(𝐿𝑎𝑏 ) + (Δ𝑓𝑝𝑏 )(𝑥 − 𝐿𝑎𝑏 )] (Eq. 11.6.2.3.2.2-3)
𝐸𝑝 2 2
With x assumed equal to Lab, the first estimate of Δfpa, using Eq. (11.6.2.3.2.2-2), is 12.0 ksi. Substituting this value
in Eq. (11.6.2.3.2.2-3) gives a tendon shortening of 0.16 in., which is less than the assumed value of 0.25 in.
The next iteration would be to try x = Lab + Lbc. The corresponding tendon shortening using this value is 0.76 in.,
which is greater than 0.25 in. Since the two computed values bracket the assumed value, values of x between
these two bounds are tried until a solution is found. The equations may look intimidating, but they are basic
geometry and algebra. The use of spreadsheet software simplifies this iteration. The final results of the iterations
are x = 947.25 in. (78.94 ft) and ΔfpA= 15.2 ksi. This solution corresponds to stress at point a of (210.6 − 15.2) =
195.4 ksi, stress at point b of [204.6 − (15.2 − 12.0)] = [204.6 − 3.2] = 201.4 ksi, and stress at distance x of [204.6
− (3.2/2)] = 203.0 ksi. Figure 11.6.2.3-1d shows the tendon stress diagram for this case.
As noted in the previous section, the LRFD Specifications limits tendon stresses 𝑓𝑝𝑎 ′
and 𝑓𝑝𝑥
′
after seating. The stress
𝑓𝑝𝑎 at point a exceeds the limit by 6.4 ksi, while the stress, 𝑓𝑝𝑥 at point x exceeds the limit by 3.2 ksi. Therefore,
′ ′

tendon stress at point a governs and the initial jacking stress must be reduced by approximately 6.4 ksi. The
required maximum jacking stress is therefore (210.6 − 6.4) = 204.2 ksi. The tendon stresses along the length
should be recomputed using this new jacking stress, resulting in the entire tendon stress diagram being lowered
by approximately 6.4 ksi. If the adjustment of the jacking stress were large, the calculations for anchorage set loss
should be rerun.

11.6.2.4 Elastic Shortening Loss

The post-tensioning is typically applied sequentially using one multistrand tendon jack. It is not generally
economical to tension more than one tendon at a time. When the first tendon is tensioned, it is anchored at the
end of the beam. Tensioning of subsequent tendons in the same beam—and, to some extent, tendons in other
beams moving across the bridge width (if the deck has been cast before the tendons are tensioned)—causes the

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11.6.2.4 Elastic Shortening Loss/11.6.4.1 Conventional Analysis Using Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Loads

concrete along with previously tensioned tendons to shorten. This sequential elastic shortening loss is highest in
the first tendon tensioned. There are formulas in the LRFD Specifications to estimate the average elastic
shortening loss in this situation. A second round of tendon tensioning to restore the original tensile stress in the
tendons may substantially eliminate the losses due to sequential shortening, but it is generally not required.

11.6.3 Time-Dependent Analysis

There are differing approaches to complex concrete bridge design. Some believe it is unwarranted to spend a
considerable amount of time and resources to model relatively simple spliced-beam bridges with sophisticated
finite element, time-dependent programs. In their opinion, there may be limited advantage in calculating, in detail,
the effects of differential creep and shrinkage and the effects of temperature gradients, compared to the practice
used with conventional, non-post-tensioned systems when selecting appropriately conservative creep and
shrinkage values.
LRFD Article 5.4.2.3.1 permits creep and shrinkage to be estimated using provisions of LRFD Articles 5.4.2.3.2 and
5.4.2.3.3, the fib Model Code for Concrete Structures (fib, 2010), the CEB/FIP Model Code for Concrete Structures
(CEB, 1990), or ACI PRC-209-92, Prediction of Creep Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures (ACI
Committee 209, 1992). Some commercial computer programs that include time-dependent analysis are based on
European creep and shrinkage prediction formulas. These programs tend to follow methods developed for
segmental box-beam bridges, not spliced-beam bridges. However, many software programs include options for
the method used and time-dependent analysis will uncover problems with differential shrinkage between deck
and girder that other approaches may miss. Most time-dependent analysis programs also can analyze time-
stepped construction with supports, such as shoring towers, added then removed. This accounting process is
much more accurate if the program accounts for the changes internally. Friction and anchorage set losses are also
included in these programs.

11.6.4 Equivalent Loads for Effects of Post-Tensioning

In a pretensioned beam, when the prestress force is transferred from the strands to the concrete, it causes the
member to camber and become supported at its ends. The beam acts as a simply supported member. At any
section, the effect of the prestress is an axial force equal to the effective prestress force and a bending moment
equal to the product of the effective prestress force and its eccentricity. Because the member is statically
determinate, the support reactions due to prestressing are zero. The end reactions are caused only by member
weight. The same is true for a simple-span, post-tensioned beam.
For continuous members, post-tensioning is usually introduced at the construction site. Because the continuous
member is statically indeterminate at the time of post-tensioning, its support reactions are affected by the
deformations of the beam. The member cannot camber freely because the post-tensioning tendons are tensioned.
Support reactions caused by the restrained deformations due to post-tensioning result in additional moments
called “secondary” moments. There are secondary shears as well, but usually not additional axial forces, unless
the member is restrained by the supports against axial deformation. The term “secondary” is somewhat
misleading. The effects are called secondary only because they are caused as the result of another effect—the
post-tensioning of the beam. The secondary moments may not be minor, as could be implied by the term; it is
conceivable that the secondary moment at the intermediate support of a two-span bridge could totally offset the
primary moment from post-tensioning. This would result in a uniform stress at that location equal to P/A, where
P is the post-tensioning force and A is the cross-sectional area of the member.

11.6.4.1 Conventional Analysis Using Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Loads

A common approach to evaluate secondary moments due to post-tensioning is to model the effect of the post-
tensioning tendon as a series of equivalent uniformly distributed loads. The eccentricity e of the post-tensioning
force P results in a moment Pe. The equivalent uniform load weq is based on the relationship M = weqL2/8.
Therefore, weq = 8Pe/L2 where e is the total eccentricity of the tendon in the segment considered and L is the
width of a complete parabola representing the tendon profile. Signs must be carefully watched.
Figure 11.6.4.1-1 shows a typical generic tendon profile for a two-span continuous bridge, the tendon profile for
this example, and the equivalent uniform loads from the effect of post-tensioning. This is the same tendon profile

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11.6.4.1 Conventional Analysis Using Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Loads

used in Section 11.6.2.3 to illustrate the calculation of losses due to friction and anchorage set. The centroidal
distance from the top fiber is 35.45 in.
Figure 11.6.4.1-1
Equivalent Uniform Loads for Post-Tensioned Two-Span Continuous Bridge

Figure 11.6.4.1-1 (cont.)

Equivalent Uniform Loads for Post-Tensioned Two-Span Continuous Bridge

For this example, P = 801.5 kips is used. (Note: the basis for selecting this value of P will be shown later.)
M1 = Pe1 = P(0) = 0 in.-kips
M4 = Pe4 = 801.5[−(35.45 − 9.5)] = −20,798 in.-kips
8𝑃(𝑒1 + 𝑒2 ) 2𝑃[0 + (65.75 − 35.45)]
𝑤𝑒𝑞1 = = = 0.0877 kip⁄in. = 1.05 kip⁄ft
[2(0.4𝐿)]2 [(62)12]2
And similarly for other equivalent loads.

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11.6.4.1 Conventional Analysis Using Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Loads

Figure 11.6.4.1-2
Nodes for One Span of a Two-Span Continuous Bridge

A better estimate is obtained when the span is divided into 10 segments with 11 nodes (Fig. 11.6.4.1-2). The
eccentricities at Nodes 5, 10, and 11 (0.4L, 0.9L, and 1.0L, respectively) are the lowest and highest points and on a
common tangent of the parabolic curves connected at Node 10. Note that although the 0.9L node is commonly
used as the inflection point for the tendon as it approaches the pier location (1.0L), it may not be the optimal
location in terms of overall effects of post-tensioning. The designer may wish to investigate other locations. The
geometric properties of the curves between Nodes 1 and 5, 5 and 10, and 10 and 11, are used to determine the
tendon eccentricities at the remainder of the nodes. If the curve is a parabola, as is usually assumed, the
relationship y = ax2 can be used. The distance y is the height above the lowest point or below the highest point,
and x is the horizontal distance from that point. The tendon eccentricities at all 11 nodes for the example have
been calculated and are shown in Table 11.6.4.1-1.
Table 11.6.4.1-1 also shows the post-tensioning tendon stresses at each node, after accounting for friction and
anchorage set losses. The average post-tensioning tendon stress along the length of the span is 184.7 ksi.
Assuming the area of post-tensioning tendons is 4.34 in.2, which corresponds to a twenty 0.6-in.-diameter strand
tendon, the average post-tensioning force is 801.5 kips. Using this average force, equivalent loads are calculated
according to Figure 11.6.4.1-1. The loads are then input into a continuous beam analysis computer program to
obtain the total moments due to post-tensioning. For this particular example, only one span needs to be modeled
due to symmetry. The support at point a is assumed to be restrained against vertical movement only, while the
pier support at point d is fully restrained due to symmetry. The secondary moments are the difference between
the primary and the total moments. The total, primary, and secondary moments calculated using this method are
shown in Table 11.6.4.1-1.
This approach is appropriate only if the effective prestress force is relatively constant along the entire beam
length. However, friction and anchorage set losses in large multistrand tendons, which are generally used in
bridge applications, may cause the variation in post-tensioning force over the member length to be as high as
30%. Thus, assuming constant P and uniform equivalent loads may be only appropriate in preliminary design.
Table 11.6.4.1-1
Post-Tensioning Effect—Approximate Method with the Beam Divided into Segments of 0.1L (11 Nodes)
Node No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Distance from left
0 186 372 558 744 930 1,116 1,302 1,488 1,674 1,860
end, in.
Tendon eccentricity,
0.00 −13.26 −22.73 −28.41 −30.30 −28.43 −22.80 −13.43 −0.30 16.58 25.95
in.
Post-tensioning
181.4 182.9 184.4 185.9 187.4 188.3 187.7 186.3 184.8 183.4 178.9
stress, ksi
Equivalent Loads:
Vertical force, kips/ft 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31 −5.21 −5.21
Moment, in.-kips 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −20,798
Total moment,
0 −9,456 −15,969 −19,538 −20,163 −17,859 −12,638 −4,501 6,552 20,520 28,660
in.-kips
Primary moment,
0 −10,625 −18,214 −22,767 −24,285 −22,782 −18,274 −10,760 −240 13,285 20,798
in.-kips
Secondary moment,
0 786 1,572 2,358 3,145 3,931 4,717 5,503 6,289 7,075 7,862
in.-kips

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11.6.4.2 Refined Modeling Using a Series of Nodal Forces

11.6.4.2 Refined Modeling Using a Series of Nodal Forces

A convenient way to determine the effects of post-tensioning is to use a spreadsheet program. The post-
tensioning effects at each of the nodes of an element are converted to equivalent nodal forces: a vertical force, a
horizontal force, and a couple at each node. In addition, a distributed horizontal force is applied to the element
between each pair of adjacent nodes to account for the change between horizontal nodal forces due to friction and
anchorage set losses. Figure 11.6.4.2-1 shows the modeling of the beam and post-tensioning.
Figure 11.6.4.2-1
Nomenclature and Sign Convention in Refined Method

a) Modeling Member and Post Tensioning Tendon Profile

b) Sign Convention
Figure 11.6.4.2-1 (cont.)
Nomenclature and Sign Convention in Refined Method

c) Equivalent Forces Acting on a Single Element

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11.6.4.2 Refined Modeling Using a Series of Nodal Forces

The only approximation used in this method is to assume the post-tensioning profile is a series of straight lines
between the nodes. A structural analysis program for continuous beams is then used to determine the total
bending moment diagram. For clarity of presentation, an axial load diagram is not included. It can easily be
obtained from the axial nodal and element forces.
The primary bending moment diagram can be obtained directly as Pe. It can also be obtained through the same
structural analysis program with the same loads, but with enough supports removed to render the beam statically
determinate. The example beam used in Section 11.6.4.1 will be used here to illustrate the calculation steps.
Figure 11.6.4.2-1 shows three nodes in sequence and the sign convention used. The equivalent load at each node
is calculated using the post-tensioning force and its eccentricity at that point. The global (structure) sign
convention for this analysis is that downward loads are positive, a couple acting clockwise is positive, tendon
eccentricity below the concrete centerline is positive, and prestress force is always positive. The standard sign
convention for internal forces, including axial force, shearing force, and bending moment, is used.
Consistent units of measurement must be maintained throughout the analysis. All supports except one are
assumed to be free to move horizontally.
The vertical point load at a node i is computed as:
𝑃𝑖−1 𝑒𝑖−1 − 𝑃𝑖 𝑒𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑒𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖+1 𝑒𝑖+1
𝐹𝑦𝑖 = − (Eq. 11.6.4.2-1)
𝐿𝑖−1 𝐿𝑖
where
ei = tendon eccentricity from concrete section centroid to tendon centroid at node i
Li = distance between nodes i and i + 1, or length of segment i
Pi = post-tensioning force at node i
The couples shown at element ends (Figure 11.6.4.2-1c) cancel each other when the elements are combined into
the full member. Two exceptions in this example are the first node, Node 1, and the last node, Node 11. Thus, the
external couples at Nodes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 = 0.0. The couples at Nodes 1 and 11 are computed using Eq.
11.6.4.2-2:
Mi = Piei (Eq. 11.6.4.2-2)
M1 = −P1e1 and M11 = P11e11
Using the sign convention for element moments, M1 will be negative and M11 will be positive.

11.6.4.2.1 Example
As an example, calculate the equivalent loads at Nodes 1 and 2 and on Segment 1. The post-tensioning forces are
787.28 and 793.79 kips, respectively. The eccentricities are 0.00 and 13.26 in., respectively. The loads at Nodes 1
and 2 are as follows:
787.3(0) − 793.8(13.26)
𝐹𝑦1 = 0 − = 56.59 kips
186
M1 = (787.3)(0) = 0.00
787.3(0) − 793.8(13.26) 793.8(13.26) − 800.3(22.73)
𝐹𝑦2 = − = −15.38 kips
186 186
M2 = 793.8 (13.26) – 793.8 (13.26) = 0.00
The post-tensioning force at each node is calculated as the product of the post-tensioning stress, after accounting
for friction and anchorage set losses, and the area of post-tensioning tendons. The post-tensioning forces at each
node are given in Table 11.6.4.2.1-1 and Figure 11.6.4.2.1-1a.
The equivalent vertical loads for this example are shown in Figure 11.6.4.2.1-1b and Table 11.6.4.2.1-1. A
relatively large number of nodes in a span would result in greater accuracy. For most applications, nodes at tenth
or twentieth points provide sufficient accuracy.

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11.6.4.2 Refined Modeling Using a Series of Nodal Forces

After the equivalent loads due to post-tensioning are calculated, the component should be checked for
equilibrium; the sum of vertical forces and the sum of the moments about a point should be equal to zero. When
the supports are placed and a continuous beam analysis is performed, the total reactions, shears, and moments
due to post-tensioning are obtained. The reactions obtained in this step are due to secondary effects that are
intended to maintain the restraint conditions at the supports. Table 11.6.4.2.1-1 shows the total moment using
this refined method, and subtracting the primary moment from the total moment results in the secondary
moment.
Figure 11.6.4.2.1-1
Post-Tensioning Forces and Equivalent Loads

a) Post-Tensioning Forces Pi (kips)

b) Post-Tensioning Equivalent Vertical Loads (kips) and Moments (in.-kips)

Table 11.6.4.2.1-1
Post-Tensioning Effect—Refined Method
Node No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Distance from left
0 186 372 558 744 930 1,116 1,302 1,488 1,674 1,860
end, in.
Tendon Eccentricity,
0.00 −13.26 −22.73 −28.41 −30.30 −28.43 −22.80 −13.43 −0.30 16.58 25.95
in.
Post-tensioning
181.4 182.9 184.4 185.9 187.4 188.3 187.7 186.3 184.8 183.4 178.9
stress, ksi
Post-tensioning
787.3 793.8 800.3 806.8 813.3 817.2 814.6 808.5 802.0 796.0 776.4
force, kips
Equivalent Loads:
Vertical force, kips 56.59 −15.38 −15.78 −16.17 −16.84 −17.48 −16.42 −15.61 −15.12 34.79 74.83
Moment, in.-kips 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −20,148
Total moment,
0 −9,621 −16,377 −20,194 −20,998 −18,678 −13,102 −4,476 7,051 21,388 29,251
in.-kips
Primary moment,
0 −10,526 −18,191 −22,921 −24,644 −23,234 −18,573 −10,859 −241 13,189 20,148
in.-kips
Secondary moment,
0 905 1,814 2,727 3,645 4,556 5,471 6,383 7,292 8,199 9,103
in.-kips

Figure 11.6.4.2.1-2b is a graphical representation of the total moments. Subtracting the primary moments from
the total moments results in the secondary moments. Regardless of the method—approximate or refined—the
secondary moments due to post-tensioning a continuous beam must be considered.

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11.6.4.2 Refined Modeling Using a Series of Nodal Forces/11.6.5 Shear Design in Presence of Post-Tensioning Ducts

Figure 11.6.4.2.1-2
Post-Tensioning Bending Moment Diagrams

11.6.4.3 Design Considerations

The secondary reactions are the only external forces acting on the member due to post-tensioning. They act at the
supports. These reactions must be in equilibrium. Sometimes, the reactions due to post-tensioning may result in
an overall uplift at the pier or abutment. The designer must carefully interpret and scrutinize the signs (upward
or downward) of the reactions. Accordingly, secondary shears must be constant between supports and secondary
moments must be linear between supports. If these characteristics are not observed, the calculations must be
reviewed for errors. These characteristics must hold true regardless of the tendon profile and whether or not the
member’s cross-section properties vary along its length.
The total (primary plus secondary) effects must be used when checking service limit states, such as tension at
bottom fibers at final loading conditions. However, the primary and secondary effects must be separated before
performing calculations for the strength limit state. Because post-tensioning continuous members creates a set of
external loads (support reactions), these external loads must be considered in the factored load combinations in
strength design. The accepted practice is to combine the factored secondary moment using a load factor of 1.0
with the moments due to factored dead and live loads, and to compare the “total factored” moment at a section
with the design flexural strength at that section.
The accuracy of using elastic analysis to calculate the secondary moments and of using a load factor of 1.0 at the
strength limit state has been the subject of debate. No standard approach has been adopted.

11.6.5 Shear Design in Presence of Post-Tensioning Ducts

Based on the LRFD Article. 5.7.2.8, the effective web width for shear bv need not be modified for the presence of
grouted ducts. However, LRFD Article 5.7.3.3 incorporates a reduction factor for Vs. The shear strength should
also be investigated during the various stages of construction where the ducts may yet to be grouted.
Per LRFD Article 5.7.3.3, Vn shall be the lesser of the following:
Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-1]
Vn= 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-2]

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11.6.5 Shear Design in Presence of Post-Tensioning Ducts/11.7.1 Introduction

where
Vc = 0.0316βλ √𝑓𝑐′ bvdv [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-3]
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦 𝑑𝑣 (cot 𝜃 + cot 𝛼) sin 𝛼
𝑉𝑠 = 𝜆𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3‐ 4]
𝑠
𝜙𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 2
𝜆𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 1 − 𝛿 ( ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3‐ 5]
𝑏𝑤
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within the depth dv, modified for the presence of
ducts, where applicable. For grouted ducts, no modification is necessary. For ungrouted ducts, reduce bv
by the diameter of the duct (LRFD Art. 5.7.2.8).
dv = effective shear depth need not be taken less than the greater of 0.9de or 0.72h. See LRFD Article 5.7.2.8
for details.
𝛿 = duct diameter correction factor, taken as 2.0 for grouted ducts
𝜙𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = diameter of post-tensioning duct in the girder web within depth dv
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal reinforcement (typically 90 degrees)
β = factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension and shear (LRFD Art. 5.7.3.4)
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (LRFD Art. 5.7.3.4)
The Vp component is sometimes neglected for conservatism and ease of calculation.
LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-2 ensures that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush prior to yielding of the
transverse reinforcement. Two items should be noted. First, even if the ducts are grouted for final service
conditions, there may be times during construction that a duct is not grouted and the shear resistance needs to be
computed accordingly. Second, flexible fillers—which allow for the installation of additional strands and
replacement of tendons, and mitigate corrosion—are sometimes used, and those ducts are not grouted. There are
research projects underway that will provide detailed guidance on ducts with flexible filler in the near future.

11.7 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES

11.7.1 Introduction
Anchorage zones are designed to accommodate anchorage hardware with its associated special reinforcement
and to provide adequate space for the reinforcement needed to distribute the highly concentrated post-tensioning
force. Two comprehensive resources for post-tensioning are PTI/ASBI M50.3-19 Specification for Multistrand and
Grouted Post-Tensioning (PTI and ASBI, 2019) and PTI M55.1-19 Specification for Grouting of Post-Tensioned
Structures (PTI, 2019).
Post-tensioning anchorages must be designed at the strength limit state for the factored jacking forces (see LRFD
Art. 3.4.3). There are two anchorage zones to be considered: local (LRFD Art. 5.9.5.6.3 and LRFD Bridge
Construction Specifications Art. 10.3.2.3) and general (LRFD Art. 5.9.5.6.2). Figure 11.7.1-1 shows the local and
general zones and schematics of their respective principal stresses.

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11.7.1 Introduction/11.7.2 Post-Tensioning Anchorages in I-Beams

Figure 11.7.1-1
Local and General Anchorage Zones and Corresponding Principal Stresses Mirrored about Line of Post-
Tensioning Force (Adapted from LRFD Specifications Fig. C5.9.5.6.1-2)

a) Local Anchorage Zone and Principal Compressive b) General Anchorage Zone and Principal Tensile
Stresses Stresses
The local zone is influenced by the anchorage device and its confining reinforcement and has high compressive
stresses ahead of the anchorage device that must be resisted and transferred to the reminder of the anchorage
zone. The general zone is subjected to tensile stresses due to spreading the tendon force into the structure.
Bursting forces are a key consideration in the anchorage zones. Locations to be investigated and methods of
analysis are found in LRFD Article 5.9.5.6.5b. Good detailing and quality workmanship are paramount to the
proper performance of anchorage zones.
LRFD Article 5.9.5.6.4 specifies the responsibilities of the engineer of record and of the anchorage device supplier.
The engineer of record is responsible for the overall design and approval of working drawings for the general
zone, including location of tendons and anchorage devices, general zone reinforcement, and stressing sequence. If
the design of the local zone for anchorages devices is based on LRFD Article 5.8.4.4, this is also the responsibility
of the engineer of record. For special anchorage devices, the anchorage device supplier is responsible for
furnishing anchorage devices and specifying confining reinforcement, minimum concrete strength at time of
stressing, and other items required for proper performance of the local zone. Also see LRFD Bridge Construction
Specifications Articles 10.3.2 and 10.4.
Multiple levels of tendon protection are required in corrosive environments. For further information, refer to
PTI/ASBI M50.3-19 Specification for Multistrand and Grouted Post-Tensioning (PTI and ASBI, 2019) and LRFD
Bridge Construction Specifications Chapter 10.

11.7.2 Post-Tensioning Anchorages in I-Beams

Figure 11.7.2-1 shows reinforcement and anchorages in the end of an I-beam that has been designed with a top
recess. The dapped area provides access for post-tensioning after both abutting beams are erected.

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11.7.2 Post-Tensioning Anchorages in I-Beams

Figure 11.7.2-1
Reinforcement and Anchorages in an I-Beam End Block

For I-beams the anchorage zone is typically detailed using an end block that is the same width as the bottom
flange and extends for a distance from the end of the beam of at least one beam height before a tapered section
returns the cross section to the width of the web. Typical dimensions are illustrated in Figure 11.7.2-2.
The extent of the anchorage zone is based on the principle of St. Venant, which proposes that the disturbed stress
field introduced at the end of the beam by the concentrated forces at post-tensioning tendon anchorages extends
approximately a beam height into the beam (see the discussion in Sections 11.4.10 and 11.7.1). Based on this
principle, the cross section in the anchorage zone (end block) has generally been held constant until the stress
distribution from the anchorage forces becomes more uniform. If the cross section were also decreased within the
disturbed region, it is believed that this could compound the stress disturbance and lead to increased cracking.
Some research has indicated that a much smaller anchorage zone may be adequate (Tadros and Khalifa, 1998). A
paper by Ma, et al. (1999), discusses the design of this post-tensioned anchorage zone in accordance with the
LRFD Specifications using strut-and-tie modeling. The paper includes a design example. Experimental testing of
post-tensioning anchorage zones has been reported by Breen, et al. (1994) and Ma, et al. (1999).

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11.7.2 Post-Tensioning Anchorages in I-Beams

Figure 11.7.2-2
Typical I-Beam End Block Details

Sometimes end blocks are cast in a secondary pour after the prismatic beams are stripped from the form. This can
result in cost savings because special beam forms are not needed to accommodate the widened end-block section.
Figure 11.7.2-3 shows anchorage reinforcement at an end block and the end block after erection and post-
tensioning.
Figure 11.7.2-3
I-beam End Block

a) Anchorage Reinforcement at I-Beam End Block b) I-Beam End Block with Four Tendons Visible

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11.7.3 Post-Tensioning Anchorages in U-Beams

11.7.3 Post-Tensioning Anchorages in U-Beams

For U-beams it may be necessary to have a top flange tendon in each web over the interior piers to satisfy tension
and compression stress limits during all stages of construction and the final service life of the bridge. Because the
top flange is not large, a blister is used (Fig. 11.7.3-1 and 11.7.3-2). Both the geometry of the tendon exiting from
the top flange and reinforcement details are critical in the general and local zones (see LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4 and Sect.
8.5 of the Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges [PCI Committee on
Bridges, 2020A]). Strut-and-tie models are often used for analysis and design of the blisters or any post-
tensioning anchorage regions.
Figure 11.7.3-1
Post-Tensioning Anchorage Reinforcement in Top Flange of U-Beam

Figure 11.7.3-2
Isometric View of Blister in Top Flange of U-Beam

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11.7.3 Post-Tensioning Anchorages in U-Beams/11.8.1 Introduction

Sometimes, end U-beam segments incorporate a tongue section (Fig. 11.7.3-3) to serve multiple purposes. The
tongue concept uses both precast and cast-in-place concrete. At the ends where the continuity tendons are
anchored, a tongue allows the contractor to cast the remainder of the U-beam segment with the end diaphragms.
When appropriately designed the tongue extension can provide sufficient concrete to support the U-beam on the
permanent bearings before the diaphragm is cast. In addition, this thickened tongue allows for placement of
anchorage reinforcement.
Figure 11.7.3-3
U-Beam with Tongue Section

11.8 DESIGN EXAMPLE: TWO-SPAN BEAM SPLICED OVER PIER

11.8.1 Introduction
This example is similar to Design Example 9.2. It provides a comparison in design calculations when post-
tensioning is employed to establish continuity over a pier, and also illustrates the increased span length obtained.
This example presents the steps to be taken for a preliminary design—establish a beam size, estimate design
concrete strengths, determine amounts of pretensioning, post-tensioning layout, and shear reinforcement—or for
verifying output of a computer analysis. As such, many of the fundamental calculations in this example are not
shown or are not explained in detail herein; however, they are provided in Chapter 8 and in the design examples
in Chapter 9.
This example selects the basic 72-in.-deep bulb tee (BT-72) used in Design Example 9.2, but with an 8-in.-thick
web to accommodate post-tensioning ducts. This modified BT-72 is also used in Design Example 12.9. However,
for this example, two, 155-ft-long spans will be used instead of the 110-ft-long end spans and the 120-ft-long
center span of the three-span bridge designed in Design Example 12.9. The full-span beam segments are spliced
over the pier with post-tensioning and are made composite with the deck. Some of the details already discussed in
Design Example 9.2 are not repeated here. Analysis for post-tensioning effects is emphasized.
Figures 11.8.1-1 and 11.8.1-2 show the longitudinal section and cross section of the bridge, respectively. The
cross section has four beams spaced at 12 ft-0 in. AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tees are modified by widening the section by
1 in. to accommodate the post-tensioning ducts. The beams are designed to act compositely with the cast-in-place
concrete deck slab. The 8-in.-thick slab includes a ½ in. integral wearing course appropriate for a mild or
moderate corrosion environment. Therefore, the full 8 in. thickness is used in load calculations but 7.5 in. is used
for the deck to compute composite section properties. A haunch over the top flange with an average thickness of
½ in. is considered in the load and stress analysis. Design live loading is HL-93.

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11.8.1 Introduction/11.8.2 Materials and Beam Cross Section

Figure 11.8.1-1
Longitudinal Section

Figure 11.8.1-2
Cross Section

11.8.2 Materials and Beam Cross Section

The cross section of the modified AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee (BT-72) is shown in Figure 11.8.2-1. The width of the
web was increased 2 in. to provide an 8-in.-thick web to accommodate post-tensioning ducts. Assuming the
precaster spreads the form to obtain the thicker web, the top and bottom flanges increase accordingly.
Figure 11.8.2-1
Modified 72-in. AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee

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11.8.2 Materials and Beam Cross Section

Cast-in-place slab:
Total thickness = 8.0 in.
Structural thickness ts = 7.5 in.
Concrete strength at 28 days 𝑓𝑐′ = 4.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight wc = 0.150 kcf
𝐸𝑐 = 120,000𝐾1 𝑤𝑐 2.0 𝑓𝑐′ 0.33 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]
where
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate, taken as 1.0
𝐸𝑐 = 120,000(1.0)(0.150)2.0 (4.0)0.33 = 4,266 ksi
Precast concrete beams:
Concrete strength at transfer 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 6.0 ksi
Concrete strength at 28 days 𝑓𝑐′ = 8.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight wc = 0.150 kcf
𝐸𝑐 = 120,000(1.0)(0.150)2.0 (8.0)0.33 = 5,363 ksi
From Figure 11.8.1-1, the design span is assumed to be 154.0 ft when the beam is supported on its bearing pads
before it is made continuous, and 155.0 ft after the pier diaphragm concrete is cured and the beam becomes
continuous.
Pretensioning and post-tensioning strands:
0.6-in.-diameter, low-relaxation strands
Area of one strand = 0.217 in.2
Ultimate strength fpu =270 ksi
Yield strength fpy = 0.9fpu = 243 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Modulus of elasticity Ep = 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
Stress limits for pretensioning strands before transfer [LRFD Table 5.9.2.2-1]
fpi ≤0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi
Stress limits for post-tensioning strands:
[LRFD Table 5.9.2.2-1]
Prior to seating, fs ≤0.9fpy = 218.7 ksi
Immediately after anchorage set,
(fpt + ΔfpES + ΔfpA) ≤ 0.7fpu = 189.0 ksi
At end of the seating loss zone immediately after anchorage set,
(fpt + ΔfpES + ΔfpA) ≤ 0.74fpu = 199.8 ksi
A maximum of three tendons, each with up to 15 strands, for a total of 45 strands, will be assumed.
Post-tensioning tendon duct:
Rigid galvanized steel duct with outside diameter of 3.75 in. When plastic duct is used, wall profiles
are different and generally have larger outside diameters.

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11.8.2 Materials and Beam Cross Section/11.8.3.2 Composite Section

Reinforcing bars:
Yield strength fy = 60 ksi
[LRFD Art.
Modulus of elasticity Es = 29,000 ksi 5.4.3.2]
Future wearing surface:
An additional weight of 0.025 ksf for a future 2-in.-thick concrete wearing surface is included. Unit
weight wc = 0.150 kcf
New Jersey–type barriers:
Two barriers, each weighing 0.300 kips/ft, are assumed to be distributed equally to all beams.

11.8.3 Cross-Section Properties

11.8.3.1 Noncomposite Section
Standard section properties for PCI BT-72 are modified to reflect the 2 in. increase in width of web and flanges.
For simplification, and because this is a preliminary design, the section properties have not been adjusted for the
post-tensioning ducts. For final design, the gross cross-section properties shall be reduced by deducting the area
of the ducts and void areas around the couplers (LRFD Art. 5.12.3.4.4).
A = cross-sectional area of beam = 767 + 2(72) = 911 in.2
h = overall depth of beam = 72 in.
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 608,109 in.4
yb = distance from centroid to extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 36.51 in.
yt = distance from centroid to extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 35.49 in.
Sb = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 16,657 in.3
St = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 17,134 in.3
Beam weight = 0.949 kips/ft

11.8.3.2 Composite Section

The composite section properties are calculated according to the LRFD Specifications. Figure 11.8.3.2-1 shows
the cross section of the composite section. For a composite girder system the effective flange width for an interior
girder is same as the spacing, 12 ft. For an exterior girder the effective flange width is one-half the distance to the
adjacent girder plus the full overhang width, unless special conditions exist (see LRFD Art. 4.6.2.6.1).

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11.8.3.2 Composite Section

Figure 11.8.3.2-1
Composite Transformed Section

n= modular ratio of deck and girder concretes = 4,266/5,363 = 0.7955

Ac = area of composite section transformed for n = 1,788 in.2
hc = overall depth of the composite section = 72 + 7.5 + 0.5 = 80 in.
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section transformed for n = 1,333,297 in.4
ybc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme bottom fiber of the precast concrete
beam = 53.69 in.
ytg = Distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the precast concrete
beam = 72 − 55.69 = 16.31 in.
Sbc = composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast concrete beam
= 1,333,297/55.69 = 23,941 in.3
Stg = composite section modulus for the top fiber of the precast concrete beam
= 1,333,297/16.31 = 81,747 in.3
Stc = composite section modulus of extreme top fiber of the slab
1 𝐼𝑐 1 1,333,297
= ( )( ) = ( )( ) = 68,945 in.3
𝑛 𝑦𝑡𝑐 0.7955 24.31

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11.8.4 Shear Forces and Bending Moments/11.8.5 Required Pretensioning

11.8.4 Shear Forces and Bending Moments

The weight of the beam acts on the noncomposite, simple-span beam. The staging of post-tensioning (see Sect.
11.8.6.1) allows the weight of the slab and haunch to act on the noncomposite, continuous span beam. The weight
of the barriers and the future wearing surface, and the live load act on the composite, continuous-span beam.
The values of shear forces and bending moments for a typical interior beam, under self-weight of beam, weight of
slab, and haunch are computed in a manner similar to that used in Design Example 9.2 and the results are listed in
Table 11.8.4-1. The two-span structure was analyzed using a continuous beam program that has the capability to
generate live-load shear and bending moment envelopes for a “lane” of HL-93 live loading according to the LRFD
Specifications. The span lengths used are for the continuous bridge with span lengths of 155 ft.
Table 11.8.4-1
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments for a Typical Interior Beam
Slab + Haunch Barrier Weight Wearing Surface HL-93 Live Load
Girder Weight
Weight (Continuous (Continuous Envelope
(Simple Span)
(Continuous Span) Span) Span) (Continuous Span)
Distance Section
x, ft x/L Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment
Vg, Mg, Vs, Ms, Vb, Mb, Vws, Mws, VLL+I, MLL+I,
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips

0.0 0.000 73.5 0.0 72.0 0.0 8.7 0.0 15.3 0.0 132.0 0.0
15.5 0.100 58.8 1026.0 53.0 969.6 6.4 117.1 11.2 205.3 110.8 1,785.5
31.0 0.200 44.1 1,824.0 33.9 1,641.1 4.1 198.2 6.7 347.5 91.2 3,057.1
46.5 0.300 29.4 2,394.0 14.1 2,014.5 1.7 243.3 3.1 426.5 73.06 3,838.1
62.0 0.400 14.7 2,735.9 5.0 2,089.0 0.6 252.3 1.1 442.3 56.6 4,184.0
77.5 0.500 0.0 2,849.9 24.0 1,864.7 2.9 225.2 5.1 394.9 71.8 4,113.0
93.0 0.600 14.7 2,735.9 43.1 1,343.0 5.2 162.2 9.2 284.3 88.4 3,664.1
108.5 0.700 29.4 2,394.0 62.9 522.5 7.6 63.1 13.3 110.6 105.2 −1,651.5
124.0 0.800 44.1 1,824.0 82.0 −597.0 9.9 −72.1 17.3 −126.3 122.0 −1887.4
139.5 0.900 58.8 1,026.0 101.0 −2,014.5 12.2 −243.3 21.4 −426.5 138.4 −2612.2
147.9* 0.954 66.8 497.3 111.8 −3,558.7 13.5 −429.8 23.6 −753.6 147.0 −3,423.1
155.0 1.000 73.5 0.0 120.1 −3,730.1 14.5 −450.5 25.4 −789.9 154.3 −4,240.7
Note: Shear is given in absolute values.
*Section designed in shear.
For all limit states except the Fatigue Limit State, for two or more lanes loaded, the distribution factor for moment
DFM = 0.849 lanes/beam (LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1). For one design lane loaded, DFM = 0.550 lanes/beam.
Therefore, the case of the two design lanes loaded controls.
For two or more lanes loaded, distribution factor for shear DFV = 1.082 lanes/beam (LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1).
For one design lane loaded, DFV = 0.840 lanes/beam. Therefore, the case of two design lanes loaded controls.
Values of VLL+I and MLL+I at various points along the span are given in Table 11.8.4-1.

11.8.5 Required Pretensioning

The number of pretensioning strands is selected to resist at least 120% of the beam weight. This would allow for a
slight camber at prestress transfer and possibly better conditions during handling, shipping, erection, and the
construction stages. Beam stability must be checked for the final design.
Using the value of bending moment from Table 11.8.4-1, the bottom tensile stress at midspan 0.5L due to 1.2
times beam weight is:
1.2(2,849.9)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = − = −2.464 ksi
16,657
Tensile stress limit at service loads = 0.19λ √𝑓𝑐′ = 0.19(1.0)√8.0= 0.537 ksi ≤ 0.600 ksi [LRFD Table 5.9.2.3.2b-1]

The required precompressive stress at bottom fiber of the beam segment is the difference between bottom tensile
stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress limit:

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11.8.5 Required Pretensioning

fpb = 2.464 − 0.537 = 1.927 ksi

Similar to Design Example 9.2, assume the distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom fiber of the
beam ybs is equal to 7% of the beam depth:
ybs = 0.07h = 0.07(72) = 5.04 in.
Then, the assumed strand eccentricity at midspan ec = yb − ybs = 36.51 − 5.04 = 31.47 in.
The minimum required effective prestress force Ppe:
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 (𝑒𝑐 ) 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 (31.47)
1.927 = + = +
𝐴 𝐼 911 16,657
Therefore, Ppe = 644.5 kips. Assuming a total prestress loss of 25%, the prestress force per strand after all losses
= (0.217)(202.5)(1 − 0.25) = 33.0 kips. The number of strands required is (644.5/33.0) = 19.5 strands. Use
twenty 0.6-in.-diameter, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands. The assumed strand pattern for the 20 strands at
midspan is shown in Figure 11.8.5-1. Each available location, with allowance for post-tensioning ducts, was filled
beginning with the bottom row.
Figure 11.8.5-1
Pretensioning Strand Pattern at Midspan

The distance between the center of gravity of strands and the bottom fiber of the beam:
ybs = [10(2) + 10(4)]/(20) = 3.00 in.
Strand eccentricity at midspan:
ec = yb − ybs= 36.51 − 3.00 = 33.51 in.
Stresses at the end of the transfer length must be checked at time of transfer. This stage may govern design. For
this preliminary design, about 10 ksi of losses will be assumed at transfer.
Pi = (20)(0.217)(202.5 − 10) = 835.4 kips
Transfer length = 60(Strand diameters) = 60(0.6) = 36 in. = 3.0 ft [LRFD Article 5.7.2.2]
Bending moment at a distance 3.0 ft from the end of the beam due to beam self-weight:
Mg = (0.5)(0.911)(3.0)(155 – 3.0) = 207.7 ft-kips
Stress at the top fiber of the beam:
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑒𝑐 𝑀𝑔 835.4 (835.4)(33.51) (207.7)(12)
𝑓𝑡 = − + = − +
𝐴 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡 911 17,134 17,134

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11.8.5 Required Pretensioning/11.8.6.1 Post-Tensioning Profile

= 0.917 − 1.634 + 0.146 = −0.571 ksi

Temporary tensile stress limit with bonded reinforcement sufficient to resist the tension force in the concrete:
−0.24λ √𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = −0.24(1.0) √6.0 = −0.588 ksi OK [LRFD Table 5.9.2.3.1b-1]
Compressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam:
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑒𝑐 𝑀𝑔 835.4 (835.4)(33.51) (207.7)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + − = + −
𝐴 𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏 911 16,657 16,657
= 0.917 + 1.681 − 0.150 = +2.448 ksi
Temporary compressive stress limit:
0.65𝑓𝑐𝑖′ =0.65(6.0) = 3.600 ksi OK [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3.1a]
The estimated tensile stress and the limit are very close. Tensile stress using actual lifting locations and
calculated, not estimated, losses at transfer may result in higher stresses. Measures such as using top temporary
strands (Brown, 2022) or adjusting the number of strands or their locations may be necessary for the final design.
The designer should also investigate stresses at midspan and other locations. In addition, the beam segment
should be checked for stability even in this preliminary design phase. For more information on beam stability see
Sect. 8.10, “Designing Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders for Lateral Stability: An Owner’s Perspective”
(Brice, 2018). and Lateral Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge
Girders ( PCI Committee on Bridges, 2016).

11.8.6 Modeling of Post-Tensioning

In continuous structures, the moments due to post-tensioning may not be proportional to the tendon eccentricity.
The difference occurs because the deformations imposed by the post-tensioning are resisted by the continuity of
the members at the piers. The moments resulting from the restraint to the post-tensioning deformations are
called secondary moments (see Sect. 11.6.4).

11.8.6.1 Post-Tensioning Profile

The post-tensioning is applied in two stages. In the first stage, two of three equal tendons are post-tensioned
before the beams are made composite with the deck. The second stage post-tensioning is applied through one
tendon to the composite section. This two-thirds/one-third division of post-tensioning allows for the deck to be
precompressed for crack control, but not compressed enough to require extensive analysis for effects of future
deck removal and replacement.
Stage 1: Place two tendons with two-thirds of the total number of post-tensioning strands in the precast
concrete continuous member. Assume an initial post-tensioning force equal to 1,000 kips.
Stage 2: Place one tendon with one-third of the total number of the post-tensioning strands in the composite
member. Assume an initial post-tensioning force equal to 500 kips.
Once the total required post-tensioning force is determined based on various design criteria, the effects of the
1,500 kips (1,000 + 500) are linearly factored to correspond to the calculated force, and analysis continues.
Figure 11.8.6.1-1 shows the relative positions of the tendons in a cross section of the beam. LRFD Article
5.9.5.1.1 states that the clear distance between ducts shall not be less than the greater of 1.33 times the maximum
size of the coarse aggregate or 1.5 in.; however, it allows up to three ducts to be bundled together as long as the
specified spacing is maintained between each duct in the zone within 3 ft of anchorages. Some owners and
agencies do not allow bundling and may require a different minimum clear distance between ducts.

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11.8.6.1 Post-Tensioning Profile

Figure 11.8.6.1-1
Duct Locations for Three Tendons (Bottom Two Tendons Are Stage 1 and Top Tendon Is Stage 2)

a) Tendon High Point (Interior Pier)

b) Tendon (at 0.4L)

Figure 11.8.6.1-2 shows the post-tensioning tendon profiles for both stages. Note that stage 1 post-tensioning is
applied to the noncomposite beam section and stage 2 is applied to the composite beam section. Tables 11.8.6.2-
1 and 11.8.6.2-2, found in the next section, show tendon eccentricities at various locations along the beam. In a
detailed analysis, the difference between the centroid of the tendon and the center of the ducts shall be accounted
for in accordance with LRFD Figure C5.9.1.6-1. The difference between the two centers occurs because the
strands cluster near the top of the duct in the low segments of the duct profile and cluster near the bottom in the
high, negative-moment areas of the duct profile. This minor effect is ignored in the calculations of this example.
Figure 11.8.6.1-2
Post-Tensioning Tendon Profiles

a) Tendon Profile – Stage 1 – Noncomposite Section

b) Tendon Profile – Stage 2 – Composite Section

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11.8.6.1 Post-Tensioning Profile/11.8.6.2 Equivalent Loads

Figure 11.8.6.1-3
Eccentricity of the Tendon Profile

Figure 11.8.6.1-3 illustrates the equations used to calculate the eccentricity of the post-tension profile at any
point of the span. For a tendon geometry to be fully defined, two conditions are required for a straight-line tendon
and three conditions are required for a second-degree curve. It is common practice to assume a parabolic profile
defined by three parabolas in the end span of a continuous beam. The first has zero eccentricity at beam end and
has the maximum allowed bottom position at 0.4L with zero slope (or horizontal tangent) at that point. The
second parabola has the same eccentricity and tangential slope at 0.4L, and a common tangent and eccentricity as
it joins the third parabola. The third parabola is a small curve dictated by the specification limits of tendon
curvature. Generally, it has common eccentricity and is tangent with the second parabola. It has zero slope
(horizontal tangent) over the pier centerline and the maximum possible eccentricity. The point of common
tangency between the second and third parabolas has traditionally been taken as 0.1L from centerline of support.
However, other locations should be examined in an optimization of the tendon profile. The assumptions made for
the three parabolas allow the tendon geometry to be fully defined when the eccentricities at the abutment (0.0L),
0.4L, 0.9L, and pier (1.0L) are given.
For bridges with interior spans, similar assumptions may be made, namely, horizontal tangents at the ends and at
0.5L, and common tangents at 0.1L and 0.9L.

11.8.6.2 Equivalent Loads

When equivalent loads are placed on the continuous beam, and structural analysis is performed, the resulting
moments, shears, and reactions are the total effects. The secondary moments are the total moments minus the
primary moments, which are defined as the products of the prestress force and the eccentricity at any given
section. Figure 11.8.6.2-1 shows the equivalent loads for the tendon profiles shown in Figure 11.8.6.1-2.

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11.8.6.2 Equivalent Loads

Figure 11.8.6.2-1
Post-Tensioning Equivalent Vertical Loads and Moments (Refined Method)

Table 11.8.6.2-1 shows the total moments, primary moments, and secondary moments at tenth-span points due
to stage 1 post-tensioning. Table 11.8.6.2-2 shows the same quantities for stage 2 post-tensioning.

Table 11.8.6.2-1
Loads Applied by Post-Tensioning in Stage 1 (P = 1,000 kips)
Point along Span 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Distance from top of
35.45 48.71 58.18 63.86 65.75 63.88 58.25 48.88 35.75 18.88 9.50
girder, in.
Tendon eccentricity,
0.00 −13.26 −22.73 −28.41 −30.30 −28.43 −22.80 −13.43 −0.30 16.58 25.95
in.
Equivalent Loads:
Vertical force,
71.29 −20.38 −20.38 −20.38 −20.22 −20.22 −20.22 −20.22 −20.16 40.38 50.38
kips/ft
Moment, in.-kips 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,163
Total moment,
0 −1,014 −1,711 −2,093 −2,159 −1,912 −1,351 −479 706 2,205 3,077
in.-kips
Primary moment,
0 −1,105 −1,894 −2,368 −2,525 −2,369 −1,900 −1,119 −25.0 1,382 2,163
ft-kips
Secondary moment
(difference between
0 91 183 274 366 457 549 640 731 823 914
total and primary
moment), in.-kips

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11.8.6.2 Equivalent Loads/11.8.7 Determination of Required Post-Tensioning

Table 11.8.6.2-2
Loads Applied by Post-Tensioning in Stage 2 (P = 500 kips)
Point along Span 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Distance from top of
18.19 35.88 48.52 56.10 58.63 56.75 51.13 41.75 28.63 11.75 2.38
girder, in.
Tendon eccentricity,
0.00 −17.69 −30.33 −37.91 −40.44 −38.56 −32.94 −23.56 −10.44 6.44 15.82
in.
Equivalent Loads:
Vertical force,
47.55 −13.58 −13.60 −13.58 −11.86 −10.05 −10.11 −10.05 −10.11 20.16 25.22
kips/ft
Moment, in.-kips 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 659
Total moment,
0 −630 −1,049 −1,258 −1,256 −1,071 −729 −231 423 1,234 1,732
in.-kips
Primary moment,
0 −737 −1,264 −1,580 −1,685 −1,607 −1,373 −982 −435 268 659
ft-kips
Secondary moment
(difference between
0 107 215 322 429 536 644 751 858 965 1,073
total and primary
moment), in.-kips

11.8.7 Determination of Required Post-Tensioning

At this stage of analysis, the post-tensioning forces are not yet known and prestress losses must be initially
assumed. Table 11.8.7-1 shows the assumed prestressing levels at each of the construction stages.
Table 11.8.7-1
Assumed Effective Prestress at Various Construction Stages and with Service Loads
Stress in Stress in Post- Stress in Post-
Construction Stage Pretensioning Tensioning Strand, Tensioning Strand,
Strand, ksi Stage 1, ksi Stage 2, ksi
Pretensioning 0.92(0.75)fpu = 186.3 — —
Post-tensioning Stage 1 0.87(0.75)fpu = 176.2 0.92(0.78)fpu = 193.8 —
Post-tensioning Stage 2 0.87(0.75)fpu = 176.2 0.87(0.78)fpu = 183.2 0.92(0.78)fpu = 193.8
Service loads 0.82(0.75)fpu = 166.1 0.82(0.78)fpu = 172.7 0.82(0.78)fpu = 172.7

Elastic pretension loss, the total loss at time of post-tensioning, and the total loss at final service time are assumed
to be 8%, 13%, and 18%, respectively, of initial prestress, which is assumed to be 75% of the specified ultimate
strength. Once the prestress forces are determined, primarily based on concrete tension limits at service load
conditions, then a detailed analysis of prestress loss should be conducted and the prestress force revised if
needed. The process of calculating prestress losses is covered in detail in Chapters 8 and 9.
The pretensioning forces are as follows:
Immediately following transfer: 20(0.217)(186.3) = 808.5 kips
At stage 1 (assumed to be the same as at stage 2 post-tensioning): 20(0.217)(176.2) = 764.7 kips
At service: 20(0.217)(166.1) = 720.9 kips
Several factors affect post-tensioning losses. In addition to friction and anchorage set described in Section 11.6.2,
post-tensioning at any stage affects the prestressing tendons stressed in preceding stages. At this stage of
analysis, post-tensioning losses are estimated (see Table 11.8.7-1) and will need to be verified with a detailed
analysis after the post-tensioning forces are finalized. Note that post-tensioning strands are initially tensioned to
78% of fpu.

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11.8.7 Determination of Required Post-Tensioning/11.8.7.2 Positive-Moment Section

Using 0.6-in.-diameter strand (area per strand = 0.217 in.2), the post-tensioning force per strand is as follows:
For stage 1 strands:
Following jacking = 193.8(0.217) = 42.0 kips
At the time of stage 2 post-tensioning = 39.8 kips
At service = 37.5 kips
For stage 2 strands:
Immediately following jacking = 42.0 kips
At service = 37.5 kips

11.8.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete

The concrete compressive stress limit for the Service I load combination due to effective prestress and permanent
loads (weight of beam, slab, future wearing surface, and barriers) after losses is 0.45𝑓𝑐′ . For the precast concrete
beam, the limit is 0.45(8.0) = +3.60 ksi. and for the slab, the limit is 0.45(4.0) = +1.80 ksi. Considering dead loads
plus live loads for Service I load combination, the limit is 0.60w𝑓𝑐′ where w = 1.0 for most web and flange
slenderness ratios, or +4.800 ksi for the precast concrete beam and +2.400 ksi for the slab (LRFD Table
5.9.2.3.2a-1).
For the Service III load combination, the tension limit is 0.19λ√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.19(1.0)√8.0= 0.537 ksi or ≤ 0.6 ksi (LRFD
Table 5.9.2.3.2b-1).
The post-tensioning is calculated to satisfy tensile stresses at service conditions. The maximum negative-moment
section at the pier and the maximum positive-moment section at 0.4L from the abutment are the two sections
used for this analysis in this example. Once the amount of post-tensioning is estimated, a detailed prestress loss
calculation is made and all other design criteria are verified. Principal tensile stresses in webs must also be
checked (see LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3.3). The post-tensioning is then adjusted, as needed.

11.8.7.2 Positive-Moment Section

The bending moments due to various loadings are given in Table 11.8.4-1. The critical positive-moment section
is assumed to be at 0.4L. The moments are as follows:
Mg due to beam weight = 2,736.4 ft-kips
Ms due to deck weight = 2,089.0 ft-kips
Mb due to barrier weight = 252.3 ft-kips
Mws due to wearing surface weight = 442.3 ft-kips
MLL+I due to live load and impact = 4,184.0 ft-kips
At 0.4L, the pretensioning force Ppe = 720.9 kips, and its eccentricity is 33.51 in. For assumed values of stage 1 and
stage 2 post-tensioning, the total moments due to post-tensioning are shown in Tables 11.8.6.2-1 and 11.8.6.2-
2. Allowing for the estimated prestress losses:

2(𝑛)37.47
Stage 1 total moment = ( ) (−2,159) = (0.075)(𝑛)(−2,159) = −161.80(𝑛) ft‐ kips
1,000

(𝑛)37.47
Stage 2 total moment = (−1,256) = −94.20(𝑛) ft‐kips
500
where n = number of 0.6-in.-diameter strands per tendon
Stage 1 has two post-tensioned tendons for a total of 2n strands, and stage 2 has one tendon with (n) strands.

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11.8.7.2 Positive-Moment Section/11.8.7.3 Negative-Moment Section

In this analysis,  = 0.8 has been used for the Service III live-load factor when checking tensile stresses (see LRFD
Table 3.4.1-4). See Chapter 8 for more information on the calculation of prestress losses.
The bottom-fiber stress due to each of the effects is:
(𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 ) (𝑀𝑤𝑠 + 𝑀𝑏 ) + 0.8𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼
𝑓𝑏 = − −
𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑐
(2736.4 + 2,089.0)(12) (442.3 + 252.3)(12) + 0.8(4,184.0)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = − = = −5.502 ksi
16,657 23,941
(𝑃𝑝𝑒 ) (𝑃𝑝𝑒 )𝑒 720.9 720.9(33.51)
𝑓𝑏 = + = + = +0.791 + 1.450 = + 2.241 ksi
𝐴 𝑆𝑏 911 16,657
(𝑃𝑃𝑇 )𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 1 (𝑀𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 )𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 1 (𝑛)(37.47) 161.80(𝑛)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + = + = +0.158(𝑛) ksi
𝐴 𝑆𝑏 911 16,657
(𝑃𝑃𝑇 )𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2 (𝑀𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 )𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2 (𝑛)(37.47) (𝑛)(94.20)(12)
𝑓𝑏 = + = + = +0.068(𝑛) ksi
𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑏𝑐 1,788 23,941
Therefore, the total stress = −5.502 + 2.241 + 0.158(n) + 0.068(n) ksi
By setting the total stress equal to the stress limit, −0.537 ksi, a value of n = 12 strands per tendon, or a total of
36 strands total, is found to be required.

11.8.7.3 Negative-Moment Section

The section at the centerline of the pier will be used for analysis of negative-moment stresses. For the refined
analysis, the critical section should be selected at the face of the diaphragm. This added check has good value
because it controls deck cracking in the pier area and therefore increases the performance of the bridge. The
claim can be made that the owner is receiving higher value by using a post-tensioning system as compared to one
that is conventionally reinforced.
There are different interpretations as to whether the stresses in the deck need to be considered in the negative-
moment region (see LRFD Art. 5.12.3.3.6). The designer should check with the governing entity.
From Table 11.8.4-1, the values of the bending moments are:
Mg = 0.0 ft-kips; Ms = −3,730.1 ft-kips; Mb = −450.5 ft-kips; Mws = −789.9 ft-kips; MLL+I = −4,240.7 ft-kips
The post-tensioning force at this section at each stage is as follows:
Stage 1, PPT = 2(37.47)(n) kips. The total moment per 1,000 kips of post-tensioning force = 3,076.8 ft-kips.
This corresponds to (0.075)(n)(3,076.8) = 230.76(n) ft-kips, where n is the number of strands
per tendon in the two-tendon stage 1 post-tensioning.
Stage 2, PPT = 37.47(n) kips. The total moment per 500 kips of stage 2 post-tensioning = 1,731.8ft-kips. This
corresponds to (0.075)(n)(1,731.8) = 129.89(n) ft-kips.
Solving for the total stress at the top fibers of the beam:
(𝑀𝑔 + 𝑀𝑠 ) (𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑤𝑠 ) + 0.8𝑀𝐿𝐿+𝐼 (𝑃𝑃𝑇 )𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 1 (𝑀𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 )𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 1 (𝑃𝑃𝑇 )𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2 (𝑀𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 )𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2
𝑓𝑡 = − − + + + +
𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑐 𝐴 𝑆𝑏𝑡 𝐴𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑐
(0 + 3,730.1)(12) (450.5 + 789.9)(12) + 0.8(4,240.7)(12) 74.94(𝑛) 230.76(𝑛)(12) 37.47(𝑛)
𝑓𝑡 = − − + + +
17,134 68,945 911 17,134 1,788
129.89(𝑛)(12)
+
68,945
𝑓𝑡 = −3.419 + (0.082 + 0.162 + 0.021 + 0.023)(n) = −0.537 ksi

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11.8.7.3 Negative-Moment Section/11.8.8.1 Positive-Moment Section

Solving for (n), the minimum number of 0.6-in.-diameter strands per post-tensioning tendon is 9.9; for this
example, it is rounded up to 11, for a total of 33 strands for the three tendons. It should be verified that the
assumed duct size and beam web thickness can accommodate that number of strands. LRFD Article 5.4.6.2 states
that for multiple strand tendons, the inside cross-sectional area of the duct shall be at least 2 times the net area of
prestressing steel, except where the tendons are placed by the pull-through method, it should be at least 2.5
times. Furthermore, the size of the duct shall not be more than 0.54 times the gross concrete thickness at the duct.
In addition, the web reinforcement must have the project-specified minimum concrete cover.
In this preliminary analysis the positive-moment section requires three more post-tensioning strands (one per
tendon) than the negative-moment section. In order to optimize the design, the post-tensioning required for the
negative-moment region will be used for the entire beam. It may be possible to increase the positive-moment
capacity by adding pretensioning. In this modified BT-72, up to six strands can be added in a third row (6 in. from
the bottom). However, steps may need to be taken to mitigate stresses (see Sect. 11.8.5) during transfer, handling,
shipping, and erection. At this point, it is recommended that a final design be attempted using twenty-two or
twenty-four 0.6-in.-diameter pretensioning strands and three post-tensioning tendons of eleven 0.6-in.-diameter
strands each. During final design deck stresses over the piers should be checked.

11.8.8 Strength Limit State

11.8.8.1 Positive-Moment Section
Using the bending moments from Tables 11.8.4-1, 11.8.6.2-1, and 11.8.6.2-2, and the estimated 172.7 ksi stress
in the post-tensioning at service shown in Table 11.8.7-1, total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is
determined as follows:
2(11)(172.2)(0.217)
For stage 1 post‐ tensioning, 𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = ( ) (366) = 300.9 ft‐ kips
1,000
(11)(172.2)(0.217)
For stage 2 post‐ tensioning, 𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = ( ) (429) = 352.7 ft‐ kips
500
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM) + 1.0(Msecondary) [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2]
Mu = 1.25(2,735.9 + 2,089.0 + 252.3) + 1.5(442.3) + 1.75(4,184.0) + 1.0(300.9 + 352.7) = 14,985.6 ft-kips
At this section, there are three layers of prestressing steel (see Table 11.8.8.1-1).
Table 11.8.8.1-1
Prestressing Steel at 0.4L
Aps, Distance from Bottom
Layer
in.2 of Section, in.
Pretensioned
strands 4.340 3.000

Post-tensioning
Stage 1 4.774 6.250

Post-tensioning
Stage 2 2.387 13.375

This example used the strain compatibility approach to calculate the capacity of the section. For detailed
information on the method, refer to Chapter 8. The LRFD Specifications approximate formulas are not
recommended in this type of application.
Using the strain compatibility method, the following results are obtained:
The distance from top of the composite section to the neutral axis c = 9.57 in.
The depth of the rectangular stress block a = 8.02 in.

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11.8.8.1 Positive-Moment Section/11.8.8.2 Negative-Moment Section

The nominal moment capacity Mn = 17,893.3 ft-kips

Average stress in the pretensioning steel fps = 268.0 ksi
Average stress in the post-tensioning steel, stage 1, fps = 267.9 ksi
Average stress in the post-tensioning steel, stage 2, fps = 266.0 ksi
Factored flexural resistance Mr = n [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.2.1-1]
where
= resistance factor = 1.00, for flexure in tension-controlled prestressed [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2]
concrete sections with bonded strands
Mr = 17,893.3 ft-kips ≥ Mu = 14,985.6 ft-kips OK

11.8.8.2 Negative-Moment Section

Ignoring the width of the pier diaphragm and using the bending moments from Table 11.8.4-1, Table 11.8.6.2-1,
and Table 11.8.6.2-2, the total factored bending moment for Strength I is:
822.08
For stage 1 post‐ tensioning, 𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = ( ) (914) = 751.4 ft‐ kips
1,000
411.05
For stage 2 post‐ tensioning, 𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = ( ) (1,073) = 882.1 ft‐ kips
500
The ultimate moment is computed using load factors found in LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2. The load factor for
secondary moments is determined by the factor for “PS” defined in LRFD Article 3.3.2.
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM) + 1.0(Msecondary) [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2]
Mu = 1.25(−3,730.1 − 450.5) + 1.5(−789.9) + 1.75(−4,240.7) + 1.0(751.4 + 882.1) = −12,198.3 ft-kips
The compression face is the bottom flange of the beam, which is 27 in. wide. The deck reinforcement in the
longitudinal direction is assumed to be no. 6 @ 6 in. top and bottom. At this section there are three levels of
reinforcement (Table 11.8.8.2-1). Note that bottom pretensioning reinforcement is not considered.
Table 11.8.8.2-1
Reinforcing Steel at the Pier
Area of Steel, Distance from Top of the
Layer
in.2 Composite Section, in.
Reinforcement in
21.12 3.80
the deck
Post-tensioning,
4.77 17.50
Stage 1
Post-tensioning,
2.39 10.40
Stage 2

Using the strain compatibility method, the depth of the compression block is large and the stress in the
reinforcement is low, causing the steel to be used inefficiently. This is due to the relatively small bottom flange of
the AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee, which was not originally developed for continuous, post-tensioned applications. If this
section is the only one available locally, the compression capacity of the bottom flange can be enhanced in several
ways:
• Increase the strength of the concrete in the precast concrete beam segment.
• Add compression reinforcement in the bottom flange of the precast concrete beam segment if it does not
interfere with the pretensioning strands already there.

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11.8.8.2 Negative-Moment Section/11.8.9 Shear Design

• Add a structural steel plate embedded in the bottom at the end of the precast concrete beam segment.
Make the plate composite through the use of studs, similar to the connection of plate girders to deck
slabs.
In addition to flexural strength and minimum reinforcement requirements (LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3), the provisions of
LRFD Article 5.12.3.3 for making precast concrete girders continuous must be met.

11.8.9 Shear Design

In this example, a BT-72 was modified to have an 8.0-in.-thick web to accommodate a 3.75-in.-diameter post-
tensioning duct. LRFD Article 5.4.6.2 requires that for multistrand tendons, the inside cross-sectional area of the
duct be at least 2.0 times (2.5 times when the tendons are placed by the pull-through method) the net area of
prestressing steel cross-sectional area. Also, the size of the ducts in structural concrete shall not exceed 0.54 times
the least gross thickness at the duct.
The following calculation is intended to demonstrate the feasibility of this beam section in shear and the order of
magnitude of the shear reinforcement required. See Section 11.6.5 for a discussion on shear design in the
presence of post-tensioning ducts.
For this example, a section 7.1 ft away from the pier centerline is considered where the factored shear Vu = 532.8
kips. At the time being considered the structure is fully constructed and all ducts are grouted. As such, bv does not
need to be modified for ducts (LRFD Art. 5.7.2.8). However, LRFD Article 5.7.3.3 incorporates a reduction factor
for Vs.
During final design, shear strength should be investigated during the various stages of construction where the
ducts, especially those for stage 2 post-tensioning, may not yet be grouted.
Per LRFD Article 5.7.3.3, Vn shall be the lesser of the following:
Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-1]
Vn = 0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv + Vp [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-2]
where
Vc = 0.0316βλ√𝑓𝑐′ bvdv [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3-3]
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑣 𝑑𝑣 (cot 𝜃 + cot 𝛼) sin 𝛼
𝑉𝑠 = 𝜆𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3‐ 4]
𝑠
𝜙𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 2
𝜆𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 1 − 𝛿 ( ) [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3 − 5]
𝑏𝑤
𝛿 = duct diameter correction factor, taken as 2.0 for grouted ducts
𝜙𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = diameter of post-tensioning duct in the girder web within depth dv is 3.75 in.

Both bv and bw are 8.0 in. The effective depth for shear will be conservatively taken as dv = (0.72)h = (0.72)(80.0)
= 57.6 in. (LRFD Art. 5.7.2.8). Therefore, by conservatively assuming β = 2 and θ = 45 degrees, the calculated Vc
and Vp are 82.4 and 56.90 kips, respectively, and the required Vs = 452.7 kips. Therefore, the required Av/s is 2.80
in.2/ft.
0.25𝑓𝑐′ bvdv = 0.25(8.0)(8.0)(57.6) = 921.6 kips and does not control
The calculated Av/s = 2.80 in.2/ft is high, but is based on conservative assumptions for this preliminary design. It
is anticipated that the final design will yield a lesser amount. The amount can be reduced by using shear
reinforcement with fy > 60 ksi (LRFD Art. C5.7.3.3). It should also be noted that the reduction factor 𝜆𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 for the
presence of the duct is applicable when the duct is located in the web. In cases where the duct is located in a
flange or the thickened portion at the juncture of a flange and web, 𝜆𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 would not apply (LRFD Art. C5.7.2.8).

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11.8.10 Determination of Prestress Losses

11.8.10 Determination of Prestress Losses

Except during preliminary design, prestress losses for segmental construction and post-tensioned, spliced precast
concrete girders shall be determined by the time-step method and the provisions of LRFD Article 5.9.3.5,
including consideration of construction stages and schedule shown in the contract documents. For components
with combined pretensioning and post-tensioning, and where post-tensioning is applied in more than one stage,
the effects of subsequent prestressing on the creep loss of previous prestressing shall be considered.
Except during preliminary design, LRFD Article 5.9.3.4 requires that a time-step method be used to determine
prestress losses for post-tensioned, precast concrete girders such as those presented in this example.
Furthermore, when pretensioning is combined with post-tensioning and the post-tensioning is applied in more
than one stage, the effects of creep from previous prestressing shall be considered. The time-step method also
accounts for different concrete material properties (level of prestress, strength, and modulus of elasticity), section
properties (noncomposite or composite), and support locations at the different stages of construction.
In a time-step method the life of the girder is divided into increments or time steps representing the significant
construction stages and service. Sections 8.6.7 and 8.13 outline and discuss the time-step method, and the design
example in Section 9.2 applies the method to a prestressed concrete girder. However, none of these specifically
address post-tensioning applications. Short-term losses at the time of post-tensioning are discussed in Section
11.6.2.
Prestress losses are not calculated for this example. However, Table 11.8.10-1 shows a sample of minimum
increments (time steps).
Table 11.8.10-1
Example of Time Steps for Determining Prestress Losses
Phase Days
Girder fabrication and transfer of prestress 1
Girder storage 1–30
Erection 30
Stage 1 post-tensioning 30
Intermediate 30–60
Casting of deck 60
Stage 2 post-tensioning 60
Superimposed dead loads (barriers) 60
Long term 60–20,000
Live-load application 20,000

After the losses are determined, the design calculations are rerun and, if needed, adjustments are made to the
pretensioning, post-tensioning, and concrete strengths. As mentioned before, it is imperative that the beam is
checked for stability during handling, transportation, and erection.
Figure 11.8.10-1 illustrates the effects of loading events and concrete age on the stresses in the prestressed
reinforcement. To accurately determine prestress losses and stresses in the beams, appropriate time steps and
intervals must be used to capture loading events and changes in concrete properties.

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11.8.10 Determination of Prestress Losses/11.8.11.1 Positive-Moment Section

Figure 11.8.10-1
Effects of Loading Events and Concrete Age on Stresses in the Prestressed Reinforcement

11.8.11 Limits of Reinforcement

11.8.11.1 Positive-Moment Section
The positive-moment section of the beam is a prestressed reinforced concrete section and not the section at the
piers where there are requirements for continuity (LRFD Art. 5.12.3.3.2).
According to LRFD Article 5.6.3.3, at any section of a noncompression-controlled flexural component, the
minimum amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement shall be adequate to develop a
factored flexural resistance Mr greater than or equal to the lesser of 1.33 times the factored moment required by
the applicable strength load combination or the cracking moment Mcr, where the cracking moment is calculated as
follows:
Mcr = 𝛾3 [(𝛾1 𝑓𝑟 + 𝛾2 𝑓𝑐𝑝𝑒 )𝑆𝑐 − 𝑀𝑑𝑛𝑐 (𝑆𝑐 ⁄𝑆𝑛𝑐 − 1)] [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3-1]
where
fr = modulus of rupture = 0.24λ√𝑓𝑐′ = 0.24(1.0)√8.0 = 0.679 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
flexural cracking variability factor = 1.6 for concrete
γ1 =
structures other than precast concrete segmental structures
γ2 = prestress variability factor = 1.1 for bonded tendons
ratio of specified minimum yield strength to ultimate tensile
γ3 = strength of the nonprestressed reinforcement = 1.0 for
prestressing steel
fcpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after allowance for all
prestress losses) at the extreme fiber of the section where tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads
𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑀𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑝𝑒 𝑀𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
= ( + ) +( + ) +( + )
𝐴 𝑆𝑏 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴 𝑆𝑏 𝑃⁄𝑇 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 1 𝐴 𝑆𝑏𝑐 𝑃⁄𝑇 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2

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11.8.11.1 Positive-Moment Section/11.8.12 Comments and Remaining Steps

660.3 660.3(31.47) 781.2 1,686.9(12) 408.8 1,026.81(12)

= ( + )+( + )+( + )
911 16,657 911 16,657 1,788 23,941
= 1.972 + 2.073 + 0.743 = 4.788 ksi
Mdnc = moment due to noncomposite dead loads
= Mg + Ms = 2,736.4 + 2,089.0 = 4,825.4 ft-kips
Sc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the composite section where tensile stress is caused
by externally applied loads = 23,941 in.3
Snc = section modulus for the extreme fiber of the monolithic or noncomposite section where
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 16,657 in.3
16,657 23,941
Mcr = (1.0) [((1.6)(0.679) + (1.1)(4.788)) ( ) − (4,825.4) ( − 1)] = 6,708.6 ft‐ kips
12 16,657
At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is:
Mu = 14,985.6 ft-kips
1.33Mu = 1.33(14,985.6) = 19,930.8 ft-kips
Since Mcr <1.33Mu, Mcr controls, and Mr = 17,893.3 ft-kips ≥ Mcr OK

11.8.12 Comments and Remaining Steps

The calculations presented in Section 11.8 cover the preliminary design steps needed to
• Check the adequacy of the prestressed concrete beam section for the selected span and spacing.
• Determine the concrete strength.
• Determine the amount of pretensioning required.
• Determine the amount of post-tensioning required.
After a preliminary solution is established, a thorough and detailed design must be performed. As a minimum, a
time-step analysis considering the various construction stages must be performed to determine prestress losses,
and a continuous beam analysis program is needed for the detailed analysis for post-tensioning and live-load
effects.
The following items should be performed in completing the design:
1. Adjust (reduce) the properties of the noncomposite section and, if appropriate, the composite section to
account for the presence of post-tensioning ducts and voided areas around couplers (LRFD Art. 5.12.3.4.4).
2. Use a time-step method to calculate the prestress losses at discrete intervals to account for stages of
construction and loading, specifically at pretension transfer, stage 1 post-tensioning, stage 2 post-tensioning,
and final time (LRFD Art. 5.9.3.2, 5.9.3.4, and 5.9.3.5). Use the appropriate, time-adjusted concrete material
properties.
3. Determine the bending moments and shear forces due to pretensioning, dead loads, and live loads at equal
span increments, such as tenth points of each span.
4. Conduct service-load analyses and check concrete stresses at various sections and during various loading and
construction stages. Modify prestressing, if necessary, and reanalyze.
5. Check the fiber stresses and beam stability using designated lifting or support locations for handling,
shipping, and erection. Also, consider wind loads and construction loads such as overhanging falsework on
exterior girder and screed machines. Adjust lifting locations or lifter configurations, increase concrete
strengths, or incorporate temporary top strands (LRFD Art. 5.9.4.5).
6. Conduct strength analysis. If there is strength deficiency in a positive-moment area, attempt to correct it by
providing additional pretensioning. If there is a deficiency in a negative-moment area, attempt to correct it by
providing additional deck reinforcement.

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11.8.12 Comments and Remaining Steps/11.9.1 Input Data and Design Criteria

7. Check that minimum reinforcement is present to satisfy the moment-cracking criteria of LRFD Article 5.6.3.3.
8. Design and detail reinforcement to meet strength and service limit state requirements for continuity (LRFD
Art. 5.12.3.3.2).
9. Calculate estimated cambers and deflections (LRFD Art. 5.6.3.5.2). Use this information to determine the
haunch thickness or buildup over the beam’s top flange and to establish the beam seat elevations to match the
roadway profile. Also, check to see that live-load deflection is within the optimal limits.
10. Conduct a thorough shear design, including consideration of post-tensioning ducts (LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3).
11. Design and detail the post-tensioning anchorage zones (Sect. 11.7 and LRFD Art. 5.9.5.6) and pretensioning
splitting resistance reinforcement (LRFD Art. 5.9.4.4).
12. Address other relevant design considerations, including treatment of transverse displacement; the
accumulation of creep, shrinkage, thermal movement, and integral super and substructure effects; double-
end post-tensioning; shoring tower and strongback design; and the effects of staged construction.

11.9 CASE STUDY: SINGLE-SPAN SPLICED BEAM

This example is provided as case study, and the design may not meet the requirements of current codes. A
summary of the calculations for a bridge constructed in 2003 and 2004 in Omaha, Neb., at Dodge Street (U.S.
Route 6) and 204th Street (Nebraska Highway 31) is presented along with some of the significant considerations
for splicing three beam segments into a single, simple-span beam.

11.9.1 Input Data and Design Criteria

The length of this single-span bridge is 206.7 ft. The project used the NU2000PT (Nebraska) I-beam. The beam
depth is 78.74 in. (2,000 mm) and web width is 6.9 in. The bridge section consists of seven beams spaced at 8 ft
4.3 in. The bridge is 58 ft wide. Details of the bridge are shown in Figure 11.9.1-1.
Figure 11.9.1-1
Details of the Dodge Street Bridge

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11.9.1 Input Data and Design Criteria/11.9.2 Construction Stages

Figure 11.9.1-1 (cont.)

Details of the Dodge Street Bridge

A composite, 8-in.-thick concrete slab (7.5 in. structural depth) is cast in place. Each beam line uses three beam
segments. The end beam segments are each approximately 28 ft long, and the center beam segment is nearly 149
ft long. These lengths are in addition to two 12-in.-wide spaces for the splices. The specified compressive
strengths of the precast concrete beam and cast-in-place slab are 10 ksi and 4.3 ksi, respectively. The bridge is
designed in accordance with LRFD Specifications, 2nd Edition, and the 1999 and 2000 Interim Revisions. Design
live load is HL-93.

11.9.2 Construction Stages

The construction stages (Fig. 11.9.2-1) are as follows:
Stage 1a: Fabricate precast concrete beam segments
Stage 1b: Erect precast concrete beam segments on temporary towers and abutments
Stage 2: Splice post-tensioning ducts and cast splice
Stage 3: Stress post-tension tendons and remove temporary towers
Stage 4: Place deck slab
Stage 5: Construct barriers
This construction schedule does not provide compression in the deck because all post-tensioning is applied
before the deck is cast. This solution is also less efficient than other post-tensioning schemes because only the
beam is post-tensioned. However, this scheme does permit removal of the deck for replacement.

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11.9.2 Construction Stages/11.9.3 Flexure at Service Limit State

Figure 11.9.2-1
Construction Sequence of the Dodge Street Bridge

11.9.3 Flexure at Service Limit State

The critical section in flexure, after all losses, due to full loads plus effective prestress, is at midspan. For
pretensioning and post-tensioning details, see Figures 11.9.3-1 and 11.9.3-2, respectively.

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11.9.3 Flexure at Service Limit State

Figure 11.9.3-1
Pretensioning Details

Figure 11.9.3-2
Post-Tensioning Details

Table 11.9.3-1 provides the bending moments for an interior beam line, and Table 11.9.3-2 summarizes the
concrete stresses at midspan. The latter table shows that the most critical stress is concrete compression at the
top fibers of the beam due to effective prestress plus permanent loads. The stress limit in the LRFD Specifications
is 0.45𝑓𝑐′ , which required the design beam concrete strength to be specified at 10 ksi.

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11.9.3 Flexure at Service Limit State/11.9.4 Flexure at Strength Limit State

Table 11.9.3-1
Bending Moments at Midspan
Bending Moment at
Loading Midspan Section,
ft-kips
Girder weight 2,774.5
Support removal 2,499.2
Deck slab 4,464.8
Wearing surface 1,116.2
Barriers 560.8
Live loads 5,031.5

Table 11.9.3-2
Service Load Stresses at Midspan
Top of Slab, ksi Top of Beam, ksi
Location Bottom of
Service I Service I
Beam, ksi
Permanent Total Permanent Total
Loading Service III
Loads Loads Loads Loads
At midspan 0.279 1.117 4.492 5.491 1.054
Stress limit 1.935 2.580 4.500 6.000 −0.600

11.9.4 Flexure at Strength Limit State

The required factored bending moment is:
Mu = 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM) + 1.0(Msecondary) [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2]
Because this is a statically determinate beam, there are no secondary effects from post-tensioning.
Mu = 1.25(2,774.5 + 2,499.2 + 4,464.8 + 560.8) + 1.5(1,116.2) + 1.75(5,031.5) = 23,353.6 ft-kips
At this section, there are seven layers of prestressing steel (see Table 11.9.4-1).
Using the strain compatibility method, the following results are found:
Neutral axis depth c = 32.3 in.
Stress block depth a = 24.5 in.
Stress in the pretensioning steel varies from 244.0 to 247.9 ksi
Stress in the post-tensioning steel varies from 241.9 to 246.5 ksi
Mr = 27,317.7 ft-kips Mu = 23,353.6 ft-kips OK

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11.9.4 Flexure at Strength Limit State/11.10 References

Table 11.9.4-1
Prestressing Steel at Midspan
Aps, Distance from
Layer
in.2 Bottom of Section, in.
Layer 1
3.472 2.00
pretensioning strands
Layer 2
3.472 4.00
pretensioning strands
Layer 3
2.170 6.00
pretensioning strands
Layer 4
0.868 8.00
pretensioning strands
First post-tensioning
3.255 3.88
tendon
Second post-tensioning
3.255 8.63
tendon
Third post-tensioning
3.255 13.38
tendon

11.9.5 Discussion
As stated at the beginning of this section, the calculations shown for this case study adhered to an earlier code.
However, the design illustrates a simple, yet important application of spliced-beam segments to create a single,
long span.
Production, handling, and shipping of 200-ft-long beams can be challenging, although single beams longer than
220 ft have been achieved in Florida and Utah and a 223-ft-long beam has been used in Washington state.
Temporary towers were used to support the beam segments during construction of the Dodge Street Bridge. An
alternate method is post-tensioning the beam segments together on the ground and then lifting the full-length
beam into place. However, this option is challenging and requires careful slenderness calculations and the use of
larger erection equipment. Before a decision is made on any project, both of these options should be investigated.
Contractors can be an excellent resource to designers in this situation and are usually willing to contribute. Many
precasters have had experience furnishing these products and are also good resources. It is typically not viable to
achieve the span demonstrated by this example without carefully combining pretensioning with post-tensioning.
The specified 10-ksi concrete strength for the Dodge Street Bridge beams helped keep the compressive stress due
to effective prestress plus permanent loads below the LRFD Specifications limit of 0.45𝑓𝑐′ . This strength is
achievable in most parts of the United States. In addition, the strength of the deck could be increased to improve
behavior at both service and strength limit states.
On bridges of this type, it is important to carefully calculate instantaneous and long-term deflections at various
stages of loading and at final conditions. Net long-term deflection may be downward. To compensate for a
possible sag in the span, which may be psychologically unacceptable, the elevations of the temporary tower
supports can be raised to create a cambered beam.

11.10 REFERENCES
1. AASHTO. 2019. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 4th Edition, with 2020 Interim Revisions.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
2. AASHTO. 2020. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 9th Edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
3. ACI Committee 209. 1992. Prediction of Creep Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures. ACI
PRC-209-92. American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.

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11.10 References

4. ACI Committee 363. 2010. Report on High-Strength Concrete. ACI PRC-363-10. American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI.
5. Baker, D., and N. Eggen. 2019A. “Flying Over Las Vegas.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL, V. 13, No. 3 (Summer), pp. 24-27.
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6. Baker, D., and N. Eggen. 2019B. “Stretching the Limits of Precast Concrete.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 13, No. 3 (Summer), pp. 30-31.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2019Summer/CBT-StretchingTheLimitsOfPrecastConcrete.pdf
7. Beavers, T., C. Hemp, and J. Schussel. 2021. “Atkinson Boulevard over CSXT Railroad and Interstate 64.”
ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 15, No. 4 (Fall): 30-33.
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8. Breen, J. E., O. Burdet, C. Roberts, D. Sanders, and G. Wollmann. 1994. Anchorage Zone Reinforcement for Post-
Tensioned Concrete Girders. NCHRP Report 356. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,
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9. Brice, R. 2018. “Designing Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders for Lateral Stability: An Owner’s
Perspective.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 12, No. 1 (Winter), pp. 10-12.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2018Winter/Perspective-
DesigningPrecastPrestressedConcrete.pdf
10. Brice, R., Khaleghi, B., and S. J. Seguirant. 2009. “Design Optimization for Fabrication of Pretensioned Concrete
Bridge Girders: An Example Problem.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 54,
No. 4 (Fall), pp. 73-111.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09012009.73.111
11. Brice, R., S. J. Seguirant, and Khaleghi, B. 2013. “Evaluation of Common Design Policies for Precast,
Prestressed Concrete I-Girder Bridges.”, PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 58,
No. 4 (Fall): 68-80.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09012013.68.80
12. Brown, K. 2022. “Temporary Top Strands in Prestressed Concrete Girders.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 16, No. 2 (Spring), pp. 36-38.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2022Spring/CBT-TemporaryTopStrands.pdf
13. Castrodale, R. W., and C. D. White. 2004. Extending Span Ranges of Precast Prestressed Concrete Girders.
NCHRP Report 517. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. https://dx.doi.org/10.17226/23375
14. CEB (Comite Euro-International du Betón). 1990. CEB-FIP Model Code for Concrete Structures. Thomas Telford
Ltd., London.
15. DeRuyver, J., D. Eaton, R. Garcia, B. Khaleghi, T. A. Kniazewycz, A. Lancaster, and J. Walsh. 2020. Leading
Practices for Detailing Bridge Ends and Approach Pavements to Limit Distress and Deterioration. NCHRP
Project 20-68D, Scan 19-01. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
https://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/nchrp/docs/SCAN19-01rev3.pdf
16. Fallaha, S., and W. Nickas. 2017. “U-Girder Standards Upgraded for External Post-Tensioning Tendons.”
ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 11, No. 4 (Fall), pp. 44-46.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2017Fall/CBT-U-GirderStandards.pdf
17. fib. 2010. fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010. Ernst and Sohn/John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, NJ.
18. fib and PCI. 2021. fib Bulletin 99 Conceptual Design of Precast Concrete Bridge Superstructures. fib
(International Federation for Structural Concrete), Lausanne, Switzerland, and Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL.
19. fib and PCI. 2020. fib Bulletin 94: Precast Concrete Bridge Continuity Over Piers. fib (International Federation
for Structural Concrete), Lausanne, Switzerland, and Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.

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11.10 References

20. French, T. 2021. “Designing for Resilience and Durability on the Longest Spliced Precast Concrete Girder
Bridge in Vermont.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 15, No. 3 (Summer), pp.
28-31.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2021Summer/Project-DesigningForResilienceAndDurability.pdf
21. Girgis, A., C. Sun, and M. K. Tadros. 2002 “Flexural Strength of Continuous Bridge Girders – Avoiding the
Penalty in the AASHTO-LRFD Specifications.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
V. 47, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 138-141.
https://www.pci.org/PCI_Docs/Publications/PCI%20Journal/2002/July-
Aug/Problems%20and%20Solutions.pdf
22. Hass, R., and A. Ehrlich. 2019. “Minnesota’s MH Shape: The Development of Efficient Shallow-Depth
Prestressed Concrete Beams.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 13, No. 3
(Summer): 34-35. Chicago, IL: PCI.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2019Summer/CBT-MinnesotasMHShape.pdf
23. Hennessey, S. A., and K. A. Bexten. 2002. “Value Engineering Results in Successful Precast Bridge
Solution.”Proceedings of the Concrete Bridge Conference, October, Nashville, TN, National Concrete Bridge
Council and Federal Highway Administration. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
24. Kelley, G. S. 2000. “Prestress Losses in Post-Tensioned Structures,” PTI Technical Notes, Post-Tensioning
Institute, Phoenix, AZ, Issue 10.
25. Lallathin, T. J., Jr. 2015. “US 17-92 Interchange at SR 436.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL, V. 9, No. 4 (Fall), pp. 59-57.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2015Fall/Project-US17-92InterchangeAtSR436.pdf
26. Ma, Z., M. A. Saleh, and M. K. Tadros. 1999. “Optimized Post-Tensioning Anchorage in Prestressed Concrete I-
Beams.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 44, No. 2 (March-April), pp. 56-73.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03011999.56.73
27. Ma, Z., X. Huo, M. K. Tadros, and M. Baishya. 1998. “Restraint Moments in Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Continuous Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 43, No. 6 (November-
December), pp. 40-57.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011998.40.57
28. McNavage, T. J. 2020. “Coplay-Northampton Bridge: Innovative Rehabilitation of Historic Pennsylvania
Structure.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 14, No. 3 (Summer), pp. 20-23.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2020Summer/Project-CoplayNorthhamptonBridge.pdf
29. Meyer, K. F., and L. F. Kahn. 2001. Annotated Bibliography for High Strength Lightweight Prestressed Concrete.
Report to the Office of Materials and Research, Georgia Department of Transportation, Atlanta, GA.
30. Meyer, K. F., and L. F. Kahn. 2002 “Lightweight Concrete Reduces Weight and Increases Span Length of
Pretensioned Concrete Bridge Girders.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 47,
No. 1 (January-February), pp. 68-75.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01012002.68.75
31. Mish, A. 2020. “PHS Sky Train Stage 2 at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport.” ASPIRE,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 14 (3): 6-9.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2020Summer/Project-PHXSkyTrain.pdf
32. MnDOT. 2021. “Transmittal No. 2021-01—Memo to Designers #2021-01: Use of 300 ksi Prestressing Strand
in Precast Pretensioned Concrete Beams.” MnDOT LRFD Bridge Design Manual Update. Minnesota Department
of Transportation, Minneapolis, MN.
https://www.dot.state.mn.us/bridge/lrfd.html
33. Nebraska Department of Transportation. 2001. Nebraska Bridge Office Policies and Procedures Manual.
Nebraska Department of Roads, Lincoln, NE.

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11.10 References

34. Pang, J. B. K. 2018. “Chief Joseph Dam Bridge.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V.
12, No. 3 (Summer), pp. 16-18.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2018Summer/Project-ChiefJosephDamBridge.pdf
35. PCI Committee on Bridges. 1992. State-of-the-Art of Precast/Prestressed Concrete Spliced Girder Bridges. SG-
92. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. https://doi.org/10.15554/SG-92-01
36. PCI Committee on Bridges. 2012. Curved Precast Concrete Bridges State-of-the-Art Report. CB-01-12.
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-01-12.
37. PCI Committee on Bridges. 2016. Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete
Bridge Girders. CB-02-16. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-02-16
38. PCI Committee on Bridges. 2020A. Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam
Bridges. CB-03-20. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-03-20
39. PCI Committee on Bridges. 2020B. User Manual for Calculating the Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed
Concrete Bridge Girders. CB-04-20H. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-04-20
40. PCI Industry Handbook Committee. 2010. PCI Design Handbook. 7th Edition. Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. https://doi.org/10.15554/MNL-120-10
41. PTI. 2006. Post-Tensioning Manual, 6th Edition. Post-Tensioning Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
42. PTI. 2019. Specification for Grouting of Post-Tensioned Structures. PTI M55.1-19. Post-Tensioning Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI.
43. PTI and ASBI. 2019. Specification for Multistrand and Grouted Post-Tensioning. PTI/ASBI M50.3-19. Post-
Tensioning Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, and American Segmental Bridge Institute, Austin, TX.
44. Russell, H. G. 2013. High Performance Concrete Specifications and Practices for Bridges. NCHRP Synthesis 441.
National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/22620/high-performance-concrete-specifications-and-
practices-for-bridges
45. Seguirant, S. J. 1998. “New Deep WSDOT Standard Sections Extend Spans of Prestressed Concrete Girders.”
PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 43, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 92-119.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011998.92.119
46. Shahrooz, B.M., R. A. Miller, K. A. Harries, and R. W. Castrodale. 2022. Use of 0.7-in. Diameter Strands in Precast
Pretensioned Girders. NCHRP Report 994. National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
https://doi.org/10.17226/26677
47. Shutt, C. A. 2019. “Changing Perceptions.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 13,
No. 2 (Spring), pp. 6-9.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2019Spring/FOCUS-ChangingPerceptions.pdf
48. Slagle, B. 2011. “Going to Record Lengths.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 5,
No. 1 (Winter), pp. 24-27.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2011Winter/Route%2022_Win11_web.pdf
49. Springer, D. A., and A. Tremblay. 2020. “Ohio State Route 235 Bridge over Fairborn Cement Company Haul
Road.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 14, No. 4 (Fall): 18-21.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2020Fall/Project-OhioStateRoute235Bridge.pdf
50. Steinberg, E., K. Walsh, W. Hamid, A. Chlosta, K. Slyh, R. Miller, B. Shahrooz, A. Haroon, R. Castrodale, and C.
Prussack. 2022. Design and Construction of Deck Bulb Tee Girder Bridges with UHPC Connections. NCHRP

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11.10 References

Research Report 999. National Academies Press, Washington, DC.

https://dx.doi.org/10.17226/26644
51. Tadros, M. K., A. Ghali, and W. H. Dilger. 1977. “Time-Dependent Analysis of Composite Frames.” ASCE Journal
of Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, V. 103, No. 4 (April), pp. 871-884.
https://doi.org/10.1061/JSDEAG.0004612
52. Tadros, M. K., and M. A. Khalifa. 1998. Post-Tensioning Anchorages in Concrete I-Girder Bridges. Report No.
FHWA-NE-98-P486, Research Project SPR-PL-1(31) P486, Nebraska Department of Roads, Federal Highway
Administration and University of Nebraska Center for Infrastructure Research, Lincoln, NE.
53. Vanek, C. M., V. Ryzhikov, and B. Khaleghi. 2015. “Restoring a Collapsed Span over the Skagit River.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 60, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 52-66.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij60.1-03
54. Van Kampen, C. 2020. “Using Embedded Corbels for the PHX Sky Train Project.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 14, No. 3 (Summer): 34-36.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2020Summer/CBT-UsingEmbeddedCorbels.pdf
55. West, C. 2019. “Prestressed Concrete Girders Achieve Record Lengths.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL, V. 13, No. 4 (Fall), pp. 59-57.
https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2019Fall/CCC-PrestressedConcreteGirders.pdf
56. Western, K., and A. Ehrlich. 2021. “Minnesota.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, V.
15, No. 4 (Fall), pp. 52-54. https://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2021Fall/State-Minnesota.pdf

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Table of Contents

NOTATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12-5

12.1 SCOPE ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12-9
12.2 SKEW AND GRADE EFFECTS ............................................................................................................................................................. 12-9
12.2.1 General................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12-9
12.2.2 Superstructure Behavior ............................................................................................................................................................ 12-9
12.2.3 Substructure Behavior.............................................................................................................................................................. 12-10
12.2.4 Temperature and Volume Change Effects ....................................................................................................................... 12-12
12.2.5 Response to Lateral Loads ...................................................................................................................................................... 12-13
12.2.6 Detailing .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12-13
12.2.6.1 Effects of Grade ................................................................................................................................................................... 12-13
12.2.6.2 Skewed Beam Ends ........................................................................................................................................................... 12-14
12.2.6.3 Intermediate Diaphragms .............................................................................................................................................. 12-16
12.2.6.4 Deck Reinforcement ......................................................................................................................................................... 12-16
12.2.6.5 Details on Plans .................................................................................................................................................................. 12-16
12.3 CURVED BRIDGE CONFIGURATIONS .......................................................................................................................................... 12-16
12.3.1 General............................................................................................................................................................................................. 12-16
12.3.1.1 Straight Beams Chorded from Pier to Pier ............................................................................................................. 12-16
12.3.1.2 Straight Beam Segments with Spliced Joints within the Span ....................................................................... 12-18
12.3.1.3 Curved U-Beams ................................................................................................................................................................. 12-18
12.3.2 Beam Cross-Section Considerations ................................................................................................................................... 12-19
12.3.2.1 Comparing Box Beams, I-Beams, and U-Beams.................................................................................................... 12-19
12.3.2.2 Box Beams ............................................................................................................................................................................. 12-20
12.3.2.3 I-Beams................................................................................................................................................................................... 12-20
12.3.2.4 U-Beams ................................................................................................................................................................................. 12-20
12.3.2.5 Continuity .............................................................................................................................................................................. 12-21
12.3.2.6 Crossbeams........................................................................................................................................................................... 12-21
12.3.2.7 Superelevation .................................................................................................................................................................... 12-21
12.3.2.8 Haunches and Camber ..................................................................................................................................................... 12-21
12.4 USEFUL GEOMETRIC APPROXIMATIONS ................................................................................................................................. 12-21
12.4.1 Arc Offset from Chord ............................................................................................................................................................... 12-22
12.4.2 Slant Length versus Plan Length .......................................................................................................................................... 12-22
12.4.3 Arc Length versus Chord Length.......................................................................................................................................... 12-22
12.4.4 Twist Resulting from Grade and Curvature .................................................................................................................... 12-22
12.4.5 Center of Gravity of an Arc...................................................................................................................................................... 12-24
12.4.6 Curved Surfaces ........................................................................................................................................................................... 12-24
12.5 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR OF CURVED BRIDGES................................................................................................................... 12-25
12.5.1 Longitudinal Flexure ................................................................................................................................................................. 12-25
12.5.1.1 Analysis as a Straight Beam .......................................................................................................................................... 12-25
12.5.1.2 Loads on Outside Beam ................................................................................................................................................... 12-25

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12.5.2 Torsion .............................................................................................................................................................................................12-25

12.5.2.1 Torsion in Simple-Span Beams .....................................................................................................................................12-25
12.5.2.2 Torsion in Continuous Beams .......................................................................................................................................12-27
12.5.2.3 Behavior of Beam Gridworks in Spans with Spliced, Straight Beam Segments ......................................12-27
12.5.3 Crossbeams ....................................................................................................................................................................................12-28
12.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR CURVED BRIDGES .............................................................................................................12-28
12.6.1 Loading Stages for Straight Beams Chorded from Pier to Pier................................................................................12-29
12.6.1.1 Bare Beam Segment ...........................................................................................................................................................12-29
12.6.1.2 Noncomposite Gridwork .................................................................................................................................................12-29
12.6.1.3 Composite Gridwork .........................................................................................................................................................12-29
12.6.2 Loading Stages for Straight Beam Segments with Spliced Joints within a Span ..............................................12-29
12.6.2.1 Individual Beam Segments .............................................................................................................................................12-29
12.6.2.3 Composite Gridwork .........................................................................................................................................................12-31
12.6.3 Loading Stages for Curved U-Beam Segments with Spliced Joints within a Span...........................................12-31
12.7 FABRICATION.........................................................................................................................................................................................12-31
12.7.1 Box Beams .......................................................................................................................................................................................12-31
12.7.1.1 Fabricating a Curved Box Beam ...................................................................................................................................12-31
12.7.1.2 Bridge Layout .......................................................................................................................................................................12-32
12.7.1.3 Forms .......................................................................................................................................................................................12-32
12.7.1.4 Casting .....................................................................................................................................................................................12-32
12.7.1.5 Post-Tensioning ..................................................................................................................................................................12-32
12.7.2 I-Beams and Bulb-Tee Beams ................................................................................................................................................12-33
12.7.2.1 Fabrication.............................................................................................................................................................................12-33
12.7.2.2 Bridge Layout .......................................................................................................................................................................12-33
12.7.2.3 Forms .......................................................................................................................................................................................12-33
12.7.2.4 Casting .....................................................................................................................................................................................12-33
12.7.2.5 Pretensioning .......................................................................................................................................................................12-33
12.7.3 U-Beams ...........................................................................................................................................................................................12-33
12.7.3.1 Beam Lengths .......................................................................................................................................................................12-34
12.7.3.2 Forms .......................................................................................................................................................................................12-34
12.7.3.3 Fabrication.............................................................................................................................................................................12-35
12.7.3.4 Post-Tensioning ..................................................................................................................................................................12-35
12.8 HANDLING, TRANSPORTATION, AND ERECTION .................................................................................................................12-36
12.8.1 Box Beams .......................................................................................................................................................................................12-36
12.8.1.1 Handling and Transportation........................................................................................................................................12-36
12.8.1.2 Erection ...................................................................................................................................................................................12-36
12.8.2 I-Beams and Bulb-Tee Beams ................................................................................................................................................12-37
12.8.2.1 Handling and Transportation........................................................................................................................................12-37
12.8.2.2 Erection ...................................................................................................................................................................................12-37

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Table of Contents

12.8.3 U-Beams .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12-37

12.9 DESIGN EXAMPLE................................................................................................................................................................................ 12-38
12.9.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 12-38
12.9.1.1 Plan Geometry ..................................................................................................................................................................... 12-39
12.9.1.2 Construction......................................................................................................................................................................... 12-39
12.9.2 Materials ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12-41
12.9.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Modified BT-72 Beam .............................................................. 12-42
12.9.3.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed Modified BT-72 Beam Section ................................................................. 12-42
12.9.3.2 Composite Sections ........................................................................................................................................................... 12-43
12.9.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width ........................................................................................................................................... 12-43
12.9.3.2.2 Modular Ratio ............................................................................................................................................................. 12-43
12.9.3.2.3 Composite Section Properties Transformed for Modular Ratio of Concrete ................................. 12-43
12.9.4 Loads ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12-44
12.9.4.1 Dead Loads ........................................................................................................................................................................... 12-44
12.9.4.1.1 Dead Loads Acting on the Noncomposite Structure ................................................................................. 12-44
12.9.4.1.2 Dead Loads Acting on the Composite Structure ......................................................................................... 12-44
12.9.4.1.3 Total Dead Load......................................................................................................................................................... 12-45
12.9.4.2 Live Loads ............................................................................................................................................................................. 12-45
12.9.4.2.1 Lane Loading............................................................................................................................................................... 12-45
12.9.4.2.2 Truck Loading ............................................................................................................................................................ 12-45
12.9.4.2.3 Total Live Load .......................................................................................................................................................... 12-45
12.9.4.2.4 Centrifugal Force....................................................................................................................................................... 12-45
12.9.5 Correction Factors ...................................................................................................................................................................... 12-46
12.9.5.1 Additional Span Length Factor .................................................................................................................................... 12-46
12.9.5.2 Shifts in Center of Gravity .............................................................................................................................................. 12-46
12.9.6 Bending Moments—Outside Exterior Beam................................................................................................................... 12-48
12.9.7 Stresses—Outside Exterior Beam ....................................................................................................................................... 12-49
12.9.8 Beam Gridwork Computer Models...................................................................................................................................... 12-49
12.9.8.1 Model 1—Beam Segments on Shores ....................................................................................................................... 12-49
12.9.8.2 Model 2—Shore Loads .................................................................................................................................................... 12-49
12.9.8.3 Model 3—Weight of Deck and Haunches ................................................................................................................ 12-50
12.9.8.4 Model 4—Weight of Barriers and Future Wearing Surface ............................................................................ 12-50
12.9.8.5 Model 5—Lane Loading .................................................................................................................................................. 12-51
12.9.8.6 Model 6—Truck Loading with Centrifugal Force ................................................................................................ 12-52
12.9.8.7 Summary of Bending Moments ................................................................................................................................... 12-53
12.9.9 Selection of Prestressing Force............................................................................................................................................. 12-54
12.9.9.1 Pretensioning ...................................................................................................................................................................... 12-54
12.9.9.2 Post-Tensioning.................................................................................................................................................................. 12-54
12.9.9.3 Model 7—Post-Tensioning ............................................................................................................................................ 12-55

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Table of Contents

12.9.10 Results............................................................................................................................................................................................12-56
12.9.10.1 Stresses in Outside Exterior Beam ...........................................................................................................................12-56
12.9.10.2 Strength Limit State ........................................................................................................................................................12-57
12.9.10.3 Crossbeams.........................................................................................................................................................................12-57
12.9.10.4 Behavior Check .................................................................................................................................................................12-59
12.9.10.5 Shear and Torsion............................................................................................................................................................12-59
12.9.11 Comparison to Straight Bridge............................................................................................................................................12-60
12.10 DETAILED FINAL DESIGN ..............................................................................................................................................................12-61
12.10.1 Loss of Prestress ........................................................................................................................................................................12-61
12.10.2 Computer Models ......................................................................................................................................................................12-61
12.10.3 Crossbeam Details ....................................................................................................................................................................12-61
12.10.4 Post-Tensioning Anchorages ...............................................................................................................................................12-61
12.11 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................................................................12-61

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Notation

NOTATION
A = area
Ac = total area of the composite section
Acb = area of crossbeam
Accb = area of cross section in composite crossbeam
Acp = area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross section
Ag = cross-sectional area of the precast concrete beam
a = length
B = width
bv = effective web width
C = coefficient to compute centrifugal force
DC = dead load structural components and nonstructural attachments
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
Eci = modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at transfer or at post-tensioning
Ecd = modulus of elasticity of deck concrete
Ep = modulus of elasticity of pretensioning or post-tensioning strands
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars
e = eccentricity of strand group
fb = concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam
𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete for use in design
𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = specified compressive strength of concrete at time of transfer of prestress or at post-
tensioning
fpc = compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at the centroid of the cross
section resisting live loads or at the junction of the web and flange where the centroid lies in the
flange
fpe = effective stress in the post-tensioning strands after losses
fpu = specified tensile strength of pretensioning or post-tensioning strands
fpy = yield strength of pretensioning or post-tensioning strands
fy = specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars
g = gravitational acceleration
H = elevation difference between ends of a beam
h = overall depth of beam
hc = overall depth of composite section
I = moment of inertia
Ic = moment of inertia of composite section

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Notation

Icb = moment of inertia of crossbeam

Iccb = moment of inertia of composite crossbeam
Icblat = moment of inertia of crossbeam for lateral bending
Iclat = moment of inertia of composite section for lateral bending
Iclatcb = moment of inertia of composite crossbeam for lateral bending
Ig = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast concrete beam
Ilat = moment of inertia of the noncomposite precast concrete beam for lateral bending
IM = dynamic load allowance (impact factor)
Ip = polar moment of inertia
Ipc = polar moment of inertia of composite section
J = torsional constant
Jc = torsional constant for composite section
Jcb = torsional constant of crossbeam
Jccb = torsional constant for composite crossbeam
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate
L = overall beam length or design span
La = arc length
Lc = chord length
LL = live load
M = bending moment
Mc = moment applied to crossbeam
Mo = moment in outside beam
Mt = torsional moment
Mu = factored bending moment at the section
m = multiple presence factor
n = modular ratio between deck slab and beam concretes
Ppe = effective prestressing force
pc = length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section
R = radius of curvature
Ri = reaction of inside beam
Ro = reaction of outside beam
S = section modulus
Sb = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam
Sbc = composite section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the precast concrete beam
St = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam
Stc = composite section modulus for top fiber of the structural deck slab

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Notation

Stg = composite section modulus for top fiber of the precast concrete beam
s = sagitta, arc-to-chord offset
T = unfactored torsional moment
Tcr = torsional cracking moment
Tu = factored torsional moment
ts = structural depth of concrete deck
V = shear force
v = highway design speed
W = weight
w = clear width of roadway
wc = unit weight of concrete
wg = beam self-weight per unit length
wgcb = crossbeam self-weight per unit length
x = arc length
yb = distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam
ybc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme bottom fiber of the precast concrete
beam
ymax = maximum distance, used in computing section modulus
yt = distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam
ytc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme top fiber of the deck slab
ytg = distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme top fiber of the precast concrete beam
γ = grade angle = H/L expressed in radians
θ = skew angle
λ = concrete density modification factor
 = resistance factor
w = resistance factor for compressive stress limit
ψ = angle = La /R or x /R (arc length/radius) expressed in radians

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 12
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12.1 Scope/12.2.2 Superstructure Behavior

Skewed and Curved Bridges

12.1 SCOPE
This chapter presents the geometric and structural challenges for bridges with curvature in plan, or with skewed
supports, and on a grade. The effects of skew and grade are primarily geometric, with some effect on shears and
moments. Larger skew angles also have some effect on live load distribution. PCI’s Bridge Geometry Manual
(2020A) and the companion Bridge Geometry e-Learning webinars—T505 Fundamentals of Roadway Geometry,
T510 Working with Horizontal Alignments, T515 Straight Bridges, and T517 Curved Bridges—cover the
fundamentals and calculations required to define geometry of straight and curved bridges.
The effects of curvature are both geometric and structural. This chapter primarily describes the design of curved
bridges, whether they are constructed using straight beams on chords or curved beams, which have undergone
many innovations in recent years. Additional resources for curved bridges include the Guide Document for the
Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI, 2020B) and the companion Curved Bridge U-
Girders eLearning webinars—T350 Introduction, Implementation, and Delivery, T353 Modeling, Analysis, and
Design, T356 Design Details, and T358 Design Example—as well as the Curved Precast Concrete Bridges State-of-
the-Art Report (PCI, 2012).
All PCI eLearning webinars are available to the public at no cost from https://oasis.pci.org.

12.2 SKEW AND GRADE EFFECTS

12.2.1 General
A skewed bridge is one in which the major axis of the substructure is not perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the superstructure. For most agencies, the skew angle (usually given in degrees) is the angle between the major
axis of the substructure and a perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the superstructure (Fig. 12.2.2-1). This
definition is used in this chapter. Some agencies use the angle between the major axis of the substructure and the
longitudinal axis of the superstructure. Usually, all substructure units in the same bridge have approximately the
same skew angle.
The presence of skew affects the geometry of many bridge details. Skew angle also have an effect on bending
moment and on shear (see Sect. 12.2.2). The structural response of a skewed bridge to seismic loads can be
significantly altered by the skew angle of the substructure.
The effects of grade on a precast concrete beam are geometric. The rise or fall in elevation at a beam end must be
accommodated by either the bottom surface of the beam or in its bearing. See Section 12.2.6.1.

12.2.2 Superstructure Behavior

In bridges supported by longitudinal I-beams or bulb-tee beams, the load tends to flow along the length of the
supporting beams, and the effect of skew on the bending moments is minimized. In solid slab bridges and other
bridges with high torsional rigidity, the load tends to take a “shortcut” between the obtuse corners of the span
(Fig. 12.2.2-1). This reduces the longitudinal bending moments, but it increases the shear in the obtuse corners.
The same effect occurs in stringer bridges but is less pronounced. When approximate methods of analysis are
used (LRFD Art. 4.6.1.2.3), depending on the bridge type, adjustments are made to the live load distribution
factors for both bending moments and support shears (see LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2.2e and 4.6.2.2.3c).

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 12
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12.2.2 Superstructure Behavior/12.2.3 Substructure Behavior

Figure 12.2.2-1
Load Distribution in Skewed Spans

12.2.3 Substructure Behavior

The relative stiffness of the substructure (pier or abutment wall) about its major and minor axis is important. A
substructure consisting of round columns and a cap beam is about four times as stiff when acting as a frame
resisting loads along its major axis, compared with its stiffness acting as a cantilever for loads along its minor axis.
For rectangular cantilever piers, the ratio of major-to-minor-axis stiffness is proportional to the dimension ratio
squared. For wall piers, the major axis stiffness is almost infinite compared with the minor axis stiffness.
When a substructure unit deflects due to horizontal loads or superstructure deformations, the deflection or
bending is primarily about its minor axis. When the superstructure (beams) deflects due to vertical loads, the
rotation at the support is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beams (Fig. 12.2.3-1), which is the
preferred orientation of beam bearings and lateral shear blocks on the substructure. (see Sect. 10.4.1.1).
This raises a question of how to orient the “pin” between superstructure and substructure. Concrete bridges are
seldom supported by real pins. Bearings consisting of elastomeric pads can provide rotation capacity about all
axes, which solves the problem of how to orient the pin (see Chapter 10 for the behavior and design of bearing
pads). Continuous bridges are sometimes constructed using a “hinge” between superstructure and substructure
as shown in Fig. 12.2.3-2 (also, see Sect. 3.2.3.2.2). This forces a component of the rotation to be in the direction
of the major axis of the substructure, which is inconsistent with the end rotation of the superstructure beam.
However, live-load rotations at an interior support of a continuous bridge are small, and structures so constructed
seem to perform satisfactorily. As discussed in Section 5.6.4 of the Guide Document for the Design of Curved,
Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI, 2020B), pier fixity has implications on the design of the
substructure and must be considered early in the design process. Bulletin 94: Precast Concrete Bridge Continuity
over Piers (fib, 2020) provides calculations and example details for pier fixity.

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12.2.3 Substructure Behavior

Figure 12.2.3-1 Figure 12.2.3-2

Beam Rotation from Vertical Loads Typical Hinge Section

Note: Reinforcement from beams extending into

diaphragm and other details are not shown for clarity.

A sideline to this discussion concerns computer modeling. Orienting the rotational release with respect to the
beams’ axes may result in a component of rotation about the major axis of the substructure. This will create a
fictitious moment at the top of the substructure in the computer model (Fig. 12.2.3-3). In general, a rotational
release between superstructure and substructure should be oriented with respect to the substructure axes. The
designer should carefully scrutinize the model and results, as computer programs may place rotational restraints
in directions that are not consistent with actual behavior.

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SKEWED AND CURVED BRIDGES
12.2.3 Substructure Behavior/12.2.4 Temperature and Volume Change Effects

Figure 12.2.3-3
Orientation of Pins in Computer Model

Use rotational release about weak axis of pier, not the axis perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
superstructure beams.

12.2.4 Temperature and Volume Change Effects

The shortening of a skewed span due to creep, shrinkage, and temperature will cause the supporting substructure
units to deflect if they are connected longitudinally to the superstructure. The substructure units will tend to
deflect about their minor axes, causing a deformation of the superstructure (Fig. 12.2.4-1). If transverse shear
blocks are provided as shown in Fig. 12.2.3-1, forces perpendicular and longitudinal to the piers and abutments
can develop. Okumus et al. (2018) showed that skewed bridges tend to rotate in the horizontal plane under
thermal loading and that the magnitude and direction of this rotation is directly related to the fixity and pier
stiffness of the bridge.

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12.2.4 Temperature and Volume Change Effects/12.2.6.1 Effects of Grade

Figure 12.2.4-1
Elevation View of Bridge Deformation Caused by Superstructure Shortening

Deflected Shape

Undeflected Shape

Wall Pier

12.2.5 Response to Lateral Loads

Wind and seismic loads transverse to the major axis of the bridge cause both transverse and longitudinal
deflection of the superstructure, as the substructure elements deflect about their weak axes. Similarly,
longitudinal loads also cause both longitudinal and transverse deflections of the superstructure. This can lead to a
coupling of transverse and longitudinal modes in a dynamic seismic analysis. This subject is discussed in Chapter
15.

12.2.6 Detailing
12.2.6.1 Effects of Grade
Grade affects the geometry of the precast concrete beams. The slant length is increased over the plan length by an
amount γ2L/2, where γ is the grade, expressed as a decimal, and L = plan length for beam or span. The precast
concrete beam is normally made in the shape of a rectangle, as seen in elevation. That is to say, the ends of the
beam are usually square with the longitudinal axis of the beam, rather than being vertical in the final position of
the beam. Similarly, the diaphragms are normally square with the axis of the beam.
Cast-in-place substructures are normally cast with vertical surfaces. If the beam end is not vertical but the face of
the abutment is, the situation needs to be addressed in the abutment detail. Figure 12.2.6.1-1 shows a detail that
is used by some agencies. Sometimes the end of the girder is battered such that its end is vertical when the girder
is erected. The bearing pad is typically set on a level, horizontal surface. Recesses, shims, sloped risers, or grout
pads are commonly used to compensate for the difference in planes between the beam soffit and the top of the
pier cap. Sometimes, on moderate grades, the bearing pads and bearing surfaces on the abutment and on the
underside of the beam are set parallel to the grade.

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SKEWED AND CURVED BRIDGES
12.2.6.1 Effects of Grade/12.2.6.2 Skewed Beam Ends

Figure 12.2.6.1-1
Section at Abutment Showing Recess in Girder to Accommodate Effects of Grade

12.2.6.2 Skewed Beam Ends

Skewed beam ends (in plan) are sometimes provided at expansion joints, but the top and bottom flanges are often
clipped (see Sect. 4.1.5.3). Skew angles should be grouped into standard increments because each skew angle will
require a special end bulkhead to form it. Grouping will simplify all aspects of fabrication and construction. At
interior ends in continuous beams, the beam ends are normally made square in plan. Some end diaphragm details
may require that the ends of continuous beams be skewed. In the latter case, when using precast, prestressed
concrete box beams, many states use a maximum skew angle of 30 degrees to avoid warping or racking of the
beams (Russell, 2009).
Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) has reported that skews at ends of prestressed
concrete I-girders cause prestressing strand force to be unbalanced about the girder centerline at girder ends to
be unbalanced and, in some cases, this has caused bottom-flange cracking. To minimize bottom-flange cracking
for girders with large skews, WSDOT debonds selected strands in the bottom flange of the acute corner as shown
in Figure 12.2.6.2-1 (WSDOT, 2022).

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12.2.6.2 Skewed Beam Ends

Figure 12.2.6.2-1
Bottom-Flange Debonding Details to Minimize Cracking at Skewed Ends of Girders (Source: WSDOT)

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12.2.6.3 Intermediate Diaphragms/12.3.1.1 Straight Beams Chorded from Pier to Pier

12.2.6.3 Intermediate Diaphragms

Intermediate diaphragms, if used, may be either perpendicular to the beam axes or parallel to the skew. Making
them parallel to the skew can have the advantage of making interior beams identical. Making them perpendicular
to the beams simplifies construction in the field.

12.2.6.4 Deck Reinforcement

For skew angles of 25 degrees or less, transverse deck reinforcement may be placed parallel to the skew
according to Article 9.7.1.3. This simplifies detailing and the placement of reinforcement. For skew angles
exceeding 25 degrees, transverse deck reinforcement shall be placed normal to the longitudinal axis of the beams.
The limit of 25 degrees is somewhat arbitrary and some agencies may use a different angle. A more refined
method of analysis may be warranted.
For girders such as deck bulb tees or slabs, it is important that the longitudinal joints between top flanges and the
transverse connections between continuous girders perform adequately. As such, the girders may have top-flange
reinforcement extending into the longitudinal joint between the girders for a closure pour connection (Steinberg,
et al., 2022). In some cases, the protruding reinforcing bars from adjacent girders overlap. With skewed bridge
systems it is necessary to check that the reinforcing bars lap without interference.

12.2.6.5 Details on Plans

The detailing recommendations made within Section 12.2.6 are not universal. The project plans must show the
geometric effects of skew and grade. It is important to indicate which surfaces are parallel or normal to the skew,
and which surfaces are parallel or normal to the beam axis. Similarly, the plans should indicate which surfaces are
truly vertical and horizontal, and which surfaces are parallel or normal to the inclined beam axis for beams on a
grade. For any beam shape, the combination of skewed ends, camber, and bridge cross slope may require
adjustment of design bearing elevations to ensure proper seating and avoid warping of precast concrete members
(Kovich and Nicholls, 2018).

12.3 CURVED BRIDGE CONFIGURATIONS

12.3.1 General
Curved concrete bridges may be created using one or more of the following beam configurations.
• Straight beams chorded from pier to pier
• Straight beam segments with spliced joints within the span
• Curved beams

12.3.1.1 Straight Beams Chorded from Pier to Pier

The combination of straight beams supporting a concrete deck with curved edges is suitable for short spans and
long spans with a large radius of curvature (Fig. 12.3.1.1-1). The limitation for its use is the deck overhang.
Normally, the maximum deck overhang at midspan on the outside of the curve is made approximately equal to the
overhang on the inside of the curve at the piers. When the overhang is large, the bridge appearance may be
objectionable and the structural design for the deck overhang and the exterior beam may be uneconomical.

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12.3.1.1 Straight Beams Chorded from Pier to Pier

Figure 12.3.1.1-1
Curved Bridge with Straight Beams from Pier to Pier (Photo: BergerABAM)

The maximum offset between an arc and its chord is approximately equal to 𝐿2𝑐 /8𝑅 where Lc is the chord length
and R is the radius of curvature. Because it is an approximation, the length may be either the arc length La or the
chord length Lc, whichever is known.
It is desirable that the arc-to-chord offset be limited to 1.5 ft, and that the edge of the top flange of the beam be no
closer than 0.5 ft to the slab edge. Table 12.3.1.1-1 shows the minimum curve radii that satisfy the different
maximum offset criterion. The limit of 1.5 ft is often exceeded, but each case should be examined for acceptability.

Table 12.3.1.1-1
Radii and Straight Beam Lengths Resulting in Offsets
Beam Offset, ft
(Chord)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Length
ft Radius, ft
70 1,225 613 408 306
80 1,600 800 533 400
90 2,025 1,013 675 506
100 2,500 1,250 833 625
110 3,025 1,513 1,008 756
120 3,600 1,800 1,200 900
130 4,225 2,113 1,408 1,056
140 4,900 2,450 1,633 1,225
150 5,625 2,813 1,875 1,406
160 6,400 3,200 2,133 1,600

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12.3.1.1 Straight Beams Chorded from Pier to Pier/12.3.1.3 Curved U-Beams

Straight beams are by far the simplest and most cost-effective way to use precast, prestressed concrete beams in a
curved bridge; they should be used whenever appropriate. This solution is not discussed in detail in this chapter
because the analysis is almost identical to that for a straight bridge. For curved bridges the exterior girder usually
controls because it is the longest. For box-girder bridges with a central angle of less than 12 degrees within one
span, the bridge can be analyzed as if it were straight (LRFD Art. 4.6.1.2.3). The only difference is in the
computation of loads on the exterior beams. The “lever rule” (LRFD Commentary C4.6.2.2.1) may be used in the
same manner as for a straight bridge, as long as the variable overhang is accounted for and other stipulations of
the LRFD Specifications are met.
The designer has two possible options for laying out the substructure for a curved bridge with straight-chorded
beams. The first option is to arrange the pier caps on radial lines relative to the center of the curve. The primary
disadvantage of this arrangement is that each beam within a span is a different length and may have different
prestressing requirements. The second option is to lay out pier caps parallel to one another. The advantage to this
arrangement is that all beams in the same span have the same length. Interior beams within each span will have
very similar, if not identical designs, while the exterior beams will be different because of the variable overhang
length. The skew for each span will be different, which makes this layout inappropriate for a large angular change
of the roadway.
For situations in which the offset exceeds 1.5 ft, the number of chords may need to be increased. With two chords,
the offset will decrease by a factor of 4; and with three chords, the offset will decrease by a factor of 9.

12.3.1.2 Straight Beam Segments with Spliced Joints within the Span
Angular changes between straight chords are seldom noticed. I-beam, U-beam, and bulb-tee beam segments may
be spliced together in the field using methods described later in this chapter and in Chapter 11. The individual
beam segments may be pretensioned for shipping, handling, and erection, and the complete beam post-tensioned
after splicing. Diaphragms (crossbeams), as shown in Fig. 12.3.1.2-1, are required at the splice locations to
counteract the lateral forces from the post-tensioning. Thicker webs may be needed to accommodate the post-
tensioning ducts.
Figure 12.3.1.2-1
Diaphragms at Splice Locations of Chorded Beam Segments

12.3.1.3 Curved U-Beams

The availability of precast concrete beams with a U-shaped cross section has enabled the development of a full
range of curved U-beams (Fig. 12.3.1.3-1 and 12.3.1.3-2). Curved, precast concrete U-beams provide bridge
owners and the engineering community with an economical alternative to cast-in-place concrete and structural
steel for the construction of horizontally curved bridges.

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12.3.1.3 Curved U-Beams/12.3.2.1 Comparing Box Beams, I-Beams, and U-Beams

Figure 12.3.1.3-1 Figure 12.3.1.3-2

Curved Bridge with Curved U- Curved U-Beam Bridge Under Construction
Beams (Photo: Modjeski and
Masters)

Continuously curved precast concrete beams allow a unified appearance throughout the project at an economical
cost. They provide aesthetically pleasing superstructures that uniformly follow the curvature of the roadway. The
beams may be simply supported or made continuous for superimposed loads. Span lengths can be extended by
splicing beams at the site or providing deeper sections at the piers. Span lengths up to 260 ft have been achieved
with curved precast concrete U-beams. The Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-
Beam Bridges (PCI, 2020B), Curved Precast Concrete Bridges State-of-the-Art Report (PCI, 2012), and Development
of Design Specifications and Commentary for Horizontally Curved Concrete Box-Girder Bridges (NCHRP, 2008) are
excellent resources for curved concrete U-beams.

12.3.2 Beam Cross-Section Considerations

12.3.2.1 Comparing Box Beams, I-Beams, and U-Beams
When full-span-length curved beams are cast in the plant and then post-tensioned, torsional stresses and
handling considerations have traditionally led to a closed box section being preferred. However, precast concrete
U-beams using manufactured steel forms can be fabricated without top flanges or with small top flanges above
each web and a precast concrete lid installed later to close the section. Although there are no national standards
for U-beam cross sections at the present time, several state departments of transportation have developed
standard cross sections. Also, PCI-certified producers and state highway agencies in Colorado, Florida, Texas,
Washington, and Pennsylvania have developed standards for spliced straight or curved U-beams. Selected beam
shapes and details are provided in Appendix C of this manual.
Spliced-beam construction may be used with conventional I-beams, box beams, or U-beams. Two or three straight
beam segments may be supported on temporary shores and post-tensioned in the field after constructing
diaphragms at the beam segment joints. The splicing of precast concrete beams requires that web thicknesses be
proportioned to accommodate post-tensioning ducts. Article 5.4.6.2 of the LRFD Specifications requires that the
inside diameter of the duct be at least 0.25 in. larger than the nominal diameter of the single-strand tendon, and
for multi-strand tendons, the inside cross-sectional area of the duct be at least 2.0 times (2.5 times when the
tendons are placed by the pull-through method) the net area of prestressing steel cross-sectional area. Also, the
size of the ducts in structural concrete shall not exceed 0.54 times the least gross thickness at the duct. Using this
criterion, web thicknesses that vary from 7.5 to 10 in. can be used to accommodate 3- and 4-in.-diameter post-
tensioning ducts in webs. When choosing the web thickness, the designer must also consider the required shear,
torsion, and principal tensile stresses. Details are given in Chapter 11 and Article 5.9.5 of the LRFD Specifications.

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12.3.2.2 Box Beams/12.3.2.4 U-Beams

12.3.2.2 Box Beams

Box beams (which should not be confused with box sections in segmental construction) often require new
formwork, as standard box sections of the size needed for most curved bridges do not exist in many localities. The
sides of box beams may be vertical or sloped. Vertical sides are somewhat easier to form. Sloping sides are
generally thought to have a better appearance and the sections are usually called U-beams (see Sect. 12.3.2.4).
The maximum span of box beams is often limited by shipping weight. Field splicing of shorter beam segments
may be used to minimize weight of individual beam segments for shipping. In order to minimize the thickness of
webs and flanges, consideration should be given to the use of “external” post-tensioned tendons inside the box
section.
Design charts for continuous, curved box beams are provided in the Guide Document for the Design of Curved,
Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI, 2020B). These charts are useful for preliminary sizing of curved box
beams.

12.3.2.3 I-Beams
The use of post-tensioning requires webs thicker than the 6-in. webs of AASHTO-PCI bulb tees and other standard
I-beams. To accommodate post-tensioning ducts and reinforcement, the minimum web thickness should be 7 to 8
in. Thicker webs can often be obtained by spreading the side forms of standard shapes by 1 or 2 in.

12.3.2.4 U-Beams
Precast concrete U-beams can be fabricated without top flanges or with a narrow flange at the top of each web.
Because open sections have limited torsional capacity, after either casting or erection, a precast or cast-in-place
concrete lid (Fig. 12.3.2.4-1) can be installed to close the section, resulting in a section with as much as 50 times
the torsional resistance for handling, erection, and post-tensioning stages. Section 8.2 of the Guide Document for
the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI, 2020B) and Section 4.4.3 of the Curved Precast
Concrete Bridges State-of-the-Art Report (PCI, 2012) have detailed discussions and figures on lids. For handling,
shipping, and erection, intermediate diaphragms in the U-beams may also be necessary.
Figure 12.3.2.4-1
Precast Concrete U-Beam with Precast Concrete Lid

Curved precast concrete U-beam projects have generally used beams varying in depth from 48 to 84 in. for span
lengths varying from 150 to 240 ft. Variable-depth sections have been used to extend span lengths beyond 240 ft.
As with all shapes (Sect. 12.3.2.1), the use of splices in precast concrete, horizontally curved U-beam bridges
requires that web thicknesses be proportioned to accommodate post-tensioning ducts. The choice of web
thickness must also consider the required shear, torsion, and principal tensile stresses.
Bottom slab width and thickness are proportioned to accommodate the post-tensioning ducts and to supply
adequate compression in negative moment regions. Top flanges and/or lids of the U-beam section are optimized
to increase capacity for noncomposite loading, to enhance beam stability during erection, and to accommodate
post-tensioning ducts in negative moment regions.

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12.3.2.5 Continuity/12.4 Useful Geometric Approximations

12.3.2.5 Continuity
Continuity is very desirable in curved bridges. In addition to the benefits that continuity provides for straight
bridges, there are two additional benefits for curved bridges. Continuity greatly reduces torsion resulting from
applied loads and reduces the excess load on the exterior beam on the outside of the curve. Designing for
continuity over piers is discussed in depth in Bulletin 94: Precast Concrete Bridge Continuity over Piers (fib, 2020)

12.3.2.6 Crossbeams
Transverse members spanning between beams within a span (intermediate diaphragms) are often omitted on
straight bridges (see Sect. 3.7). However, in curved bridges, these transverse members, which will be referred to
as crossbeams in this chapter, are required to counteract both the effects of torsion and the lateral forces
resulting from curvature. The crossbeams should also be deep enough to brace the bottom flange.

12.3.2.7 Superelevation
Whether the beams are plumb (such as I-beams) or rotated (such as U-beams), standard practice is to provide a
haunch or build-up of cast-in-place deck concrete to fill the space between the sloping deck and the top flange
(Fig. 12.3.2.7-1 and 12.3.2.7-2).
Figure 12.3.2.7-1 Figure 12.3.2.7-2
Typical Haunch or Build-up for an I-Beam Haunch or Build-up on a U-beam

12.3.2.8 Haunches and Camber

A variable thickness haunch is a way to allow for vertical profile, superelevation, and tolerances, as well as
camber and its variability. The designer must consider the camber of the beam relative to the deck profile to
establish the proper haunch thickness over the beam. The camber could be a result of pretensioning, post-
tensioning, or both. Because creep is time dependent, it will cause the instantaneous camber to grow with time.
Designers should account for this camber growth by considering the age of the girder at each stage of
construction, and the predicted camber of the beams at each stage should be listed on the drawings. Section 8.6
and Article 5.9.3 of the LRFD Specifications provide detailed methodologies for including time-dependent material
effects in camber predictions. However, it should be noted that camber and deflections are merely estimates.
The designer may incorporate a minimum haunch thickness into composite beam cross-section properties, but
this minimum thickness must be included on the drawings. Details of determining haunch thickness can be found
in the Bridge Geometry Manual (PCI, 2020A).

12.4 USEFUL GEOMETRIC APPROXIMATIONS

Despite the immense computing power now available, simple approximations remain very useful for preliminary
design. They are quick to use, and give the designer a “feel” for how a change in one parameter affects other
parameters.

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12.4.1 Arc Offset from Chord/12.4.4 Twist Resulting from Grade and Curvature

12.4.1 Arc Offset from Chord

The maximum offset between arc and chord is called the middle ordinate or the “sagitta” (sagitta is Latin for
“arrow”) and is represented by the symbol s. The sagitta is approximately equal to 𝐿2𝑐 /8𝑅 and the derivation (Fig.
12.4.1-1) is simple. Once again, because these are approximations, either the arc length or chord length may be
used.
Figure 12.4.1-1
Arc Offset from Chord
La

Arc
s

Chord
By Pythagorean theorem:
𝑎2 + (𝐿𝑐 ⁄2)2 = 𝑅2
Also:
𝑎 =𝑅−𝑠
R

a
R2 – 2Rs + s2 + 𝐿2𝑐 /4 = R2
But s is small relative to R and Lc. Therefore, ignore
the term s2 and solve for s:
𝐿2𝑐
𝑠=
8𝑅
Lc /2 Lc /2

Lc

The formula slightly underestimates the distance s. The approximation is slightly better if the length is taken as
the arc length La.

12.4.2 Slant Length versus Plan Length

The slant length of a beam on a grade is longer than the plan length by an amount H2/2L, where H is the difference
in elevation of the two ends of the beam. This is a well-known formula, and is identical to the γ2L/2 formula given
in Section 12.2.6.1 (where γ = H/L). The derivation is similar to that for the arc-chord offset. The Pythagorean
theorem is used, neglecting a small second-order quantity.

12.4.3 Arc Length versus Chord Length

The length of an arc is longer than its chord by an amount 8s2/3Lc, where s is the arc-chord offset and Lc the chord
length. The excess length may also be expressed as 𝐿3𝑐 /24𝑅2 . This formula is derived by approximating the arc
length as a series of short chords, then taking the limit as the chord length approaches zero.

12.4.4 Twist Resulting from Grade and Curvature

The shape of a curved beam on a grade is a helix. It has the same shape as the railing on a spiral (more correctly,
helical) stair. Such a railing is twisted. If a section were cut out of the railing and laid flat, the twist would be
apparent.
To understand more fully the twist in a curved beam caused by grade, consider a beam curved 90 degrees (1.57
radians) in plan, made without twist, with square ends as illustrated in the plan view of Fig. 12.4.4-1. The bearing
elevation at Point B is higher than at Point A by an amount 1.57γR as shown in Elevation B-B. Therefore, the beam
will be tipped by an angle of 1.57γ. At Point B, the sides of the beam will not be plumb; they will be tipped by an

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12.4.4 Twist Resulting from Grade and Curvature

angle 1.57γ. Also, note that at Point C, the midpoint of the beam, the elevation of the beam will not be half of
1.57γR, as it should be.
Figure 12.4.4-1
Twist Resulting from Grade Change
Elev. 0
A

A La = Arc Length

a
Should be Elev.
2
C

La
Radians
R
Elev. a
A

B
B B
Plan

B
C 1.57

=1.57
a
1.57

Elevation B-B Without Twist

B
= Grade Angle C
A

Elevation B’-B’ Twisted Beam

Elevation B'-B' in Fig. 12.4.4-1 shows the elevation of the beam fabricated to a true helix. The ends and sides of
the beam will be plumb at Points A and B, and the elevation at C will be correct. The beam must be twisted by an
amount 1.57γ. Generalizing for angles other than 1.57 radians, the amount of twist is ψγ, or (La/R)γ where La is
the arc length.

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12.4.4 Twist Resulting from Grade and Curvature/12.4.6 Curved Surfaces

The approximation is as follows: The twist angle is normally small enough to be ignored in beam fabrication,
except for monorail beams. If the twist is ignored in beam fabrication, it should be realized that when the beam is
set in the field, it will not be possible for both ends to be perfectly plumb. If the apparent twist is large enough to
be measurable, the beam should be set by “splitting the difference” of the out-of-plumbness at the two ends. This
will also result in the midpoint of the beam being at the proper elevation (not including the effects of camber).

12.4.5 Center of Gravity of an Arc

The center of gravity of an arc (and of a uniform load applied along the arc) is offset from the chord by 2s/3, or
Lc2/12R (Fig. 12.4.5-1).
Figure 12.4.5-1
Center of Gravity of Arc

12.4.6 Curved Surfaces

The area of a curved surface with radial ends, such as a bridge deck, is equal to BLa, where B is the width and La is
the arc length along the centerline (Fig. 12.4.6-1).
Because there is more area outside the centerline than inside, the center of gravity of a curved surface is shifted
outward from the center of gravity of the centerline arc. This additional eccentricity e is equal to B2/12R. The total
offset from the chord to the center of gravity of the surface is therefore (Lc2 + B2)/12R. Where the ends of the
bridge are not radial, a more detailed calculation is required for the area and centroid of the surface.
Figure 12.4.6-1
Properties of a Curved Planar Surface

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12.5 Structural Behavior of Curved Bridges/12.5.2.1 Torsion in Simple Span Beams

12.5 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR OF CURVED BRIDGES

12.5.1 Longitudinal Flexure
12.5.1.1 Analysis as a Straight Beam
The bending moments from longitudinal flexure are virtually the same as those for a straight beam of span equal
to the arc length between supports. This approximation is sufficiently accurate for preliminary design. Even for
final design, horizontally curved concrete box beams and U-beams with lids may be designed with straight beam
segments for central angles up to 12 degrees within a single span unless effects of other forces dictate otherwise
(LRFD Art. 4.6.1.2.3).

12.5.1.2 Loads on Outside Beam

The shears and moments in the exterior beam on the outside of the curve are substantially larger than for other
beams in the bridge. This is caused by the following factors:
• The arc length on the outside of the curve is longer than the nominal length at the centerline of the bridge. This
increases bending moments in the outer beam by approximately the square of the ratio of the arc lengths.
• The overhang at mid-arc is increased by a factor equal to the arc-to-chord offset.
• Other beams will shed some of their torsional moment by shifting load toward the next beam to the outside.
The outermost beam must resist this shifted load.

12.5.2 Torsion
Although flexural moments may be estimated by analyzing a straight beam of length equal to the arc length of the
curved beam, the same cannot be said for torsional moments. Torsional moments are necessary for equilibrium of
a curved beam. It is useful to look in more detail at how torsional moments develop in a curved beam. It will be
shown that torsional moments are related to the flexural moment M divided by the radius of curvature R. It is
equally important that torsion be considered during fabrication, transportation, erection, and each stage of on-
site construction. Additional information can be found in Section 7.1 of the Guide Document for the Design of
Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI, 2020B) and Chapter 4 of the Curved Precast Concrete
Bridges State-of-the-Art Report (PCI, 2012).

12.5.2.1 Torsion in Simple-Span Beams

The development of torsional moments in a curved beam may be thought of in the following way. Consider a short
segment of length x near midspan of the simple-span curved beam (Fig. 12.5.2.1-1).

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12.5.2.1 Torsion in Simple Span Beams

Figure 12.5.2.1-1
Plan View of Freebody Diagram with Torsion Created by Bending Moment and Curvature

Using a slice of the beam at midspan, the bending moment is WLa/8 where W is the total weight of the beam and
the length of the slice is x, and the torsional moment is zero (by symmetry). At a small angle ψ away from
midspan, the bending moment must “turn” through the angle ψ, and a torsional moment approximately equal to
xWLa/8R is necessary for equilibrium. Following around the curve to the support, the torsional moment increases
by increments of xM/R. However, M changes between midspan and the support (Fig. 12.5.2.1-2). Integrating the
M/R diagram from midspan to support, a torsional moment of WLa2/24R is obtained at the ends.

Figure 12.5.2.1-2
Torsion in a Simple-Span Curved Beam

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12.5.2.2 Torsion in Continuous Beams/12.5.2.3 Behavior of Beam Gridworks in Spans with Spliced, Straight Beam Segments

12.5.2.2 Torsion in Continuous Beams

Torsion in continuous beams may be understood by first examining torsion in a fixed-ended beam. Figure
12.5.2.2-1 shows the M/R diagram for a fixed-ended beam. Because the area under the M/EI diagram for a fixed-
ended beam must integrate to zero, the area under the M/R diagram will also integrate to zero, given constant EI
and R. Thus, the torsion at the support is zero as is the torque at midspan due to symmetry. The maximum torque
occurs at the inflection point, and is about 20% of the maximum torque in a simple-span beam.
The behavior of continuous beams is between simple-span and fixed-ended beams. Interior spans resemble the
fixed case more closely, and the free end of exterior spans may be closer to the simple-span case. Continuity can
significantly reduce torsional moments. Torsion in curved U-beams and continuity over piers are discussed in
depth in Bulletin 94 (fib, 2020) and the Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam
Bridges (CB-03-20)(PCI, 2020B), respectively.
Figure 12.5.2.2-1
Torsion in a Fixed-End Curved Beam

12.5.2.3 Behavior of Beam Gridworks in Spans with Spliced, Straight Beam Segments
Beam gridworks composed of straight beam segments can resist eccentric loads without torsion. Figure 12.5.2.3-
1 shows a simple two-beam, three-segment gridwork.
The beam moment at a joint must “turn the corner.” In this case, equilibrium is supplied by a bending moment in
the crossbeam. This bending moment in the crossbeam is equal to the angle (in radians) between the two beam
segments multiplied by the bending moment in the main beam: ΨMo.

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12.5.2.3 Behavior of Beam Gridworks in Spans with Spliced, Straight Beam Segments/12.6 Design Considerations for Curved Bridges

An equilibrium sketch of the crossbeam is shown in Fig. 12.5.2.3-1. The moments at the two ends of the beam are
equilibrated by shear forces, which transfer load from the inner to outer beam.
Note that for a two-beam gridwork, the reactions may be determined by statics. For multiple beam gridworks,
reactions may be estimated by assuming a straight-line distribution of reactions that produces the correct
location of the resultant. A procedure similar to that described in the LRFD Specifications Commentary Article
C4.6.2 may be used; this procedure is illustrated in the design example in Section 12.9.5.2.
After estimating the end reaction of the outside beam, one may estimate the bending moment in the outside beam,
which will be greater than that of an interior beam. This is done by comparison to the bending moment in a
straight beam of length equal to the arc (or chord) length of the centerline of the bridge. Correction factors are
then applied to this bending moment. The first correction factor is the ratio of the estimated end reaction in the
beam gridwork of the curved bridge to that in a straight bridge. A simplifying assumption is made that the ending
moment is proportional to the end reaction multiplied by the length, giving the second correction factor, the ratio
of the length of the outside beam to the centerline length. The bending moment of a straight beam of length equal
to the centerline length of the bridge is then multiplied by these two factors. Additional correction factors that
consider the location of the center of gravity of the arc and that there is more area on the outside of an arc are
illustrated in the design example in Section 12.9.5.
Loads applied after the gridwork is completed can theoretically be supported without torsion. Although
equilibrium could be obtained without torsion, an analysis will show a small amount of compatibility torsion. If
the factored compatibility torsion is below that given in the LRFD Specifications [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.1-3], the torsion
may be safely ignored.
Figure 12.5.2.3-1
Simple Two-Beam, Three-Segment Gridwork

12.5.3 Crossbeams
Diaphragms in straight bridges, if used at all, are usually designed empirically; the design is not based on
calculated shears and moments. In curved bridges, crossbeams must be designed for the shears and moments
resulting from the change in direction of the primary bending moment in the stringer at the location of the
crossbeams. The longitudinal forces in the bottom flange have a transverse component at the location of the
crossbeam. The crossbeam must be deep enough to brace the bottom flange to resist this component.

12.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR CURVED BRIDGES

This section addresses the various loading stages for the three methods of constructing a curved bridge: straight
beams chorded from pier to pier, straight beam segments with spliced joints within the span, and curved beams.

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12.6 Design Considerations for Curved Bridges/12.6.2.1 Individual Beam Segments

Checking allowable stresses, deflection and camber, prestress losses, and ultimate strength for a curved bridge is
generally similar to that for a straight bridge, keeping in mind the differences between post-tensioning and
pretensioning. However, torsion is an additional consideration. For curved bridges constructed with I-beam
segments, the torsion will often be below the limit for which the LRFD Specifications (Eq. 5.7.2.1-3) permits
torsion to be neglected. Full-span box beams or U-beams have higher torsion from self-weight, and a torsional
analysis is usually needed. Regardless of the beam cross section, shear and torsion stresses will be additive on one
side of the section and offset one another on the other. The beam is designed for the additive effects. The beam
may be designed for the highest shear and the highest torsion, but the highest shear and highest torsion may not
occur with the same loading. The requirement is that the beam be designed to resist the highest shear with the
accompanying torsion and the highest torsion and with the accompanying shear (see LRFD C5.7.3.6.1). There are
many techniques and analysis methods to account for redistribution of loads between interior and exterior
girders due to curvature. V-load analysis is one tool that may be used during preliminary analysis.
Detailed design is done using a beam gridwork computer model. For mathematical consistency, it is better to use
exact plan geometry instead of the approximations used in preliminary design. The computer model may be
created in a horizontal plane, ignoring grade and superelevation. However, the extra weight in the haunch (or
pad) needed to accommodate superelevation and camber should be taken into account.

12.6.1 Loading Stages for Straight Beams Chorded from Pier to Pier
12.6.1.1 Bare Beam Segment
The full-length beam segments are pretensioned in the plant to resist self-weight bending and ensure beam
stability during handling, shipping, erection, and construction loads including weight of the deck.
To accommodate shipping limitations, shorter beam segments may be fabricated and then shipped to the site
where an initial stage of post-tensioning is applied to the beam segments to assemble the beam segments either
before or after erection (see Chapter 11). This approach effectively applies the post-tensioning and the self-
weight bending moment at the same time. After erection, the beams are braced until diaphragms, if needed, are
installed.

12.6.1.2 Noncomposite Gridwork

Construction loads, including those from paving equipment, and the weight of the deck are applied to a
noncomposite gridwork, assuming unshored construction.

12.6.1.3 Composite Gridwork

The weights of the future wearing surface, barriers, live load plus impact, and centrifugal force are applied to the
composite gridwork. The simplified assumptions for distribution of these loads in straight bridges cannot be used
for curved bridges.
Additional field post-tensioning could be applied after casting the deck to partially compensate for the weight of
the deck. This should not be done if future replacement of the deck is anticipated.

12.6.2 Loading Stages for Straight Beam Segments with Spliced Joints within a Span
For this case a three-segment beam is considered.

12.6.2.1 Individual Beam Segments

The beam segments may be pretensioned in the plant to compensate for self-weight bending of the individual
segment.
The individual beam segments are erected in the field, supported by final bearings and by shores or hung from
cantilevered segments at end or pier. Post-tensioning ducts are spliced and crossbeams are cast.
During this loading stage, if shoring is used (Fig. 12.6.2.1-1), stresses in the beam segments do not change
because the weight of the concrete in the crossbeams is carried directly by the shoring. The completed beam only
picks up the weight of the crossbeams when the shoring is removed.

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12.6.2.1 Individual Beam Segments

Figure 12.6.2.1-1
Single Tower at Splice Location is Cross Braced Against Lateral Loads

If the center beam segment is dropped in or hung as shown in Fig. 12.6.2.1-2 and 12.6.2.1-3, the cantilevered
end or pier segments must be designed to resist the additional shear and moment from the self-weight of the
center segment, the cross beams, and any associated construction loads.
Figure 12.6.2.1-2 Figure 12.6.2.1-3
Drop-in U-Beam Hung from Strongbacks Embedded Corbels Projecting from Drop-in U-Beam
Segments Rest on Corbels Projecting from
Cantilevered End Segments

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12.6.2.2 Noncomposite Gridwork/12.7.1.1 Fabricating a Curved Box Beam

12.6.2.2 Noncomposite Gridwork

Post-tensioning is applied to the noncomposite gridwork after the crossbeams have cured sufficiently.
If shored, the beams lift from the shores. The load that was present in the shores becomes a load applied to the
noncomposite beam gridwork.
The post-tensioning is best modeled as a set of external loads. That is, all the forces applied to the concrete by the
tendons and their anchors are applied as external loads to the model. It is important that the transverse forces at
the crossbeams are not overlooked. These forces are caused by the tendons that change direction (in plan) at the
crossbeams.
The weights of the haunch, deck, and associated construction loads are applied to the noncomposite gridwork.
If straight U-beam segments are used, there is an additional noncomposite cross section to be considered if a
precast or cast-in-place concrete lid is installed to close the section. This lid may be installed before or after
erection. Lids are extensively discussed in Sections 6.6 and 8.2 of the Guide Document for the Design of Curved,
Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI, 2020B) and Section 4.4.3 of the Curved Precast Concrete Bridges
State-of-the-Art Report (PCI, 2012).

12.6.2.3 Composite Gridwork

The weights of the future wearing surface, barriers, live load plus impact, and centrifugal force are applied to the
composite gridwork. Additional field post-tensioning could be applied after casting the deck to partially
compensate for the weight of the deck. This should not be done if future replacement of the deck is anticipated.

12.6.3 Loading Stages for Curved U-Beam Segments with Spliced Joints within a
Span
Loading stages using curved U-beam segments are similar to those using straight segments (Sect. 12.6.2), but the
additional torsion from the curvature of the individual beam segments must be considered. As outlined in Section
4.5.2.1 of the Curved Precast Concrete Bridges State-of-the-Art Report (PCI, 2012),
The curvature of a girder results in a center of gravity that is offset from the straight line, or chord
connecting the centers of the lifting points, or the shipping support points. The offset results in torsional
moments along the length of the segment being handled or shipped. The torsional moments cause the girder
to have a tendency to roll about the chord just defined. Methods to assure the stability of the girders must be
implemented at all stages of handling, shipping, erection, and construction until the deck slab has gained
adequate strength.

12.7 FABRICATION
It is generally more economical to ship a full-span-length beam to the site instead of assembling beam segments
on site, or to ship the longest segments possible so that the number of segments are minimized. However, beam
stability, torsional strength, and weight must be considered. For curved box or U-beams the overall width of the
curved segment must also be considered.

12.7.1 Box Beams

Box beams usually have enough flexural and torsional strength to permit shipping a full-span-length beam.
Individual box-beam segments would only be used if the full-span box beam is too large or too heavy to be
shipped. Historically, before the advent of U-beams, concrete box girders were used on curved bridges to resist
torsion and out-of-plane forces, provide a durable solution, and enhance aesthetics.

12.7.1.1 Fabricating a Curved Box Beam

The method presented here is rarely used now that precasters have the ability to fabricate U-beams using
manufactured steel forms (Sect. 12.7.3) and close the section with a lid. However, for this example, chord lengths
of 20 ft are suggested for curved box beams as shown in Fig. 12.7.1.1-1. This setup produces a maximum arc-to-
chord offset of 1 in. on a 600-ft radius and 2 in. on a 300-ft radius.

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12.7.1.1 Fabricating a Curved Box Beam/12.7.1.5 Post-Tensioning

Figure 12.7.1.1-1
Chorded Geometry for Fabricating a Curved Beam from Six Box-Beam Segments

12.7.1.2 Bridge Layout

Using 20-ft chords, lay out the bridge so that the chords at each end are between 10 and 20 ft long. Lay out the
internal diaphragms (crossbeams) parallel to each other, so that they intersect the main beams at a form joint.
These considerations will simplify beam forming and fabrication (Fig. 12.7.1.2-1).
Figure 12.7.1.2-1
Orientation of Intermediate Crossbeams for Chorded Curved Box Beam

C.L. of Box
Beams (typ)

12.7.1.3 Forms
The web width of the typical precast concrete box beam may need to be widened to accommodate post-
tensioning. Most precasters have steel forms for box beams that use sacrificial inner forms, but may not have the
ability to arrange the 20-ft sections into a curve. An alternate method is to construct side forms on a steel table in
the curved configuration.

12.7.1.4 Casting
The casting is no different than for straight box beams. The top flange of the box beam may be formed as a part of
the original concrete placement or cast in a second-stage operation.

12.7.1.5 Post-Tensioning
If the complete curved box beam is prefabricated, the beam is post-tensioned and the ducts and anchorages are
grouted at the plant. Where beam segments of curved beams are assembled and spliced in the field due to haul
limitations, additional post-tensioning will be required. If curved beams are made continuous over piers, another
stage of post-tensioning near the piers or of the entire structure may be required.

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12.7.2 I-Beams and Bulb-Tee Beams/12.7.3 U-Beams

12.7.2 I-Beams and Bulb-Tee Beams

12.7.2.1 Fabrication
Due to stability considerations, I-beam and bulb-tee beam segments are typically not formed into a curved beam
at the precaster’s yard. Beam segments will be erected and then spliced and post-tensioned as described in
Section 12.3.1.2. Beam segment lengths should be made as long as possible in order to minimize the field joints in
the spliced beam (see Sect. 11.4). Generally two, three, or four segments should be used.

12.7.2.2 Bridge Layout

In contrast to the box-beam bridge layout, it is recommended that crossbeams be on radial lines. This will result
in a more consistent geometry, and the variation in length of beam segments will not cause forming issues.

12.7.2.3 Forms
Standard beam forms may be used, but it is usually necessary to thicken the webs to accommodate post-
tensioning ducts. This can often be done by spreading the side forms. A new pallet or pan, as well as new end
bulkheads, may be required.
If post-tensioning tendons are anchored at the ends of the beams, as is frequently done, end blocks will be
required. End blocks are often cast with the beam segment but may be added later as a secondary casting. End
blocks will be needed only at one end of each end beam segment, so odd lengths can be accommodated by
adjusting the bulkhead location at the opposite end. In some cases, end blocks may be eliminated by placing post-
tensioning anchorages in the end walls or end diaphragms.

12.7.2.4 Casting
The beam segments are cast in the usual manner with the addition of post-tensioning ducts and anchorages.
Splices between beam segments are generally wet cast, so match casting is not required and is discouraged.

12.7.2.5 Pretensioning
The beam segments may have a small amount of pretensioning to compensate for self-weight bending, improve
stability during handling, shipping, and erection of the individual beam segments, and reduce in-service stresses
in the spliced beam.

12.7.3 U-Beams
The development of manufactured steel form systems for precast concrete U-beams has enabled precasters to
fabricate the full range of straight and curved U-beam members. In an effort to standardize design and fabrication
details, state departments of transportation, precasters, form manufacturers, and the bridge design community
have collaborated to create typical U-beam cross sections and reinforcement details. Examples are found in
Appendix C. U-beams can be fabricated without top flanges (open sections) or with top flanges (open or closed
sections), as shown in Fig. 12.7.3-1. The precast concrete U-beam shapes shown in Fig. 12.7.3-1 have section
properties that provide a stable girder when cast in a curve. Girders cast with open sections, which does save
weight, have typically been able to sustain erection loadings prior to placing a lid slab, which closes the section
and enhances their torsional strength and rigidity. As a rule, precast U-sections should be closed prior to applying
any significant loadings during construction to prevent torsional cracking and unacceptable distortion.
Figure 12.7.3-1
Typical Cross Sections for Curved Girders

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12.7.3 U-Beams/12.7.3.2 Forms

Straight U-beam segments are easier to fabricate than horizontally curved U-beams. However, additional costs are
often incurred in the fabrication of straight girders on a curved alignment because of the varying girder (chord)
lengths that are required. Unique shop drawings and form setups are required for each girder.

12.7.3.1 Beam Lengths

Precast concrete curved U-beams have been cast to lengths of 120 ft and weights of 260 kips for radii as small as
765 ft. Beam segments have been field spliced and erected in lengths up to 150 ft and maximum weights of 350
kips. However, there are no particular limitations to the span lengths that may be obtained using this type of
construction. Currently, the longest known span using curved precast concrete U-beams is approximately 260 ft.
Beam segment lengths are restricted by physical and legal limits on handling and transportation.

12.7.3.2 Forms
Curved, open U-beams are typically fabricated using adjustable, custom steel forms. The exterior form (Fig.
12.7.3.2-1) may have a set radius but more likely replicates the horizontally curved alignment by using a series of
short, straight chords with articulated joints, and similarly for the interior core form (Fig. 12.7.3.2-2). The forms
must maintain the design thickness of the web and flanges along the curve. Forms for curved precast concrete
beams must be versatile to accommodate varying curvatures for different bridges or, sometimes, for the same
bridge. For versatility and economy, U-beam forms should accommodate variable girder depths, web thicknesses,
and bottom flange thicknesses. In addition, consideration should be given to the ability of the forming to
accommodate special features such as integral diaphragms, variable flange and web thicknesses, and end blocks
for post-tensioning anchorages.
Figure 12.7.3.2-1
Exterior Form Used to Cast Curved U-Beams

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12.7.3.2 Forms/12.7.3.4 Post-Tensioning

Figure 12.7.3.2-2
Chorded Interior Core Form for Casting Curved U-Beams

Forming a closed U-section requires the placement of a full-width top flange between the webs. This can be done
as a second stage casting using a stay-in-place form on top or by installation of a precast concrete lid slab. For
more information see Sections 6.6 and 8.2 of the Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete
U-Beam Bridges (PCI, 2020B) and Section 4.4.3 of the Curved Precast Concrete Bridges State-of-the-Art Report (PCI,
2012). Full-width top flanges or precast concrete lids produce heavier beams and therefore are often placed after
erection.

12.7.3.3 Fabrication
Straight U-beams are typically fabricated in pretensioning beds, whereas curved beams are cast in separate beds
that can be adjusted for variations in curvature. Fabrication issues such as concrete placement are not
significantly different for curved versus straight U-beams. Currently, there are no PCI geometric fabrication
tolerances that specifically address curved beam segments. Past projects have conformed to the owner’s
specifications and current PCI fabrication tolerances for cross sections and lengths.
In general, reinforcement for curved precast concrete U-beams does not significantly vary from that of straight
precast concrete U-beams except that supplemental reinforcement around post-tensioning ducts may be
necessary to resist radial bursting forces. This reinforcement is particularly important at the ends of beams where
kinks may form at splice locations. While this anchorage reinforcement introduces another variable, these same
details could occur in straight beams as well and are not peculiar to curved-beam construction.

12.7.3.4 Post-Tensioning
Due to horizontal curvature, curved precast concrete girders requiring prestressing have all been post-tensioned.
Post-tensioning strands that are anchored within each girder are tensioned and tendons grouted in the
fabrication yard before girders are shipped to the erection site. Currently, there are no known commercial
facilities that have casting beds capable of pre-tensioning curved girders.
After erection and splicing the beam segments together or splicing then erection, additional post-tensioning is
applied.

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12.8 Handling, Transportation, and Erection/12.8.1.2 Erection

12.8 HANDLING, TRANSPORTATION, AND ERECTION

12.8.1 Box Beams
This section addresses handling, transportation, and erection considerations for curved box beams. Handling for
individual straight box beam segments to be assembled in the field is similar to the handling of I-beam segments
addressed in the following sections.

12.8.1.1 Handling and Transportation

Lifting and support points must be located on a line through the center of gravity (in plan) of the curved beam
(refer to Sect. 12.4.5 and the Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge
Girders [PCI, 2016] and User Manual for Calculating the Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge
Girders [PCI, 2020C]). If the curvature is too great for the beam to be stable when supported at the ends, lifting
and temporary support points may be located inward from the beam ends. Of course, the beam stresses using PCI-
recommended factors must be checked for the lifting and support point locations. See Fig. 12.8.1.1-1.
Figure 12.8.1.1-1
Lifting and Support Points for Curved Beam

Plan View of Curved Box Beam

Long-span box beams are very heavy. The maximum beam length may be governed by the maximum practical
transportable weight or transportable width instead of final design considerations. Curved box beams may also be
spliced in the field if weight or width limitations restrict transportable length. Special transporters will usually be
required, as illustrated schematically in Fig. 12.8.1.1-2, to accommodate weight and long overhangs from support
points.
Figure 12.8.1.1-2
Beam Transporter

12.8.1.2 Erection
A detailed erection plan (see Sect. 2.5.2 of the Curved Precast Concrete Bridges State-of-the-Art Report (PCI, 2012)
is essential for the safe, proper, and efficient erection of the bridge structure. The erection plan should include
crane locations and mobilizations, temporary shoring and bracing requirements, precast concrete beam segment
orientation, erection sequence, and safety plans. The mark number and mark orientation of the erection plan
should match the piece marks shown on the shop drawings for the precast concrete girder. Any required shoring
and bracing must be properly designed to ensure the safety of the worksite throughout the entire erection
process. If shoring towers are to be erected near existing traffic, the shoring must be designed to withstand a
vehicle crash impact load.

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12.8.1.2 Erection/12.8.3 U-Beams

A temporary brace will probably be needed to stabilize the beam after erection, especially if the beam is on a
portion of roadway that is superelevated (Fig. 12.8.1.2-1). The brace needs to be located on the appropriate side
of the beam to prevent rotation. For example, a simply supported beam needs to be braced on the outside of the
curve. For a continuous beam, bracing could be on the inside or outside of the curve depending on the support
locations. This brace needs to remain in place until the end and intermediate diaphragms are cast.
Figure 12.8.1.2-1
Schematic of Temporary Bracing to Stabilize Beam

12.8.2 I-Beams and Bulb-Tee Beams

12.8.2.1 Handling and Transportation
Stability of precast concrete I-beams or bulb-tee beams during handling and shipping is an important
consideration. Lateral stability should be checked to ensure safe handling and transportation of the pieces. See the
Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (PCI, 2016) and User
Manual for Calculating the Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders [PCI, 2020C] for a
detailed procedure for checking lateral stability and example calculations.
Additionally, transportation routes must be carefully planned to avoid steep inclines, declines, and cross slopes;
low overhead clearances; tight-radius turns and curves; and other situations that may cause problems for the
hauler. Experienced trucking companies and precasters can provide guidance in these areas (Brice, 2018).

12.8.2.2 Erection
As with any project, a detailed erection plan is essential and no different than that required for a box beam for the
safe, proper, and efficient erection of the bridge structure (see Sect. 12.8.1.2). Section 2.5.2 of the Curved Precast
Concrete Bridges State-of-the-Art Report (PCI, 2012) provides additional information on erection plans.

12.8.3 U-Beams
U-beams, especially curved U-beams, require special design consideration for loadings during lifting, shipping,
and erection. Beam flexural and torsional stresses, crack control, and stability during plant storage, transport, and
erection must all be considered during design and construction. Lifting and support locations should be specified
to control rolling of the beams during handling, storage, and erection. Stresses during each step must be limited to
control cracking before the beams are incorporated into the final structure. Sections 2.2.2–2.2.4 and 7.1 of the
Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI, 2020B) have detailed
descriptions and discussion of the handling and transportation considerations for U-beams.
At some point during the construction process, open-top, precast concrete curved U-beams will require bracing
between the top flanges (Fig 12.8.3-1) or a secondary concrete placement or precast concrete lid installed to

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12.8.3 U-Beams/12.8.1 Introduction

close the section. If the section is closed while the U-beam is still in the precast yard, the torsional resistance for
handling, shipping and erection are improved, but at the cost of increased weight. For further information, refer
to Section 12.3.2.4 of this manual and Section 2.2.5 of the Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast
Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI, 2020B).
Figure 12.8.3-1
Temporary Lateral Steel Bracing Installed in the Fabrication Plant to Stabilize Beam

Size and weight of precast U-beam segments are often limited by the lifting and shipping constraints. Size and
weight limitations on transporting beams are important issues that designers need to research during
preliminary design. Variables that influence the size and weight of beams include lifting capability of cranes at
fabrication yards, capability of trucking companies, lane width restrictions during transport, and limitations on
overload haul permits by various agencies. Special hauling rigs are commonly used to transport heavy permit
loads in excess of 100 tons in most states.
As with any complex construction project, a detailed erection plan is required. See Section 3.3.2 of the Guide
Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-Beam Bridges (PCI, 2020B).
Curved U-beams must be supported to prevent rolling in the casting yard, during shipping, and at the
construction site. Methods to stabilize the beams must be implemented at all stages of construction. Locations of
support points during hauling must be considered to ensure the stability of the haul truck while transporting the
beams. Because the beams cannot be braced while on the trucking rig, they must be supported as close to the
equilibrium points as possible during hauling. Temporary stresses during transportation should be checked,
especially if the support points differ significantly from those during storage or erection.

12.9 DESIGN EXAMPLE

12.9.1 Introduction
This design example demonstrates the preliminary design of a 120-ft-long, simple-span, bulb-tee-beam bridge on
a 600-ft-radius curve. Except for changes brought about by the curvature, the bridge is the same as that designed
in Section 9.1. The 120-ft span is measured along the arc at the centerline of the bridge. The bridge is
superelevated 6%, and the design speed is 40 mph. The splices, intermediate diaphragms, and piers are all radial
to the curve.
The superstructure consists of six bulb-tee beams spaced at 9 ft 0 in. centers (Fig. 12.9.1-1). Beams are designed
to act compositely with the 8-in.-thick cast-in-place deck to resist all superimposed dead loads, live loads, and

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12.8.1 Introduction/12.9.1.2 Construction

impact. A ½-in.-thick wearing surface is part of the 8-in.-thick deck; therefore, 7.5 in. is the structural thickness.
The design is accomplished in accordance with the LRFD Specifications, 9th Edition, and the design live load is HL-
93. For most computed values, the number of digits displayed is per Table 9.0.3-1 of this manual.
Handling, shipping, erection, and construction loading scenarios are not included in this example but must be
checked.
Figure 12.9.1-1
Bridge Cross Section at Midspan

12.9.1.1 Plan Geometry

Check to see if straight beams might be used. The arc-to-chord offset is: 𝐿2𝑐 /8𝑅 = (120)2/(8 x 600) = 3 ft. This
exceeds the maximum recommended offset of 1.5 ft. If the beam is subdivided into three chords, the maximum
offset will be reduced by a factor of (3)2, producing an offset of 4 in. at the center of each chord. This will be barely
detectable visually and will be acceptable. In order to minimize the overhang on the outside of the curve, the 3-ft
overhang will be set at the middle of each chorded segment. At the ends of the chorded segments, the overhang
from beam centerline will be 2 ft 8 in. on the outside, and 3 ft 4 in. on the inside. Figure 12.9.1.1-1 shows the plan
geometry.

12.9.1.2 Construction
With a nominal chord offset of 3 ft for the span, the torsion will be too large for a plant-cast, post-tensioned, full-
length beam. Therefore, spliced-girder construction will be used. Each 40-ft (nominal length) straight beam segment
will be precast with enough pretension to compensate for its self-weight on the 40-ft span. Shoring will be erected
at the ⅓ points of the 120-ft span. The 40-ft-long beam segments will then be set on the shores and on the end
bearings at the abutments. Crossbeams, 12 in. thick by 66 in. deep, will be cast at the ends and at the ⅓ points
(splice locations). The beams will then be post-tensioned and the shores removed.
The deck is generally cast after post-tensioning. This procedure makes it feasible to replace the deck in the future,
should that become necessary.Because the beams are post-tensioned, a thicker web will be used to provide
necessary cover over the ducts. This may be accomplished by spreading the side forms for an AASHTO-PCI BT-72
by 2 in., creating an 8-in.-thick web and wider top and bottom flanges. See Fig. 12.9.1.2-1 for modified section
dimensions.

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12.9.1.2 Construction

Figure 12.9.1.1-1
Beam Framing Plan Geometry
CL Splices and
4” Offset
Intermediate Between
CLof Outside Crossbeams Arc and Chord
Beam for Each Segment
2’-8”

3’-0” Arc to CL of Bridge

Chord Offset
La =120’

3’-4”

R=600’
CL of Inside Edge of
Beam Slab

Fig. 12.9.1.2-1
AASHTO-PCI BT-72 Dimensions with 2 in. Added to Width

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12.9.2 Materials

12.9.2 Materials
These are similar to those used in the Section 9.1 examples.
Cast-in-place slab: Actual thickness = 8.0 in.
Structural thickness ts =7.5 in.
Note that a ½-in.-thick wearing surface is considered an integral part of the 8-in.-
thick deck.
Specified concrete strength for design, 𝑓𝑐′ = 4.0 ksi
Precast concrete beams: Modified AASHTO-PCI BT-72 with 2 in. added width to stem and flanges (Fig.
12.9.1.2-1)
Specified concrete compressive strength of beam at post-tensioning 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 6.5 ksi
Specified concrete compressive strength for design 𝑓𝑐′ = 6.5 ksi
Unit weight of concrete wc = 0.150 kcf
Pretensioning strands ½-in.-diameter, seven-wire, low-relaxation
Area of one strand = 0.153 in.2
Specified tensile strength fpu = 270 ksi
Yield strength fpy = 0.9fpu = 243 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Stress limit for pretensioning strands at service [LRFD Table 5.9.2.2-1]
limit state (after appropriate losses):
fpe ≤ 0.80fpy = 194.4 ksi
Modulus of elasticity Ep = 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
Post-tensioning strands: 0.6-in.-diameter, seven-wire, low-relaxation
Area of one strand = 0.217 in.2
Specified tensile strength fpu = 270 ksi
Yield strength fpy = 0.9fpu = 243 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Stress limits for post-tensioning strands at service [LRFD Table 5.9.2.2-1]
limit state (after appropriate losses):
fpe ≤ 0.80fpy = 194.4 ksi
Modulus of elasticity Ep = 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
Reinforcing bars: Yield strength fy = 60 ksi
Modulus of elasticity Es = 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Future wearing surface: 2 in. additional concrete, unit weight = 0.150 kcf
New Jersey–type Unit weight = 0.300 kip/ft/side
barrier:

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12.9.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Modified BT-72 Beam/12.9.3.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed Modified BT-72 Beam
Section

12.9.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Modified BT-72 Beam

12.9.3.1 Noncomposite, Nontransformed Modified BT-72 Beam Section
Ag = cross-sectional area of the precast concrete beam = 911 in.2
h = overall depth of beam = 72 in.
Ig = moment of inertia about the centroid of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 608,109 in.4
yb = distance from centroid to extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 36.51 in.
yt = distance from centroid to extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 35.49 in.
Sb = section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 16,657 in.3
St = section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the noncomposite precast concrete beam = 17,134 in.3
Ilat = lateral moment of inertia of noncomposite precast concrete beam = 46,014 in.4
wg = beam self-weight per unit length = (911/144)(0.150) = 0.949 kip/ft
Ec = modulus of elasticity = 120,000𝐾1 𝑤𝑐 2.0 𝑓𝑐′ 0.33 ksi [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]
where
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate, taken as 1.0
wc = unit weight of concrete = 0.150 kcf
LRFD Table 3.5.1-1 states that, in the absence of more precise data, the unit weight of concrete may be taken
as 0.140 + 0.001𝑓𝑐′ for 5.0 < 𝑓𝑐′ ≤ 15.0 ksi, where 𝑓𝑐′ = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi. For
𝑓𝑐′ = 6.5 ksi, the unit weight would be 0.1465 kcf. However, precast concrete mixtures typically have a
relatively low water-cementitious materials ratio and high density. Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150 kcf is
used in this example. For high-strength concrete, the unit weight may need to be increased based on test
results. For simplicity, a value of 0.150 kcf is also used for the cast-in-place concrete.
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity for:
cast-in-place deck Ecd = 120,000(1.0)(0.150)2.0 (4.0)0.33 = 4,266 ksi
precast concrete beam at post-tensioning (at 28 = 120,000(1.0)(0.150)2.0 (0.150)2.0 (6.5)0.33
days minimum) Eci = 5,008 ksi
precast concrete beam at service loads 𝐸c = 120,000(0.150)2.0 (6.5)0.33 = 5,008 ksi
The torsional constant J is estimated in accordance with LRFD Specifications Article C4.6.2.1.
𝐴𝑔4
𝐽≈
40.0𝐼𝑝
The polar moment of inertia Ip is equal to the sum of Ig and Ilat. Ip = 654,123 in.4
9114
𝐽≈ = 26,324 in.4
40(654,123)
Properties of the 12 × 66-in. crossbeam:
Acb = 792 in.2
Icb = 287,496 in.4
Icblat = 9,504 in.4 (for lateral bending)
Jcb = 33,120 in.4
wgcb = 0.825 kip/ft

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12.9.3.2 Composite Sections/12.9.3.2.3 Composite Section Properties Transformed for Modular Ratio of Concrete

12.9.3.2 Composite Sections

12.9.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width

Because this is a preliminary design, it is reasonable to assume the same properties for interior and exterior
beams. Therefore, the properties for a typical interior beam are used. Final designs will require more thorough
calculations.
Effective flange width for interior longitudinal beams is taken as the average spacing [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.6.1]
between beams
(9)(12) = 108 in.
Therefore, the effective flange width is 108 in. for the beam.
For the interior crossbeams, the effective flange width on each side is taken as six times the slab thickness [LRFD
Art. 4.6.2.6.5]. Therefore, after adding the width of the crossbeam, the effective flange width of the composite
cross beam is (12)(7.5) + 12 = 102 in.
Note that the crossbeam or intermediate diaphragm in a curved bridge is not an ordinary beam spanning between
main beams (9 ft in this case). Rather, it is a crossbeam that transfers load all the way across the bridge from
inside to outside beams.

12.9.3.2.2 Modular Ratio

𝐸𝑐𝑑 4,266
Modular ratio between slab and beam concrete 𝑛 = = = 0.8518
𝐸𝑐 5,008

12.9.3.2.3 Composite Section Properties Transformed for Modular Ratio of Concrete

Because the deck slab and beams have different design concrete strengths, the effective width of the flange of the
composite beam will be transformed (adjusted) accordingly. Section properties are not being transformed for the
steel reinforcement.
Transformed flange width for interior beams = n(effective flange width) = (0.8518)(108) = 92.02 in.
Transformed flange area for interior beams = n(effective flange width)(structural thickness)
= (0. 8518)(108)(7.5) = 690.12 in.2
Note: Only the 7.5 in. structural thickness of the deck is considered.
A minimum haunch thickness of 0.5 in. at midspan is considered in the structural properties of the composite
section. The superelevation will cause the average thickness of the haunch to be greater than ½ in. The extra
weight will be accounted for, but the extra thickness caused by superelevation will conservatively be neglected in
computing composite section properties. In addition, the width of haunch must be transformed. Note that the
haunch should only be considered to contribute to section properties if it is required to be provided in the
completed structure. Therefore, some designers neglect its contribution to the section properties.
Transformed width of haunch = (0.8518)(44) = 37.49 in.
Transformed area of haunch = (0.8518)(44)(0.5) = 18.74 in.2
Ac = total area of the composite section = 1,620 in.2
hc = overall depth of the composite section (beam + 0.5-in. haunch + 7.5-in. deck slab) = 80 in.
Ic = moment of inertia of the composite section = 1,237,919 in.4
ybc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme bottom fiber of the precast concrete
beam = 53.85 in.
ytg = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the precast concrete
beam = 18.15 in.

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12.9.3.2.3 Composite Section Properties Transformed for Modular Ratio of Concrete/12.9.4.1.2 Dead Loads Acting on the Composite
Structure
ytc = distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the deck = 26.15 in.
Sbc = composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast concrete beam = 22,987 in.3
Stg = composite section modulus for the top fiber of the precast concrete beam = 68,215 in.3
Stc = composite section modulus for the top fiber of the structural deck slab = 47,339 in.3
Iclat = moment of inertia of composite section for lateral bending = 535,208 in.4
For computing Jc, the torsional constant for the composite beam, half the composite flange width is used to
compute the area Ac and the polar moment of inertia Ipc for substitution in LRFD Specifications [Eq. C4.6.2.2.1-2].
The area Ac transformed for different concrete strengths is 1,275 in.2, and Ipc is 1,125,419 in.4. This results in a
value of Jc of 58,704 in.4.
Composite properties of interior crossbeams:
Accb = 1,397 in.2
Iccb = 765,432 in.4
Iclatcb = 529,860 in.4 for lateral bending
Jccb = 54,204 in.4

12.9.4 Loads
For a first approximation, all loads except the truck load will be assumed to be distributed over the area of the
deck. Later, after a beam gridwork model is created, the computer program will generate member self-weights.

12.9.4.1 Dead Loads

12.9.4.1.1 Dead Loads Acting on the Noncomposite Structure

Beam and crossbeam weight:
Beams = (6)(120 ft)(0.949 kip/ft) = 683 kips
Crossbeams = (4)(45 ft)(0.825 kip/ft) = 149 kips Conservative. Stems of BT-72 beams are included in length.
Total weight of beams and crossbeams = 683 + 149 = 832 kips
Deck weight:
Gross area of deck = (120 ft)(51 ft) = 6,120 ft2
Actual thickness = 8 in.
Deck weight = [8 in./(12 in./ft)](0.150 kcf )(6,120 ft2) = 612 kips
For a minimum haunch thickness of 0.5 in., the superelevation of 0.06 will cause the average haunch thickness to
be 0.5 in. + 0.06(22 in.) = 1.82 in., say 2 in. The haunch weight is 0.150 kcf (2 in.)(44 in.)/(144 in.2/ft2) = 0.092
kip/ft/beam.
Haunch weight = (6)(120 ft)(0.092 kip/ft) = 66 kips
Weight of deck, including haunch = 612 + 66 = 678 kips

12.9.4.1.2 Dead Loads Acting on the Composite Structure

Barrier weight is given as 0.300 kip/ft/side
Barrier weight = (2)(120 ft)(0.3 kip/ft) = 72 kips
Future wearing surface is 0.025 ksf
(0.025 ksf )(120 ft)(48 ft) = 144 kips
Dead load on composite structure = 72 + 144 = 216 kips

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12.9.4.1.3 Total Dead Load/12.9.4.2.4 Centrifugal Force

12.9.4.1.3 Total Dead Load

Total dead load = 832 + 678 + 216 = 1,726 kips
12.9.4.2 Live Loads
Design live load is HL-93, which consists of a combination of: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.1]
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.2]
The design truck consists of 8.0-, 32.0-, and 32.0-kip axles with the [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.3]
first pair spaced at 14.0 ft and the second pair spaced at 14.0 to 30.0 ft.
The design tandem consists of a pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced at 4.0 ft.
2. Design lane load of 0.64 kip/ft not subject to dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.4]
IM = 33%, where IM = dynamic load allowance, applied to design truck or [LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]
design tandem only
The number of design lanes is computed as:
Number of design lanes = the integer part of the ratio of w/12, where w is the clear [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.1]
roadway width, ft, between the curbs:
w = 48 ft
Number of design lanes = integer part of (48/12) = 4 lanes
Multiple presence factor m: [LRFD Table 3.6.1.1.2-1]
For 4 lanes, m = 0.65.
Stresses from truck and lane loads obtained from refined analysis will be multiplied by 0.65.
12.9.4.2.1 Lane Loading
The lane load is positioned over a 10 ft width within the 12-ft design lane. [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3.1]
To maximize the effect of the live load, the 10 ft loaded width is shifted to the left within each design lane. This
causes the lane load to have an eccentricity of 1 ft relative to the lane centerline, and the four lane loads have an
eccentricity of 1 ft relative to the bridge centerline. The average arc length increases by the ratio of 601-ft
radius/600-ft radius, to 120.2 ft.
The total lane loading for the four design lanes is (4)(120.2 ft)(0.64 kip/ft)(0.65) = 200.0 kips.
The 0.65 factor above is the factor m.
12.9.4.2.2 Truck Loading
The total weight of the design truck is 8 + 32 + 32 = 72 kips.
Including 33% impact, 1.33(72) = 95.76 kips.
For 4 trucks, including the multiple presence factor m:
4(95.76)(0.65) = 249.0 kips
Note that because this is a preliminary design of the main members of a 120-ft span, the tandem load need not be
considered at this time.
12.9.4.2.3 Total Live Load
Total live load = 200.0 + 249.0 = 449.0 kips
12.9.4.2.4 Centrifugal Force
The design speed is 40 mph. The centrifugal force coefficient is given by:
𝑣2
𝐶=𝑓 [LRFD Eq. 3.6.3-1]
𝑔𝑅

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12.9.4.2.4 Centrifugal Force/12.9.5.2 Shifts in Center of Gravity

where
C = coefficient to compute centrifugal force
v = highway design speed, ft/sec
f = 4/3 for load combinations other than fatigue and 1.0 for fatigue
g = gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/sec2
R = radius of curvature of traffic lane, ft
The design speed in ft/sec = 40 mph/0.682 = 58.65 ft/sec
4 (58.65)2
𝐶=( ) = 0.2374
3 (32.2)(600)
This is applied to the truck axle loads only, without the dynamic load allowance, and with the factor m. The
centrifugal force for four trucks is 4(72 kips)(0.2374)(0.65) = 44.4 kips.

12.9.5 Correction Factors

The bending moments in the exterior beam on the outside of the curve will be greater than in a straight bridge for
three reasons:
1. The additional span length on the outside of the curve.
2. The center of gravity of the curved centerline lies outside of a line through the centerline of the supports.
3. The center of gravity of an area load is further shifted outward, because there is more area outside the
centerline than inward of the centerline.

12.9.5.1 Additional Span Length Factor

The outside beam is on a radius of 622.5 ft. This increases the span length by a factor of 622.5/600 = 1.0375.

12.9.5.2 Shifts in Center of Gravity

The center of gravity (in plan) of the centerline arc is offset from a line through the center of the bearings by an
amount equal to ⅔ of the arc-to-chord offset (2/3)(3 ft) = 2 ft. The additional eccentricity caused by the extra
area outside the centerline is equal to B2/(12R) = (51 ft)2/[(12)(600)] = 0.36 ft (Fig. 12.9.5.2-1). For the initial
simplification that all dead load is an area load, the eccentricity of the dead load is 2.36 ft.
Figure 12.9.5.2-1
Center of Gravity of Curved Area

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12.9.5.2 Shifts in Center of Gravity

The next step is to find how much the load on the outside beam is increased because of this eccentricity. The
procedure is analogous to one described in the LRFD Specifications Commentary Article C4.6.2.2.2d (Fig. 12.9.5.2-
2). For six 1-ft2-unit areas at 9 ft spacing, the moment of inertia is 1,417.5 ft4 and the section modulus is 63 ft3. For
an arbitrary load of 1 kip per bearing, or 6 kips, at 2.36 ft eccentricity, P/A + Pe/S = 1 + 6(2.36)/63 = 1.2248. This
is the increase in load on the outside exterior beam caused by the eccentricity of the load. The total correction
factor for bending moment due to dead load is (1.0375)(1.2248) = 1.271.

Figure 12.9.5.2-2
Properties of Group of Beam Supports

For the lane loading, the LRFD requirement to place the load off center of the lane adds 1 ft to the eccentricity
(Fig. 12.9.5.2-3). For a 6-kip load at 3.36-ft eccentricity, the load on the outside beam is 1 + 6(3.36)/63 = 1.32.
The total correction factor for bending moment due to lane loading is (1.0375)(1.32) = 1.370.
Figure 12.9.5.2-3
Lane Load Eccentricity

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12.9.5.2 Shifts in Center of Gravity/12.9.6 Bending Moments – Outside Exterior Beam

For the truck loading, LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1 specifies that the center of the wheel load be placed 2 ft from the
curb. This causes the center of the vehicle to be 5 ft from the curb (also the lane edge), so the eccentricity from the
centerline of the lane is 1 ft. The trucks are in the center of the bridge, which has a 3-ft eccentricity with respect to
the supports. Thus, the vertical truck loading has an eccentricity of 4 ft (Fig. 12.9.5.2-4).
Figure 12.9.5.2-4
Truck Load Eccentricity

The effects of centrifugal force must also be taken into account. The total centrifugal force of 44.4 kips acts at a
height of 6 ft (LRFD Art. 3.6.3). The vertical truck loading is 249 kips. The horizontal force acting at 6 ft increases
the eccentricity of the vertical load by (44.4/249)(6 ft) = 1.07 ft. The total eccentricity of the vertical truck load is
5.07 ft, and the correction is 1 + 6(5.07)/63 = 1.483 (Fig. 12.9.5.2-4). The total correction factor due to
centrifugal force and truck loading is (1.0375)(1.483) = 1.538.

12.9.6 Bending Moments—Outside Exterior Beam

The bending moments in the outside exterior beam may now be estimated. For all loads, the bending moment
may be estimated as that for a 120-ft straight beam multiplied by the correction factors. For all loads except the
truck loadings, the 120-ft straight beam bending moment is WL/8 divided by six beams in the bridge. For the
truck loading, the bending moment is scaled from that for a design truck on a 120-ft straight span. Table 12.9.6-1
summarizes the estimated midspan bending moments for the outside exterior beam.
Comparing these estimates to the values in the right column, which are taken from Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2
of this manual, it is seen that the dead load moments are substantially increased, compared to the interior beam of
a straight bridge. However, the live loads are decreased somewhat because of the factor m (LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.2),
which is not used in the approximate distribution method. It should also be noted that the curved beam is almost
20% heavier than the straight beam.

Table 12.9.6-1
Comparison of Estimated Bending Moments in Modified BT-72 Beams
Moment
Moment Moment for
Total for 120-ft
Correction for Outside Exterior Interior Beam
Weight Straight
Factor Curved Beam Straight Bridge
W, kip Beam
ft-kip ft-kip*
ft-kip
Beam and crossbeam 832 2,080 1.271 2,644 1,438
Deck and haunch 678 1,695 1.271 2,154 1,660
Barrier 72 180 1.271 229 180
Wearing surface 144 360 1.271 458 360
Truck loading with impact 249 1,080 1.538 1,662 1,830
Lane loading 200 500 1.370 685 843
Total – 5,895 – 7,832 6,311
*Bending moments in the right column are taken from Tables 9.1a.4-1 and 9.1a.4-2.

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12.9.7 Stresses – Outside Exterior Beam/12.9.8.2 Model 2 – Shore Loads

12.9.7 Stresses—Outside Exterior Beam

The next step is to verify that the chosen modified BT-72 beam section is adequate. It is assumed that the bottom
fiber stress due to the weight of the beams and crossbeams can be compensated for by the pretensioning.
Table 12.9.7-1 shows the bottom fiber stress caused by deck weight, superimposed dead load, and live load. For
Service III tensile stress check, the live load factor γLL may be taken as 0.8 for a longitudinal analysis when gross
section properties are used and elastic gains are not considered (LRFD Art.C3.4.1, limit state Service III, and LRFD
Table 3.4.1-4). For this preliminary analysis, losses are approximated and no consideration is given to elastic
regain; therefore, the 0.8 factor is appropriate. The bottom fiber stress for these loads applied to the beams and
crossbeams in Table 12.9.7-1 is 2.892 ksi. The compressive limit for temporary stresses after post-tensioning
(before time-dependent losses) is 4.225 ksi. Therefore, because there is sufficient margin between the actual
stress after losses and the stress limit before losses, the beam section should be adequate and the detailed
computer model may be constructed using this modified BT-72 beam.
Table 12.9.7-1
Estimate of Bottom Fiber Stress
Bending Bottom
Sb or Sbc,
Load Moment, Fiber
in.3
ft-kip Stress, ksi
1. Self-weight of beams and crossbeams (compensated by
2,644 16,657 1.905
pretensioning)
2. Deck and haunch 2,154 16,657 1.552
3. Superimposed dead load 687 22,987 0.359
4. Live load [Service III tension check with γLL = 0.8(0.8)(2,347)] 1,878 22,987 0.980
5. Sum of 2 + 3 + 4 2.891
Compressive stress limit for temporary stresses before losses (at
transfer of post-tensioning) 4.225
= (0.65)𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = (0.65)(6.5) [LRFD Art. 5.9.2.3.1a]

12.9.8 Beam Gridwork Computer Models

12.9.8.1 Model 1—Beam Segments on Shores
This model (not shown) is a variation of Model 2 (see Sect. 12.9.8.2). The ends of the members are released in
bending to model the situation of simple-span beam segments supported on shores. The simple-span length is
conservatively taken as the center-to-center distance of the crossbeams (40 ft). The reactions at each shoring
location are computed. These loads are then applied to the Model 2 beam gridwork to represent removal of the
shores. These loads are shown on Fig. 12.9.8.2-1.

12.9.8.2 Model 2—Shore Loads

Model 2 is the noncomposite beam gridwork on the nominal 120-ft span. The loads applied to Model 2 are the
loads that previously existed in the shores, as determined in Model 1. When the shores are removed, the loads
previously existing in the shores are loads that are applied to Model 2. These loads are shown in Fig. 12.9.8.2-1.
The analysis done using Model 1 could be skipped, and the self-weight loads applied directly to Model 2. The
difference in total self-weight bending moment in the outside exterior beam is less than 0.1%. However, it must
be remembered that the moment consists of two parts, that applied to the 40-ft nominal span, and that applied to
the 120-ft nominal span.

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12.9.8.2 Model 2 – Shore Loads/12.9.8.4 Model 4 – Weight of Barriers and Future Wearing Surface

Figure 12.9.8.2-1
Noncomposite Model 2—Shore Loads

12.9.8.3 Model 3—Weight of Deck and Haunches

The total weight of the deck and the haunches between the deck and the top flanges of the beam was calculated to
be 678 kips in Section 12.9.4.1.1. This load is assumed to be applied as a uniform load of 110.8 psf over the 6,120
ft2 gross area of the deck.
The model for deck weight is shown in Fig. 12.9.8.3-1. The finite elements are only used as a means of applying a
uniform load. Because this is a noncomposite model, the structural properties of the deck are zeroed out. The
beam gridwork is the same as in Model 2.

12.9.8.4 Model 4—Weight of Barriers and Future Wearing Surface

Model 4 represents the composite structure. Composite section properties are used in the beam gridwork. The
general appearance of the model is the same as Model 3 (Fig. 12.9.8.3-1). The 0.025 ksf uniform load is applied
over the entire 51 ft width of the deck for the future wearing surface (FWS). A net barrier load of 0.263 kip/ft (0.3
kip/ft less the 0.025 ksf acting over the 1.5 ft width occupied by the barrier) is applied as a line load along the
longitudinal edges of the model.

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12.9.8.4 Model 4 – Weight of Barriers and Future Wearing Surface/12.9.8.5 Model 5 – Lane Loading

Figure 12.9.8.3-1
Noncomposite Model 3—Deck Weight

12.9.8.5 Model 5—Lane Loading

As noted in Section 12.9.4.2.1, LRFD Article 3.6.1.3 specifies that the design lane load be applied over a 10 ft width
within the design lane width (of 12 ft in this case). This causes the resultant of the lane loads to be shifted 1 ft
toward the outside of the curve.
The upper part of Fig. 12.9.8.5-1 shows the specified location of the lane loads in a cross section through the
bridge. The lower part of Fig. 12.9.8.5-1 shows the actual loads applied to the model. The loads were chosen so
that deck elements would be loaded uniformly and the total load would have the correct location of the resultant
load.

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12.9.8.5 Model 5 – Lane Loading/12.9.8.6 Model 6 – Truck Loading with Centrifugal Force

Figure 12.9.8.5-1
Lane Loading

12.9.8.6 Model 6—Truck Loading with Centrifugal Force

The design truck is shown in Fig. 12.9.8.6-1, which is Fig. 3.6.1.2.2-1 from the LRFD Specifications. For maximum
positive moment, the minimum rear axle spacing of 14 ft controls. The maximum bending moment occurs with
the middle axle load placed 2.33 ft from midspan.
Figure 12.9.8.6-1
Characteristics of the Design Truck

The main axle wheel loads are 16 kips each, plus a 33% dynamic allowance, or 21.28 kips. For the design speed of
40 mph, the centrifugal force is 0.2374 of the truck weight (without dynamic allowance). This force acts 6 ft above
the roadway. The overturning moment per main axle is 0.2374 × 32 kips × 6 ft, or 45.58 ft-kips. Dividing by the 6-
ft wheel spacing, the wheel loads due to centrifugal force are ±7.6 kips. The total main axle wheel loads, including
the 0.65 factor m, are 0.65 (21.28 ±7.6) = 18.77 kips and 8.89 kips. The front axle wheel loads are one quarter of
this, or 4.69 kips and 2.22 kips.
The wheel loads are placed on fictitious, pin-ended members in order to transfer the loads to the main beams
(Fig. 12.9.8.6-2) for the heavier axles.

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12.9.8.6 Model 6 – Truck Loading with Centrifugal Force/12.9.8.7 Summary of Bending Moments

Figure 12.9.8.6-2
Wheel Load Placement across Model for Heavy Axles
Lane Edge

2’ 7 @ 6’ 2.5’
18.77 kips 18.77 kips 18.77 kips 18.77 kips
8.89 kips 8.89 kips 8.89 kips 8.89 kips

5 @ 9’ = 45’

The added pin-ended members and loads that represent the truck loading for the condition producing maximum
moment are shown in Figure 12.9.8.6-3.
Figure 12.9.8.6-3
Truck Loading on Model 6

12.9.8.7 Summary of Bending Moments

The bending moments for each of the six beams from the six loading models are summarized in Table 12.9.8.7-1.
Pretensioning counteracts the moments from Model 1 whereas post-tensioning is used to counteract the
moments from Models 2 through 6.

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12.9.8.7 Summary of Bending Moments/12.9.9.2 Post-Tensioning

Table 12.9.8.7-1
Bending Moments in Each Beam
Maximum Bending Moments, ft-kip
Beam Number
Outside Inside
Load 1 2 3 4 5 6
Model 1—Beam segments on shores 204 199 193 187 181 176
Model 2—Shore loads 2,249 2,067 1,883 1,694 1,491 1,270
Model 3—Deck and haunch 2,119 1,973 1,823 1,662 1,479 1,286
Model 4—Barrier and FWS 720 610 565 513 444 446
Model 5—Lane loading 649 605 551 491 420 341
Model 6—Truck loading 1,468 1,324 1,204 1,045 917 603
Live load models (5 + 6) 2,117 1,929 1,755 1,536 1,337 944

12.9.9 Selection of Prestressing Force

12.9.9.1 Pretensioning
The maximum self-weight bending moment for a beam segment is 204 ft-kips. The bottom fiber stress is M/Sb or
(204)(12)/(16,657) = 0.147 ksi. For yb = 36.51 in., the eccentricity e is 34.51 in. for strands centered at 2 in. from
bottom of the beam. Try four ½ in.-diameter strands with a force of 25 kips each.
Table 12.9.9.1-1
Stress Due to Pretensioning
Fiber Stress, ksi
Stress
Top Bottom
Ppe/A = (4)(25)/911 0.110 0.110
Ppe/S = (4)(25)(34.51)/S -0.201 0.207
M/S = (204)(12)/S 0.143 -0.147
Pretension + self-weight 0.052 0.170

Because this is a temporary condition, a check for minimum reinforcement is not necessary.

12.9.9.2 Post-Tensioning
Table 12.9.9.2-1 shows the stresses to be resisted by post-tensioning. Assuming three tendons, the maximum
eccentricity is estimated to be yb – 9 in. (at the location of maximum moment) as seen in Fig. 12.9.9.2-1.
Table 12.9.9.2-1
Bottom Fiber Stresses in Outside Beam at Location of Maximum Moment
Load M/S Bottom Stress, ksi
Shore loads (2,249)(12)/16,657 = 1.620
Deck and haunch (2,119)(12)/16,657 = 1.527
Barrier and FWS (720)(12)/22,987 = 0.376
Live load (γLL = 0.8) (0.8)(2,117)(12)/22,987 = 0.884
Total stress to be compensated by post-tensioning fb = 4.407

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SKEWED AND CURVED BRIDGES
12.9.9.2 Post-Tensioning/12.9.9.3 Model 7–Post-Tensioning

Figure 12.9.9.2-1
Bottom Flange Detail at Maximum Moment Location

For preliminary design, assume zero tension in the bottom fiber. The 1 in. clear distance shown here between
ducts does not meet 8th Edition of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification. Refer to LRFD Article 5.9.5.1.1
for the minimum duct spacing which now requires the greater of 1.5 in. or 1.33 times coarse aggregate. Designers
should consult their project sponsor for local requirements. The required final force Ppe is computed as follows,
using noncomposite section properties because the tensioning is assumed to be completed before casting the
deck:
Ppe = fb/(1/A + e/Sb)
Ppe = 4.418/(1/911 + (36.51 – 9.00)/16,657)
Ppe = 1,607 kips
Try forty-eight 0.6-in.-diameter strands at 162 ksi (0.6fpu)
Ppe = (48)(0.217)(162) = 1,687 kips
A review of the total bending moments in Table 12.9.8.7-1 indicates that the post-tensioning should be reduced
in the other beams. Try 44 strands in Beam 2, 40 in Beam 3, 36 in Beam 4, 32 in Beam 5, and 28 in Beam 6.

12.9.9.3 Model 7—Post-Tensioning

For the preliminary design, the post-tensioning trajectory is simplified to be three straight chords, with horizontal
and vertical angle changes at the interior diaphragms. The tendons are modeled as bar elements, with a thermal
coefficient equal to 1/Ep. The tensioning of the model is done by applying a negative temperature change equal to
the effective prestress.
Figure 12.9.9.3-1 shows the post-tensioning model. Short, rigid stubs are used to connect the tendons to the
beam gridwork. The length of these stubs is equal to the tendon eccentricity: 0.29 ft at the ends and 2.29 ft at the
interior crossbeams. These stubs will also resist the transverse forces caused by the angle change of the tendons
at the crossbeams.
For the middle third of the outer beam, the axial force is found to be 1,663 kips, and the bending moment due to
post-tensioning is 3,650 ft-kips, which agrees well with the assumptions made. The tendon profiles will be held
constant but the post-tensioning force changes for the remaining beams.

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12.9.9.3 Model 7–Post-Tensioning/12.9.10.1 Stresses in Outside Exterior Beam

Figure 12.9.9.3-1
Model 7—Post-Tensioning

12.9.10 Results
12.9.10.1 Stresses in Outside Exterior Beam
For this preliminary analysis Table 12.9.10.1-1 summarizes the stress history of the outside beam for service
loads. The stresses are within the limits. For a final analysis, especially in consideration of the various stages of
construction involved with splicing, shoring towers, and post-tensioning, the designer should use a suitable time-
step method.

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12.9.10.1 Stresses in Outside Exterior Beam/12.9.10.3 Crossbeams

Table 12.9.10.1-1
Stress Summary for Outside Beam
Stresses, ksi
Load Top of Slab Top of Beam Bottom of
Beam
1. Pretensioning + beam segment self-weight 0.152 0.170
2. Post-tensioning: P/A = 1,663/911 1.825 1.825
3. Post-tensioning: M/S = (3,650)(12)/S -2.556 2.630
4. Shore loads: M/S = (2,249)(12)/S 1,575 -1.620
5. Stress after losses* (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) 0.996 3.005
6. Deck and haunch: M/S = (2,119)(12)/S 1.484 -1.527
7. Barrier and FWS: M/S = (720)(12)/S 0.182 0.127 -0.376
8. Dead load† 0.182 2.617 1.102
9a. Service III Live Load (γLL = 0.8): M/S = 0.8(2,117)(12)/S -0.884
9b. Service I live load (γLL = 1.0): M/S = (2,117)(12)/S 0.537 0.372
Sum of stresses (dead load + applicable live load) 0.719 2.989 0.218
Stress limits: 0.60w𝑓𝑐′ compression & 0 tension 2.400 3.900 0 tension
where w = 1.0 when web and flange slenderness ratios are
not greater than 15
* The stress before losses should also be checked. The compressive stress limit for [LRFD Art.
this temporary condition is (0.65)𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = (0.65)(6.5) = 4.225 ksi. It appears, by 5.9.2.3.1a]
inspection, that this stress should be OK.
† The compressive stress limit for effective prestress + permanent load is [LRFD Table
(0.45) 𝑓𝑐𝑖′ = 2.925 OK 5.9.2.3.2a-1]

12.9.10.2 Strength Limit State

The check for the strength limit state is done in the same manner as that presented in Section 9.1a.9 for a straight
beam. For the straight beam, the provided strength was 22% in excess of that required, and a similar amount of
excess strength would be found for the beams in the curved bridge.

12.9.10.3 Crossbeams
The diaphragms function as crossbeams in the beam gridwork. They transfer load from the inside to the outside
of the curve. This load transfer maintains equilibrium without the necessity of large torsional moments.

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12.9.10.3 Crossbeams

Figure 12.9.10.3-1
Model 2—Crossbeam Shears and Moments

Figure 12.9.10.3-1 shows the shear and moment diagrams for a crossbeam for Model 2. The shear is relatively
constant, transferring load to the outside. The crossbeam is also loaded by bending moments at each interior
beam. These moments balance the primary bending moments in the stringers as they turn through an angle at the
joint with the crossbeam.
The maximum bending moment occurs at the first interior beam on the outside of the curve. Table 12.9.10.3-1
shows the factored bending moments at this location. The LRFD Specifications do not give a load factor for
prestressing. Because the bending from prestressing is additive to that from loads, a load factor of 1.25 (the same
as for dead load) is conservatively used in this example. The bending moments are well within the capacity of a
nonprestressed beam. Although the crossbeam could be post-tensioned, the simple solution is to use a
conventionally reinforced (nonprestressed) member.
Table 12.9.10.3-1
Factored Bending Moments in Crossbeam at First Interior Beam
M Load Mu
Load ft-kip Factor ft-kip
Model 2—Beams -149 1.25 -186
Model 3—Deck -130 1.25 -163
Model 4—Barrier and surface -138 1.50 -207
Model 5 + 6—Live loading -110 1.75 -193
Model 7—Prestress -34 1.25 -42
Total -791

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12.9.10.4 Behavior Check/12.9.10.5 Shear and Torsion

12.9.10.4 Behavior Check

The behavior of the beam gridwork may be checked manually by observation of the bending moments applied to
the crossbeam. The BT-72 beams are bent through an angle ψ of 0.0667 radians at the crossbeam. The
crossbeams must resist a moment of 0.0667 times the flexural bending moment in the beam.
Table 12.9.10.4-1 shows the flexural bending moment in each of the beams for Model 2—Shore Loads. The third
column shows the bending moments multiplied by the angle ψ. The fourth column shows the moments in the
crossbeams, from the gridwork analysis. The difference is resisted by torsion in the beams. This is compatibility
torsion, caused by the fact that the bridge tilts slightly toward the outside of the curve.
Table 12.9.10.4-1
Beam Gridwork Behavior Check
Beam
Moment on
Bending Torsion
Crossbeam
Beam Moment ΨM Mt Mc + Mt
Mc
Number ft-kip ft-kip in Beam ft-kip
ft-kip
Table ft-kip
Fig 12.9.10-3
12.9.8.7-1
1 (outside) 2,249 150 134 16 150
2 2,067 138 122 16 138
3 1,883 126 110 16 126
4 1,694 113 97 16 113
5 1,491 99 83 16 99
6 (inside) 1,270 85 67 18 85

12.9.10.5 Shear and Torsion

The beam gridwork is stable without torsional moments in its members. However, some torsion occurs due to the
deformations of the gridwork. LRFD Article 5.7.2.1 requires torsion to be investigated when:
Tu > 0.25Tcr [LFRD Eq. 5.7.2.1-3]
where
Tu = factored torsional moment, in.-kip
 = resistance factor [LRFD Article 5.5.4.2]
Tcr = torsional cracking moment, in.-kip, and where:
𝐴2𝑐𝑝 For solid shapes [LRFD
Tcr = 0.126𝐾λ√𝑓𝑐′ ( )
𝑝𝑐 Eq. 5.7.2.1-4]

𝑓𝑐
𝐾 = √1 + ≤2 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.2.1-6]
0.126𝜆√𝑓′𝑐

where
Acp = area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross section, in.2
pc = the length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section, in.
fpc = compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at the centroid of
the cross section resisting live loads or at the junction of the web and flange where the
centroid lies in the flange, ksi
λ = concrete density modification factor [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.8]

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12.9.10.5 Shear and Torsion/12.9.11 Comparison to Straight Bridge

For consistency, the section transformed for concrete strengths is used to compute Acp, pc, and the
average fpc on the transformed section.
Acp = Ac = 1,620 in.2
pc = 400 in.
fpc = Ppe/Ac = 1,663/1,620 = 1.026 ksi
λ = 1.0 for normal weight concrete [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.8]

1.026
𝐾 = √1 + = 2.048; since this is greater than 2.0 use 2.0
0.126(1.0)√6.5

(1,620)2
𝑇𝑐𝑟 = 0.126(1.0)√6.5 ( ) = 4,215 in.-kips = 351 ft-kips
400
Check if Tu < 0.25Tcr = 0.25(0.9)(351) = 79.0 ft-kips
Torsion may be neglected if the ultimate torque is less than 79.0 ft-kips. Examine torsion in the outside exterior
beam.
Table 12.9.10.5-1 shows that Tu is less than 79.0 ft-kips. Therefore, torsion may be neglected.
Table 12.9.10.5-1
Torsional Moments in Outside Beam
T Load Tu
Load
ft-kip Factor ft-kip
Model 2—Beams (Table 12.9.10.4-1) -16.1 1.25 -20.1
Model 3—Deck -15.9 1.25 -19.9
Model 4—Barrier and FWS -9.5 1.50 -14.3
Model 5 + 6—Live loads -15.8 1.75 -27.6
Model 7—Prestress +21.7 0.9* +19.5
Total 62.4
*Because the prestress acts to oppose the other torsional moments, a load factor of 0.9 was conservatively
assumed.
The shear design is performed in a manner similar to that shown in Section 9.1a.4.11 for a straight beam. Note
that for post-tensioned beams, LRFD Article 5.7.2.8 requires deductions for post-tensioning ducts shall be applied,
but no specific provisions are given. However, the equations for nominal shear resistance in LRFD Article 5.7.3.3
contain factors for the presence and size of ducts.

12.9.11 Comparison to Straight Bridge

Compared to the straight bridge of Section 9.1a, the additional cost items for this curved bridge are as follows:
• Additional design cost.
• The cost and inconvenience of shoring. This may be at least partially offset by the reduced shipping and
erection costs for the beam segments, as compared with full-length beams.
• The additional cost of concrete for 2 in. increase in width of beams (1 ft3/linear ft of added concrete) due
to addition of post-tensioning.
• The cost of intermediate crossbeams (not required for a straight bridge).

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12.9.11 Comparison to Straight Bridge/12.11 References

• Additional cost of post-tensioning compared to pretensioning.

• The cost of additional strand. Less strand is used in the other five beams, but the total strand area
(including pretensioned strands) for the six beams is about 20% greater than for the straight bridge.
• A wider cap beam may be necessary to allow clearance for the post-tensioning jacks between the ends of
the beams.

12.10 DETAILED FINAL DESIGN

The detailed final design of the curved beam bridge will generally follow the design for a similar straight bridge,
as described in Section 9.1a. Some special points relating to the post-tensioned curved bridge are noted in the
following sections.

12.10.1 Loss of Prestress

The calculation of prestress losses for post-tensioned beams is somewhat different from that for pretensioned
beams. Refer to Article 5.9.3 in the LRFD Specifications.

12.10.2 Computer Models

The computer models used in the preliminary design to analyze the effect of vertical loads are adequate for use in
the detailed final design. The model for the post-tensioning (Model 7) should be refined, using more realistic
tendon trajectories and accurate estimates of the initial and final prestressing forces. In addition, the optimum
prestressing levels for all six beams needs to be investigated more thoroughly. This is a trial-and-error process.

12.10.3 Crossbeam Details

The detailing of crossbeams between the beam segments is similar to that described in Chapter 11 for spliced
beams. Refer to Chapter 11.
Initial stresses in the beams at the crossbeam location need to be calculated in order to determine the required
initial concrete strength fci for the crossbeam concrete at the time the beams are post-tensioned.
The post-tensioning tendons undergo an angle change at the crossbeams. This creates an inward radial force
equal to the tension in the tendon multiplied by the angle change in radians. At the exterior beam on the inside of
the curve, reinforcement must be provided to tie this force back into the crossbeam. See Podolny (1985), NCHRP
(2008), and LRFD Article 5.9.5.4 for a further discussion of this problem and reinforcement details.

12.10.4 Post-Tensioning Anchorages

Post-tensioned beams will generally be detailed with end blocks to contain the tendon anchors. The design of
post-tensioned anchorage zones is given in Article 5.8.4.5 of the LRFD Specifications. Horizontally curved tendons
require specific consideration (LRFD Art. 5.9.4.4). An alternate method is to place anchorages in the end walls to
eliminate the need for end blocks on the beams.

12.11 REFERENCES
1. AASHTO. 2020. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 9th Edition. American Association of Highway
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
2. Brice, R. 2018. “Designing Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders for Lateral Stability: An Owner’s
Perspective.” ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Winter, pp. 10-12.
http://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2018Winter/Perspective-
DesigningPrecastPrestressedConcrete.pdf.
3. fib. 2020. Bulletin 94: Precast Concrete Bridge Continuity over Piers. fib (International Federation for
Structural Concrete), Lausanne, Switzerland. 44 pp.
https://doi.org/10.35789/fib.BULL.0094.

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12.11 References

4. Kovich, S., and J. J. Nicholls. 2018. “Practical Solution for Skewed Geometry on Decked-Girder Bridges.”
ASPIRE, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Spring, pp. 26-28.
http://www.aspirebridge.com/magazine/2018Spring/CBT-PracticalSolutionForSkewedGeometry.pdf.
5. NCHRP. 2008. Development of Design Specifications and Commentary for Horizontally Curved Concrete
Box-Girder Bridges. NCHRP Report 620. National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Washington,
DC.
https://dx.doi.org/10.17226/14186.
6. Okumus, P., M. D. Arancibia, and M. G. Oliva. 2018. Design and Performance of Highly Skewed Deck Girder
Bridges. WisDOT Report No. 0092-16-05. Wisconsin Department of Transportation. Madison, WI.
https://wisconsindot.gov/documents2/research/0092-16-05-final-report.pdf.
7. PCI. 2012. Curved Precast Concrete Bridges State-of-the-Art Report (CB-01-12). Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-01-12.
8. PCI. 2016. Recommended Practice for Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders (CB-
02-16). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-02-16.
9. PCI. 2020A. Bridge Geometry Manual (CB-02-20). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-02-20.
10. PCI Committee on Bridges. 2020B. Guide Document for the Design of Curved, Spliced Precast Concrete U-
Beam Bridges. CB-03-20. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-03-20.
11. PCI. 2020C. User Manual for Calculating the Lateral Stability of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders
(CB-04-20H). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
https://doi.org/10.15554/CB-04-20.
12. Podolny, W. 1985. “The Cause of Cracking in Post-Tensioned Concrete Box Girder Bridges and Retrofit
Procedures.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 30, No. 2 (March-April),
pp. 82-139. https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03011985.82.139. Discussion by Bruggeling, A. S. G., T. Y. Lin,
and W. Podolny. 1986. PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 31, No. 4, pp.
130-133.
https://www.pci.org/PCI_Docs/Publications/PCI%20Journal/1986/July/Reader%20Comments.pdf.
13. Russell, H. G. 2009. NCHRP Synthesis 393: Adjacent Precast Concrete Box Beam Bridges: Connection Details.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Washington, DC, 75 pp.
https://dx.doi.org/10.17226/23054.
14. Steinberg, E., K. Walsh, W. Hamid, A. Chlosta, K. Slyh, R. Miller, B. Shahrooz, A. Haroon, R. Castrodale, and
C. Prussack. 2022. Design and Construction of Deck Bulb Tee Girder Bridges with UHPC Connections. NCHRP
Research Report 999. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
https://doi.org/10.17226/26644.
15. Washington Department of Transportation (WSDOT). 2022. WSDOT Bridge Design Manual (M23-50.21).
WSDOT, Olympia, WA, 1057 pp.
https://www.wsdot.wa.gov/publications/manuals/fulltext/m23-50/bdm.pdf.

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INTEGRAL BRIDGES
Table of Contents

NOTATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13-3

13.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 13-5
13.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF INTEGRAL (JOINTLESS) BRIDGES ...................................................................................................... 13-5
13.2.1 Basic Characteristics..................................................................................................................................................................... 13-5
13.2.2 Limitations ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 13-6
13.3 SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................................... 13-6
13.3.1 Superstructure Details at Integral Abutments .................................................................................................................. 13-6
13.3.2 Continuity at Piers ......................................................................................................................................................................... 13-7
13.3.3 Movements and Restraint Forces ........................................................................................................................................ 13-10
13.3.4 Approach Slabs............................................................................................................................................................................. 13-10
13.4 ABUTMENT DESIGN ........................................................................................................................................................................... 13-11
13.4.1 Abutment Configurations ........................................................................................................................................................ 13-11
13.4.2 Accommodating Superstructure Movement at Abutments ..................................................................................... 13-13
13.4.3 Passive Pressure Reduction ................................................................................................................................................... 13-14
13.4.4 Details at Abutments ................................................................................................................................................................. 13-15
13.4.5 Problems and Solutions ........................................................................................................................................................... 13-18
13.4.5.1 Problems ................................................................................................................................................................................ 13-18
13.4.5.2 Solutions ................................................................................................................................................................................ 13-19
13.5 PIER DESIGN .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 13-19
13.5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 13-19
13.5.2 Accommodating Superstructure Movements at Piers ................................................................................................ 13-20
13.5.2.1 Flexible Bents ...................................................................................................................................................................... 13-20
13.5.2.2 Isolated Rigid Piers ........................................................................................................................................................... 13-21
13.5.2.3 Semirigid Piers .................................................................................................................................................................... 13-22
13.5.2.4 Hinged-Base Piers.............................................................................................................................................................. 13-23
13.5.3 Analysis and Design of Semirigid Piers ............................................................................................................................. 13-24
13.5.3.1 Longitudinal and Transverse Load Distribution.................................................................................................. 13-24
13.5.3.2 Equivalent Forces Due to Superstructure Movements ..................................................................................... 13-25
13.5.3.3 Estimation of Pier Stiffness Parameters .................................................................................................................. 13-25
13.5.3.4 Load Combinations ........................................................................................................................................................... 13-26
13.5.3.5 Slenderness Effects ........................................................................................................................................................... 13-26
13.6 ANALYSIS CONSIDERATIONS......................................................................................................................................................... 13-26
13.6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 13-26
13.6.2 Equivalent-Cantilever Method .............................................................................................................................................. 13-30
13.6.3 Forces in Substructure Units ................................................................................................................................................. 13-32
13.6.4 Conclusions from Example ..................................................................................................................................................... 13-35
13.7 CURRENT PRACTICE .......................................................................................................................................................................... 13-35
13.7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 13-35
13.8 CASE STUDIES ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 13-36

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Table of Contents

13.8.1 Section Description .....................................................................................................................................................................13-36

13.8.2 Nebraska City Viaduct, Nebraska..........................................................................................................................................13-36
13.8.3 Interstate 469 Bridge Over Interstate 69, Indiana ........................................................................................................13-43
13.8.4 Menauhant Road Bridge, Massachusetts ...........................................................................................................................13-49
13.8.5 Deer Creek Industrial Park Access Bridge, West Virginia .........................................................................................13-53
13.8.6 Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee .........................................................................13-57
13.9. CONCLUSION .........................................................................................................................................................................................13-67
13.10. CITED REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................................................13-67
13.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................................................................13-68

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Notation

NOTATION
Ap = area of cross section of pile
d = pile width or diameter
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
Ep = modulus of elasticity of pile
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel
EI = flexural stiffness
F = force
Ffall = force due to temperature fall
Frise = force due to temperature rise
Fpassive = force due to passive soil pressure
fb = concrete stress due to bending
𝑓𝑐′ = specified concrete strength at 28 days
g = acceleration due to gravity
H1 = distance from bottom of the superstructure to the top of footing
H2 = distance from bottom of the superstructure to the top of footing
Ic = moment of inertia of concrete column
Ig = moment of inertia of the pile group about the axis under consideration
Ip = moment of inertia of pile about its bending axis
K = effective length factor in plane of bending
K = translational stiffness or soil-pile stiffness
Kh = modulus of subgrade reaction
k = spring stiffness
L = span length
Le = effective length of pile
LL = live load
Mp = bending moment in pile
P = force
R = radius of curve
SDL = superimposed dead load
SH = force effects due to shrinkage
Spile = section modulus of the pile about its bending axis
s = spacing of springs in soil-pile interaction model
wc = unit weight of concrete
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
Δ = deflection
ΔT = change in temperature
ϕ = internal angle of friction

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13.1 Introduction/13.2.1 Basic Characteristics

Integral Bridges
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Traditional bridge design makes use of expansion joints in conjunction with expansion bearings to accommodate
superstructure movements. However, leaking expansion joints and frozen bearings are major bridge maintenance
issues. To address these issues, many state departments of transportation have adopted a policy of designing and
constructing integral bridges, which have no expansion joints, whenever possible. Integral bridge superstructures
are constructed to work integrally with the abutments, as shown in Figure 13.1-1. Movements due to creep,
shrinkage, and temperature changes are accommodated by using flexible piling and through incorporating relief
joints at the ends of the approach slabs.
In addition to reduced maintenance costs, other advantages of this type of bridge include improved structural
integrity; reliability and redundancy; improved long term serviceability; improved riding surface; and reduced
initial cost. Aesthetics are also improved because abutment and pier staining and other damage caused by water
intrusion are avoided.
The material presented in this chapter is based on PCI’s The State of the Art of Precast/Prestressed Integral Bridges
(2001). This state-of-the-art report discusses, analyzes, and reviews the design techniques and considerations
used in the United States and Canada. It also includes a comprehensive reference list for related information and
selected case studies.
Figure 13.1.-1
Elevation of a Typical Integral Bridge

Although integral bridges have been built in high-seismic areas, seismic issues are beyond the scope of this
chapter. The designer is referred to Chapter 15 and the extensive list of publications in the bibliography in Section
13.11 for additional information.

13.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF INTEGRAL (JOINTLESS) BRIDGES

13.2.1 Basic Characteristics
Integral bridges consist of superstructures, abutments (also called end bents), intermediate piers, and
foundations. The design of integral bridges is generally similar to that of conventional bridge design. Special
analysis and design considerations required for integral bridges are primarily associated with the need to
accommodate volumetric changes in the structure, such as thermal movements.
Integral bridges accommodate superstructure movements without conventional expansion joints. The
superstructure is rigidly or semirigidly connected to the abutments. The abutment pilings are flexible, allowing
the superstructure to expand and contract. Approach slabs connected to the abutment and/or deck slab with
reinforcement move with the superstructure. Generally, at its junction with the approach pavement, the approach
slab is supported by a sleeper slab or grade beam. The superstructure movement here is accommodated using
flexible pavement joints.

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13.2.1 Basic Characteristics/13.3.1 Superstructure Details at Integral Abutments

Integral construction is well suited to both single- and multiple-span bridges. For single-span bridges, stability is
provided by passive pressure behind the backwall. For multiple-span bridges, intermediate piers contribute to
the bridge’s stability. The various pier configurations typically used in integral bridges are discussed in Section
13.5.

13.2.2 Limitations
There are limitations on the use of integral bridges. These involve the following factors:
1. Length of structure - Limitations on length are controlled by passive pressure effects, stresses in the piles,
and the movement capacity of the joint between the approach slab and the approach pavement. Many state
departments of transportation limit lengths to 300 ft for steel superstructures and 600 ft for prestressed
concrete superstructures. A few states, such as Tennessee, have successfully used longer lengths.
2. Structure geometry - Only six states have reported application of integral construction to curved bridges.
Skew angles have generally been less than 40 degrees. However, Tennessee has used integral construction
extensively and effectively for curved bridges as well as bridges with skew angles up to 70 degrees.
3. Foundations - Integral bridges require that abutment piles be flexible. Therefore, they should not be used
with pile foundations where rock is less than 10 ft from the bottom of the abutment beam, unless predrilled
holes for piles are employed. The New York Department of Transportation specifies a minimum pile
penetration of 20 ft into acceptable soils to ensure adequate flexibility and to provide for scour protection.
The minimum depth is also meant to provide sufficient lateral support for the pile, particularly when
conditions dictate that the top portion of the pile is pre-drilled and backfilled with granular material.
Usually, integral bridges are founded on piles. However, there are instances where they have been supported by
spread footings that are founded on rock. They can also be supported on spread footings on soil if the soil is well
compacted and the possibility of settlement of the foundation is considered in the design.

13.3 SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN

13.3.1 Superstructure Details at Integral Abutments
The critical detail that makes a bridge an integral bridge is the connection of the superstructure to the integral
abutments. As shown in Figure 13.3.1-1, the girders are framed into the abutment through encasement in
concrete and/or embedded reinforcement (Minnesota Department of Transportation, 2022). The deck slab is
continuous over the abutment. The approach slab is often connected to the abutment with reinforcement. Some
bridge engineers are of the opinion that it is better to hinge the approach slab to the backwall by means of dowel
bars to better accommodate rotation of the abutment or the approach slab. Individual states typically have their
own abutment details that are found in their state bridge design manuals. Leading Practices for Detailing Bridge
Ends and Approach Pavements to Limit Distress and Deterioration (DeRuyver, et al., 2020), the report for National
Cooperative Highway Research Program Scan 19-01, documents the details and practices of 14 states used at the
ends of bridges to achieve a jointless structure while minimizing structural distress, reducing maintenance and
repair costs, and improving performance.

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13.3.1 Superstructure Details at Integral Abutments/13.3.2 Continuity at Piers

Figure 13.3.1-1
Example of Integral Abutment Detail (Figure: Minnesota Department of Transportation)

Because the superstructure is moment-connected to the integral abutments, girder rotation will theoretically
induce moments in the abutment piles. These moments are usually ignored in the design of superstructure since
the superstructure is generally considerably stiffer than the piles. Girder rotation can be minimized by casting the
end span deck slab before the backwall. However, in certain situations, particularly in longer-span integral
bridges, moments due to superstructure rotation are considered in the design of the abutment piles.

13.3.2 Continuity at Piers

Distinction must be made between slab continuity and girder continuity at the piers. For a bridge to be classified
as an integral bridge, it is obvious that the slab must be physically continuous. Joints, if used, should be limited to
saw-cut control joints or construction joints. Girder continuity at the piers, however, is not a necessity unless the
superstructure is designed for continuity. Lack of girder continuity decreases the redundancy of the structure and
increases its vulnerability to catastrophic events such as the loss of a pier. Deck continuity at piers not only
eliminates the potential leakage of water through expansion joints but also is absolutely necessary for integral
bridges.
If girder continuity is provided, the superstructure is most commonly assumed to be continuous for live loads
(LL) and superimposed dead loads (SDL) only. In a typical structure, girders are erected as simple spans and
made continuous by the addition of mild steel in the slab, and by placing concrete diaphragms over the piers,
between the ends of the precast girders, as shown in Figure 13.3.2-1. Systems that use post-tensioning or other
methods of providing girder continuity have also been used successfully. Bulletin 94: Precast Concrete Bridge
Continuity over Piers (fib, 2020) presents examples, details, methodologies, and calculations for establishing
continuity over the piers using simple-span, precast concrete beams. Girder continuity of deck bulb-tees without a
cast-in-place deck has also been studied. NCHRP Research Report 999: Design and Construction of Deck Bulb Tee
Girder Bridges with UHPC Connections (Steinberg, et al., 2022) presents both analytical and experimental results
for continuity at piers.

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13.3.2 Continuity at Piers

Figure 13.3.2-1
Typical Pier Details

When slab-only continuity is provided over the piers, girders are designed as simply supported for all loads and
only the slab and its reinforcement are continuous over the pier. To control cracking, a saw-cut control joint is
usually provided. Figure 13.3.2-2 shows how slab only continuity can be achieved in existing structures by
eliminating the expansion joint. The detail shown in Figure 13.3.2-2 should only be applied to short and medium
spans (up to 100 ft). Flexure cracks in the deck are expected at the pier. However, the problems associated with
these cracks are much less than the problems resulting from leaking joints.

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13.3.2 Continuity at Piers

Figure 13.3.2-2
Retrofitting at Piers for Continuity

At least two agencies reported that they provide girder continuity in the form of extra slab steel and concrete
diaphragms, but then do not decrease midspan positive SDL and LL moments used for prestressed girder design.
Although somewhat conservative, the penalty for this approach is small, except in span ranges that are
approaching the limits of the girder section. Most commonly, however, continuity is considered when calculating
SDL and LL moments.
Advantages and disadvantages of girder continuity are well documented, as are design methodologies. Article
5.12.3.3 in the LRFD Specifications has provisions for simple-span prestressed concrete girders made continuous.
These provisions include requirements for a positive moment connection and consideration of restraint moments
caused by time-dependent deformations. The restraint moments developed by creep and shrinkage are a function
of the age of the girder at the time continuity is established. One study (Huo, et al., 2006) has shown that in
prestressed concrete girders cast with high-strength concrete, the majority of creep and shrinkage strains had
occurred in about 45 days as compared with 150 days for similar girders cast with normal-strength concrete.
Termination of the girder’s positive moment reinforcement must be evaluated carefully to avoid any cracking in
the girder and at the diaphragm-girder interface. The Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code (2019) requires the
mild steel reinforcement be developed beyond the strand transfer length. As an alternative, research presented in
NCHRP Report 519 (Miller, et al., 2004) demonstrates that development of a sufficient number of prestressing
strands projected and cast into cast-in-place diaphragms provides adequate positive moment connection.
Additional specifics can be found in “Pullout Capacity of Non-Prestressed Bent Strands for Prestressed Concrete
Girders” (Noppakunwijai, et al., 2002).
In the special environment of longer-span integral bridges (those with spans longer than 100 ft), particular
attention must be given to the construction sequence if girder continuity is provided. Various agencies have found
that casting the concrete diaphragms over the piers should be done concurrently with placement of the slab.
Failure to follow this procedure has resulted in the splitting of the diaphragms as the weight of the deck concrete
causes the girder ends to rotate, and their restraint to creep and shrinkage effects induces tension in the
diaphragms. At least one agency, however, has had success in allowing the placement of diaphragms early,
provided that the girders do not have both ends restrained before deck concrete placement.
The detailing of the superstructure at the integral abutment is such that girder rotation will theoretically induce
moments in the abutment piles. While these moments may be considered in the design of the piles in special

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13.3.2 Continuity at Piers /13.3.4 Approach Slabs

situations, they are usually ignored in the design of the superstructure. A typical precast, prestressed concrete
superstructure will be significantly stiffer than the abutment piles and will experience negligible moments.
Before specifying the construction sequence, the designer should evaluate the behavior of the girder-diaphragm
system under the combined effects of slab dead load, creep due to prestressing, and differential shrinkage
between the deck slab and girder.

13.3.3 Movements and Restraint Forces

Precast, prestressed concrete superstructures have an important advantage over both steel and cast-in-place
concrete superstructures for integral bridges. The advantage is that precast, prestressed concrete superstructures
experience considerably less thermal movement than steel superstructures, and less long-term movement than
cast-in-place concrete superstructures.
Concrete superstructures are less sensitive to temperature changes because there is a lag between the air
temperature and the interior temperature of a concrete component with its relatively large mass. This
phenomenon is reflected in the LRFD Specifications, which provides lower design temperature variations for
concrete superstructures than for steel. In a moderate climate, a concrete superstructure will expand and contract
a total of approximately 0.5 in. per 100 ft of bridge length with seasonal temperature variation, whereas a steel
superstructure will typically expand and contract approximately 1.0 in. per 100 ft of length. However, as
prestressed concrete girders become deeper and webs become thinner, the difference between the thermal
expansion rates of steel and concrete diminishes.
Thermal movements of a cast-in-place concrete superstructure are similar to those of a precast, prestressed
concrete superstructure. However, creep and shrinkage movements are considerably greater for cast-in-place
than for precast concrete superstructures. This is because the manufacturing process for precast concrete
components is such that much of the long-term shrinkage will have occurred before erection and establishment of
continuity in the superstructure. Moreover, the amount of creep that will occur over time decreases with
increasing age of concrete at time of erection. For these reasons, shrinkage and creep movements of precast,
prestressed concrete superstructures are frequently ignored for structures of moderate length. However, for
longer spans, the differential shrinkage between the cast-in-place slab and the precast concrete girder, in addition
to creep and thermal effects, should be considered.
Even though thermal movements in precast, prestressed concrete components are minimal, restraint forces in the
superstructure will be present. Flexible integral abutments and semi-rigid or flexible piers are used to minimize
the restraint forces in integral bridges.
Various reports have shown that piers and abutments do, in fact, restrain thermal movements and induce tensile
(or compressive) forces in the superstructure. This is evidenced by discrepancies between predicted thermal
movements and those that are actually measured. However, with properly proportioned piers and abutments,
these restraint forces are routinely and safely ignored in the design of the superstructure.
In addition, it can be shown that the resultant of the passive soil pressure behind the backwall will generally be
eccentric with respect to the superstructure. The magnitude of the stresses produced by this eccentric axial force
in the superstructure, however, is negligible and is typically ignored.

13.3.4 Approach Slabs

Approach slabs are usually not considered as part of the superstructure, but they have been found to be one of the
most critical components of an integral bridge. The approach slabs serve two primary purposes:
1. They reduce the compaction of the backfill material behind the backwall due to traffic. Control of excessive
passive soil resistance to thermal expansion is also achieved.
2. The thermal movements of the system are transferred from the end of the bridge to the point where the
approach slab joins the roadway pavement. A flexible pavement joint is provided at this point. Details of
the flexible pavement joint vary from agency to agency. In addition, some agencies use plastic sheets or
expanded polystyrene boards below the approach slab to provide a positive separation from the subgrade
to enhance movement.
An important lesson learned is that the approach slab must be tied to the abutment backwall with mild steel
reinforcing. Failure to provide this reinforcing in some early integral bridges resulted in a gradually increasing

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13.3.4 Approach Slabs/13.4.1 Abutment Configurations

opening of the joint between the backwall and approach slab. The cause of this problem is the inability of the
approach slab to move with the abutment on the contraction portion of the thermal cycle. Accumulation of debris
in the joint leads to a successively wider opening of the joint with each expansion portion of the cycle. Many
bridge engineers prefer to have hinge-style reinforcing bar details across this joint instead of straight horizontal
bars in order to accommodate rotation of the abutment or the approach slab.
Approach slabs are generally about 20 to 25 ft long and are standardized in most states. To accommodate the
desired movement rating, the flexible pavement joint should match that of the particular joint material used.
Theoretically, the reinforcement needed for connection to the abutment should exceed the weight of the slab
multiplied by the coefficient of friction between poured concrete and sub-base material used. No. 6 bars at 12 in.
centers have reportedly worked well in some states.
Another method, which has been used in Ontario, is to design the approach slab bottom reinforcement based on a
span equal to 50% of the slab length, usually 20 to 30 ft. Assuming that the approach slab is dragged on the
approach fill, the reinforcement to tie the slab to the abutment backwall is nominal. The width of the joint at the
free end of the approach slab should be kept small. A ¾-in.-wide sealed sawcut in the pavement at the end of the
approach slab has reportedly worked well for bridge lengths up to 300 ft.

13.4 ABUTMENT DESIGN

13.4.1 Abutment Configurations
The beginning or ending substructure element of a bridge is commonly referred to as an abutment or end bent.
There are numerous variations that are used and these units may be further described as bench-type, spill-
through, stub, deep, cantilever, and so on. Figure 13.4.1-1 shows different types of integral abutments. For
consistency within this chapter, these units will be collectively referred to as abutments, with only minimal added
descriptions of their variations.
Figure 13.4.1-2 shows a typical integral abutment. Normally H-piles with bending about their weak axis are used,
although piles with bending about their strong axis have also been used. Precast, prestressed concrete piles with
their tops encased in a compressible material (Kamal, et al., 1996) and steel pipe piles have also been used.
Testing has indicated that prestressed concrete piles are suitable for supporting integral abutments and can
withstand slowly applied lateral deflections, such as those induced by temperature changes of a bridge (Burdette,
et al., 2003)
Figure 13.4.1-1
Integral Abutment Types

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13.4.1 Abutment Configurations

Figure 13.4.1-1 (cont.)

Integral Abutment Types

In integral bridges, the ends of the girders are fixed to the abutments. Expansion joints are thus eliminated at
these supports. With the expansion joints eliminated, forces are induced in the substructure due to resistance to
thermal movement and to creep and shrinkage. These have to be considered in the design of integral abutments.
Figure 13.4.1-2
Typical Integral Abutment

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13.4.2 Accommodating Superstructure Movement at Abutments

13.4.2 Accommodating Superstructure Movement at Abutments

Generally, integral abutments are supported by a single row of piles. The integral abutment bridge concept is
based on the theory that due to the flexibility of these piles, thermal stresses are transferred to the substructure
by way of a rigid connection. The concrete abutment contains sufficient bulk to be considered a rigid mass. The
moment connection between the girder ends and the abutment transfers temperature variation and live-load
displacements to the abutment piling.
Semirigid, or semi-integral abutments may also be used to eliminate expansion joints at these points of support.
In the semi-integral concept, the transfer of rotational displacement to the piles is minimized. Rotation is
generally accomplished by using a flexible bearing surface at a selected horizontal interface in the abutment
backwall. Allowing rotation at the pile top generally reduces pile loads. Figure 13.4.2-1 shows a typical semi-
integral abutment.
To support the integral or semi-integral abutment with its single row of piles, the piles are driven vertically and
none are battered longitudinal to the bridge. This arrangement of piles permits the abutment to move in a
longitudinal direction under temperature, creep, and shrinkage effects. Steel H piles, steel pipes filled with
concrete, precast concrete round, square, and octagonal piles, and mandrel piles have been used.
Figure 13.4.2-1
Typical Semi-Integral Abutment

Some designers are concerned about pile length when standard precast concrete piles are used. Their concern is
that the greater stiffness of a concrete pile will tend to resist thermal movement of the abutment and cause
excessive shear stresses in the top of the pile just below the abutment. Conversely, when the piles are long (about
40 ft or longer for a 14-in.-square concrete pile), there is sufficient flexibility in the pile to allow movement and to
avoid high shear. However, for both steel piles and concrete piles, the type of soil surrounding the pile also

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13.4.2 Accommodating Superstructure Movement at Abutments/13.4.3 Passive Pressure Reduction

substantially affects the ability of the top of the pile to move laterally. To improve flexibility, piles are often driven
through prebored holes. The annular space is filled with granular material after installation of the piles.
Research has demonstrated that rotation and translation fixity of the embedded portion of the pile into the
abutment create significant relief of the stresses at the top of the pile. Such relief can be achieved by enclosing a
portion of the pile embedment at the top in expanded polystyrene board or a similar compressible material.
Opinions differ on the proper orientation for steel H-piles in an integral abutment. Some designers prefer to align
the strong axis of the pile parallel to the abutment wall. Others prefer to place the piles with the weak axis aligned
parallel to the longitudinal dimension of the abutment wall (parallel to the centerline of roadway for a 0 degree
skew). Overall, the consensus seems to be toward designs to permit weak axis bending. The amount of movement
will be approximately the same for either orientation; however, strong-axis bending will create more resisting
force than weak-axis bending. Due to a greater moment of inertia, stresses in an H-pile oriented for strong-axis
bending will be less than for weak-axis bending. Stresses due to the P- effect are inversely proportional to
moment of inertia I and will therefore be larger for bending about the weak axis.
If square or round precast, prestressed concrete piles are used, the stresses along either of the axes will be the
same if there is no bending. Precast ultra-high-performance concrete H-shaped piles do have a weak and strong
axis.

13.4.3 Passive Pressure Reduction

Various means of reducing the resistance of integral abutments to passive pressures that are caused by thermal
movement have been successfully put into practice. Generally, these methods consist of placing granular,
noncompacted materials as backfill at the abutments, as shown in Figure 13.4.3-1. When this is done, it is also
necessary to provide an approach slab supported at one end on the abutment bridge seat to prevent future
compaction of voids in the granular materials. Figures 13.4.3-1 and 13.4.3-2 show typical details of the approach
slab at the transition with the roadway slab.
Figure 13.4.3-1
Typical Approach Slab

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13.4.3 Passive Pressure Reduction/13.4.4 Details at Abutment

Figure 13.4.3-2
Sleeper Slab Detail

13.4.4 Details at Abutments

The Virginia Department of Transportation reports well over 10 years of satisfactory performance of integral
bridges. The agency has developed a guide for use in the design of integral bridges with particular emphasis on
the design and details for the abutments and approach slabs (DeRuyver, et al., 2020). Some of this information is
depicted in Figures 13.4.4-1, 13.4.4-2, and 13.4.4-3.

This space intentionally left blank

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13.4.4 Details at Abutment

Figure 13.4.4-1
Integral Bridge Abutment Detail 1

Ld

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13.4.4 Details at Abutment

Figure 13.4.4-2
Integral Bridge Abutment Detail 2

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13.4.4 Details at Abutment/13.4.5.1 Problems

Figure 13.4.4-3
Integral Bridge Abutment Detail 3

13.4.5 Problems and Solutions

Pennsylvania Department of Transportation has been constructing bridges with integral abutments since 1991.
They had a public-private-partnership rapid replacement project that replaced over 558 bridges over a four-year
period. Many of the new bridges had integral abutments and the agency has developed an integral abutment
design spreadsheet (DeRuyver, et al., 2020). During preparation of their design policies, the Pennsylvania
Department of Transportation conducted a study of problems encountered by various state highway agencies
using integral abutments. Some of the problems they reported and their corresponding solutions are as follows:

13.4.5.1 Problems
• Backfill settling into the void between the abutment and fill when the bridge superstructure contracts.
• Settling of roadway fill under the approach slabs due to traffic compaction.
• Undermining of the abutments due to drainage at the bridge ends.
• Movement at the abutment caused by shortening of prestressed concrete superstructures due to creep
and shrinkage.
• Cracking of wing walls due to rotation and contraction of the superstructure

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13.4.5.1 Problems/13.5.1 Introduction

• Development of a bump in the asphalt pavement at abutments due to movement of the bridge.
• Cracking observed in abutment stem due to rotational forces in skewed integral bridges.
• Wrong-size joints.
• Opening of the joints between the bridge and the approach pavement over several years of cycling
through the extremes of summer and winter temperatures.
• Continuous maintenance of the approach embankments due to settlement at the paving notch and along
the wing walls.
• Damage to the approach embankment and pavement caused by water intrusion between the abutment
and approach roadway.

13.4.5.2 Solutions
Many of the states that are currently building integral abutment bridges have found solutions to the previously
stated problems. For example:
• Provisions for a reinforced concrete approach slab tied to the abutment stem and bridge deck solved
many of these problems. With a properly sized roadway expansion joint placed over a sleeper slab or
grade beam located 20 to 50 ft away from the end of the bridge deck, the settlement due to traffic
compaction and backfill settling into the void when the bridge contracts can be avoided.
• Adverse effects from longitudinal shortening due to creep in prestressed concrete bridge superstructures
have been solved in some states by constructing the cast-in-place wing walls after a specified period of
time has passed, allowing most of the creep to have already occurred. Predrilling oversized holes for the
top 8 to 20 ft of piles and filling the holes with a loose granular material is another effective method for
eliminating the same problem. In Canada, it has been reported that expanded polystyrene pellets have
also been used successfully to fill predrilled holes.
• Undermining and other erosion problems have been eliminated through the use of granular backfill to
allow free drainage. Providing granular backfill, along with a proper drainage system, also eliminates the
buildup of hydrostatic pressure behind the abutment.
• Abutment cracking due to rotation and contraction has been reduced or eliminated by limiting the skew
and orienting the piles for weak-axis bending, by using predrilled, oversized holes to reduce stresses, or
by both of these methods. State requirements vary for the depths of the predrilled, oversized holes used
with integral abutment bridges. For example, Iowa requires a minimum depth of 8 ft for integral
abutment bridges longer than 130 ft. Other states require depths of up to 20 ft or more.
• Predrilled, oversized holes create a hinge effect in the substructure, which increases the flexibility of the
piles and the abutment wall. These predrilled, oversized holes also aid in minimizing pile down-drag
forces when used in compressible soils.
• At least two states have used a corrugated metal pressure-relief system behind the backwall to reduce
passive earth pressures on the abutment and to help reduce the formation of void spaces caused by
contraction of the superstructure.
• One state has used expanded polystyrene board behind the abutment backwall.
An item needing further study and evaluation is the interface between the slope protection and the abutment
stem. Because of the flexibility of the abutment, gaps have formed at this interface in some of the bridges. Until
this condition can be permanently prevented, periodic inspection and corrective measures should be considered.

13.5 PIER DESIGN

13.5.1 Introduction
Piers for integral bridges have similar design requirements and share common design procedures with those of
piers of more traditional bridge types. The primary distinguishing features of the piers of an integral bridge
involve accommodation of potentially large superstructure movements and the sharing of transverse

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13.5.1 Introduction/13.5.2.1 Flexible Bents

(perpendicular to the longitudinal centerline of the bridge) and longitudinal (parallel to the centerline of the
bridge) forces among substructure units.

13.5.2 Accommodating Superstructure Movements at Piers

Like integral abutments, the piers of an integral bridge must be designed to accommodate the superstructure
movements. Thermal movements are usually the major concern, although superstructure movements due to
concrete creep and shrinkage will also be present to some degree. Creep and shrinkage movements of precast,
prestressed concrete girders are frequently ignored. However, for longer integral bridges, these effects must also
be considered in the design of the piers.
It is normally assumed that any reduction of free superstructure movements due to pier stiffness is negligible.
Although reductions on the order of 17% of calculated thermal movements have been attributed to substructure
restraint (University of Tennessee Civil Engineering Department, 1982), most pier designs do not take advantage
of any reduction.
To successfully design the piers to accommodate potentially large superstructure movements, the designer has
several options:
1. Flexible bents - rigidly connected to the superstructure
2. Isolated rigid piers - connected to the superstructure by means of flexible bearings
3. Semirigid piers - connected to the superstructure with dowels and neoprene bearing pads
4. Hinged-base piers - connected to the superstructure with dowels and neoprene bearing pads

13.5.2.1 Flexible Bents

A single row of piles with a concrete cap that may be rigidly attached to the superstructure provides a typical
example of a flexible bent (Fig. 13.5.2-1). This type of bent is assumed to provide vertical support only. The small
moments induced in the piles due to superstructure rotation or translation are usually ignored (Burke and
Weintraut, 1991; Burke, 1993).
A bridge constructed with flexible bents relies entirely on the integral abutments for stability in the bridge's
longitudinal direction and for resisting longitudinal forces. Passive pressures behind the backwalls, friction, and
passive pressures on abutment piles are mobilized to resist transverse and longitudinal forces.
The advantage of this system is that by virtue of the flexibility and ductility of the bents, no special considerations
need be made to accommodate the thermal movements associated with long integral bridges. Bents are,
therefore, economical easy to construct, and result in a very simple system.
Two potential disadvantages are introduced with this type of bent. First, the possible need for temporary bracing
to provide stability during construction must be considered. Second, a reasonable amount of backfill compaction
is required to mobilize passive pressure due to modest displacement of the backwall.

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13.5.2.1 Flexible Bents/13.5.2.2 Isolated Rigid Piers

Figure 13.5.2-1
Typical Flexible Bent

13.5.2.2 Isolated Rigid Piers

Rigid piers are defined as piers whose base is considered fixed against rotation and translation, either by large
footings bearing on soil or rock, or by pile groups designed to resist moment. The connection to the
superstructure is usually detailed in a way that allows free longitudinal movement of the superstructure but
restrains transverse movements. This type of detailing permits the superstructure to undergo thermal
movements freely but allows the pier to participate in carrying transverse forces.
In modern precast concrete bridges with this type of pier, the superstructure is supported on relatively tall,
laminated neoprene bearing pads. A shear block, isolated from the pier diaphragm with a compressible material
such as cork, is cast on the top of the pier cap to guide the movement longitudinally, while restraining transverse
movements (Fig. 13.5.2.2-1).
If the designer does not wish to rely solely on the integral abutments to provide resistance to transverse and/or
longitudinal forces, one or more rigid piers near the center of the structure may be provided to restrain
transverse and/or longitudinal movements and thus reduce the amount of thermal movement at the abutments.
This approach represents the traditional solution taken with steel girder bridges at so-called expansion piers. It
offers the advantage of eliminating the stresses associated with superstructure thermal movements. It also
provides piers that require no temporary shoring for stability during construction.
The primary disadvantage of this system lies in the additional expense associated with the taller bearing pads and
the detailing associated with the shear key. In addition, because the pier and the superstructure are isolated
longitudinally, the designer must ensure that the bearing seats are wide enough to accommodate seismic
movements.

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13.5.2.2 Isolated Rigid Piers/13.5.2.3 Semirigid Piers

Figure 13.5.2.2-1
Typical Isolated Rigid Pier

13.5.2.3 Semirigid Piers

Semirigid piers are the preferred type of pier among many agencies and designers of integral bridges. These piers
are similar to rigid piers, described previously, with bases considered fixed by either large spread footings or pile
groups. However, the connection of semirigid piers to the superstructure differs significantly from that of rigid
piers.
A typical semirigid pier superstructure connection is shown in Figure 13.5.2.3-1. Here, the precast concrete
girders bear on 0.5- to 1.5-in.-thick elastomeric pads. A diaphragm is placed between the ends of the girders, and
dowels, perhaps combined with a shear key between girders, connect the diaphragm to the pier cap.
Compressible materials are frequently introduced along the edges of the diaphragm, and, along with the
elastomeric bearing pads, allow the girders to rotate freely under live load.
The dowels force the pier to move with the superstructure as it undergoes thermal expansion and contraction,
and, to a lesser extent, creep and shrinkage. Accommodation of these movements requires careful analysis during
the design of the piers. Normally, the stiffness of the piers is reduced due to cracking and creep of the pier
concrete, which should be factored into the analysis.

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13.5.2.3 Semirigid Piers/13.5.2.4 Hinged-Base Piers

The advantages of this type of simplified pier detailing are that thin elastomeric pads are relatively inexpensive,
temporary shoring is not required during construction, all piers participate in resisting seismic forces, and the
girders are positively attached to the piers. In addition, with multiple piers active in resisting longitudinal and
transverse forces, the designer need not rely solely on passive soil pressures at the integral abutments to resist
lateral forces.
Figure 13.5.2.3-1
Semirigid Pier–to–Superstructure Connection

The main disadvantage of semirigid piers is that they are slightly more complicated than other pier types because
careful assessment of foundation conditions, pier stiffness, and estimated movements are required. Indeed, in
some situations, semirigid piers are inappropriate. For example, short piers bearing on solid rock may not have
adequate flexibility to accommodate large movements without distress to the piers.

13.5.2.4 Hinged-Base Piers

The Tennessee Department of Transportation has used a hinged-base pier similar to the one shown in Figure
13.5.2.4-1. This type of detail may be used to avoid the need for an expansion pier in a situation where semirigid
piers have inadequate flexibility. Temporary construction shoring is required, and additional detailing
requirements at the top of the footing may increase cost. However, the designer should keep this alternative in
mind for use under special circumstances where the other pier types are not feasible (Wasserman 1987).

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13.5.2.4 Hinged-Base Piers/13.5.3.1 Longitudinal and Transverse Load Distribution

Figure 13.5.2.4-1
Typical Hinged-Base Pier

13.5.3 Analysis and Design of Semirigid Piers

Piers supporting long, multiple-span integral superstructures frequently require specialized analytical models to
predict transverse load distributions, forces induced as a result of superstructure movements, pier stiffness, and
slenderness effects. Although traditional bridges require similar analytical models, the relatively large
substructure movements associated with integral bridges place special emphasis on the topics covered here.
Whereas this discussion is based on the semirigid pier type, it is generally applicable to other types of piers, with
minor modifications.

13.5.3.1 Longitudinal and Transverse Load Distribution

As part of the overall structural system, semirigid piers will typically be required to carry a portion of the
externally applied longitudinal and transverse loads on the bridge. In addition, thermal movements of the
superstructure will induce forces as the piers attempt to restrain those movements.
In order to distribute external loads to the substructure units, one of the following two possible assumptions is
commonly made:
1. Flexible superstructure/rigid substructure - A carryover from the traditional simple span, jointed bridge
deck, this method assigns a tributary length of superstructure to each substructure unit. This tributary
length is usually based on a simple-span assumption between supports. This method satisfies
equilibrium, but is usually inconsistent with geometric compatibility of displacements.
2. Rigid superstructure/flexible substructure - This method, which is preferable for integral bridges,
distributes loads to the substructure elements in relation to their stiffness and satisfies geometric
compatibility of displacements. This analysis becomes a three-dimensional frame problem when
supports are skewed.
The first method offers simplicity and is straightforward. However, results may be somewhat unreliable in
situations where substructure stiffness and span lengths vary significantly.

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13.5.3.1 Longitudinal and Transverse Load Distribution/13.5.3.3 Estimation of Pier Stiffness Parameters

The second method requires additional effort on the part of the designer, but it is preferable for integral bridges
that use semirigid piers.
Both methods require that the designer exercise judgment regarding the extent to which integral abutments will
participate in carrying longitudinal and transverse loads. Reasonable assumptions regarding abutment stiffness
can be made using documented methods (Reese and Wang, 1989) Current practice varies from assuming that all
forces are carried by the abutments (Burke, 1993) to conservatively assuming that no forces are resisted by the
abutments. Using very low or zero stiffness to model the abutments results in a conservative pier design.

13.5.3.2 Equivalent Forces Due to Superstructure Movements

As the superstructure expands and contracts with seasonal temperature changes and, to a lesser extent, due to
creep and shrinkage, the tops of the piers will be forced to undergo displacements relative to their bases. These
displacements will produce curvatures in the pier columns that can be closely estimated based on the magnitude
of the movements, the fixity conditions at the top and bottom of the columns, and the height of the columns.
It is significant to mention that if footing rotations and pier cap deformations are ignored, the curvatures are
essentially independent of the column stiffness EI, and depend only on the pier geometry and the magnitude of
the displacements.
For a skewed, multicolumn-type pier, displacements and curvatures in the direction transverse to the pier cap
and along the pier cap must be considered separately.
Once curvatures are estimated, if the pier is concrete an effective EI must be chosen in order to compute internal
moments and shears (see LRFD Table 3.4.1-3 for load factors with respect to I). A set of equivalent external forces,
in equilibrium with the computed internal moments and shears, can be computed by statics. This set of equivalent
forces is used in subsequent analysis to represent the effects of superstructure movements on the piers.

13.5.3.3 Estimation of Pier Stiffness Parameters

To compute the forces induced by superstructure movements and for calculating the distribution of externally
applied loads to the substructure units, it is necessary to estimate the effective EI of the piers. Several approaches
are common in selecting the effective EI. These methods vary in terms of complexity and accuracy. At one extreme
is the use of the full, uncracked, elastic section properties of the gross column section to calculate EI. This
approach is simple and well suited for figuring the distribution of external loads to the substructure units.
However, this method is overly conservative for calculating forces due to superstructure movement and could
result in impractical foundation and column designs.
At the other extreme is the use of a nonlinear moment-curvature relationship that accounts for the effects of
cracking, nonlinear stress-strain curves, time dependent behavior (creep and shrinkage), and axial load. These
methods can be complicated and time consuming, and are seldom justified. However, in critical design situations
or when evaluating an existing pier, this type of analysis may be required. Computerized methods that can
accurately estimate the restraint forces caused by displacements of the superstructure using nonlinear moment-
curvature relationships are available. Linear approximations to theoretical nonlinear moment-curvature
relationships (Manzelli and Harik, 1993) are also available for some standard bridge pier sections, and these
approximations may represent a compromise between rigorous solutions and simplified methods.
Most commonly, simplified methods are used. These methods calculate an effective EI, reduced from the linear
elastic value, to account for concrete cracking and creep. Several factors may reduce the effective EI:
• Cracking, if present under the load combination considered, will result in a significant reduction in
moment of inertia.
• Relaxation and/or creep of the concrete will occur as a result of the gradually varied curvatures
associated with seasonal temperature variations.
• Column base rotation will occur to some extent, depending on foundation conditions. Charts that can be
used to estimate the stiffness of a footing bearing on various foundation materials are available (PCI,
1992) Further discussion of foundation stiffness is presented in Section 13.6.
When computing thermal forces and a refined analysis for the piers or bents is not performed, Tennessee
Department of Transportation uses a reduced modulus of elasticity of 1000 ksi. It is also the agency’s policy to

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13.5.3.3 Estimation of Pier Stiffness Parameters/13.6.1 Introduction

assume some foundation rotation and reduce the column moment resulting from thermal force by half
(Tennessee Department of Transportation, 2022).
The State Route 137 bridge over the Holston River in Tennessee demonstrates how effective EI values can
accurately predict the equivalent forces due to superstructure movement (University of Tennessee Civil
Engineering Department, 1982). This bridge is 2,700 ft long and consists of 29 spans of precast, prestressed
concrete box girders with a cast-in-place concrete deck. Each semirigid pier is connected to the superstructure
with dowels.
During construction, strain gauges were placed at various points in the structure, including selected reinforcing
bars at the base of the first pier. At this location, approximately 1,250 ft of superstructure would be expected to
contribute to the movement at the top of the pier.
Under a 40 °F temperature rise, curvature at the base of the pier was calculated based on measured bar strains.
This curvature was found to be consistent with a cracked section and a corresponding steel stress of
approximately 18 ksi. Assuming a linear variation of the computed curvature, a prediction of the displacement at
the top of the pier was made.
The prediction based on computed curvature agreed exactly with the measured movement at that point. Although
cracking was reportedly observed in the pier, no distress was noted. The use of elastic uncracked properties
would have significantly overestimated the forces for this bridge. This example also demonstrates that cracking of
the piers as a means of relief of restraint forces can be tolerated in a long bridge.

13.5.3.4 Load Combinations

Similar to the design of a traditional pier, piers of integral bridges are designed for the load combinations
specified in the relevant design code. Often, load combinations involving temperature, creep, and shrinkage
control the design of integral bridges, as opposed to combinations containing external loads only. The pier must
be capable of undergoing the imposed superstructure movements and induced forces while simultaneously
resisting external forces. LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-3 list load combinations to be investigated and the
appropriate load factors, including load factors for permanent loads due to superimposed deformations from
creep and shrinkage,

13.5.3.5 Slenderness Effects

The piers supporting an integral bridge are commonly designed as individual elements using the moment-
magnification factor method specified in ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and
Commentary (2019) and of the LRFD Specifications Article 4.5.3.2.2. However, some designers advocate using
effective length factors of less than 1.0 for the columns in an integral bridge, thus resisting sidesway both
longitudinally and transversely by the integral abutments (Burke and Weintraut, 1991). Under this condition,
slenderness effects and moment magnification would be significantly reduced.
If it is conservatively assumed that longitudinal sidesway of piers is not resisted by abutments, advantage can still
be taken of the fact that all the semirigid piers in the bridge must fail before sidesway instability is reached.
Reducing the effective length factor, which results in an increased Pc, (see LRFD Art. 4.5.3.2.2b-5) is often justified,
and also reduces moment-magnification factors. The designer should be aware of load cases found in LRFD Table
3.4.1-1 and if the controlling load group includes externally applied loads plus effects of rib shortening, shrinkage,
temperature, and such, these effects will reduce the effect of the external loads in approximately 50% of the
semirigid piers supporting an integral bridge. These mostly unloaded piers provide a stabilizing effect, reducing
the moment magnification on the loaded piers due to sidesway. While these effects are seldom considered directly
in design, they can assist the designer in avoiding excessively conservative pier designs.

13.6 ANALYSIS CONSIDERATIONS

13.6.1 Introduction
For typical integral bridges, a two-dimensional structural analysis is usually sufficient for the determination of
vertical, longitudinal and time-dependent loading effects. However, more complex structures, such as those with

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13.6.1 Introduction

large skews or horizontal curvature may require a three-dimensional finite element analysis. The complexity of
the model and degree of analysis used should reflect site-specific conditions and the desired results.
Most significant in the analysis of integral bridges are the calculations and assumptions that are made concerning
foundation stiffness. The required level of detail in the calculations varies according to the complexity of the
structure.
For typical integral grade separation structures of moderate overall length with minimal skew and flexible piling,
zero stiffness against rotation and lateral movement is commonly assumed at the abutment foundations.
Accordingly, fixity between the superstructure and the abutment piles is neglected in the design of the
superstructure. The piles are designed for vertical loads only, neglecting the effects of bending due to temperature
change, creep, shrinkage, and P- effects. Pier stiffness may be calculated using the methods given in Section 13.5.
In longer multiple-span bridges where semirigid piers are used, refinements in the analyses may be necessary to
properly distribute external forces and forces due to superstructure movement to the substructure units. This
analysis may also be desirable when designing moderate length structures that have abutments with stiffer pile-
type foundations.
As stated in Section 13.5, a semirigid pier is generally pinned to the superstructure. If the pier is assumed fixed at
the footing, then the translational stiffness K of an intermediate pier on a spread footing can be calculated by:
3𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐
𝐾=
𝐻13
where
Ec = modulus of elasticity of the concrete column
Ic = moment of inertia of the concrete column
H1 = the distance from the bottom of the superstructure to the top of footing
For actual applications, Ec and Ic are usually reduced to account for creep and shrinkage and might also be
reduced to account for cracking.
For footings on piles, the rotational flexibility of the pile group should be accounted for as a reduction in stiffness.
The modified stiffness term can be expressed as:
1
𝐾=
𝐻13 𝐻22 𝐿𝑝
( + )
3𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑔 𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝

where
H2 = distance from top of pier cap to bottom of footing, ft
Lp = effective pile length, ft
Ig = moment of inertia of the pile group about the axis under consideration, ft2
Ap = cross-sectional area of a typical pile, in2
Ep = modulus of elasticity of a typical pile, ksi
The second term in the denominator represents the stiffness of a group of axially loaded “truss” members (the
piles) subjected to compression or tension due to footing rotation.
Figures 13.6.1-1 and 13.6.1-2 show the details of a three-span continuous structure. The stiffness of the pier
footing can be computed using the previous equations.

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13.6.1 Introduction

Figure 13.6.1-1
Elevation of Structure

First, considering the pier to be fixed at the footing for the spread footings:
𝐸𝑐 = 120,000𝐾1 𝑤𝑐 2.0 𝑓𝑐′ 0.33 [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]
where
K1 = correction factor for source of aggregate, taken as 1.0
Concrete strength at 28 days 𝑓𝑐′ = 3.0 ksi
Concrete unit weight (assumed), wc = 0.150 kcf
𝐸𝑐 = 120,000(1.0)(0.150)2.0 (4.0)0.33 = 3,880 ksi = (558,697 ksf)

11.5(3.5)3 π(3.5)4
𝐼𝑐 = + = 48.45 ft 4
12 64
𝐻1 = 50 ft
3(558,697)(48.45)
𝐾= = 649.6. kips⁄ft
503

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13.6.1 Introduction

Figure 13.6.1-2
Substructure Details

Second, including the effects of footing rotation for a pile foundation with an assumed end bearing pile length of
50 ft:
Ig = 12(1.752 + 5.252) = 367.5 ft2

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13.6.1 Introduction/13.6.2 Equivalent-Cantilever Method

Ep = 29,000 ksi
Ap = 15.5 in2
1
𝐾= = 412.9 kips/ft
1 (542 )(50)
(649.6) +
(367.5)(15.5)(29,000)649.6
This example shows that the reduction in stiffness is considerable when footing rotation is included in the
analysis. Reduced stiffness due to cracking is not considered in this example. The effect of lowered stiffness will
be to reduce the forces in the structure. Using this effect can be advantageous. Figure 13.6.1-3 shows the stiffness
assumptions graphically.
Figure 13.6.1-3
Stiffness Assumptions

Due to the integral concrete diaphragms at the end bents, the tops of the piles are usually considered rigidly
attached to the superstructure. Also, because the flexural stiffness of the superstructure is several times greater
than the stiffness of the intermediate bents and the end bent piles, the superstructure can be modeled as a rigid
bar. Intermediate bents are considered hinged to the superstructure.
For very long integral bridges, soil structure interaction analysis can be used to obtain a sufficiently accurate
distribution of forces. The analysis proceeds as follows:
1. Initial stiffness assumptions are made for the foundations of each substructure unit.
2. The structure is analyzed for each required load combination.
3. Foundation forces are extracted and the pile groups are analyzed for the applied forces and actual subsurface
profiles.
4. New foundation stiffness factors are calculated.
5. Steps 2 through 4 are repeated until convergence.
The equivalent-cantilever method described in Section 13.6.2 may be used to obtain the initial foundation
stiffness.

13.6.2 Equivalent-Cantilever Method

This example illustrates a procedure for calculating the equivalent cantilever for piles in an integral end bent. The
procedure is similar for groups of piles, as long as none of the piles are battered.
A simplified model for pile deformation is shown in Figure 13.6.2-1. Equivalent length Le can be determined by
considering soil-pile interaction. To accomplish this, the soil will be modeled with a series of translational springs
resisting the horizontal movement of the piles. For simplicity of this example, the lateral stiffness of the soil mass
will be taken as constant with depth (constant modulus of subgrade reaction in kip/ft3). For most soil types, the

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13.6.2 Equivalent-Cantilever Method

lateral stiffness of the soil mass increases with depth. The two-dimensional model shown in Figure 13.6.2-2 was
developed using a two-dimensional frame program.
Figure 13.6.2-1
Simplified Pile Deformation Model

Figure 13.6.2-2
Soil-Pile Interaction Model

The value of the soil spring stiffness k is dependent on the modulus of subgrade reaction Kh (Table 13.6.2-1). For
this example, both a loose soil and a dense soil are considered.
Table 13.6.2-1
Soil Spring Stiffness for Loose and Dense Soils
Soil Type Kh, kip/ft3
Loose 100
Dense 400

Spring stiffness k = Khds

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13.6.2 Equivalent-Cantilever Method/13.6.3 Forces in Substructure Units

where
d= pile width or diameter, ft
s= spacing of springs in the model, ft
The pile modeled for each soil density case was a HP12x53 pile about its minor axis (Ip = 127 in.4). Displacement
and moment at the top of the pile bent due to 100-kip horizontal load are listed in Table 13.6.2-2.
Table 13.6.2-2
Displacements and Moments for Loose and Dense Soil Types
Soil Type Kh, kip/ft3 Displacement Δ, in. Moment M, kip-in.
Loose 100 2.13 3,376
Dense 400 0.750 2,374

Table 13.6.2-3
Effective Length of Pile
Effective Length Le, in.
Stiffness K,
Soil Type Based on
Based on Moment kip/in.
100-kip Load

6𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 Δ 3 12𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 Δ 12𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝

Equation √ √
𝑀 𝑃 𝐿3𝑒

Loose 117.8 (9.8 ft) 97.9 (8.2 ft) 35.1 (421 kip/ft)
Dense 83.6 (7.0 ft) 69.2 (5.8 ft) 118.4 (1,421 kip/ft)

where
Ep = 29,000 ksi
Ip = 127 in4
M = (See Table 13.6.2-2)
Δ = (See Table 13.6.2-2)
P = 100 kips
The value of K in Table 13.6.2-3 is based on Le = 9.0 ft for loose soil and 6.0 ft for dense soil. The value is
computed for the end bent, which has ten HP12x53 piles.
Since calculated Le values based on P and M are not equal for each soil density case, it can be concluded that the
simplified pile model is only an approximate representation of soil-pile interaction. However, for normal design
applications, the simplified model should be adequate when a single soil type is encountered along the length of
the pile. In practice, multiple soil types are typically encountered along the length of the pile. In such situations,
software such as LPILE or GROUP that considers multiple soil profiles may be used to determine effective length
of pile Le. These programs have moment and deflection plot capabilities. From these plots, Le can be determined.

13.6.3 Forces in Substructure Units

Because the translational stiffness of the substructure units is the same, the point of zero movement of the
superstructure will be at the midpoint of the center span in this example. For a temperature fall of 40 °F and
temperature rise of 30 °F, the calculations are as follows:
Forces at intermediate bents:
Δfall = αΔTL = (6.0×10‒6)(40)(50) = 0.012 ft

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13.6.3 Forces in Substructure Units

Δrise = αΔTL = (6. 0×10‒6)(30)(50) = 0.009 ft

Pile footings:
Ffall = (0.012)(357.7) = 4.3 kips
Frise = (0.009)(357.7) = 3.2 kips
Spread footings:
Ffall = (0.012)(522.8) = 6.3 kips
Frise = (0.009)(522.8) = 4.7 kips
Forces at end bents:
Δfall = (6.0×10‒6)(40)(150) = 0.036 ft
Δrise = (6. 0×10‒6)(30)(150) = 0.027 ft
Loose soil:
Ffall = (0.036)(421) = 15.2 kips
Frise = (0.027)(421) = 11.4 kips
Dense soil:
Ffall = (0.036)(1,421) = 51.2 kips
Frise = (0.027)(1,421) = 38.4 kips
For the case of temperature rise, a theoretical passive pressure force Fpassive is mobilized behind the end bents,
which may be considered in addition to the resistance due to soil-pile interaction. Effects of soil placed in front of
the abutment are ignored. To determine Fpassive for this example, an internal angle of friction ϕ for the backfill
material will be taken as 28 degrees. Using 120 pcf for the density of the soil, Fpassive is:
ϕ 𝐻2
𝐹𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 120tan2 (45 + ) ( ) (𝐿)
2 2
where
H = total depth of the end bent, ft
L = length of end bent, ft
28 10.52 45.67
𝐹𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 120tan2 (45 + )( )( ) = 836.8 kips
2 2 1,000
Total force for the loose soil case:
Ftotal = Frise + Fpassive = 11.4+836.8 = 848.2 kips (169.6 kip/girder)
Total force for the dense soil case:
Ftotal = Frise + Fpassive = 38.4+836.8 = 875.2 kips (175.0 kip/girder)
The passive pressure force developed behind the backwall is resisted by backwall bending (Fig. 13.6.3-1). This
backwall bending is usually not significant and can readily be accommodated by nominal reinforcing in the
backwall.

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13.6.3 Forces in Substructure Units

Figure 13.6.3-1
Forces Acting on End Bent

Consider pile moments caused by soil-pile interaction:

𝑀 6𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 Δ⁄𝐿2𝑒
𝑓𝑏 = =
𝑆 𝑆
where
Ep = 29,000 ksi
Ip = 127 in4
Le = 9 ft for loose soil; 6 ft for dense soil
Δ = 0.036 ft
Spile = 21.1 in3
Loose soil:
6(29,000)(127)(0.036)(12)
𝑀𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 = = 818.4 in‐ kips
(12 × 9)2
fb = 818.4/21.1 = 38.8 ksi > 36 ksi
Dense soil:
6(29,000)(127)(0.036)(12)
𝑀𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 = = 1,841 in‐ kips
(12 × 6)2
fb = 1,841.5/21.1 = 87.3 ksi > 36 ksi
For the conditions assumed in this illustration, a pile bending stress beyond yield occurs for both the loose and
dense soil conditions. In particular, the dense soil example indicates the pile is highly overstressed and could
therefore be highly strained. As this is a repetitive movement, pile damage could occur even though a plastic hinge
forms at this point. Where piles are driven in dense soils, predrilled oversized holes filled with loose sand may be
provided to reduce resistance to lateral movement and to reduce the pile stresses. In any event, the piles must
also be checked for adequacy .

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13.6.4 Conclusions from Example/13.7.1 Introduction

13.6.4 Conclusions from Example

The following conclusions can be drawn from this example:
1. Intermediate bents are relatively flexible compared with integral end bents. As a result, they experience
very small longitudinal temperature forces. For this example, the temperature force generated at the end
bents is independent of the forces generated at the intermediate bents. This will be true if there is
symmetry in the longitudinal stiffness of the substructure.
2. Temperature rise can generate large passive pressure forces at the end bent backwall. However, these
large passive forces usually have little effect on the end bent and can readily be accommodated by
backwall reinforcement.
3. Due to the larger magnitude and lesser effect from passive resistance, temperature fall has the greatest
effect on the end bent foundation.
4. Thermal expansion and contraction occur in all structures. Expansion joints in the approach slabs of the
bridge should accommodate thermal movements when integral end bents are used.

13.7 CURRENT PRACTICE

13.7.1 Introduction
The previous edition of the PCI Bridge Design Manual contained results of an extensive survey of 49 states and 7
Canadian provinces regarding integral bridge details, practices, and lessons learned. For the most part, that
information is not published here. However, there were a number of “lessons learned” that were reported by the
respondents. The main lessons were as follows (not listed in order of priority):
1. Place concrete in pier and abutment diaphragms with deck to avoid diaphragm cracking due to
downward rotation of the beams.
2. Use semi-integral type abutments to avoid spalling and slab cracking inside abutment.
3. Provide proper details to allow movement; otherwise, girder failure and support spalling can occur.
4. Avoid drainage structures in the area of the end diaphragms.
5. Consider and accommodate thermal, creep, and shrinkage movements by limiting span lengths or other
means.
6. Abutment support should be flexible, with single row of piles.
7. Consider using hinges at abutment and piers.
8. Provide a positive connection between the approach slab and the abutment.
9. Provide a sleeper slab at end of the approach slab to eliminate settlement due to traffic and backfill.
10. Consider placing piles in predrilled, oversized holes filled with loose granular material such as pea gravel
or dry sand (upper 8 to 20 ft).
11. Limit skew angles.
12. Orient the abutment piles for weak axis bending.
13. Provide granular backfill behind abutment backwall and a proper draining system.
As with many bridge topics, techniques, details, and design practices for integral bridges continue to evolve.
NCHRP-sponsored Scan 19-01 and its report, Leading Practices for Detailing Bridge Ends and Approach Pavements
to Limit Distress and Deterioration (DeRuyver, et al., 2020) document the details and practices used by14 states at
the ends of bridges to achieve a jointless structure. Construction, repair, inspection, and maintenance items were
also considered. A sample of the questions posed to the state agencies are as follows:
• How do you track system performance of jointless bridges?
• What details do you no longer use and why?
• Do you impose limits on span lengths or total bridge lengths for integral abutments?
• What is the approximate distribution (percentage) of your superstructures: steel, cast-in-place concrete,
or precast concrete?
• What is your expansion joint detail on your approach slab-to-roadway pavement interface?
• Does your state design manual provide jointless bridge design guidance?
• Have you evaluated cost equivalency (for example, joint maintenance compared with a jointless bridge)?

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13.7.1 Introduction/13.8.2 Nebraska City Viaduct, Nebraska

Responses, including lessons learned and detailed figures, were not tabulated, but were incorporated into the
report. Most of the states agreed that eliminating joints from the bridge deck and controlling and designing for
effective drainage are crucial strategies for structure longevity. From the abundance of information gathered, the
report presents findings or “notable practices of interest.” The following are examples of these practices:
• Flowcharts or other tools for selecting appropriate abutment types
• Sample calculations for design of integral or semi-integral abutments
• Design and support of approach slabs
• Compaction methods and requirements for embankments

The Scan 19-01 report provides a way of critiquing multiple-state integral bridge details without searching
through the bridge design manuals and standard drawings of individual states.

13.8 CASE STUDIES

13.8.1 Section Description
Five case studies are presented. They were drawn from the following areas of the United States:
• Nebraska City Viaduct, Nebraska
• Interstate 469 Bridge over Interstate 69, Indiana
• Menauhant Road Bridge, Massachusetts
• Deer Creek Industrial Park Access Bridge, West Virginia
• Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee

13.8.2 Nebraska City Viaduct, Nebraska

The U.S. Highway 75 Viaduct in Nebraska City, Neb., built in 1992, is a six-span highway structure that provides a
crossing of two railroad tracks, a small creek, and a city access-type road. The viaduct replaced a 50-year-old steel
girder bridge that was obsolete and in poor structural condition. AASHTO Type III girders were used for four
spans and spliced bulb-tee girders were used for two spans. The viaduct is designed for live load and
superimposed dead load continuity. The piers are hinged at the superstructure.
The roadway of the new structure provides for two lanes of highway traffic. A sidewalk is included on one side of
the roadway deck.
The alignment for the new structure could not be offset nor altered from the existing street alignment. This
required the new bridge piers to be located to clear the existing pier foundations, thus avoiding substantial
removal costs. These restrictions resulted in an overall structure length of 592 ft with span arrangement as
shown in Figure 13.8.2-1. Continuity for live load and for dead load applied to the composite section was
assumed in design, and the structure was constructed as an integral (jointless) bridge.

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13.8.2 Nebraska City Viaduct, Nebraska

Figure 13.8.2-1
Elevation

Prestressed concrete girders were used throughout the superstructure to support the cast-in-place reinforced
concrete deck. Bulb-tee girders were used for the two 155 ft spans. Each of these spans is comprised of three
bulb-tee segments, which were match cast in the prestressing plant and shipped to the site. The segments were
then spliced and post-tensioned together before placement on the piers. The shorter spans are AASHTO Type III
girders. All bulb-tee and Type III sections were designed in accordance with standards of the Nebraska
Department of Roads (NDOR). A typical section of the bridge superstructure at the bulb-tee spans is shown in
Figure 13.8.2-2.
All piers are of reinforced concrete design and conform to NDOR standards. Both abutments were designed and
constructed integrally with the superstructure, requiring special design considerations and detail in regard to
thermal effects, creep, and shrinkage. All substructure units are supported on steel bearing piles driven to
bedrock.

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13.8.2 Nebraska City Viaduct, Nebraska

Figure 13.8.2-2
Cross Section

Longitudinal forces were distributed to the substructure units in proportion to their relative stiffness. The five
piers vary substantially in height and therefore vary in stiffness. The point of fixity (the point of zero longitudinal
temperature movement) was located between Piers 3 and 4, somewhat closer to the shorter and stiffer piers. The
stiffness of each pier, as assumed in the design, included consideration of both the concrete frame and its pile-
supported foundation. A point of fixity of the pile group was assumed to be at some point below the base of the
footings. The abutment stiffness was modeled using spring restraints that approximated the passive earth
resistance to movement of the diaphragm. For analysis, the structure was modeled as indicated in Figure 13.8.2-
3.
Figure 13.8.2-3
Computer Modeling

Due to the integral concrete diaphragms at the abutments, the tops of the piles were considered to be rigidly
attached to the superstructure. Also, because the flexural stiffness of the superstructure is several times larger
than the stiffness of the piers and the abutment piles, the superstructure can be modeled as a rigid bar. The piers
were considered to be hinged to the superstructure. This hinge was developed as shown in Figure 13.8.2-4.

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13.8.2 Nebraska City Viaduct, Nebraska

Figure 13.8.2-4
Pier Hinge Detail

Special consideration was given to the abutments for the effects of thermal expansion and contraction.
Temperature rise can generate a high passive pressure on the abutment diaphragm. While this pressure has little
effect on the abutment itself, the effects of axial loads and moments due to eccentricity transferred to the
superstructure were considered in the design. Temperature fall has a greater effect than temperature rise on the
abutment design. The piles were driven with their weak axis perpendicular to the line of movement. In addition,
at Abutment 2, where a mechanically stabilized earth wall was required, corrugated metal pipes were placed over
the pile protrusions and filled with sand. This was done to allow the piles to displace independently of the
completed retaining walls. Joints to permit thermal movements were provided only at the ends of the approach
slab pavement sections, about 25 ft from the ends of the bridge deck. The general scheme at the abutments is
shown in Figure 13.8.2-5.
Figure 13.8.2-5
Longitudinal Section at Approach Slab

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13.8.2 Nebraska City Viaduct, Nebraska

The bridge was completed in November 1992 at a cost of approximately $975,000, exclusive of approach street
work and removal of the previous structure. All design was in accordance with NDOR policy and procedures of
the NDOR Bridge Division. At that time, the policy of the department was to limit the design of integral bridges to
an overall length of about 600 ft. Figures 13.8.2-6 through 13.8.2-11 show the bridge under construction and at
completion.
Figure 13.8.2-6
Abutment 2 Piles Encased in Corrugated Metal Pipes

Figure 13.8.2-7
Abutment 2 Girders in Place before Abutment Concrete is Placed

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13.8.2 Nebraska City Viaduct, Nebraska

Figure 13.8.2-8
Abutment 1 Abutment Forms in Place

Figure 13.8.2-9
Pipe Sleeves Through Abutment to Accommodate Conduits

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13.8.2 Nebraska City Viaduct, Nebraska

Figure 13.8.2-10
The Completed Nebraska City Viaduct

Figure 13.8.2-11
Aerial View of the Completed Nebraska City Viaduct

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13.8.3 Interstate 469 Bridge Over Interstate 69, Indiana

13.8.3 Interstate 469 Bridge Over Interstate 69, Indiana

The Interstate 469 (I-469) overpass bridge, a two-span highway structure over Interstate 69 (I-69) on the north
side of Fort Wayne, Ind., is part of the final portion of the Fort Wayne Bypass completed in 1995. This is a two-
span, skewed structure, 258 ft long with a variable width due to an off-ramp taper. This section of highway
includes 3.5 miles of new interstate roadway and seven new bridges. All of the bridges incorporate precast,
prestressed concrete bulb-tee I-girders with no joints in the bridge decks. The I-469 overpass is the first bridge to
use a spliced-girder technique with post-tensioning anchors anchored to the abutment backwalls.
The bridge over I-69 is an unsymmetrical twin structure with one 16-ft-wide off-ramp lane, one 16-ft-wide on-
ramp lane, and two 12-ft-wide westbound through lanes. The bridge has two spans that are 126.5 and 131.5 ft in
length, and it varies in width from 106 to 116.25 ft due to the off-ramp taper across the structure. The plan and
elevation of the overpass are shown in Figure 13.8.3-1.
Figure 13.8.3-1
Plan and Elevation

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13.8.3 Interstate 469 Bridge Over Interstate 69, Indiana

Precast, prestressed, post-tensioned concrete bulb-tee I-girders are used throughout the superstructure to
support the cast-in-place reinforced concrete deck. The I-girders are 54 in. deep and incorporate a 4-ft-wide top
flange. The bridge cross sections are shown in Figure 13.8.3-2.
Figure 13.8.3-2
Cross Sections

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13.8.3 Interstate 469 Bridge Over Interstate 69, Indiana

This structure signified many firsts for the state of Indiana. They are as follows:
1. First overpass bridge to use fully integral construction for both the piers end bents.
2. First integral end bents to use expanded polystyrene to pin the top of the piles to reduce the moments in
the pile.
3. First overpass structure to use post-tensioned segmental, bulb-tee I-girder construction with all of the
post-tensioned anchors located behind the integral end bents, outside the limits of the I-girder.
4. First overpass bridge to use a new concrete mixture that used a high-range water-reducing admixture, a
low water-cement ratio of 0.40, and an extended curing time for the deck using soaker hoses.
5. First bridge to incorporate a concrete barrier rail base isolation system to reduce or eliminate cracking in
the railing.
6. First concrete I-beam bridge to incorporate a slab between the bottom flanges of the beams in order to
eliminate the need for increasing the depths of the beams over the interior supports.
The decision to pin the tops of the piles at the end bents was due to the shortening that would result from the
longitudinal post-tensioning of the structure and the fact that the end bent concrete had to be cast to the top of
the beam before placing the concrete in the deck. It was calculated that the moments in the pile could be reduced
by approximately 50% due to the pinned connection. One and one half in. of spray-on expanded polystyrene was
placed around the pile within the limits of the concrete. Figure 13.8.3-3 shows the end bent section and beam
bearing details. Figures 13.8.3-4 through 13.8.3-8 show photographs of the bridge.
When completed in 1995, the cost of the bridge was approximately $1,900,000 or $65/ft2 of deck surface.
Figure 13.8.3-3
Bearing and Abutment Details

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13.8.3 Interstate 469 Bridge Over Interstate 69, Indiana

Figure 13.8.3-3 (cont.)

Bearing and Abutment Details

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13.8.3 Interstate 469 Bridge Over Interstate 69, Indiana

Figure 13.8.3-4
The Completed Structure

Figure 13.8.3-5
View of the Underside of the Bridge

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13.8.3 Interstate 469 Bridge Over Interstate 69, Indiana

Figure 13.3.8-6
Abutment

Figure 13.8.3-7 Figure 13.3.8-8

Pier Details Girder Ends

..

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13.8.4 Menauhant Road Bridge, Massachusetts

13.8.4 Menauhant Road Bridge, Massachusetts

The Menauhant Road Bridge, a five-span highway structure, crosses over Green Pond, a tidal inlet located on the
south side of Cape Cod in the Town of Falmouth and is highly used by the local boating community. The bridge
replaced a 10-span, 250-ft-long concrete structure constructed in 1926 that was structurally deficient. The bridge
was widened to accommodate two 11-ft-wide travel lanes, two 4-ft-wide shoulders, and a 5-ft-wide sidewalk on
one side. An 8-ft-wide fishing pier is located off the sidewalk on two center spans of the new bridge. The new
bridge, completed in 1995, is 278 ft long, includes precast concrete deck beams. and was designed for seismic
forces.
The horizontal alignment of the new bridge, which is the same as that of the bridge it replaced, is located on a
tangent. Since the vertical clearance of the existing bridge did not allow passageway of many boats under the
structure during high tide, the vertical alignment of the new bridge was raised approximately 2 ft. The new bridge
piers and abutments were located to clear the existing pier and abutment foundations, thus avoiding substantial
removal costs. The resulting layout of the structure consists of four 55-ft spans and one 58-ft center span. The
plan and profile of the Menauhant Road Bridge are shown in Figure 13.8.4-1.
Figure 13.8.4-1
Plan and Profile of Menauhant Road Bridge

Prestressed concrete deck beams are used throughout the superstructure to support the cast-in-place reinforced
concrete deck. The composite beam and deck design was assumed continuous for the entire length of the
structure to support live loads and superimposed dead loads. A combination of 3-ft- and 4-ft-wide deck beams is
used throughout the superstructure; these beams are 1 ft 9 in. deep. All deck beams were designed in accordance
with the standards of the Massachusetts Highway Department. The bridge cross sections are shown in Figures
13.8.4-2 and 13.8.4-3.
Environmental requirements limited the option for intermediate piers to the use of concrete pile bents. Both
abutments were designed and constructed integrally with the superstructure, which provided an economical
means of resisting the resulting seismic loads and proved to be one of the only practical methods. The
Massachusetts Highway Department established a base rock acceleration of 0.10g, and the depth to rock-like
material was determined to be over 150 ft. Soft alluvial soils with organics limited the lateral capacity of the piles
to values much lower than seismic demand. The abutments became the only economical means to resist the
sizable longitudinal forces. See Figure 13.8.4-4 for a typical abutment section.

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13.8.4 Menauhant Road Bridge, Massachusetts

Figure 13.8.4-2
Bridge Section with Fishing Pier

Figure 13.8.4-3
Bridge Section without Fishing Pier

Engaging the passive resistance of the abutment backfill provided the required additional seismic resistance.
However, computing the concurrent contribution of the abutment and the interior bent piles and confirming that
no piles were overloaded required an involved process. Passive soil pressure requires measurable movements in
order to be mobilized. Furthermore, the load-deflection relationship is nonlinear due to the elasto-plastic
response of the soil mass. Complicating the fact was that the soil structure interaction of the laterally loaded piles
follows a similar nonlinear, but uncoupled model.
Using an iterative procedure, an assumed translational deflection of 1 in. was used to estimate the spring
constants for modeling the abutment backfill and lateral soil support of the piles. The lateral pile program LPILE
was used to compute the load deflection response of both the abutment and interior bents. The LPILE analysis is
based on modeling the soil layers with a set of P-Y curves, which are a function of soil type and strength. To obtain
the initial values, a deflection of 1 in. was induced at the pile heads.
The load-deflection results for the piles, as well as the simulated backfill response, were entered as spring
constants in the bridge seismic analysis program SEISAB. After performing the dynamic analysis, the computed
deflections were compared to the assumed values. The elastic dynamic analysis predicted longitudinal deflections
of 1.16 in. New spring constants were computed for the soil backfill using an assumed deflection of 1.2 in. and
input into the SEISAB model. The deflections computed during this iteration matched the assumed values within
3%, so further iterations were not necessary.

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13.8.4 Menauhant Road Bridge, Massachusetts

Figure 13.8.4-4
Typical Abutment Section

The traditional means of using only the interior bents to resist longitudinal seismic loads could have added
substantial cost to the project and was also unacceptable from an environmental perspective. Furthermore, the
use of integral abutments resulted in fewer abutment piles than would have been required for a seat type
abutment with expansion bearings.
The bridge was completed for the Massachusetts Highway Department in October 1995, at a cost of
approximately $600,000, exclusive of approach work and removal of the previous structure. All design was in
accordance with Massachusetts Highway Department policy and procedures of its bridge division.
Photographs of the bridge are shown in Figures 13.8.4-5 and 13.8.4-6.

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13.8.4 Menauhant Road Bridge, Massachusetts

Figure 13.8.4-5
Aerial View of Structure

Figure 13.8.4-6
Box Beams Being Set into Place

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13.8.5 Deer Creek Industrial Park Access Bridge, West Virginia

13.8.5 Deer Creek Industrial Park Access Bridge, West Virginia

Since the late 1930s, the West Virginia Department of Transportation has designed structures that are continuous
over the piers. In 1992, the agency adopted a policy to eliminate joints at the abutments. The new policy was
developed to eliminate deck expansion joints wherever practical. Since then, 90 integral and semi-integral bridges
have been designed in West Virginia. Approximately half of these designs included prestressed concrete
superstructures.
The Deer Creek Access Bridge, located in Barboursville, W.Va., was built in 1996. It provides highway access to an
area of land that was once landlocked between the river and the railroad. The land is currently being developed
into an industrial park.
The bridge is a three-span continuous structure, totaling 301 ft 9 in. length that spans the Guyandotte River
(Figure 13.8.5-1). The substructure consists of two integral abutments and two reinforced concrete
hammerhead piers. Each abutment is founded on a single row of steel H-piles. One of the piers is hinged to the
superstructure and is founded on spread footing, whereas the second pier has expansion bearings on top and
rests on piles. The end bents are supported on a single line of piles. The two-lane superstructure is made up of
five AASHTO Type IV prestressed concrete beams, a reinforced concrete deck, and parapets (Fig. 13.8.5-2). The
bridge length and opening were dictated by the required waterway opening to prevent additional backwater. The
bridge was designed for an HS25 live load, using load factor design and in accordance with the Standard
Specifications.
Figure 13.8.5-1
Bridge Elevation

Figure 13.8.5-2
Cross Section

The Deer Creek Access Bridge was designed assuming roller connections at the abutments and a pinned
connection at one of the piers. Basically, it was designed no differently from a bridge with joints at the abutments
and continuous over the piers. The abutments were designed by simply dividing the vertical dead and live loads
by the allowable bearing pile capacity. The piles are oriented to allow weak axis bending (Fig. 13.8.5-3). By

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13.8.5 Deer Creek Industrial Park Access Bridge, West Virginia

paying proper attention to detailing, the majority of concerns regarding pile bending and the effects of passive
earth pressure were eliminated.
The jointless bridge policy gives a maximum movement range (2 in.) allowed at the abutments, rather than a
maximum bridge length. Since concrete superstructures can be designed for a smaller temperature range than
steel (approximately 50% that of steel) due to the way that concrete absorbs heat in comparison to steel, it is
possible to use concrete beams with integral abutments for bridges that are twice as long as those allowed for
jointless steel bridges. This structure was on the borderline for using a steel integral abutment design.
Figure 13.8.5-3
Typical Abutment Section

When completed in 1996, the total cost of the project was $1,250,000, of which $786,000 was for the bridge
beams. This resulted in a cost of approximately $67/ft2, which was a very good price for bridges constructed in
West Virginia. Both steel and concrete superstructures were considered. Steel was ruled out because it was more
expensive than concrete. It was estimated that using concrete beams resulted in a cost savings of approximately
10%.
Photographs of the bridge are shown in Figures 13.8.5-5 through 13.8.5-9.
Figure 13.8.5-4
Pier Diaphragm Details

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13.8.5 Deer Creek Industrial Park Access Bridge, West Virginia

Figure 13.8.5-5
Side View: Three-Span Bridge Continuous for Live Load and with Integral Abutments

Figure 13.8.5-6
Top View: Deer Creek Industrial Park Access Bridge.

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13.8.5 Deer Creek Industrial Park Access Bridge, West Virginia

Figure 13.8.5-7
Continuous for Live Load at Piers

Figure 13.8.5-8 Figure 13.8.5-9

Erection of AASHTO Type IV Girders Erection of Girders

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13.8.6 Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee

13.8.6 Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee

The bridge carrying State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek is composed of nine spans of precast, prestressed
concrete bulb-tee beams designed as simple spans for noncomposite dead loads and as continuous spans for live
loads and subsequent composite dead loads (Fig. 13.8.6-1). The 46-ft-wide, 8¼-in.-thick composite concrete slab
conforms to a 4 degree, 45 minute curve for approximately 976 ft of its length while the remaining 199 ft
conforms to a spiral curve. Span lengths along the centerline of the roadway vary from 129 ft to 140 ft. The bridge
was built in 1997 and the layout is shown in Figure 13.8.6-2.
Figure 13.8.6-1
Aerial View of State Route 50 Over Happy Hollow Creek

Supporting the six-beam cross section, shown in Figure 13.8.6-3(a), are two-column bents varying in height from
approximately 51 to 91 ft (Fig. 13.8.6-4). These bents vary in skew such that they are arranged to allow all beams
in all spans but one to be of equal length. Since the beams are chorded, the slab overhang on each side of the
bridge varies from 3 ft 6 in. to 5 ft 6 in. along the span length.
To accomplish continuity, a common diaphragm joins both the ends of girders in adjacent spans and the cast-in-
place slab as shown in Figures 13.8.6-3(b) and 13.8.6-3(c). Since the dead load and slab deflections of the 72-in.
bulb tees are relatively large and their depths significant, the Tennessee Department of Transportation required
that the contractor use one of several options. The contractor may choose to place the entire deck in one
operation, concurrently with placing the diaphragms. If the deck cannot be placed in one operation, then no
construction joint may be located closer than 10 ft nor further than 15 ft from an interior support, and no
diaphragm at an interior support may be placed unless the slab in the positive-movement area of the adjacent
spans have been placed. This prevents cracking of the common diaphragms at the supports. To steady the beams
in the interim, permanent intermediate diaphragms composed of galvanized steel angles in an x-brace
configuration are placed at one-third points in the span and temporarily near supports. After placing the deck, the
x-braces near supports may be removed. Concrete placement sequences require that either the end 3 to 4 ft of the
slab or all the positive-movement area of the end span, to be placed concurrently with the abutment backwall and
wingwalls, thus achieving a jointless deck with integral abutments.
Details of the integral abutment are shown in Figures 13.8.6-5 and 13.8.6-6. Because of the magnitude of
thermal movements, the abutments are supported on a single row of HP10x42 steel piles for flexibility.

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13.8.6 Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee

The Tennessee Department of Transportation prefers the piles to be oriented with the strong axis in bending.
Tennessee's choice of orientation is evolutionary, being a logical extension of pile orientation used in jointed
abutments. However, calculations using the COM624P Laterally Loaded Pile Analysis Program, developed for the
Federal Highway Administration at the University of Texas, indicates slightly higher vertical load capacity in the
deflected piles than can be achieved with piles oriented to bend about the weak axis.
The analysis procedures used for a jointless bridge depend on the size and complexity of the bridge being
considered. In Tennessee, with 30 years of experience in integral construction, little analysis is performed on
routine bridges. For concrete superstructure construction, bridges up to 800 ft in length require no analysis
provided that conditions are such that the total movement at an abutment does not exceed 2 in., and the
abutments are stub type and founded on one row of piles for flexibility. If the supporting bents are not integrally
connected to the superstructure, then columns are analyzed as cantilever beams to identify the force required to
deflect the free end the required distance to accommodate thermal effects. A free end condition at the top is
assumed in the longitudinal direction. In calculating this moment, experience has shown that substituting the
long-term modulus of elasticity of 1,000,000 psi gives satisfactory results and adequately models the actual
cracked column behavior without the need of rigorous computations. Where the resulting thermal moments,
combined with other appropriate longitudinal moments, become too large to conveniently provide for
reinforcement, expansion devices under the superstructure can be added to reduce the applied moments.
However, in the latter case, the designer must verify that the force required to cause the expansion bearings to
move does not exceed the force required to cause the bent to deflect. Should the force to move the bent be less,
then the expansion bearing cannot function and alternate arrangements to accommodate thermal movements in
the bridge must be made.
Since the State Route 50 bridge over Happy Hollow Creek exceeded Tennessee’s standards of practice, special
considerations had to be made. First, it was desirable to eliminate expansion joints and expansion bearings not
only because of their high initial and maintenance costs but also because of the skew of the substructures and
curvature in alignment. It is not an easy matter to predict the path of movement in curved structures: Is it along
the radial axis of the deck, along the chord line of the end span girders, or along a chord struck from abutment to
abutment? What affect do column stiffnesses and skew play in influencing the path of expansion? The wrong
choice in orientation of the expansion joint and bearings can lead to their destruction or structural damage to the
beams and abutments.
In order to arrive at the decision not to use joints at the abutments in the bridge, the designer considered two
options that appear to be the boundaries for the bridge’s behavior due to thermal effects. First, the bridge could
be considered to act as a curved bar, fixed at one end, at an abutment. Figure 13.8.6-7 represents this model.
If the radius of curvature of the bar is large relative to its cross-sectional dimensions, ordinary beam deflection
formulas may be used to calculate the lateral deflection of the curved bar under the influence of a concentrated
force P acting at the free end. If the free end is considered to be at a distance equal to the bridge length and the
lateral deflection is identified as equal to the total thermal expansive movement at the free end, then the
concentrated force P resisting the deflection can be quantified. This force can then be visualized as the reaction
force needed to be exerted by the abutment to cause the bridge to bow outward should the abutment remain
stationary.
Because the designer had no control over the temperature at which the completed structure would be made fully
integral at the abutments, it was presumed that the required lateral deflection must be equal to the maximum
movement expected at the abutment—in this case, 2.97 in. From the geometry of the structure, the deflection
relationship was derived as follows:
𝐿
−𝑅(1 − cos θ)[−𝑃𝑅(1 − cos θ)]𝑅𝑑θ
Δ=∫
0 𝐸𝐼
where
L= angle of the arc subtended in radians (or bridge length)
Bridge Length 1,175.19
L= = = 0.9742 rads
Radius 1,206.23

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13.8.6 Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee

E= modulus of elasticity of the concrete deck = 3,834 ksi

R= Radius of curve = 1,206.23 ft
I= transverse moment of inertia of the superstructure = 115,600,000 in4
Δ 𝑃𝑅3
= 0.03918
𝐸𝐼
Solving for P yields the following:
𝐸𝐼Δ
𝑃=
0.03918𝑅3
If Δ is 2.967 in., the force required to cause or restrain this displacement is:
2.967(3,864,000)(115,600,000)
𝑃= = 11 kips
0.03918(1,206.23)3 (12)3
This force is much less than the force required to overcome the passive pressure behind the abutment (2,606
kips). Therefore, the bridge will bow laterally under thermal expansion and contraction rather than mobilize the
abutments. This simplified solution ignores the stiffness of the bents and is far from an exact analysis. However,
the forces required to deflect the tall columns of this structure are small, and the large difference between the
force to deflect the structure versus the force to move the abutment makes further refinement unnecessary.
The other boundary condition is to consider the bridge as being straight. In this case, each abutment would be
required to move a total amount of 2.97 in. Tests conducted by the University of Tennessee for the Tennessee
Department of Transportation indicate that HP10x42 piles with an embedment of 12 in. into the abutment
beamas shown in Figure 13.8.6-5, can sustain this amount of movement repeatedly without detriment to the
serviceability of either the piles or the abutment beam.
With these boundary conditions identified, the Tennessee Department of Transportation decided to construct the
State Route 50 Bridge as jointless with integral abutments.
To account for the possibility of movements at the abutments, approach pavements equipped with silicone
expansion joints adjacent to the asphalt paving of the roadway were installed. The details of the approach
pavements, standard for Tennessee’s jointless bridges, are shown in Figures 13.8.6-8 and 13.8.6-9.

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13.8.6 Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee

Figure 13.8.6-2
Plan and Elevation

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 13
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13.8.6 Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee

Figure 13.8.6-3
Cross-Section and Details

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 13
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13.8.6 Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee

Figure 13.8.6-4
Pier Plan and Elevation

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 13
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13.8.6 Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee

Figure 13.8.6-5
Abutment Plan and Elevation

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 13
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13.8.6 Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee

Figure 13.8.6-6
Abutment Details

Figure 13.8.6-7
Structural Modeling

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 13
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13.8.6 Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee

Figure 13.8.6-8
Slab Details

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 13
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13.8.6 Tennessee State Route 50 over Happy Hollow Creek, Tennessee

Figure 13.8.6-9
Approach Slab Details

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13.10 Cited References/13.11 Bibliography

13.9. CONCLUSION
This chapter has presented the state-of-the-art on precast, prestressed concrete integral bridges. Historically,
conventional bridges with bearings and expansion joints have developed severe maintenance problems due to
corrosive environments and excessive use of deicing salts in the northern parts of the United States and in
Canada. Although many bearing types used have performed well during their 10–20-year service life, eventually
replacement is required at considerable cost. The presence of bearings and expansion joints in a superstructure
results in increased cost for inspection, maintenance and replacement. In order to avoid or to decrease these
costs, integral bridges are a welcome addition to the bridge market. By eliminating the expansion joints and
bearings in shorter bridges, two of the main problem elements on bridges have been removed.
A significant number of precast, prestressed concrete integral bridges have been designed, built and are
performing well. However, as the responses to the survey have indicated, further research into the behavior of
integral bridges is still needed. This chapter has highlighted some of the research needs.
Lessons learned have been many, but in most instances the issues have been resolved and better details have
been developed.
This chapter has addressed many of the complex issues both in design and analysis of the overall bridge, as well
as its components, and has brought to focus the different practices followed by the responding entities to the
survey. Intentionally, no particular design procedure has been recommended. Instead, each of the different
sections has offered only general suggestions in order to guide the designer during the design of
precast/prestressed concrete integral bridges.

13.10. CITED REFERENCES

1. AASHTO. 2002. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
2. AASHTO. 2020. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 9th Edition. American Association of Highway
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
3. ACI Committee 318. 2019. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary (ACI 318-19).
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
4. Burdette, E. G., J. H. Deatherage, and D. W. Goodpasture. 2003. Behavior of Laterally Loaded Piles Supporting
Bridge Abutments: Phase II Prestressed Concrete Piles. University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 57 pp.
5. Burke, M. P. Jr. 1993. “Design of Integral Concrete Bridges.” Concrete International, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. V. 15, No. 6 (June), pp. 37–42.
6. Burke, M. P., and S. F. Weintraut.1991. “Integral Bridge Seminar for Massachusetts Department of Public Works
(Lecture Notes).”(June 10-11)
7. CSA. 2019. Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code CSAS6:19, 12th Edition. CSA Group, Toronto, Canada.
1182 pp.
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8. DeRuyver, J., D. Eaton, R. Garcia, B. Khaleghi, T. A. Kniazewycz, A. Lancaster, and J. Walsh. 2020. Leading
Practices for Detailing Bridge Ends and Approach Pavements to Limit Distress and Deterioration. NCHRP
Project 20-68D, Scan 19-01. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
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9. fib. 2020. Bulletin 94: Precast Concrete Bridge Continuity over Piers. fib (International Federation for Structural
Concrete), Lausanne, Switzerland.
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10. Huo, X. S., P. Zhu, F. Ung, and E. P. Wasserman. 2006. “Case Study of a High-Performance Concrete Bridge in
Tennessee.” Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction, American Society of Civil Engineers,

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13.10 Cited References/13.11 Bibliography

Vol. 11, No. 4 (November), pp. 229–237.

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11. Kamal, M. R., J. V. Benak, M. K. Tadros, and M. Jamshidi. 1996. “Prestressed Concrete Piles in Jointless Bridges.”
PCI Journal V. 41, No. 2 (March-April), pp. 56-65.
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12. Manzelli, A. A. and I. E. Harik. 1993. “Prismatic and Nonprismatic Slender Columns and Bridge Piers.” Journal
of Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, V. 119, No. 4 (April), pp.1114–1132.
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13. Miller, R. A., R. Castrodale, A. Mirmiran, and M. Hastak. 2004. Connection of Simple-Span Precast Concrete
Girders for Continuity. NCHRP Report 519. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
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https://www.dot.state.mn.us/bridge/lrfd.html.
15. Noppakunwijai, P., N. Jungpitakseel, Z. J. Ma, S. A. Yehia, and M. K. Tadros. 2002. “Pullout Capacity of Non-
Prestressed Bent Strands for Prestressed Concrete Girders.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
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Prussack. 2022. Design and Construction of Deck Bulb Tee Girder Bridges with UHPC Connections. NCHRP
Research Report 999. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
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TN.
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Concrete and Steel Structures. Tennessee Department of Transportation Research Project No. 77-272.
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22. Wasserman, E. P. 1987. “Jointless Bridge Decks.” Engineering Journal, American Institute of Steel
Construction. V. 24, No. 3, pp. 93-100.

13.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Concrete Structures, ACI PRC-209-92. American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.

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13.11 Bibliography

4. Bishop, G. F. 1966. “Design of Bridge Approach Slabs.” Proceedings, 1965 Kentucky Highway Conference. V. 21,
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Maine Department of Transportation, Augusta, ME.
13. Fattal, S. G., T. A. Reinhold, and B. Ellingwood. 1981. Analysis of Thermal Stresses in Internally Sealed Concrete
Bridge Decks. FHWA/RD-80/085, National Bureau of Standards, National Engineering Laboratory,
Washington, DC.
14. Freyermuth, C. L. 1969. “Design of Continuous Highway Bridges with Precast, Prestressed Concrete Girders.”
PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V 14, No. 1, pp. 14-39.
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15. GangaRao, H., H. Thippeswamy, B. Dickson, and J. Franco. 1996. “Survey and Design of Integral Abutment
Bridges.” Workshop on Integral Abutment Bridges, November 13-15, 1996, Pittsburgh, PA.
16. Gastal, F. P. 1987. Instantaneous and Time-Dependent Response and Strength of Jointless Bridge Beams. North
Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.
17. Girton, D. D., T. R. Hawkinson, and L. F. Greimann. 1991. “Validation of Design Recommendations for Integral-
Abutment Piles.” Journal of Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V 117, No.
7, pp. 2117-2134.
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18. Glikin, J. D., and R. G. Oesterle. 1986. “Creep and Shrinkage Analysis of Simple-Span Precast, Prestressed
Bridge Girders Made Continuous.” Fourth RILEM International Symposium on Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete:
Mathematical Modeling, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL. pp. 765-775.

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13.11 Bibliography

19. Greimann, L., and A. M. Wolde-Tinsae. 1988. “Design Model for Piles in Jointless Bridges.” Journal of Structural
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V. 114, No. 6 (June), pp. 1354-1371.
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20. Greimann, L. F., A. M. Wolde-Tinsae, and P. S Yang. 1983. “Skewed Bridges with Integral Abutments,” Bridges
and Culverts.” Transportation Research Record, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. No. 903, pp.
64-72.
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21. Greimann, L. F., A. M. Wolde-Tinsae, and P. S Yang. 1987. “Finite Element Model for Soil-Pile Interaction in
Integral Abutment Bridges.” Computers and Geotechnics. V. 4, No. 3, pp. 127-149.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0266-352X(87)90044-9.
22. Greimann, L. F., P. S Yang, and A. M. Wolde-Tinsae. 1986. “Nonlinear Analysis of Integral Abutment Bridges.”
Journal of Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V. 112, No. 10 (October),
pp. 2263-2280.
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23. Greimann, L. F., P. S Yang, S. K., Edmunds, and A. M. Wolde-Tinsae. 1984. Final Report: Design of Piles for
Integral Abutment Bridges. Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Research Institute, Iowa State
University, Ames.
http://publications.iowa.gov/19645/1/IADOT_hr252_Design_Piles_Integral_Abutment_Bridges_1984.pdf.
24. Holmes, J. R., G. W. Schmid, G. L. Downey, and R. E. Ekstrom.,1977. Investigation of the Contraction of
Prestressed Concrete Bridges. Nebraska Research Study 66-6, FHWA-NE-DOR-R-77-1, Nebraska Department of
Roads, Lincoln, NE.
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25. Hulsey, J. L. 1976. “Environmental Effects on Composite—Girder Bridge Structures,” PhD dissertation,
University of Missouri-Rolla, Department of Civil Engineering.
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26. Hulsey, J. L., and J. H. Emanuel. 1978. “Environmental Stresses in Flexibly Supported Bridges.” Transportation
Research Record 664, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
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27. Imbsen, R. A., D. E. Vandershaf, R. A. Schamber, and A. V. Nutt. 1985. Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge
Superstructures. NCHRP Report 276, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
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28. Joo, Y. 1989. “Time-Dependent Analysis of Partially Prestressed Composite Members,” PhD dissertation,
University of Nebraska, Department of Civil Engineering, Lincoln, NE.
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29. Jorgenson, J. L. 1981.“Behavior of Abutment Piles in an Integral Abutment in Response to Bridge
Movements.” Transportation Research Record, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. No. 903, pp.
72-79.
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30. Kramer, S. L., and P. Sajer. 1991. Bridge Approach Slab Effectiveness—Final Report. Washington State
Transportation Center, University of Washington, Seattle.
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31. Loveall, C. L. 1985. “Jointless Bridge Decks.” Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
V. 55, No. 11, pp. 64-67.
32. Maher, R. H., and M. I. E. Aust. 1970. “The Effects of Differential Temperature on Continuous Prestressed
Concrete Bridges.” Civil Engineering Transactions, Institution of Engineers, Australia. V. 12, No. 1 (April), pp.
29-32.

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13.11 Bibliography

33. Maragakis, E. A., and R. Siddharthan. 1989. “Estimation of Inelastic Longitudinal Abutment Stiffness of
Bridges.” Journal of Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V 115, No. 9
(September), pp. 2382-2399.
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34. NCHRP. 1969. Bridge Approach Design and Construction Practices. NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 2.
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Washington, DC.
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36. Oesterle, R. G., J. D. Glikin, and S. C. Larson. 1989. Design of Precast Prestressed Bridge Girders Made
Continuous. NCHRP Report 322, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
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37. Paduana, J. A., and W. S. Yee. 1974. “Lateral Load Tests on Piles in Bridge Embankments.” Transportation
Research Record, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. No. 517, pp. 77-92.
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38. PCA. 1982. Tennessee's Holton River Bridge Jointless Over 2650 ft. Bridge Report SR248.01E, Portland Cement
Association, Skokie, IL.
39. Pierce, P. 1991. “Jointless Redecking.” Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V. 61,
No. 9 (September), pp. 60-61.
40. Potgieter, I. C., and W. L. Gamble. 1983. Response of Highway Bridges to Nonlinear Temperature Distributions.
Civil Engineering Studies, Structural Research Series No. 505, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Urbana, IL.
https://hdl.handle.net/2142/14113.
41. Potgieter, I. C., and W. L. Gamble. 1989. “Nonlinear Temperature Distributions in Bridges at Different
Locations in the United States.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. V. 34, No. 4
(July-August), pp. 80-103.
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42. Priestley, M. J. N. 1972. “Thermal Gradients in Bridges - Some Design Considerations.” New Zealand
Engineering. V. 27, No. 7 (July), pp. 228-233.
43. Priestley, M. J. N., 1978. “Design of Concrete Bridges for Temperature Gradients.” ACI Journal Proceedings,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. V. 75, No. 5 (May), pp. 209-217.
https://doi.org/10.14359/10934.
44. Priestley, M. J. N., and I. G. Buckle. 1979. “Ambient Thermal Response of Concrete Bridges.” Bridge Seminar
1978—Volume 2, Road Research Unit Bulletin 42, National Roads Board, Wellington, New Zealand.
45. Radolli, M., and R. Green. 1977. “Thermal Stress Analysis of Concrete Bridge Superstructures.” Transportation
Research Record, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. No 607, pp. 7-13.
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46. Russell, H. G., et al. 1983. "Evaluation and Verification of Time-Dependent Deformations in Post-Tensioned
Box-Girder Bridges.” Transportation Research Record, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. No.
871, pp. 66-70
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47. Sandford, T. C., and M. Elgaaly. 1993. “Skew Effects on Backfill Pressures at Frame Bridge Abutments.”
Transportation Research Record, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. No. 1415, pp. 1-11.
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13.11 Bibliography

48. Soltani, A. A., and A. R. Kukreti. 1992. “Performance Evaluation of Integral Abutment Bridges.” Transportation
Research Record, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC. No. 1371, pp. 17-25.
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49. Stewart, C. F. 1983. Long Highway Structures Without Expansion Joints, FHWA/CA/SD-82-8, California
Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
50. Tart, R. G. 1965. A Study of the End Movement of a Reinforced Concrete Bridge under Variable Thermal
Conditions. Virginia Highway Research Council, Charlottesville, VA.
51. Tyler, R. G. 1976. “Creep, Shrinkage and Elastic Strain in Concrete Bridges in the United Kingdom, 1963-71.”
Magazine of Concrete Research, Cement and Concrete Association. V. 28, No. 95 (June), pp. 55-84.
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52. Wah, T., and R. E. Kirksey. 1970. “Thermal Characteristics of Highway Bridges,” unpublished report to NCHRP,
Summary of Progress, Highway Research Board, Washington, DC. pp. 79-85.
53. Wolde-Tinsae, A. M., and Aggour, M. S. 1990. Structural and Soil Provisions for Approaches to Bridges—Final
Report, Maryland University, Maryland Department of Transportation, State Highway Administration.
54. Wolde-Tinsae, A. M., J. E. Klinger, and E. J. White. 1988. “Performance of Jointless Bridges.” Journal of
Performance and Constructed Facilities, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V. 2, No. 2 (May), pp.
110-125.
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55. Wolde-Tinsae, A. M., J. E. Klinger, and R. Mullangi. 1988. Bridge Deck Joint Rehabilitation or Retrofitting. State
Highway Administration Research Report, Maryland Department of Transportation, Grant No. AW089-327-
046.
56. Wolde-Tinsae, A. M., and L. F. Greimann. 1988. “General Design Details for Integral Abutment Bridges.” Civil
Engineering Practice. V. 3, No. 2 (Fall), pp. 7-20.
57. Wolde-Tinsae, A. M., L. Greimann, and P. S. Yang. 1988. “End-Bearing Piles in Jointless Bridges.” Journal of
Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. V. 114, No. 8 (August), pp. 1870-1884.
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58. Wolde-Tinsae, A. M., et al. 1987. Performance and Design of Jointless Bridges, Final Report, Contract No.
DTFH61-85-C-00092, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland, prepared in cooperation with
the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.
59. Zederbaum, J. 1969. “Factors Influencing the Longitudinal Movement of Concrete Bridge System with Special
Reference to Deck Contraction.” Concrete Bridge Design, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI. V. 23, pp.
75-95.
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60. Zuk, W. 1965. Summary Report on Thermal Stresses in Highway Bridges. Virginia Highway Research Council,
Charlottesville, VA.
61. Zuk, W. 1969. “End-Movement Studies of Various Types of Highway Bridges.” Highway Research Record,
Highway Research Board, Washington, DC. No. No. 295, pp. 1-4.
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62. Zuk, W. 1981. Jointless Bridges. Virginia Highway Research Council, Report VHTRC-81-R48, for the Federal
Highway Administration, Richmond, VA

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PRECAST SEGMENTAL BRIDGES
Table of Contents

NOTATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14-3

14.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 14-5
14.2 PRECAST CONCRETE SEGMENTS.................................................................................................................................................... 14-6
14.2.1 Segment Types ................................................................................................................................................................................ 14-6
14.2.2 Match Casting Segments by the Short-Line Method .................................................................................................... 14-10
14.2.3 Segment Geometry and Geometry Control ...................................................................................................................... 14-13
14.3 SEGMENTAL BRIDGE CONSTRUTION METHODS ................................................................................................................. 14-13
14.3.1 Balanced-Cantilever Construction....................................................................................................................................... 14-13
14.3.2 Span-By-Span Construction ................................................................................................................................................... 14-17
14.4 LONGITUDINAL DESIGN ................................................................................................................................................................... 14-21
14.4.1 Box-Girder Cross-Section Dimensions .............................................................................................................................. 14-21
14.4.1.1 Segment Width.................................................................................................................................................................... 14-22
14.4.1.2 Segment Depth .................................................................................................................................................................... 14-22
14.4.1.2 Top-Slab and Cantilever-Wing Lengths ................................................................................................................... 14-22
14.4.1.3 Top-Slab and Cantilever Wing-Tip Thicknesses .................................................................................................. 14-23
14.4.1.4 Haunch Thicknesses and Widths for Top Slabs and Cantilever Wings ...................................................... 14-23
14.4.1.5 Widths, and Thicknesses of Bottom Slabs and Bottom-Slab Haunches..................................................... 14-24
14.4.1.6 Web Width and Interior and Exterior Slopes ........................................................................................................ 14-24
14.4.1.7 Segment Length .................................................................................................................................................................. 14-25
14.4.2 Longitudinal Analyses ............................................................................................................................................................... 14-25
14.4.3 Prestress Selection by Force .................................................................................................................................................. 14-27
14.4.4 Example Bridge ............................................................................................................................................................................ 14-30
14.4.5 Staged Construction Self Weight .......................................................................................................................................... 14-31
14.4.6 Superimposed Dead Loads ..................................................................................................................................................... 14-34
14.4.7 Post-Tensioning Secondary Moments (PS) ..................................................................................................................... 14-34
14.4.8 Creep Redistribution Bending Moments .......................................................................................................................... 14-36
14.4.8.1 Creep of Concrete .............................................................................................................................................................. 14-36
14.4.8.2 Creep Redistribution Moments ................................................................................................................................... 14-37
14.4.9 Thermal Gradient ........................................................................................................................................................................ 14-42
14.4.10 Live Loads .................................................................................................................................................................................... 14-44
14.4.11 Prestressing Requirements.................................................................................................................................................. 14-45
14.4.12 Principal Tension ..................................................................................................................................................................... 14-47
14.5 TRANSVERSE ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................................................................... 14-49
14.5.1 Modeling for Transverse Analysis ....................................................................................................................................... 14-50
14.5.2 Analysis for Uniformly Repeating Loads .......................................................................................................................... 14-51
14.5.3 Analysis for Concentrated Wheel Live Loads ................................................................................................................. 14-52
14.5.3.1 Live-Load Moments in Cantilever Wings ................................................................................................................ 14-53
14.5.3.2 Negative Live Load Moments in the Top Flange .................................................................................................. 14-55
14.5.3.3 Positive Live-Load Moments at Centerline of the Top Flange ....................................................................... 14-58

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Table of Contents

14.5.4 Transverse Post-Tensioning ...................................................................................................................................................14-60

14.5.4.1 Transverse Post-Tensioning Tendon Layouts .......................................................................................................14-60
14.5.4.2 Required Prestressing Force .........................................................................................................................................14-61
14.5.4.3 Transverse Post-Tensioning Tendon Placement and Tensioning ................................................................14-62
14.6 DIAPHRAGMS, ANCHOR BLOCKS AND DEVIATION DETAILS ..........................................................................................14-64
14.6.1 Transfer of Vertical Shear Forces to Bearings ................................................................................................................14-64
14.6.2 Transfer of Longitudinal Moment to Bearings ...............................................................................................................14-65
14.6.3 Transfer of Torsion to Bearings ............................................................................................................................................14-67
14.6.4 Anchoring External Tendons ..................................................................................................................................................14-68
14.7 CITED REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................................14-70
14.8 PCI JOURNAL SEGMENTAL BRIDGE BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................14-70

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Notation

NOTATION
A = Area
bw = web width of the precast concrete segment
c1 = distance from neutral axis to the extreme top fiber
c2 = distance from neutral axis to the extreme bottom fiber
CR = force effects due to creep
d’1 = distance from the extreme top fiber down to the cantilever post-tensioning tendons
d’2 = distance from the extreme bottom fiber up to the cantilever post-tensioning tendons
DC = dead load of structural components
DW = dead load of permanent superimposed loads
(Ec)t = modulus of elasticity of concrete at an age of t days
EL = locked-in erection forces
F = prestressing force
Fmin = minimum prestressing force
F(restraining) = restraining force due to thermal gradient
f'c = specified design compressive strength
GUTS = guaranteed ultimate tensile strength
h = depth of the precast concrete segment
I = dynamic impact allowance
I = moment of inertia
LL = live load
lave = average length of post-tensioning tendons
lc = length of cantilever wing of the precast concrete segment
lts = length of top slab of the precast concrete segment
M = bending moment
Mc = moment in concrete beam section
Mg = unfactored bending moment due to beam self weight
M(restraining) = restraining moment due to thermal gradient
PS = secondary forces from post-tensioning
p = uniform load
SH = force effects due to shrinkage
sex = slope of the exterior face of the web of the precast concrete segment
sint = slope of the interior face of the web of the precast concrete segment
TG = force effect due to thermal gradient
t = time, age of concrete at the time of determination of creep effects, days

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Notation

tbs = thickness of bottom slab of the precast concrete segment

tbsh = thickness of the bottom-slab haunch of the precast concrete segment
tch = thickness of the cantilever wing haunch of the precast concrete segment
tctip = thickness of the cantilever wing tip of the precast segment
ti = age of concrete at time of load application
tts = thickness of the constant-depth top slab of the precast concrete segment between the end
haunches
ttsh = thickness of top-slab haunch of the precast concrete segment
w = overall width of the precast concrete segment
wbs = width of the bottom slab of the precast concrete segment
wbsh = width of the bottom-slab haunch of the precast concrete segment
wc = unit weight of concrete
wch = width of the top-slab haunch of the precast concrete segment
wtsh = width of the haunch of the cantilever wing of the precast concrete segment
εps = strain in prestressing strand
εsh = shrinkage strain at a concrete age of t days
λ = concrete density modification factor
Ψ(t, t0) = creep coefficient at t days after loading
Δ = deflection
Φ(x) = beam curvature at x
ρ = cross section efficiency
θ = angle of end rotation
Ψ(t, t0) = creep coefficient of the concrete member at a certain age

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14.1 Introduction

Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Since their introduction in the 1970s, precast concrete segmental bridges have significantly impacted major
bridge construction in the United States. Precast concrete segmental bridges are comprised of short, full-deck-
width precast concrete box-girder sections called segments. The precast concrete segments are fabricated either
in an established precast concrete fabrication plant or a project specific casting yard located near the project. The
segments are transported after casting to the bridge site and erected and post-tensioned to form the bridge.
Specialized precasting and construction methods have produced cost-effective bridges that are widely adaptable
to any combination of highway geometry and special site constraints. Typical applications include:
• Long-span bridges • Bridges over sensitive environments
• Long bridges over water • Rail and transit aerial bridges
• Complex urban interchanges and viaducts • Cable-stayed bridges
Precast concrete segmental bridges offer viable solutions over a wide range of span lengths. The shaded span
length ranges shown in Figure 14.1-1 are those applicable to precast concrete segmental construction. Precast
concrete segmental bridges built by the span-by-span method have been successfully used for spans from 80 to
180 ft. The most common span lengths for this bridge type range between 130 and 150 ft. Precast concrete
segmental bridges built by the balanced-cantilever method have been used for spans between 180 and 500 ft.
The lower end of this span length range, up to 240 ft, is typically used for bridges that have a constant-depth box
girder. Larger balanced-cantilever spans have variable-depth box girder superstructures, with the greatest depth
at supports and the smallest depth at midspan.
Deep segments for spans longer than 300 ft typically exceed roadway weight and dimensional restrictions.
Therefore, the use of precast concrete balanced-cantilever construction for these longer spans is limited to
bridges where the segments can be delivered over water by barge. Many cable-stayed bridges have been
constructed with precast concrete segments.

Figure 14.1-1
Precast Concrete Segmental Bridge Applicable Span Lengths, ft

Because precast concrete segmental box girders have clean lines and smooth surfaces along with the ability to
minimize the size of substructure elements, designers can use them effectively to produce award-winning bridge
aesthetics. Many segmental bridges have become signature structures and icons of the regions in which they are
located.
Additional information regarding the design and construction of precast concrete, post-tensioned segmental
bridges can be found on the websites of the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA:
fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/concrete), the American Segmental Bridge Institute (ASBI: asbi-assoc.org), and the Post-

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14.1 Introduction/14.2.1 Segment Types

Tensioning Institute (PTI: post-tensioning.org). For highway structures PCI recommends using the ASBI
Construction Practices Handbook for Concrete Segmental and Cable-Supported Bridges (2019) and the FHWA Post-
Tensioning Tendon Installation and Grouting Manual (Corven and Moreton, 2013). For the design of precast
concrete segmental rail and transit aerial bridges, PCI recommends using the ASBI Guidelines for Design and
Construction of Segmental Bridges for Rail (2022).

14.2 PRECAST CONCRETE SEGMENTS

14.2.1 Segment Types
Figure 14.2.1-1 shows a typical precast concrete box girder segment. The typical segment is comprised of a
bottom slab, webs (vertical or inclined), top slab (between the webs), and cantilever wings (outside the webs).
When two precast concrete segments are joined together during segment erection, the interface between two
segments is called the segment joint or, sometimes, the precast joint. Figure 14.2.1-1 also shows shear and
alignment keys located on the face of the precast concrete segment. The shear keys are along the webs and work
to transfer shear forces across segment joints, while alignment keys across the top and bottom slabs ensure that
adjacent precast concrete segments are erected to the same relative geometry with which they were cast.
Alignment keys also work to ensure continuous slab behavior in the top slab and cantilever wings under the local
action of applied wheel loads.
Special precast concrete segments are required at piers and abutments to stiffen and strengthen the typical cross
section and for transferring loads from the superstructure to the supporting substructure. Common names for
these segments are pier segments, expansion-joint segments, and abutment segments (for segments located over
interior piers of continuous units, at the ends of continuous units, and at the ends of the bridge, respectively).
Figure 14.2.1-2 shows a pier segment for a balanced-cantilever bridge. The diaphragm in this segment (the
concrete located within the core of the box girder) works to transfer shear forces in the webs to the bridge
bearings, stiffen the box girder with regard to torsion, and provide a location for anchoring and deviating post-
tensioning tendons. The pier segment in Figure 14.2.1-2 contains ducts for internal cantilever tendons in the top
slab and anchorages and deviation pipes for external continuity post-tensioning tendons. The opening in the
diaphragm allows access between adjacent spans both during construction and later for bridge inspections.
It is advantageous to design all precast concrete segments within a bridge to be approximately the same weight.
Uniform segment weights lead to cost efficiencies with regard to the design of crane operations or specialized
erection equipment. As a result, pier, expansion-joint, and abutment segments are usually shorter than typical
segments so that the weight of the section plus the diaphragm is close to the weight of the typical segment.

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14.2.1 Segment Types

Figure 14.2.1-1
Typical Segment for the Interstate 95/Interstate 295 North Interchange Ramp Southeast
in Jacksonville, Fla. (Photo: Corven Engineering)

Another special segment type found in many precast concrete segmental bridges is the deviation segment. This
segment has additional concrete diaphragms, ribs, or saddles that contain embedded pipes or formed holes
through which external tendons are placed to achieve desired eccentricity in a span. Figure 14.2.1-3 shows an
interior view of a deviation segment that is about to be incorporated into a bridge span. In this bridge, full-height
deviation ribs are used to develop vertical and horizontal components of the external tendon that will be stressed
to make the span continuous. Embedded in the base of the deviation rib are prebent steel pipes ready to be
spliced with the polyethylene external ducts that will enclose the external portion of the tendons. Strict attention
must be paid in the casting yard as to the orientation of the pipes to achieve a smooth tendon alignment.
An alternative to the use of embedded steel pipe is to cast circular holes with flared ends through the deviation rib
using reusable forms. This detail, referred to as a diabolo, accommodates the geometry of the tendon alignment.
The tendon is installed in polyethylene ducts that are continuous through the diabolo. Figure 14.2.1-4 shows a
schematic comparison of the embedded pipe and diabolo details. For additional details regarding the use of
diabolos refer to the FHWA publication Replaceable Grouted External Post-Tensioned Tendons (Ledesma, 2019).

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14.2.1 Segment Types

Figure 14.2.1-2
Pier Segment for the Interstate 95/Interstate 295 North Interchange Ramp Southeast
in Jacksonville, Fla. (Photo: Corven Engineering)

Figure 14.2.1-3
Deviation Segment for the Interstate 95/Interstate 295 North Interchange Ramp Southeast
in Jacksonville, Fla. (Photo: Ray Stanyard)

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14.2.1 Segment Types

Figure 14.2.1-4
Embedded Pipe and Diabolo Tendon Deviations

Figure 14.2.1-5
AASHTO/PCI/ASBI Type 9-2 Standard Segmental Cross Section

The proportions of the box girder cross section can be varied to accommodate the needs of a specific project.
Alternatively, it is possible to use standardized cross sections in order to use existing casting machines in
established precast concrete plants. Recognizing this possibility, AASHTO, PCI, and ASBI jointly developed a series
of cross sections for many typical bridge widths and span lengths. Figure 14.2.1-5 shows one of the standard
segmental shapes, the Type 9-2 shape. The depth of this segment is 9 ft 0 in. Figure 14.2.1-6 shows the bulkhead
of the Type 9-2 segment. This bulkhead is designed for balanced-cantilever construction with top- and bottom-
slab internal tendons. Also shown on the bulkhead are appropriate web shear keys and top- and bottom-slab
alignment keys. The Type 9-2 segment shown in Figure 14.2.1-5 is used in the example bridge presented later in
this chapter. A complete set of the AASHTO/PCI/ASBI standard drawings can be found on the ASBI website.

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14.2.1 Segment Types/14.2.2 Match Casting Segments by the Short-Line Method

Figure 14.2.1-6
Typical Bulkhead Details for the Type 9-2 Standard Segment

14.2.2 Match Casting Segments by the Short-Line Method

Segments of precast concrete segmental bridges are cast against one another to ensure a precise fit when they are
erected. This process of casting against one another is called match casting. The most common method of match
casting, called the short-line method, uses a casting machine to cast new segments between a fixed bulkhead and
the previously cast segment. A less frequently used method, the long-line method, uses long soffit beds and
traveling bulkheads and forms.
The basic components of a casting machine for short-line casting, as shown in Figure 14.2.2-1, are:
• Permanent bulkhead—The bulkhead has the cross section of the precast concrete segments, shear and
alignment keys, and holes for the support of ducts for the post-tensioning tendons. The bulkhead is
rigidly supported so that it does not move throughout segment casting. The bulkhead’s location and the
axis of the casting machine establish the local coordinate system for segment casting.
• Bottom soffits—Two soffits are required, one to support the segment being cast and one to support the
previously cast segment. The soffits roll on rails and are outfitted with hydraulic jacks to move the soffit
beds vertically and laterally to the required segment geometry.
• Outside web and cantilever wing forms—These two forms, one for each side of the segment, are made
snug against the permanent bulkhead and previously cast segment before the new segment is cast. These
forms must be stiff enough to maintain casting tolerances, yet sufficiently flexible to warp to the desired
segment geometry.
• Core form—This form is collapsible and retractable so that in can be inserted through the bulkhead and
expanded to the required core dimensions.
The casting machine is fabricated and delivered to the site where it is assembled on a prepared foundation. The
two soffits will support precast concrete segments in two positions, the match-cast position and the new-cast
position. The match-cast segment is the segment which was cast in the previous casting cycle. The new-cast
segment is that which is cast between the permanent bulkhead and the match-cast segment. Figure 14.2.2-2
shows a typical casting machine, which was used to cast segments for the Interstate 4/Lee Roy Selmon
Expressway Interchange in Tampa, Fla.
The typical sequence for casting a continuous run of segments, as shown in Figure 14.2.2-3, is as follows:
1. A starter segment (the first new-cast segment of the continuous run of segments) is cast between the
permanent bulkhead and a temporary bulkhead. A segment from a previous run of segments that has the
appropriate end cross section is often used in lieu of a temporary bulkhead.
2. When the newly cast concrete reaches a strength sufficient for form stripping and segment moving, the
starter segment moves from the new-cast to the match-cast position. The hydraulic jacks on the soffit are
used to orient the match-cast segment to achieve the desired geometry of the next new-cast segment.
3. The next segment of the run of segments is cast in the new-cast position between the permanent
bulkhead and the match-cast segment.

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14.2.2 Match Casting Segments by the Short-Line Method

4. When the newly cast concrete reaches a strength sufficient for form stripping and segment moving, the
match-cast segment is transported to storage to await assembly in the bridge. The new-cast segment then
moves to the match-cast position. The soffit supporting the previous match-cast segment is leap-frogged
over the new-cast segment to support the next segment to be cast.
Steps 3 and 4 are repeated until the continuous run of segments is complete.
Figure 14.2.2-1
Match-Casting Form Components

Figure 14.2.2-2
Casting Machine for the Interstate 4/Lee Roy Selmon Expressway, Tampa, Fla.
(Photo: Corven Engineering)

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14.2.2 Match Casting Segments by the Short-Line Method

Figure 14.2.2-3
Short-Line Casting Sequence

Figure 14.2.2-4 shows the short-line casting for the Interstate 95/Interstate 295 Ramp in Jacksonville, Fla. In this
photograph the match-cast segment is in position to achieve the needed segment geometry of the new-cast
segment and the wing forms have been made snug against the match-cast segment and the bulkhead.
Figure 14.2.2-4
Match Casting of a Segment for the Interstate 95/Interstate 295 Ramp in Jacksonville, Fla.
(Photo: Corven Engineering)

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14.2.3 Segment Geometry and Geometry Control/14.3.1 Balanced-Cantilever Construction

14.2.3 Segment Geometry and Geometry Control

Precast concrete segment dimensions are defined to follow the horizontal alignment, vertical profile, and
roadway superelevation of the bridge. Three-dimensional global coordinates (north, east, and elevation) at the
segment joints are identified such that they track the desired bridge geometry.
Achieving segment shapes during segment casting requires a systematic casting method. The short-line method of
casting involves making fine adjustments to each match-cast segment, typically by activating hydraulic jacks in
the casting machine soffits. These adjustments are established by transforming the global coordinates of
successive pairs of segments (match cast and new cast) to the casting cell. The relative position of a pair of
segments can be set using conventional surveying equipment and targets with refined gradations to achieve
desired accuracy.
Geometry control of the precast concrete segments involves establishing, monitoring, and adjusting the
relationship between new-cast and match-cast segments throughout the casting process. Each casting cycle
requires three-dimensional transformations from the global location to the casting cell, recording as-cast data in
the casting cell, and transformations back from the casting cell to the global locations.
The reader is directed to the Bridge Geometry Manual (Corven, et al., 2022) for a more thorough description of
establishing precast concrete segment geometry and geometry control methods.

14.3 SEGMENTAL BRIDGE CONSTRUTION METHODS

Precast concrete segmental bridges are typically classified by the method by which the precast concrete segments
are erected into the structure. The two most common types of precast concrete segmental bridge erection are the
balanced-cantilever and span-by-span methods.

14.3.1 Balanced-Cantilever Construction

Precast concrete segmental balanced-cantilever construction calls for the symmetrical placement of segments
about a central supporting pier. Figure 14.3.1-1 depicts two common methods of placing precast concrete
segments, by a ground-based crane and by an overhead erection gantry. Each segment is lifted into position and
both faces of the precast concrete joint are coated with epoxy. Temporary post-tensioning bars are then tensioned
to join segments to the cantilever. When two balancing segments are in place, permanent post-tensioning tendons
are installed across the length of the balanced cantilever and tensioned. In this way, as segments are added to the
cantilevers, more top tendons are added. As shown in Figure 14.3.1-2, the number of cantilever tendons is a
maximum at the pier segment and decreases along the length of the cantilevers. Once all of the segments of
adjacent cantilevers are erected and the permanent tendons are tensioned, superstructure continuity is achieved
by casting a midspan closure joint and installing and tensioning continuity tendons. Figure 14.3.1-3 shows
typical continuity tendons between the ends of adjacent balanced cantilevers. Figure 14.3.1-4 shows continuity
tendons in an end span of a continuous unit where several segments are erected on falsework to achieve
appropriate interior-to-end span behavior.

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14.3.1 Balanced-Cantilever Construction

Figure 14.3.1-1
Balanced-Cantilever Erection by Ground-Based Crane and Overhead Gantry

Figure 14.3.1-2
Half Plan and section Views Showing a Typical Cantilever Tendon Layout

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14.3.1 Balanced-Cantilever Construction

Figure 14.3.1-3
Midspan Continuity Tendons for Balanced-Cantilever Construction

Figure 14.3.1-4
Longitudinal Section Showing Continuity Tendons at the Ends of Continuous Units

Figure 14.3.1-5 shows the ground-based crane used to erect precast concrete segments in the balanced
cantilevers of the southeast ramp of the Interstate 95/Interstate 295 North Interchange in Jacksonville, Fla.
Precast concrete segments for this bridge were cast in a project casting yard established by the contractor. As the
erection sequence required, the precast concrete segments were trucked to the site on a low-boy trailer. A lifting
frame was attached to the top of the segments to avoid overstressing the top slab during lifting. Overturning due
to out-of-balance moments before the balancing segment is placed on the other end of the cantilever, is prevented
by a temporary stability tower at the pier. The stability tower also provides stability against transverse
overturning for moments caused by the curvature of the cantilever.
The 2,250-ft-long Southeast Ramp Bridge demonstrates the cost effectiveness of precast concrete segmental
balanced-cantilever construction for moderate-length bridges over heavily traveled urban highways. For
construction of the 274-ft-long span crossing Interstate 295, lane shifts and nighttime construction were used to
keep traffic moving throughout the project. Figure 14.3.1-6 shows segment placement during night work.

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14.3.1 Balanced-Cantilever Construction

Figure 14.3.1-5
Balanced-Cantilever Construction Using a Ground-Based Crane for the
Interstate 95/Interstate 295 North Interchange Ramp Southeast in Jacksonville, Fla.
(Photo: Corven Engineering)

Figure 14.3.1-6
Nighttime Segment Placement at the
Interstate 95/Interstate 295 North Interchange Ramp Southeast in Jacksonville, Fla.
(Photo: Corven Engineering)

Figure 14.3.1-7 shows balanced-cantilever erection of the Seabreeze Bridge in Daytona Beach, Fla., using an
overhead gantry. The precast concrete segments were delivered to the end of the gantry over the completed

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14.3.1 Balanced-Cantilever Construction/14.3.2 Span-By-Span Construction

portion of bridge. The gantry winch lifted the segment and transported it to the free end of the cantilever. In this
system of erection, cantilever stability can be provided by struts between the cantilever and the erection gantry.
Figure 14.3.1-7
Balanced-Cantilever Erection Using Overhead Gantry for the Seabreeze Bridge in Daytona Beach, Fla.
(Photo: Scott McNary)

14.3.2 Span-By-Span Construction

In span-by-span construction, all segments of a span must be temporarily supported on falsework or erection
trusses while full-span-length tendons are installed and tensioned to make the span self-supporting. Erection
trusses may be either overhead or under-slung to the concrete segments. The precast concrete segments are
delivered to the site and then placed on the erection trusses by crane, segment hauler, or gantry winch systems.
Figure 14.3.2-1 illustrates a typical construction cycle for span-by-span construction using under-slung trusses
and a ground-based crane.

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14.3.2 Span-By-Span Construction

Figure 14.3.2-1
Span-by-Span Erection Schematic: Placement of Segments on the Erection Truss (top),
Casting of Closure Joints and Tensioning of Full-Span-Length Tendons (middle),
and Launching of Erection Truss to Begin Erection of the Next Span (bottom)

Figure 14.3.2-2 shows the construction of the Lyons Bridge in Stuart, Fla. On this project, segments were
delivered by truck to the span to be erected via the completed portion of bridge. A deck-mounted segment placer
lifted each segment from the transporting trailer and placed it on twin under-slung temporary trusses. Each
segment was supported below the root of the cantilever wing by the temporary trusses, which were on sliding
jacks that could be adjusted to position each segment to the required roadway geometry.
Figure 14.3.2-2
Span-by-span Construction Using Under-Slung Erection Girders for the Lyons Bridge in Stuart, Fla.
(Photo: PCL Civil Constructors)

Figure 14.3.2-3 shows span-by-span construction of the Dulles Corridor Metrorail Project through Tysons
Corner, Va. In this project, which used overhead trusses, the segments for the twin, single-track bridges were
delivered either at street level or via the completed structure. Individual segments of a span were lifted and
translated to their final locations in the span. Once a span of one bridge was completed, the overhead truss was

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14.3.2 Span-By-Span Construction

launched laterally to build the span of the adjacent twin bridge. The combination of erection truss supports and
rigging enabled the erection truss to be self-launching in the longitudinal and transverse directions.
Figure 14.3.2-3
Span-by-Span Erection Using an Overhead Truss
for the Dulles Corridor Metrorail through Tysons Corner, Va.
(Photo: Corven Engineering)

Post-tensioning tendons in span-by-span construction are anchored in pier segment diaphragms located at both
ends of the span. The tendons are located inside the box section but are external to the concrete for most of the
span length. The external portions of the tendons are placed inside polyethylene ducts that are filled with either
cementitious grout or flexible fillers after tensioning. Draped tendon profiles along the length of the span are
achieved by deviating the tendons vertically through deviation diaphragms in the deviation segments and in the
pier segment diaphragms. Because the tendons are external and not located in the webs, the webs can be thinner.
Thinner webs reduce the weight of the bridge and increase cross-section efficiency. Together, these lead to
reductions in post-tensioning quantities.
Spans built by the span-by-span method can be either simple spans or made continuous with adjacent spans to
reduce the number of superstructure expansion joints. Spans are made continuous by overlapping post-
tensioning tendons in pier segment diaphragms positioned over the piers. Closure joints located on one or both
sides of the pier segments are cast to accommodate variations in actual segment lengths and sometimes to
uncouple the casting of typical segments from the pier segments. Closure joints 6 to 8 in. in length may be
unreinforced. Longer closure joints require reinforcement similar to the typical segments. Figure 14.3.2-4 shows
a side elevation and cross-sections of the layout of external tendons for interior spans in continuous units. Figure
14.3.2-5 shows the layout of tendons in end spans—often called expansion-joint spans—of continuous units. The
profiles of the longitudinal tendons splay at the expansion-joint segment diaphragm to allow the anchorages to be
placed close to the webs. This layout reduces the concrete and reinforcement details to develop the post-
tensioning forces into the box-girder cross section.
Simple spans are commonly used for transit-rail aerial structures so that rail interaction forces transmitted to the
superstructure can be more evenly distributed to the supporting substructure. Post-tensioning tendons for these
spans are anchored at the ends of the simple spans, with the net eccentricity of the tendons at the ends near the
center of gravity of the cross section. Figure 14.3.2-6 shows an end view of twin single-track box-girder
segments for the Dulles Corridor Metrorail Project. The anchorages for these twin, segmental simple spans can be
seen in the pier segment diaphragms.

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14.3.2 Span-By-Span Construction

Figure 14.3.2-4
Span-by-Span Post-Tensioning Layout for the Interior Span of a Continuous Unit

Figure 14.3.2-5
Span-by-Span Post-Tensioning Layout for the End Span of a Continuous Unit

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14.3.2 Span-By-Span Construction/14.4.1 Box-Girder Cross-Section Dimensions

Figure 14.3.2-6
Span-by-Span Erection of the Dulles Corridor Metrorail through Tysons Corner, Va.,
Using an Overhead Truss
(Photo: Corven Engineering)

14.4 LONGITUDINAL DESIGN

14.4.1 Box-Girder Cross-Section Dimensions
Figure 14.4.1-1 shows a cross section of a typical precast concrete segment. Guidelines for selecting the key
elements of the box-girder cross section are discussed in this section.
Figure 14.4.1-1
Segmental Box-Girder Dimensions

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14.4.1.1 Segment Width/14.4.1.2 Top-Slab and Cantilever-Wing Lengths

14.4.1.1 Segment Width

The width of the precast concrete segment, w, is the total combined width of the cantilever wings, top slab, and
horizontal projections of the web widths. The width of the segment is dictated by the arrangement of lanes,
shoulders, pedestrian and mixed-use lanes, and barrier rails. Table 14.4.1.1-1 shows typical ranges of bridge
widths for bridges with 12-ft-wide lanes, varying shoulder widths, no pedestrian or mixed-use lanes, and 1-ft 6-
in.-wide barrier rails.
Table 14.4.1.1-1
Typical Segmental Bridge Widths
Number of Lanes Typical Bridge Widths
ft
1 27 to 36
2 41 to 51
3 53 to 63

There are many examples of segmental bridge widths that deviate from the widths shown in Table 14.4.1-1.
Single-track transit bridges can have segment widths as narrow as 15 ft. Very wide single box girders with widths
up to 90 ft have also been used. Care is required to control transverse deflections of the top slab, cantilever wings,
and bottom slab during the casting of very wide segments. Excessive deflections can add difficulty to the joining of
segments during erection. Very wide bridges are often made of multiple, adjacent box girders to resolve this
concern.

14.4.1.2 Segment Depth

The depth of the precast concrete segment, h, is selected as a function of span length and practical minimums.
Span-by-span bridges typically vary in depth from 7 to 12 ft. Depths as small as 6 ft have been used, but restricted
headroom can complicate construction and future bridge inspections. A practical minimum depth of 8 ft is often
used when the depth is not limited by vertical clearances. Equation 14.4.2.2-1 provides a general guide for span-
by-span bridge depth for a common range of span lengths based on structural considerations.
6 ft ≤ h ≤ 10 ft for 120 ft ≤ Span Length ≤ 150 ft (Eq. 14.4.2.2-1)
Recommended depths of precast concrete segmental balanced-cantilever bridges have been widely published.
Podolny and Muller (1982) provide guidance on depth, h, as a function of span length, L, as shown in Eq. (14.4.1.2-
2), (14.4.12-3), and (14.4.1.2-4). Practical span-length limits for constant-depth bridges range from 200 to 250 ft.
Spans longer than this are typically variable in depth, following a parabolic curve, with greater depth at the piers
and lesser depth at mid-span. Lower span-to-depth ratios for constant- and variable-depth bridges typically
require an increase in bottom-slab thickness at piers to limit compressive stresses. It is important to note that
concrete compressive strengths commonly used at the time Podolny and Muller published their work were
typically 5 to 6 ksi. Currently, it is not unusual to see strengths of 8 to 10 ksi. This increase in concrete strengths
has led to increased span-to-depth ratios.
For constant-depth bridges: 𝐿 𝐿 (Eq. 14.4.1.2-2)
≤ℎ≤
15 30
At supports of parabolic variable-depth bridges: 𝐿 𝐿 (Eq. 14.4.1.2-3)
≤ℎ≤
16 20
At midspan of parabolic variable-depth bridges: 𝐿 𝐿 (Eq. 14.4.1.2-4)
≤ℎ≤
30 50

14.4.1.2 Top-Slab and Cantilever-Wing Lengths

The top slab of the box girder (see Fig. 14.4.1-1) is typically defined as that portion of the segment between the
webs. The top slab extends between the intersection points of the inside of the webs and bottom of the top-slab
haunches. Maximum top-slab lengths, ℓts , range from 30 to 35 ft and are typically limited by the transverse service
limit state flexural design.

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14.4.1.2 Top-Slab and Cantilever-Wing Lengths/14.4.1.4 Haunch Thickness and Widths for Top Slabs and Cantilever Wings

Box-girder cantilever-wing length, ℓc , is measured from the intersection of the exterior of the web to the bottom
of the cantilever-wing haunch. For a variety of reasons, cantilever-wing lengths can vary widely between bridges
and often within an individual bridge itself. Economical production of segments is achieved by maintaining the
core dimensions and formwork. Width variations are achieved by varying the cantilever-wing lengths.
Cantilever-wing lengths are based on purely structural considerations. The transverse flexural demand at the root
of the cantilever must be equalized to the top-slab flexural demand at the inside face of the web. Cantilever-wing
length–to–top-slab length ratios between 0.40 to 0.45, with appropriate haunch thicknesses can produce effective
results. Constant-thickness cantilever wings can be effectively post-tensioned transversely for lengths up to 16 to
18 ft. Beyond that range, voided or ribbed slabs are used to achieve longer cantilever-wing lengths.

14.4.1.3 Top-Slab and Cantilever Wing-Tip Thicknesses

The thickness of the top slab, tts , which is the constant depth portion between the end haunches (see Fig. 14.4.1-
1), is chosen to satisfy the transverse flexure design at the midspan of the slab. The thickness is kept small to
reduce the overall weight of the box-girder cross section. When determining the practical minimum dimensions,
the designer should consider the following:
• Top and bottom cover (An additional ½ in. of sacrificial top cover is often placed to account for milling to
achieve the desired riding surface.)
• Longitudinal and transverse top mats of reinforcement
• Longitudinal and transverse bottom mats of reinforcement
• A reasonable core dimension between the top and bottom mats of reinforcement
• Required eccentricity of the transverse tendons
If the design specifies 2 in. of top cover, 1½ in. of bottom cover, four layers of No. 4 reinforcing bars with bar
deformations, and a 3-in., core dimension, the minimum top-slab thickness would be 8¾ in. This minimum
thickness would probably be rounded up to 9 in. Additional thickness may be required if the transverse post-
tensioning needs additional eccentricity to meet service-load demands. Additional thickness may also be required
if longitudinal post-tensioning bars are placed and anchored in the top slab. These bars help with transverse
distribution of longitudinal prestressing while the epoxy that joins wide segments together cures. LRFD Article
5.12.5.3.11a (AASHTO, 2020) provides additional minimum requirements for top-slab and cantilever-wing
thicknesses.
Choosing the thickness of the cantilever wing tip, tctip , follows the same approach as sizing the top-slab thickness
with the exception that the thickness of the wing tip must be sufficiently thick to anchor the transverse post-
tensioning tendons. The transverse tendons are typically three or four prestressing strands of either 0.5-in. or 0.6-
in. diameter placed in flat ducts. Anchorages for these tendons are rectangular in shape. LRFD Article 5.12.5.3.11a
requires a minimum wing-tip thickness of 9 in. when transverse post-tensioning is used.
Narrow bridges, such as single-lane vehicular bridges or single- track transit bridges, may not require transverse
post-tensioning. In this case, the thickness of the cantilever wing-tip is chosen to ensure that barrier walls are
effectively developed in the segment’s top slab.

14.4.1.4 Haunch Thicknesses and Widths for Top Slabs and Cantilever Wings
Haunches are used in the top slab and cantilever wings to achieve appropriate transverse flexural behavior when
prestressed with the transverse tendons. Thicknesses of these haunches, ttsh (for top slabs) and tch (for cantilever
wings), can range from 12 to 22 in. as a function of the lengths of the top slab and cantilever wings (see Fig.
14.4.1-1). Top slab and cantilever haunches of span-by-span bridges can be thinner than those for balanced-
cantilever bridges of the same overall width. Balanced-cantilever bridges require sufficient thickness to place the
longitudinal cantilever tendons and anchorages.
Widths of the haunches, wtsh (for top slabs) and wch (for cantilever wings), are chosen to optimize transverse
flexural behavior and accommodate longitudinal cantilever tendons and transverse tendon profiles. Haunch
widths typically range from 4 to 7 ft for the bridge widths presented in Table 14.4.1.1-1.
Figure 14.4.1-1 shows circular fillets, rint and rext , that transition the top-slab and cantilever-wing haunches to the
interior face and exterior face of the webs, respectively. Although a circular fillet or linear chamfer may not be

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14.4.1.4 Haunch Thickness and Widths for Top Slabs and Cantilever Wings/14.4.1.6 Web Width and Interior and Exterior Slopes

required from a structural perspective, one of the two is required at the inside face of the web to accommodate
placement of reinforcement and facilitate removal of the core form after segment casting.

14.4.1.5 Widths, and Thicknesses of Bottom Slabs and Bottom-Slab Haunches

Bottom-slab widths, wbs, of precast concrete segments are chosen based on a variety of reasons, including the
following:
• Optimized layout of cantilever wings and the top slab, which is made easier when sloping webs are used
• Control the longitudinal bottom-slab compressive stresses
• Compatibility of the bottom-slab width with the supporting pier top width, including consideration of
sufficient bearing spacing to offset bearing uplift
• Aesthetics that maximize openness below the bridge
When only considering the optimized layout of the top slab and cantilever wings, typical bottom-slab widths for
the three ranges of bridge widths shown in Table 14.4.1.1-1 would range from 12 to 20 ft.
Bottom slabs of precast concrete segments are designed transversely as reinforced concrete members at strength
limit states. Where tendons are external to the concrete (inside the box girder) and bottom-slab compressive
stresses are low, bottom-slab thicknesses, tbs , of span-by-span bridges are sized based on flexural strength
demand and practical minimum thickness limitations. Depending on the bottom slab widths, the thicknesses of
the bottom slabs for span-by-span bridges typically range from 8 to 10 in.
Balanced-cantilever bridge bottom slabs are typically thicker than those of span-by-span bridges for two reasons:
• Balanced-cantilever bridges have higher longitudinal compressive stress at piers.
• Balanced-cantilever bridges have ducts for longitudinal tendons located between the top and bottom mats
of bottom-slab reinforcement.
Minimum bottom-slab thickness, tbs , at midspan when internal bottom-continuity tendons are used ranges from 9
to 10½ in. Bottom-slab thickness in the segments adjacent to the piers can be increased to reduce longitudinal
compressive stresses. In constant-depth balanced-cantilever bridges, bottom slabs are typically thickened toward
the interior of the box girder, with thickening achieved over two to three segments. Maximum bottom-slab
thicknesses of 18 to 24 in. are not uncommon in this circumstance. The upward inclination of the resultant force
of the bottom-slab compressive stresses produces an additive effect to shear forces called the Resal effect. Long-
span balanced-cantilever bridges that vary in depth typically also have bottom slabs of variable thicknesses.
Thicknesses of bottom slabs at the piers of these bridges can reach 30 to 48 in. The variation in bottom-slab
thickness for these long-span bridges is made gradually over many segments. The Resal effect for variable-depth
box girders reduces shear demands in the box-girder webs.
Precast concrete segment bottom slabs may or may not include haunches at the web–to–bottom-slab connections.
This region can be heavily congested with reinforcing steel. The increased thickness of the haunch provides more
room for concrete placed in the webs during casting to be worked around the bottom of the web and into the
bottom slab. The increased thickness of the bottom-slab haunch, , tbsh , combined with a bottom-slab thickness at
the face of the web approximately equal to the web thickness, also provides for a consistency in shear stress on
either side of the web–to–bottom-slab connection. Span-by-span precast concrete segmental bridges, which
typically have lower shear demands than balanced-cantilever bridges, seldom use bottom slab haunches. The lack
of haunches in these bridges helps facilitate the effective layout of the external longitudinal post-tensioning
tendons. When bottom-slab haunches are used, the increased thickness typically ranges from 6 to 9 in.

14.4.1.6 Web Width and Interior and Exterior Slopes

Webs of precast concrete segments can be vertical or inclined and can be constant width or vary in width. Sloped
webs can help achieve efficient top-slab and cantilever-wing lengths while helping to minimize bottom-slab
width. Constant-width webs have equal exterior and interior web slopes. If the web thickness, bw , varies (thinner
at the bottom of the webs), the interior slope, sint , will be greater than the exterior web slope, sext. Common web
slopes vary between 4:1 and 2:1. The AASHTO/PCI/ASBI standard segmental cross sections use a web slope of
2.5:1. LRFD Article 5.12.5.3.11b provides specifications for minimum web thickness.

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14.4.1.6 Web Width and Interior and Exterior Slopes/14.4.2 Longitudinal Analyses

For verifying stresses and strength limit state designs, web widths are measured perpendicular to the centerline
of the web. When constant-width webs are used, the web width is the width perpendicular to the exterior web
slope. Sufficient web width is required at the neutral axis of the box-girder cross section to ensure that service
limit state principal tensile stresses are less than specified design limits. LRFD Article 5.9.2.3.3 limits principal
tensile stresses at the neutral axis to 0.110𝜆√𝑓𝑐′ where 𝑓𝑐′ is in ksi. Web shear reinforcement at the neutral axis is
chosen to resist appropriate strength limit states in accordance with the LRFD Specifications. Web reinforcing bars
typically range in size from No. 5 to No. 8, with bars uniformly spaced on both faces of the web along the length of
the segment. In span-by-span segments, where shear demands are in large part offset by the deviating external
tendons, designers typically use the same web reinforcement in all segments to simplify reinforcing bar cage
layouts in the casting yard. For longer-span balanced-cantilever bridges, designers may vary web bar sizes and
spacings to meet the larger shear demands. When variable-width webs are used, service limit state principal
tensile-stress verifications and strength limit state reinforcing requirements should be verified at the most critical
location along the height of the web.
Additional verifications are required at the tops of the webs, just below the top-slab and cantilever-wing
haunches, and at the bottom of the webs, just above the bottom-slab haunch. The verification of the bottom of the
web seldom controls the web reinforcement when a constant web thickness is used. The reinforcement at the top
of the webs is selected to resist the combined effects of shear and transverse bending at strength limit states. Web
transverse design bending moments include self weight of the box girder, superimposed dead loads (wearing
surfaces and barrier rails), and vehicle wheel loads. Transverse reinforcement requirements on both faces of the
web, interior and exterior, are to be verified.
The governing load cases for shear and for transverse bending are usually not concurrent, and designing for the
full values of the separate cases can lead to excessive reinforcement. When the load cases are not current, Podolny
and Muller (1982) recommend using the greater of the following three combinations of reinforcement:
• Shear reinforcement computed at the neutral axis plus one-half of the transverse bending reinforcement
required at the top of the webs
• One-half of the shear reinforcement required at the neutral axis plus the transverse bending reinforcement
required at the top of the webs
• 0.7 times the sum of the shear reinforcement and the transverse bending reinforcement
The full requirements of both shear and transverse bending reinforcement are used if the governing load cases
are concurrent.

14.4.1.7 Segment Length

Maximum lengths of precast concrete segments are typically determined by hauling restrictions (weight and
width) for a particular project. Segment lengths of 10 ft and weights of 50 tons are common for segments
transported over roadways. Segments for bridges over water that are transported by barge from the casting yard
can have significantly longer lengths. Span-by-span bridges over water have used segments up to 20 ft in length.
For long-span balanced-cantilever bridges over water, it is possible to use variable-depth segments that are 10 ft
long and weigh as much as 80 to 100 tons.
There are two ways to vary the lengths of segments within spans of a project:
• Casting special-length segments, whose lengths may be significantly different from the typical segment
length
• Adjusting the lengths of all segments by a small amount
The first method requires special soffits and side forms for the shorter segments. The second method can use the
typical forms if the lengths do not vary by more than, or less than 6 in.

14.4.2 Longitudinal Analyses

The longitudinal design of precast concrete segmental bridges in accordance with LRFD Specifications involves
initially selecting post-tensioning along the length of the bridge to satisfy longitudinal flexural stress limits at
service limit states. Subsequent longitudinal design includes verifications of principal tensile stress, flexural
strength, and web shear strength. The internal forces for which the cross sections are verified under the various

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14.4.2 Longitudinal Analyses

limit states are determined by linear elastic analyses, then summed and factored in accordance with the limit
state being considered.
Permanent load effects are typically determined by time-dependent construction analyses software that
replicates the construction sequence and schedule envisioned for the bridge. These types of programs typically
feature the following:
• Ability to select two-dimensional or three-dimensional modeling to be consistent with the complexity of
the bridge horizontal and vertical geometry.
• Elastic and time-dependent characteristics for both the concrete (strength and stiffness gain, creep and
shrinkage) and prestressing steel (relaxation and shortening associated with concrete creep and
shrinkage).
• Stiffness-based finite element analyses to model complex force-displacement behavior of a structure by
dividing the structure into an assemblage of smaller members interconnected at nodes. Nodal locations
are chosen at joints between precast concrete segments, with each segment modeled in the analysis.
Other node locations may be required to appropriately capture the displacement characteristics of the
structure.
• Piers and supporting foundations are included in the analyses if they affect the longitudinal state of stress
in the segmental superstructure.
• Post-tensioning tendons are defined geometrically according to plan details. The tendons are then
represented as internal forces that follow the defined geometry. The initial internal post-tensioning
forces incorporate losses along the length of the tendons experienced during stressing including anchor
set, friction, and wobble.
• Additional superimposed loads such as anchor blocks, diaphragms, barrier rails, and wearing surfaces are
applied according to plan details.
• Thermal effects, linear and gradient, can be applied as independent load cases.
• Automatic generation of longitudinal internal forces produced by design vehicular live loads.
• With the structure fully defined, the software incrementally analyses the structure at various phases of
construction while computing time-dependent losses and adjustments to the changed states of stress.
• Stresses are summed through construction and time updates made to a future date when time-dependent
effects are assumed to end.
• Time-dependent construction analyses stresses at the end of construction and at the end of time-
dependent effects are summed with various LRFD load cases for verification of service limit state
requirements.

Figure 14.4.2-1 shows the nodal layout for a two-dimensional analysis model of the example balanced-cantilever
bridge presented in Section 14.4.4. This plane-frame model is appropriate for bridges on a tangent alignment of
moderate bridge curvatures as defined by the LRFD Specifications. Figure 14.4.2-2 shows a three-dimensional
analysis model required for a five-span, balanced-cantilever bridge with sharply reversing horizontal curvature.
Figure 14.4.2-1
Nodal Layout for the Two-Dimensional Analysis Model of the Example Balanced-Cantilever Bridge

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14.4.2 Longitudinal Analyses/14.4.3 Prestress Selection by Force

Figure 14.4.2-2
Typical Three-Dimensional Bridge Model (left) and Detailed Model (right) for a Five-Span, Balanced-
Cantilever Bridge with Sharply Reversing Horizontal Curvature

14.4.3 Prestress Selection by Force

Efficient precast concrete segmental box-girder fabrication relies upon the repetitive casting of segments between
the fixed bulkhead and the match-cast segment. The bulkhead contains fixed holes that define the tendon paths at
the ends of the segments. The tendons move vertically and horizontally from hole to hole to achieve the desired
tendon geometry at the joints of the precast concrete segments. In balanced-cantilever construction, these holes
are primarily in the top and bottom flanges. In span-by-span construction, the tendon end-anchorage locations
are fixed in the pier segment and expansion-joint segment core forms, and low-point eccentricities are defined by
the location of the tendons as they pass through steel pipes or diabolos cast into the deviation segments.
In either case, the fixed duct locations establish specific eccentricities for the post-tensioning tendons. Using these
known eccentricities, the required prestressing force can be determined by considering internal equilibrium of
forces and moments, instead of computing and then verifying a cross section based on a summation of stresses.
Consider the segmental box girder shown in Figure 14.4.3-1 with the following cross-section properties:
A = area, ft2
I = moment of inertia, ft4
c1 = distance from neutral axis to the extreme top fiber, ft
c2 = distance from neutral axis to the extreme bottom fiber, ft
The cross section is assumed to be symmetrical about its vertical axis and the prestressing is symmetrically
applied so that there is no biaxial bending. Figure 14.4.3.-1 also shows positive sign conventions for prestressing
force, F, eccentricity of prestressing, e, and externally applied bending moments, M. Compressive stresses in the
concrete are positive (+) and tensile stresses in the concrete are negative (−).
Figure 14.4.3-1
Cross-Section Nomenclature and Sign Convention

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14.4.3 Prestress Selection by Force

Longitudinal bottom extreme fiber stresses are determined and limited by Eq. (14.4.3.1-1).
𝐹 𝐹𝑒𝑐2 𝑀𝑐2
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ + − ≤ 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 (Eq. 14.4.3-1)
𝐴 𝐼 𝐼
The maximum stress in this equation is the maximum permissible compression in the concrete. The minimum
stress for precast concrete segmental bridges is equal to zero. Cost-effective design is achieved by using the
minimal appropriate amount of prestressing material to provide the minimum prestressing force, Fmin. This
allows the designer to focus on satisfying the criteria for minimum stress and then verifying that the maximum
stress is within limits. As a result, Eq. (14.4.3-1) can be rewritten as:
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑐2 𝑀𝑐2
0≤ + − (Eq. 14.4.3-2)
𝐴 𝐼 𝐼
Simplifying this equation begins by multiplying all terms by the moment of inertia and dividing by the distance
from the neutral axis to the extreme bottom fiber.
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼
0≤ + 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑒 − 𝑀 (Eq. 14.4.3-3)
𝐴𝑐2

Further simplification is made by defining the dimensionless parameter:

𝐼
ρ= (Eq. 14.4.3-4)
𝐴𝑐1 𝑐2
The parameter ρ is called the “efficiency” of the cross section with regard to prestressing. When the first term of
Eq. (14.4.3-3) is expressed using ρ:
0 ≤ 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ρ𝑐1 + 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑒 − 𝑀 (Eq. 14.4.3-5)
Rearranging and solving for Fmin:
𝑀
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ (Eq. 14.4.3-6)
𝑒 + ρ𝑐1
A similar expression can be derived with regard to the minimum force required to offset tension at the top
extreme fiber:
𝑀
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ (Eq. 14.4.3-7)
𝑒 − ρ𝑐2
The dimensions e +ρc1 and e − ρc2 are the internal lever arms which, when multiplied by the prestressing force,
must be greater than or equal to the applied moments. Figure14.4.3-2 shows these two conditions of internal
equilibrium.
Figure 14.4.3-2
Internal Equilibrium for Bottom Fiber Stress (left) and Top Fiber Stress (right)

When applied bending moments are equal to zero, application of a prestressing force at an eccentricity of either
ρc1 or ρc2 produces the state of zero stress at the opposite extreme fiber. These conditions are shown in Figure
14.4.3-3. The region between these two limiting eccentricities is called the kern of the cross section. Any
combination of axial force and applied bending moment will not create tensile stresses at the cross section as long

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14.4.3 Prestress Selection by Force

as the eccentricity of the axial load, M/F, lies within the kern. Figure 14.4.3-4 shows the kern of a typical box-
girder cross section.
Figure 14.4.3-3
Conditions for Limiting Eccentricities to Produce Zero Extreme Fiber Stress (Prestressing Only)

Figure 14.4.3-4
Kern Location for a Typical Box-Girder Cross Section

The reader is directed to the FHWA’s Post-Tensioned Box Girder Design Manual (Corven, 2016) for a more
complete presentation of prestressing using post-tensioning tendons. In particular, the following chapters of that
manual may be beneficial:
• Chapter 2—Materials
• Chapter 3—Prestressing with Post-Tensioning
• Chapter 4—Prestressing Losses
Equations (14.4.3-6) and (14.4.3-7) reduce the selection of minimum prestressing at a precast concrete segment
joint to a study of internal equilibrium. Similar equations may be developed for the maximum permissible force at
a joint so that stress limits in the concrete will not be exceeded. The longitudinal flexural design for service limit
state then requires an accounting for all bending moments acting at each precast concrete segment joint and the
determination of the post-tensioning layout and initial jacking forces such that the final prestressing forces
provide the needed equilibrium.
Equation (14.4.3-8) expands the numerator of Eq. (14.4.3-6) to include typical moments acting on a segmental
bridge superstructure at service limit states.

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14.4.3 Prestress Selection by Force/14.4.4 Example Bridge

𝑀𝐷𝐶 + 𝑀𝐷𝑊 + 𝑀𝐸𝐿 + 𝑀𝑃𝑆 + 𝑀𝐶𝑅 + 𝑀𝑆𝐻 + 𝛾𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿 (1 + 𝐼𝑀) + 𝑀𝑇𝑈 + γ 𝑇𝐺 𝑀𝑇𝐺
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ (Eq. 14.4.3-8)
𝑒 + ρ𝑐1

where
MDC = moment due to dead load of structural components
MDW = moment due to dead load of permanent superimposed loads such as wearing
surface and utilities
MEL = moment due to locked-in erection forces
MPS = moment due to permanent effects other than dead load, including secondary effects
of post-tensioning (secondary moments, reactions, and shear forces) and prestress
losses
MCR = moment due to concrete creep
MSH = moment due to concrete shrinkage
γLL = load factor for live load; 0.8 for Service III tension, 1.0 for Service I compression
MLL = moment due to live load
IM = dynamic load allowance
MTU = moment due to uniform temperature effects from fixed bearings or frame action,
otherwise zero
γTG = load factor for thermal gradient; 0.5 with live load, 1.0 without live load
MTG = moment due to thermal gradient
All other service limit state load factors are equal to 1.0. Application of these loads are presented the following
section.

14.4.4 Example Bridge

An example bridge built in balanced-cantilever manner will be used to discuss some of the features of analysis
and design particular to segmental bridges. Figure 14.4.4-1 shows the example bridge, which lies on a tangent
alignment. Figure 14.4.4-2 shows additional details of the segment lengths. The precast concrete box girder for
this example bridge is the AASHTO/PCI/ASBI Standard Segment 9-2 shown in Figure 14.2.1-6 with a width of 43
ft (two 12-ft-wide lanes, two 8-ft-wide shoulders, and two 1.5-ft-wide barriers).
Figure 14.4.4-1
Example Balanced-Cantilever Bridge

Figure 14.4.4-2
Segment Layout for Example Balanced-Cantilever Bridge

The example bridge is modeled as a two-dimensional line girder as shown in Figure 14.4.2-1. The segmental
girder is supported by sliding bearings at the abutments and the right pier. The bearing supporting the

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14.4.4 Example Bridge/14.4.5 Staged Construction Self Weight

superstructure at the left pier is free to rotate but fixed to displacement to provide analytical stability. These
support conditions allow further modification to Eq. (14.4.3-8), as freedom to expand and contract longitudinally
leads to no forces induced by uniform temperature changes, concrete shrinkage, and shortening resulting from
the application of post-tensioning forces. Erection of the segments is by ground-based crane. As a result, the
locked-in erection loads are small and will be ignored in this example. The equation for minimum prestressing
force, Fmin , at the center of the main span is shown in Eq. (14.4.4-1). The load effects acting on the bridge are
discussed in the following sections.
𝑀𝐷𝐶 + 𝑀𝐷𝑊 + 𝑀𝑃𝑆 + 𝑀𝐶𝑅 + γ𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝐿𝐿 (1 + 𝐼𝑀) + γ 𝑇𝐺 𝑀𝑇𝐺
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ (Eq. 14.4.4-1)
𝑒 + ρ𝑐1

14.4.5 Staged Construction Self Weight

The self weight bending moments of the example balanced-cantilever bridge are analyzed with respect to a
common construction sequence. The self weight of this box girder on a per-foot basis, PSW , is found by multiplying
the cross-sectional area of the box girder, A, by the concrete density, γc:
A = 78.7835 ft2
γc = 0.150 kips/ft3

𝑃𝑆𝑊 = 𝐴 × γ𝑐 = 78.7835 × 0.15 = 11.8 kips/ft (Eq. 14.4.5-1)

Post-tensioning anchor blocks for temporary and permanent post-tensioning tendons and deviation diaphragms
(if used) add to the weight of each precast concrete segment. In preliminary design, a 5% increase in the uniform
self weight can be used to account for these items. The resulting self weight is then:

𝑃𝑆𝑊 = 1.05 × 11.8 = 12.4 kips/ft (Eq. 14.4.5-2)

Figure 14.4.5-1 shows the sequenced development of self weight longitudinal bending moments in five major
stages:
Stage 1—Balanced-cantilever construction at Pier 2. Temporary stability towers are assembled at Pier 2 to
provide overturning resistance to out-of-balance moments that can occur during construction. The pier segment
is placed on temporary blocking and secured to the pier. Segments are erected sequentially at free ends of the
cantilevers. Epoxy is placed on both segment faces to be joined and temporary post-tensioning bars are tensioned
to attach segments to the free end of the cantilevers. When balancing pairs of segments are erected, permanent
cantilever post-tensioning tendons are tensioned across the entire length of the balanced cantilever. Alternating
the ends from which the tendons are tensioned helps achieve force symmetry about the centerline of pier.
Stage 2—Closing Span 1. The abutment segment and three typical segments are supported on temporary
falsework, epoxy is applied to segment joints, and segments are joined together with temporary post-tensioning
bars. Forms are placed between the end of the Span 2 cantilever in Span 1 and the last typical segment on
falsework. A concrete closure joint with the cross section of the box girder is cast and cured. Bottom- and top-slab
continuity post-tensioning tendons are tensioned across the closure joint. The tensioning of the tendons and
removal of temporary supports engages the self weight of these segments. The structure on which the continuity
tendons are tensioned is statically determinate, being simply supported at Abutment 1 and Pier 2. As a result, no
self weight continuity moments or post-tensioning secondary moments are produced in conjunction with this
stage.
Stage 3—Balanced-cantilever construction at Pier 3. This stage involves the same process as Stage 1.
Stage 4—Close Span 3. This stage involves the same process as Stage 2.
Stage 5—Close Span 2. The last major stage of construction establishes continuity in the main span of the bridge.
Closure formwork is placed between the ends of the two free cantilevers. A concrete closure joint with the cross
section of the box girder is cast and cured. The weight of the forms and the weight of the wet closure joint
concrete are supported by the cantilevers extending from Piers 2 and 3. Bottom- and top-slab continuity post-
tensioning tendons are tensioned across the closure joint, making the structure continuous from abutment to
abutment. The tensioning of the main span continuity tendons is on a three-span continuous structure. Secondary

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14.4.5 Staged Construction Self Weight

moments that reduce the effectiveness of the continuity tendons are produced. The closure joint formwork that
was supported by the cantilevers is removed on the three-span continuous structure.
The cross-section properties of the Type 9-2 segment are as follows:
Cross-section area, A = 78.7835 ft2
Moment of inertia with respect to bending about the neutral axis, I = 863.475 ft4
Distance from neutral axis to extreme top fiber, c1 = 3.1159 ft
Distance from neutral axis to extreme bottom fiber, c2 = 5.8841 ft
Cross section efficiency, ρ = I/(Ac1c2) = 0.5978
The locations of top- and bottom-slab internal tendons for the Type 9-2 segment are:
Distance from extreme top fiber down to cantilever post-tensioning tendons, 𝑑1′ = 6.250 in.
Distance from extreme bottom fiber up to continuity post-tensioning tendons, 𝑑2′ = 4.625 in.
The resulting eccentricities, with a ¾-in. adjustment for the location of the tendon in the ducts in accordance with
AASHTO LRFD Figure C5.9.1.6-1, are:
Cantilever tendon eccentricity, e1 = −3.1159 + (6.25/12) + (0.75/12) = −2.5 ft
Bottom continuity tendon eccentricity, e2 = 5.8841 − (4.625/12) − (0.75/12) = 5.4 ft
The minimum required post-tensioning force over the pier at the end of staged construction to resist self weight
is found using Eq. (14.4.3-7). The negative cantilever bending moments shown in Figure 14.4.5-1 are taken at the
centerline of the piers. The negative moment at the joint between the Pier 2 pier segment and first typical
segment in the main span, is 55,955 ft-kips. The minimum required post-tensioning force required at this joint is:
𝑀 −55,955 −55,955 (Eq. 14.4.5-3)
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ = = = 9,326 kips
𝑒 − ρ𝑐2 −2.5 − (0.5978 × 5.8841) −6.0

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14.4.5 Staged Construction Self Weight

Figure 14.4.5-1
Balanced-Cantilever Staged Construction Bending Moments, ft-kips

The cantilever tendons will be tensioned to approximately 75% of their guaranteed ultimate tensile strength
(GUTS). The level of stress along the length of the tendons after jacking will vary as a function of anchor set,
friction, and wobble. The level of stress in the cantilever tendons will further reduce with time as a result of
concrete creep and shrinkage and prestressing steel relaxation. For preliminary sizing considerations, a stress
between 62% to 65% of the guaranteed strength may be used. Twelve-strand tendons made of 0.6-in.-diameter
prestressing strands with a tendon force of 440 kips (~62.5% of GUTS) are used to choose the number of
cantilever tendons in the example bridge. The resulting minimum number of tendons is:
9,326 kips
Minimum Number of Tendons = = 22 tendons (rounded up) (Eq. 14.4.5-4)
440 kips/tendon
A total of 26 cantilever tendons is selected for this example bridge. The additional tendons will provide reserve
capacity. The layout of the cantilever tendons for the example bridge is shown in Figure 14.4.5-2.

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14.4.5 Staged Construction Self Weight/14.4.7 Post-Tensioning Secondary Moments (PS)

Figure 14.4.5-2
Cantilever Tendon Layout for the Example Bridge

14.4.6 Superimposed Dead Loads

Barrier rails are placed after staged construction. No wearing surface is used in this example. Often, an additional
½ in. of cover concrete is cast with the precast concrete segments to allow for milling of the surface to enhance
the ride and for grooving of the top slab to enhance traction. The weight assumed for the two barrier rails is:
𝑝𝐷𝐶 = 2 × 0.43 = 0.86 kips/ft (Eq. 14.4.6-1)
The barrier rail weights are applied to the three-span continuous structure. Figure 14.4.6-1 shows the bending
moment diagram for this uniform load.
Figure 14.4.6-1
Bending Moments Due to Two Barrier Rails, ft-kips

14.4.7 Post-Tensioning Secondary Moments (PS)

The sequence of construction for the example bridge calls for the side spans to be closed before closing the main
span. As previously mentioned, tensioning the continuity tendons in the side spans creates only primary
prestressing effects as those spans are statically determinate at the time those tendons are tensioned. This is not
the case when the main span continuity tendons are tensioned. In Figure 14.4.7-1, the main span is depicted as a
simple span. Tensioning the bottom-slab continuity tendons would cause an upward deflection of the main span
and simple-span beam end rotations. The end rotations of the span would be counterclockwise at the left end of
the span and clockwise at the right end. Flexural stiffnesses of the side spans restrain these rotations, producing
continuity moments in the three-span continuous unit.
The bending moment produced by the post-tensioning force acting at an eccentricity is called the primary
moment. The continuity moments produced in the continuous girders as a result of restraining the individual
spans under the action of the post-tensioning are called the secondary moments due to post-tensioning.
Secondary moments can be determined from the end rotations of the main span under the actions of the primary
moments. Simple-span end rotations are determined using the conjugate beam method, with the primary bending
moments divided by the girder stiffness, EI, as the acting loads. Figure 14.4.7-1 shows the conjugate beam
loading for four bottom-slab tendons anchored symmetrically about the centerline of the main span. The total

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14.4.7 Post-Tensioning Secondary Moments (PS)

loading is the area under the conjugate load diagram divided by EI. The end reactions of the simple-span beam
subjected to the total load are the beam end rotations. In this case, by symmetry, the end rotations are one-half of
the total load.
Figure 14.4.7-1
Conjugate Beam Loads for Secondary Moments

Eight bottom-slab tendons, two B1 through B4 tendons per web, are shown in Figure 14.4.7-1. The tendons
anchor 2.5 ft from the end of the segment. The resulting tendon lengths are 56, 75, 94, and 113 ft with an average
length, lave , of 84.5 ft. As computed in Section 14.4.5, the eccentricity, e, of the bottom continuity tendons is 5.4 ft.
Force in the tendons is assumed to be constant along the length of the tendons for this example calculation. The
tendons are also assumed to be the same size. The total conjugate load, for a uniform stiffness EI, is therefore:
𝐹𝑒 × 𝑙𝑎𝑣𝑒 (5.4)(84.5) 456.3
∑ = = 𝐹 (Eq. 14.4.7-1)
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
where F is the total prestressing force at the centerline of the bridge. The conjugate beam reactions, which are
equal to the simple span rotations are:
𝐹𝑒 × 𝑙𝑎𝑣𝑒 228.15
θ = ±∑ =± 𝐹 (Eq. 14.4.7-2)
2𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
Restraining end moments can be determined from the simple-span end rotations by using a variety of methods.
The method of joint flexibilities gives the following solution for the example bridge:
𝑀2 = 𝑀3 = 1.583𝐹 (Eq. 14.4.7-3)
Figure 14.4.7-2 shows the moment diagram for the secondary moments for the eight bottom-slab tendons in the
main span as a function of the force in all tendons. The reader is directed to Appendix A of FHWA’s Post-Tensioned
Box Girder Design Manual (Corven, 2016) for a detailed development of the method of joint flexibilities.
Figure 14.4.7-2
Secondary Moments for 2 × 4 = 8 Bottom-Slab Tendons, ft-kips

It is interesting to consider the secondary moments as an adjustment to the tendon profile. The secondary
moments reduce the 5.4-ft eccentricity by 1.583 ft. The effective eccentricity of the tendons at the middle of the
main span for this example is 3.8 ft, or 70% of the geometric eccentricity.
Figure 14.4.7-1 also shows top-slab continuity tendons that cross the center closure joint. These tendons, with a
length of 37 ft, provide compression across the top center of the main span for loads occurring early in the life of
the bridge. Creep redistribution moments add compression to the top slab over time, reducing the importance of
these tendons. The top-slab continuity tendons also produce secondary moments opposite in sign to the bottom-
slab tendons. Figure 14.4.7-3 shows the continuity moments produced for the two top-slab tendons in the
example bridge with an eccentricity of −2.3 ft. F is the prestressing force in each of the tendons.

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14.4.7 Post-Tensioning Secondary Moments (PS)/14.4.8.1 Creep of Concrete

Figure 14.4.7-3
Secondary Moments for 2 × 1 = 2 Top-Slab Tendons, ft-kips

14.4.8 Creep Redistribution Bending Moments

14.4.8.1 Creep of Concrete
The creep of concrete is the increase in concrete strain, beyond initial elastic strain, under a sustained stress.
Figure 14.4.8.1-1 shows the influence of concrete creep on increased strain under the loading and unloading of a
sustained load on a concrete element. The concrete element is loaded at time t0 and strains in proportion to the
modulus of elasticity at time t0. From time t0 to time t1, the concrete creeps under the action of the sustained
loading. At time t1 the load is removed and there is a recovery of a portion of the elastic strain. The elastic
recovery is less than the initial elastic strain because the elastic modulus has increased during the period of
loading. Further reduction in strain is found at times greater than t1. This creep recovery strain is substantially
smaller than the concrete creep, as it is proportional to the elastic recovery strain and occurs at a later age of the
concrete’s life than the original loading. At some point in time, the effects of creep recovery stop and the concrete
element is left with a permanent residual strain.
Figure 14.4.8.1-1
Creep of Concrete

Creep characteristics can vary greatly as a function of the concrete mixture design, environment, and nature of
loading. Some important factors influencing concrete creep are:
• Duration of load—The longer the duration of loading is, the more creep is realized.
• Initial stress level—The greater the level of initial stress is, the more the concrete will creep.
• Concrete age at loading—The younger the concrete is at loading, the more the concrete will creep.
• Relative humidity—The higher the relative humidity is, the less the concrete will creep.
• Volume-to-surface ratio—The greater the volume-to-surface ratio is, the less the concrete will creep.
• Concrete strength—The greater the concrete strength is, the less the creep will be. This relationship can
be made between creep and other concrete parameters that vary with strength.
Highway bridge loads can be divided into two primary types: permanent (self weight, superimposed dead loads,
prestressing) and transient (live loads, temperature variations, wind loads, etc.). The duration of transient loads is
short and therefore transient loads are not considered in the computation of the effects of concrete creep in
bridges. As a result, the strain-versus-time relationship shown in Figure 14.4.8.1-1 is modified to that of Figure
14.4.8.1-2.

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14.4.8.1 Creep of Concrete/14.4.8.2 Creep Redistribution Moments

Figure 14.4.8.1-2
Creep of Concrete (without Consideration of Transient Loads)

Elastic strains are computed in accordance with Hooke’s Law:

σ𝑐 (Eq. 14.4.8.1-1)
ε𝑐 =
𝐸𝑐 (𝑡)
where
εc = concrete strain
σc = stress in the concrete
Ec(t) = the modulus of elasticity at time t
The creep strain, εcr (t, t0) , at time t for stress applied at time t0 is typically determined as the product of the elastic
stress and a creep coefficient divided by the modulus of elasticity:
σ𝑐 (𝑡0 ) (Eq. 14.4.8.1-2)
ε𝑐𝑟 (𝑡, 𝑡𝑜 ) = Ψ(𝑡, 𝑡0 )
𝐸𝑐 (𝑡0 )
where
σc (t0) = concrete stress due to load applied at time t0
E c (t 0 ) = modulus of elasticity of concrete at time t0
Ψ(t, t0) = the creep coefficient at time t for load applied at time t0
t0 = age at time of loading, days
The total strain is then generally expressed as:
ε𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ε𝑐 + ε𝑐𝑟 (𝑡, 𝑡0 ) = ε𝑐 (1 + Ψ) (Eq. 14.4.8.1-3)
Several codified creep models are available to express the creep behavior of concrete shown in Figure 14.4.8.1-2.
LRFD Article 5.4.2.3 provides provisions for computing creep and shrinkage. Estimates of shrinkage and creep
may be made using the provisions of the fib Model Code for Concrete Structures (2010) or the CEB-fip Model Code
1990 (1993). For segmentally constructed bridges, a more precise estimate shall be made, including the effects of
all the following:
• Specific materials when known
• Structural dimensions
• Site conditions
• Construction sequence
• Concrete age at various stages of erection

14.4.8.2 Creep Redistribution Moments

Conventional prestressed concrete bridges are typically constructed as simply supported spans. The major
influence of creep in these bridges is camber growth. Segmental bridges are typically continuous over several
supports. The erection methods for building segmental bridges is such that during the course of construction, the
statical scheme changes as spans are made sequentially continuous. The result is that in addition to camber
growth, the concrete creep has the additional effect of redistributing permanent load bending moments. The
redistribution is toward the bending moments that would have been developed had the structure been erected in
one stage in the final structural scheme.

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14.4.8.2 Creep Redistribution Moments

Moment redistribution is depicted in Figure 14.4.8.2-1. View (a) of this figure considers two fixed,
nonprestressed, cantilever beams with a permanently applied uniform load. The resulting parabolically shaped
bending moment diagrams, M(x), are shown inverted in view (b). View (c) shows the elastic and time-dependent
deflected shapes of the cantilever girders. If the ends of the cantilevers are not joined, they would continue to
deflect downward over time. The creep deflection would be found by multiplying the elastic deflection by the
creep coefficient at the time being considered. View (d) shows the cantilever ends joined at some intermediate
time. The connected cantilevers restrain end rotations as the concrete continues to creep. The rotational
restraints limit creep deflections and produce internal bending moments, or creep redistribution moments as
shown in view (e). Deflections and creep redistribution moments are maximized when the influence of concrete
creep has come to an end. View (f) shows the final bending moment diagram of the load combination of initial
moments and creep redistribution moments. The creep redistribution moments add positive bending moments at
the midspan and reduce the negative moments at the fixed supports.
Figure 14.4.8.2-1
Moment Redistribution after Joining Cantilevers

The computation of creep redistributed bending moments can be approached by a variety of techniques. For the
most part, these techniques may be grouped into two major categories: stiffness solutions and flexibility
solutions. Stiffness solutions are those in which changes in member (segment) size due to creep are created by
applying to the structural model a set of internal forces that will produce the same deformation. The summation
of all the load sets is a fixed-end force vector, which, when applied to a stiffness solution, results in the
computation of displacements. Element internal forces are computed from the displacements. These internal

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14.4.8.2 Creep Redistribution Moments

forces are those produced by the creep of the concrete. Solutions of this sort are well adapted to nodal computer
programs.
Flexibility solutions are easily accomplished by using software, but they are also readily applied to hand
calculations. In hand calculations the final structure is first analyzed as a series of simply supported spans. These
individual spans are free to deform under the action of creep. If the end rotations of the simple beams can be
found, the conditions of continuity of the final structure in the form of restoring moments can be calculated. These
moments, when distributed throughout the structure, are the creep redistributed bending moments. Because
there are no external loads applied to the beam, these moments vary linearly between supports (for constant-
depth girders). The loads on the member are the changes in simple-span curvature over time.
Figure 14.4.8.2-2 shows the joined cantilevers as a conjugate simple-span beam. The load on the conjugate beam
is the curvature associated with the cantilever moments. This curvature, which is that which is locked into the
cantilevers when they are joined, creeps over time, producing changes in conjugate-beam end rotations. The
restraint of these changes in rotations produces creep redistribution moments.
Figure 14.4.8.2-2
Loading the Conjugate Beam with Locked-In Cantilever Curvatures

The curvature diagram associated with the parabolic bending moment diagram is:
𝑀(𝑥) 𝑝𝑥 2
ϕ(𝑥) = = (Eq. 14.4.8.2-1)
𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
where
x = distance from free end of the cantilever, ft
p = uniform load, klf
The maximum curvature at the end of the simple span for a total span length, L, is:
𝐿 𝑝(𝐿/2)2 𝑝𝐿2
ϕ( ) = = (Eq. 14.4.8.2-2)
2 2𝐸𝐼 8𝐸𝐼
From symmetry, the area under one-half of the curvature diagram (representing one cantilever) is equal to the
end rotation associated with the simple-span beam:

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14.4.8.2 Creep Redistribution Moments

1 1 𝐿 𝑝𝐿2 𝑝𝐿3 (Eq. 14.4.8.2-3)

θ = 𝑏ℎ = ( ) ( )=
3 3 2 8𝐸𝐼 48𝐸𝐼
The change in end rotations is determined by applying the creep coefficient relative to the age at loading and the
time at which the two cantilevers are joined together:
θ𝑐𝑟 = Ψ(𝑡, 𝑡0 )θ (Eq. 14.4.8.2-4)
Application of the full creep factor at once will overestimate results because the growth of the creep
redistribution moment over time reduces the initial curvature causing the redistribution. Applying the creep
incrementally more closely imitates the creep curve shown in Figure 14.4.8.1-2.
A hand calculation is performed to estimate the creep redistribution moments in the example bridge. This
approach first calculates the curvatures that will be locked into the bridge during various changes in statical
scheme. Figure 14.4.8.2-3 shows net bending moments in one of the main-span cantilevers. The self weight
moments have been inverted and superimposed on the primary moments of the cantilever post-tensioning
tendons. The difference in these two moment diagrams divided by the stiffness characteristics of the span, EI, are
the curvatures that will cause creep redistribution moments after the main span has been closed.
The construction stages presented in Section 14.4.5 call for the construction of the cantilevers over each pier
followed by closing the side spans. The closed side spans are statically determinate structures. As such, net
curvatures will continue to increase camber with time, but will not contribute to the development of creep
redistribution moments until the main span cantilevers are closed. The curvatures in Figure 14.4.8.2-4 are those
that will contribute to creep redistribution when the main span is made continuous. The following are the five
components to the total curvatures:
• Cantilever self weight (top flexural tension)
• Cantilever post-tensioning (top flexural compression)
• Closure segments’ self weight (top flexural compression)
• Bottom continuity post-tensioning (top flexural tension)
• Top continuity post-tensioning (top flexural compression)
In Figure 14.4.8.2-4, the cantilever post-tensioning and bottom-slab continuity tendon curvatures have been
inverted and superimposed on the self weight moments to emphasize how the net curvatures are to be
determined.
Figure 14.4.8.2-3
Net Curvatures for the Main-Span Cantilevers of the Example Bridge

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14.4.8.2 Creep Redistribution Moments

Figure 14.4.8.2-4
Net Curvatures for the Side Spans of the Example Bridge

The curvatures shown in Figure 14.4.8.2-3 and Figure 14.4.8.2-4 can be converted to conjugate-beam loads to
determine corresponding end rotations on the simple-span conjugate beams. Figure 14.4.8.2-5illustrates the
conjugate loads and resulting rotations (reactions of the conjugate beams).
Figure 14.4.8.2-5
End Rotations from Conjugate-Beam Loads (1/E) for the Example Bridge

The following assumptions are made for the hand-calculation method of this section:
• Creep coefficients using the CEB-FIP CEB-fip Model Code 1990 (1993)
• Type 9-2 cross section
• Concrete 28-day strength = 8.5 ksi

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14.4.8.2 Creep Redistribution Moments/14.4.9 Thermal Gradient

• Notional thickness = [area/(outer perimeter + ½ inner perimeter)]

• Relative humidity = 75%
• Segment age at erection = 28 days
• Average segment age at closing of the main span = 56 days
Figure 14.4.8.2-6 shows the estimated creep redistribution moment based on a hand calculation in eight
increments (solid lines), as well as the creep redistribution moments computed by time-dependent construction
analysis software (dashed lines). The results of the hand calculation are reasonable for preliminary design. The
variation in bending moments across the main span of the time-dependent construction analysis more accurately
reflects the construction stages in Section 14.4.5. The cantilever at Pier 2 and the closure in the left side span are
constructed first in the construction stages, followed by construction at Pier 3 and closure in the right side span.
For simplicity, the two halves of the bridge were closed at the same average age in the hand calculation, resulting
in the symmetric bending-moment diagram.
Figure 14.4.8.2-6
Hand Estimation (solid lines) versus Computer Analysis (dashed lines) of
Creep Redistribution Moments, ft-kip, for the Example Bridge

14.4.9 Thermal Gradient

Segmental box-girder bridges are evaluated for stresses produced by vertical, nonlinear thermal gradients. LRFD
Article 3.12.3 provides the distribution of temperatures over the depth of the box girder, by bridge geographic
location. The example bridge is located in Zone 3. Using LRFD Table 3.12.3-1, the temperature at the top of the
example box girder is 41 °F (T1). The temperature varies linearly to 11 °F (T2) at a depth of 4 in. The
temperature varies linearly to 0 °F from at depth of 4 to 16 in. (A = 12 in.). T3 is taken as 0 °F.
The internal stresses resulting from nonlinear thermal gradients in continuous bridges are the sum of two
computations: (a) stresses in the individual spans considered independently as simple spans, and (b) continuity
stresses as adjacent spans restrain the end rotations of the simple spans. The first of these stresses are the self-
equilibrating stresses, the second of these are called the continuity stresses.
Figure 14.4.9-1 illustrates the development of the self-equilibrating stresses. The development begins with
applying the temperature gradient to a girder cross section restrained with regard to axial extension and flexural
rotation. The distribution of the stresses in the totally restrained cross section are shown to the left of Figure
14.4.9-1. To achieve equilibrium in the cross section in a simply supported beam, a cross-sectional force and
bending moment must be applied to offset the stresses of the completely restrained cross section.
The total restraining force is found by integrating the totally restrained girder stresses over the height of the cross
section, For this example, the total restraining force is:
F(restraining) = −2827 kips (Eq. 14.4.9-1)
The restraining force for this positive rise in temperature is a compressive force. The total restraining bending
moment is found by integrating the product of the restrained girder stresses multiplied by their distances from
the neutral axis. For this example, the total restraining moment is:
M(restraining) = 7,966 ft-kips (Eq. 14.4.9-2)
The restraining moment for this positive rise in temperature is one that creates compression on the top fiber of
the cross section.
Equilibrium is achieved in the cross section by applying the total restraining force and total restraining moment
with opposite signs. The center portion of Figure 14.4.9-1 show the stresses corresponding to the application of

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14.4.9 Thermal Gradient

these equal-but-opposite release loads. The self-equilibrating stresses, shown at the right of Figure 14.4.9-1, are
found by summing the restrained girder stresses with the release stresses.
Figure 14.4.9-1
Positive Gradient Self-Equilibrating Stresses, ksf

Continuity stresses are found by first determining the end rotations of the unrestrained, thermally loaded simple
spans. The curvature at a cross section of the girder is given by:
𝑀(𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔) (Eq. 14.4.9-3)
ϕ=
𝐸𝐼
The curvature is constant across the simply supported span. Integration of the curvature over half of the span
yields the simple-span beam end rotations:
𝑀(𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔)𝐿 (Eq. 14.4.9-4)
θ=±
2𝐸𝐼
The end rotations for the example span (for convenience multiplied here by the modulus of elasticity) are ±922.6
(ksf-radians) for the main span and ±623.7 (ksf-radians) for the side spans. Using the method of joint flexibilities,
the end continuity-moment diagram is computed. The continuity moments for the positive gradient load case is
shown in Figure 14.4.9-2.
Figure 14.4.9-2
Positive Thermal Continuity Moments, ft-kips

The total thermal gradient stresses in the main span are then found by summing the self-equilibrating stresses
and the continuity stresses as shown in Figure 14.4.9-3.

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14.4.9 Thermal Gradient/14.4.10 Live Loads

Figure 14.4.9-3
Total Positive Thermal Gradient Stresses, ksf

Thermal gradient stresses in the side spans vary linearly from the self-equilibrating stresses to the total gradient
stresses over the length of the span, from the abutment to the piers.
Superstructure stresses produced by negative thermal gradients are computed as per LRFD Article 3.12.3. The
top- and bottom-fiber negative thermal gradient stresses in the example bridge are found by multiplying the
results of the positive thermal gradient stresses by −0.3 (plain concrete deck).
𝑓𝑡𝑜𝑝 (negative gradient) = −0.3(−172.6) = 51.8 ksf (tension) (Eq. 14.4.9-5)
𝑓𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 (negative gradient) = −0.3(44.7) = −13.4 ksf (compression) (Eq. 14.4.9-6)

14.4.10 Live Loads

The 43-ft-wide Type 9-2 cross section of the example bridge carries three lanes of the LRFD design live loads.
Figure 14.4.10-1 shows the live-load moment envelope produced by the placement of a single HL-93 design
truck. Also shown in this figure are the minimum moments at the piers (between points of contraflexure)
produced by two design trucks in accordance with LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1. Figure 14.4.10-2 shows the moment
envelope for a single lane of the lane load portion of the HL-93 notional load. The positive design live-load
moment for a single lane at the center of the main span is:
𝑀(𝑐𝑙) = (1 + 𝐼𝑀)𝑀(𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑘) + 𝑀(𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒) = 1.33(2,086) + 1,722 = 4,496 ft-kips (Eq. 14.4.10-1)
The negative design live-load moment for a single lane at the joint adjacent to the pier segment on the main-span
side is controlled by the two-truck loading:
𝑀(𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑟) = (0.9)[1.33(−1909) − 1,890] = −3,986 ft-kips (Eq. 14.4.10-2)
The design live load moment for the three design lanes with the LRFD multiple presence factor of 0.85 are then:
𝑀(𝑐𝑙) = (0.85)(3)(4,496) = 11,465 ft-kips (Eq. 14.4.10-3)
𝑀(𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑟) = (0.85)(3)(−3,986) = −10,164 ft-kips (Eq. 14.4.10-4)

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14.4.10 Live Loads/14.4.11 Prestressing Requirements

Figure 14.4.10-1
LRFD HL-93 Design Truck Moment Envelope without Impact, ft-kips

LL Envelope – HL-93 Truck (no Impact)

Figure 14.4.10-2
AASHTO LRFD HL-93 Design Lane Moment Envelope, ft-kips

LL Envelope – HL-93 Lane Load

14.4.11 Prestressing Requirements

The required prestressing in precast concrete segmental bridges is first found by satisfying LRFD service limit
states. Strength limit states are then verified. Additional post-tensioning tendons required at the strength limit
state are then incorporated in updated service limit state checks.
The preceding sections developed bending moments for the example bridge. Table 14.4.11-1 presents bending
moments at three sections.

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14.4.11 Prestressing Requirements

Table 14.4.11-1
Summary of Example Bridge Bending Moments, ft-kips
0.33L Joint next to Midpoint of
Load Component
Side Span Pier 2 Main Span
Self weight, DC 3003 −58,311 0
Superimposed dead load, DW 822 −2567 1,733
Secondary prestressing moments, PS 0.428F 1.288F 1.288F
Creep redistribution moments, CR 1020 3.072 3,072
Thermal gradient, TG* 382 −14,355 6,560
Live load + impact, LL+IM 8499 −10,164 11,465
*Note that the thermal gradient moments are effective moments that would produce the
controlling extreme fiber stress produced by the total nonlinear thermal gradient. This
effective moment is used for ease in calculating the required prestressing forces (Mbeff = fb
× Sb and Mteff = ft × St)

Prestressing Requirement at Centerline of the Main Span

Using Eq. (14.4.4-1), the prestressing force required at the centerline of the bridge to satisfy the LRFD Service III
limit state is:
0 + 1,733 + 1.288𝐹 + 3,072 + 0.8(11,465) + 0.5(6,560)
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ (Eq. 14.4.11-1)
3.86 + (0.5978)(3.1159)
The 3.86-ft eccentricity in this equation is to the centroid of the prestressing force, assuming eight bottom-slab
tendons (e = 5.4 ft) and two top-slab tendons (e = −2.3 ft). Reducing this equation yields:
∑𝑀 17,257 + 1.288𝐹
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ = = 3,016 + 0.225𝐹 (Eq. 14.4.11-2)
𝑒 + 𝜌𝑐1 3.86 + (0.5978)(3.1159)
Rearranging this expression produces the minimum required prestressing force:
3,016
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ = 3,892 kips (Eq. 14.4.11-3)
1 − 0.225
Assuming 0.6-in.-diamater strands and a final effective stress in the strands of 63% of GUTS, the number of
prestressing strands required at midspan of the main span is:
3,892
Number of Strands = = 106 (Eq. 14.4.11-4)
(0.63)(270)(0.217)
The total number of strands is evenly distributed between the eight bottom-slab tendons and two top-slab
tendons. Making use of industry-standard hardware, 12 strands will be used in each of the 10 tendons. The
secondary moments produced by the main-span continuity tendons are now determined as follows:
𝑀𝑝𝑠 = 1.288(10)(443) = 5,706 ft-kips (Eq. 14.4.11-5)
Prestressing Requirement at the Joint Adjacent to the Pier Segment
Using Eq. (14.4.4-1), the required prestressing force at the centerline of the bridge is:
−58,311 − 2,567 + 5,706 + 3,072 + 0.8(−10,164) + 0.5(−14,355) (Eq. 14.4.11-6)
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥
1 − .225 − 2.5 − (0.5978)(5.8841)
The minimum prestressing force required is:
∑𝑀 −67,409
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ = = 11,235 kips (Eq. 14.4.11-7)
𝑒 + 𝜌𝑐1 −6.0
The required number of 12-strand tendons with a final effective stress in the strands of 63% of GUTS is:

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14.4.11 Prestressing Requirements/14.4.12 Principal Tension

11,235
Number of Tendons = = 25.4 (Eq. 14.4.11-9)
(12)(0.63)(270)(0.217)
The total number of tendons used in the cantilevers of the example bridge is 26.
Prestressing Requirement at 0.33L of the Side Span
This location within the span is between the last and next-to-last cantilever segments. The minimum required
prestressing force at this location is:
3,003 + 822 + 0.428(10)(443) + 1,020 + 0.8(8499) + 0.5(382)
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ (Eq. 14.4.11-10)
3.475 + (0.5978)(3.1159)
The 3.475-ft eccentricity in this equation is to the centroid of the prestressing force, assuming six bottom-slab
tendons (e = 5.4 ft) and two top-slab tendons (e = −2.3 ft). Reducing this equation yields:
13,731
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ kips (Eq. 14.4.11-11)
5.34
The required number of 12-strand tendons with a final effective stress in the strands of 63% of GUTS is:
2,571
Number of Tendons = = 5.8 (Eq. 14.4.11-12)
(12)(0.63)(270)(0.217)
A total of eight tendons (six in the bottom slab and two in the top slab) were used in the example bridge. Final
design could explore reducing the number of bottom-slab tendons to four or reducing the number of strands in
each tendon.

14.4.12 Principal Tension

In addition to selecting post-tensioning to offset precast concrete segment joint openings, LRFD Article 5.9.2.3.3
requires that the principal tensile stresses are held to less than specified limits. Principal tensile stresses are most
commonly verified at the neutral axis for box girders with constant web thicknesses. Stress verifications at other
locations throughout the depth of the girder should be investigated when tapered webs are used. The Service III
limit state is used when verifying principal tensile stresses. For normal weight concrete, principle tensile stresses
must be less than 0.11√𝑓𝑐′ , where 𝑓𝑐′ is in ksi (3.5√𝑓𝑐′ when 𝑓𝑐′ is in psi).
Table 14.4.12-1 shows shear forces in the example bridge. The location of these shear forces is at the joint
adjacent to the pier segment on the side toward the main span.
Table 14.14.12-1
Example Bridge Shear Forces and Axial Stresses
at the Joint Adjacent to the Pier Segment Toward the Main Span
Axial Stress
Load Component Shear Force kips
ksf
Self weight, DC 1202.8 0
Superimposed dead load, DW 86.0 0
Secondary prestressing moments, PS 0 0
Creep redistribution moments, CR 0 0
Thermal gradient, TG* 0 35.7
Live load + impact, LL+IM, (3 lanes) 464.6 0
*See Figure 14.4.9-3.

Stresses in the orthogonal system coincident with the coordinate system of the analysis are the longitudinal axial
stress and vertical stress in the web. The axial compressive stress at the cross section under consideration is that
provided by the cantilever post-tensioning less one-half of the thermal gradient axial stress (in combination with
live load):

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14.4.12 Principal Tension

𝐹 −26(443) (Eq. 14.4.12-1)

σ𝑥 = = + 0.5(35.7) = −128.35 ksf
𝐴 78.7835
The vertical stress is zero:
σ𝑦 = 0.0 ksf (Eq. 14.4.12-2)

The shear stress, τxy , at the neutral axis of the cross section is:
𝑉𝑄 1660.5(117.56) (Eq. 14.4.12-3)
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = = = 84.78 ksf
𝐼(2𝑏𝑤 ) 863.475(2)(1.3333)
Where
V = shear force=1660 kips
Q = first moment of inertia = 117.56 ft3
I = moment of inertia= 863.475 ft4
bw = width of each web=1.3333 ft
A Mohr’s circle representation for the plane stress transformation equations is shown in Figure 14.4.12-1. The
minimum and maximum stresses are −170.5 ksf (compression) and 42.2 ksf (tension), respectively. The tensile
stress limit for 8.5 ksi concrete is 46.2 ksf tension. If the principal tensile stress had exceeded the limit, some of
the following actions could be taken:
• Increase web thickness locally at the piers to reduce shear stresses and, as a result, principal tensile
stresses. The difficulty with this solution is the adjustment of core forms in the precast yard.
• Increase axial stress in the bridge by adding additional longitudinal tendons. This solution is fairly
inefficient as only a portion of the increased stress will lead to principal tensile stress reductions.
• Add vertical prestressing in the webs. This solution is efficient, but it can be difficult to implement the
embedment of vertical post-tensioning elements, typically bars, in the webs.
• Change bottom-slab continuity tendons to draped external tendons across the entire span. The vertical
component of the draped tendons reduces shear stresses and increases longitudinal compressive
stresses. The length of the draped tendons and higher associated secondary moments would lead to an
increase in continuity tendon quantities.

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14.4.12 Principal Tension/14.5 Transverse Analysis

Figure 14.4.12-1
Mohr’s Circle for Stress Adjacent to the Pier Segment, ksf

14.5 TRANSVERSE ANALYSIS

The cross section of a precast concrete segmental box-girder bridge is designed to resist bending moments acting
transverse to the longitudinal direction of the bridge span. Transverse analyses are preformed to evaluate
transverse bending moments resulting from both permanent and live loads. Permanent loads include self weight,
barrier rails, sidewalks, wearing surfaces, and utilities that may be attached inside or outside of the box-girder
superstructure. Live loads are composed of the HL-93 design truck [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.2] and design tandem [LRFD
Art. 3.6.1.2.3], arranged in travel lanes to produce maximum bending moments at critical sections. Figure 14.5-1
shows a typical box-girder superstructure, applied loads, and likely critical sections. The results of the transverse
analysis are used to design the reinforcement in the cantilever wings, top flange, webs, and bottom flange, as well
as post-tensioning in the cantilever wings and top flange.
Figure 14.5-1
Loads and Design Sections for Transverse Analysis
of a Precast Concrete Segmental Box Girder

The magnitude and distribution of transverse bending moments due to permanent and live loads vary along the
length of a span as a function of the deflection behavior of the box girder. Near supports, where deflections are
restrained, localized bending moments remain concentrated. Within the span, general longitudinal deflections
reduce maximum transverse moments as they are distributed along a greater portion of the span. Rigorous
transverse analyses could be made using three-dimensional finite element methods with sufficient load cases to
generate an envelope of permanent transverse design moments. The practicality of fabricating segments with
uniform reinforcement and post-tensioning details typically overrides refinements gained by a rigorous solution.

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14.5.1 Modeling for Transverse Analysis

14.5.1 Modeling for Transverse Analysis

An accepted approach for the transverse analysis of a concrete box girder superstructure is a simplified, two-
dimensional method, with sufficient consideration for longitudinal load distribution. Figure 14.5.1-1 shows a
perspective of a span of precast concrete segmental superstructure. A typical cross section with a unit length is
identified in the span for a two-dimensional analysis in the plane of the cross section. The extracted typical
section for analysis is shown in Figure 14.5.1-2. The cross section shown in Figure 14.5.1-2 is that of the
AASHTO/PCI/ASBI Type 9-2 Segment. Results of example calculations presented in this section are for this
standard segment.
Figure 14.5.1-1
Typical Precast Concrete Segmental Span
with Cross Section Defined at Midspan

Figure 14.5.1-2
One-Foot Section of Typical Cross Section
of the AASHTO/PCI/ASBI Type 9-2 Segment

The typical cross section is modeled using beam elements in a general two-dimensional structural analysis
program. Figure 14.5.1-3 shows the transition from typical cross section, to idealized beam members, to node
and element layout for a typical analysis model. Special transverse modeling considerations include:
• The model shown in Figure 14.5.1-3b shows beam elements connected to nodes at the intersection of
the top of the web, cantilever, and top slab and at the intersection of the bottom of the web and the

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14.5.1 Modeling for Transverse Analysis/14.5.2 Analysis for Uniformly Repeating Loads

bottom slab. Often, designers will model a portion of these intersecting members as rigid elements, as the
size of the connection can be significant with regard to member length.
• Many precast concrete segmental cross sections include linear or circular fillets at the cantilever to top of
web and top slab to top of web. The choice of the critical sections for design of flexure at these sections is
left to the discretion of the engineer, who must consider the particular geometry of the cross section.
• Vertical supports are placed under the webs as shown in Figure 14.5.1-3c. One horizontal support is
required for model stability (Node 17). A second horizontal support has been added to restrain side-sway
of the two-dimensional model (Node 7). This support helps account for the torsional rigidity of the box
girder in the actual three-dimensional structure. This second horizontal support can be problematic for
some load cases such as transverse post-tensioning. Use and placement of the second support are left to
the discretion of the engineer.
Figure 14.5.1-3
Developing the Two-Dimensional Transverse Model

a) Typical Cross Section

b) Idealized Members

c) Computer Model

14.5.2 Analysis for Uniformly Repeating Loads

Transverse bending moments for loads that repeat uniformly along the span can be determined directly from the
two-dimensional analysis mode. Self weight bending moments are typically generated internally by the analysis
software once the unit weight of the concrete has been defined. The per-unit length values of superimposed dead
loads are applied directly to the two-dimensional analysis model as either concentrated or distributed loads.

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14.5.2 Analysis for Uniformly Repeating Loads/14.5.3 Analysis for Concentrated Wheel Live Loads

The AASHTO/PCI/ASBI Type 9-2 segment shown in Figure 14.2-5 was analyzed for the following loads:
Self weight: Concrete unit weight = 0.150 kip/ft3
Barrier railing: Uniform load = 0.420 klf (8 in. from end of the cantilevers)
Future wearing surface: Uniform load = 0.025 ksf (2-in. concrete overlay)
The transverse bending moments resulting from these three load cases are shown in Figure 14.5.2-1.
Figure 14.5.2-1
Transverse Bending Moments
for Uniformly Repeating Loads in the Type 9-2 Segment

a)

b)

c)

14.5.3 Analysis for Concentrated Wheel Live Loads

Figure 14.5.3-1 shows the perspective of a precast concrete segmental box-girder superstructure loaded with
the design truck portion of the HL-93 notional load. Travel lanes, and the trucks/tandems within the lanes, are
positioned in number and location in accordance with requirements from the LRFD Specifications to produce

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14.5.3 Analysis for Concentrated Wheel Live Loads/14.5.3.1 Live-Load Moments in Cantilever Wings

maximum transverse bending moments at critical sections. The appropriate multiple presence factor from LRFD
Article 3.6.1.1.2 should be considered in choosing the number of design lanes to apply for a given critical section.
Truck and tandem locations within the lanes should be in accordance with LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1.
Transverse bending moments resulting from the application of concentrated loads in the span are determined in a
three-step process:
1. Determine maximum transverse bending moments at critical sections of the cantilever wing and top
flange considering these members as separate three-dimensional, fixed-end slab structures.
2. Use the two-dimensional model to distribute fixed-end slab moments around the cross-sectional model.
3. Sum the fixed-end moments and redistributed moments to determine live-load moments for design.
The fixed-end slab structures are typically analyzed using finite element methods or other tools such as influence
surfaces. When modeled using finite elements, the slab structures are supported by full restraints at their
intersection with the top of the webs. The longitudinal length of the fixed-end slab structure should be sufficient
to not affect maximum transverse bending behavior. Flanges with shorter spans may warrant the application of
wheel loads as surface loads. The areas over which the loads are distributed are the tire contact area [LRFD Art.
3.6.1.2.5] projected to the center of gravity of the top flange using a 45-degree distribution in both the
longitudinal and transverse directions. Bending moments computed in the examples included in this section use
influence surfaces and consider only the HL-93 design truck.
Figure 14.5.3-1
Typical Truck Loads on a Segmental Box-Girder Span

14.5.3.1 Live-Load Moments in Cantilever Wings

The maximum fixed-end moment in the cantilever wing is determined by positioning the HL-93 truck 1 ft away
from the face of the barrier railing in accordance with LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1. Figure 14.5.3.1-1 shows this
loading for the Type 9-2 segment. Figure 14.5.3.1-2 shows an influence surface for negative moment at the root
of the cantilever, along the centerline of the influence surface. This figure also shows the location of wheel loads to
produce the maximum fixed-end moment in the cantilever wing. The negative maximum bending moment found
using this cantilever influence surface is 15.2 ft-kips.

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14.5.3.1 Live-Load Moments in Cantilever Wings

Figure 14.5.3.1-1
Truck Location for Maximum Transverse Bending Moment
at the Root of the Cantilever Wing

Figure 14.5.3.1-2
Loaded Influence Surface for the Cantilever Wing

Transverse bending moments in the other members of the cross section resulting from live load on the cantilever
are determined by applying the cantilever moment to the cantilever-top flange-to-web intersection in the two-
dimensional model. Figure 14.5.3.1-3 shows the distribution of the 15.2 ft-kip cantilever moment around the
cross section. Superimposing the cantilever moments with the distributed moments produces the final transverse
bending moment diagram shown in Figure 14.5.3.1-4.

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14.5.3.1 Live-Load Moments in Cantilever Wings/14.5.3.2 Negative Live Load Moments in the Top Flange

Figure 14.5.3.1-3
Distribution of Cantilever
Live-Load Moments in the Cross Section

Figure 14.5.3.1-4
Final Bending Moments for Live Load on the Cantilever

The shape of the bending moment diagram in the loaded cantilever wing is approximate, as the influence surface
used only provides the bending moment at the root of the cantilever. Solutions using finite element methods can
be used to better define the moments along the length of the cantilever wing.

14.5.3.2 Negative Live Load Moments in the Top Flange

Negative live-load moments in the top slab require positioning the design truck or design tandem for maximum
negative effect at the end of the isolated top-flange structure. In the example of the Type 9-2 segment, the
maximum negative moment at the left end of the top flange is produced by locating one truck in the top flange and
adding the effect of one truck in the cantilever wing. Figure 14.5.3.2-1 shows the locations of these two travel
lanes. This loading arrangement can be evaluated as a superposition of the moments due to the truck on the
cantilever shown in Figure 14.5.3.1-4 and moments resulting from the single truck located between the webs as
shown in Figure 14.5.3.2-1.

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14.5.3.2 Negative Live Load Moments in the Top Flange

Figure 14.5.3.2-1
Truck Location for Maximum Transverse Bending Moment
at the Middle of the Top Flange

The fixed-end moments for the top flange are determined using influence surfaces slabs fixed at both ends. Figure
14.5.3.2-2 shows the influence surface for the maximum negative moment at the left end of the flange (10.3 ft-
kips). Figure 14.5.3.2-3 shows the inverted influence surface used to compute the corresponding moment at the
right end of the slab (5.1 ft-kips).
Figure 14.5.3.2-2
Influence Surface for Maximum Negative Bending
at the Left End of the Top Flange

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14.5.3.2 Negative Live Load Moments in the Top Flange

Figure 14.5.3.2-3
Influence Surface for Maximum Negative Bending
at the Right End of the Top Flange

The two fixed-end moments can be “released” on the cross section by applying them as concentrated moments at
the cantilever-top flange-to–web intersection. Figure 14.5.3.2-4 shows the results of the application of the
concentrated couples on the two-dimensional analysis model. Although the concentrated couples are applied as
external loads, they are actually internal fixed-end moments. When applied as external loads with signs opposite
to the internally fixed-end moments, the moments in the unloaded members (webs and bottom flange) are the
final moments due to the loading. The moments in the top slab represent the differential moments in the loaded
member in moving from fixed-end conditions to the actual flexibility of the box girder. The final bending moment
diagram (Fig. 14.5.3.2-5) is determined by reducing the fixed-end moments by these differential moments.
The total negative moment at the left end of the top flange for the design trucks arranged in two lanes as shown in
Figure 14.5.3.2-1 is found by summing the maximum moment from the distributed cantilever moment (Fig.
14.5.3.1-4) and the moment resulting from the truck in the top slab (Fig. 14.5.3.2-5). The moment at the left end
of the top slab is:
𝑀𝑛𝑒𝑔 = 3.95 + 8.09 = 12.04 ft-kips
The results of this analysis are valid only at the location of known fixed moments and their redistributed
differential moments. The shape of the top-flange bending moment between the two known extremity moments is
not an exact representation, but general in nature. Efforts have been made in past practice to develop approaches
using equivalent forces in equilibrium with the extremity moments to determine bending moments within the top
flange for a given loading. The results of these methods are neither accurate nor necessary for the design of the
top flange.

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14.5.3.2 Negative Live Load Moments in the Top Flange/14.5.3.3 Positive Live-Load Moments at Centerline of the Top Flange

Figure 14.5.3.2-4
Distribution of Fixed-End Live Load Moments
for the Maximum Negative-Moment Case

Figure 14.5.3.2-5
Summed Live Load Moments
for the Maximum Negative-Moment Case

14.5.3.3 Positive Live-Load Moments at Centerline of the Top Flange

Positive live-load moments at the centerline of the top flange are computed in a fashion similar to the negative
moments at the ends of the slab, with one additional initial step. Either an influence surface for moment at the
center of the fixed-end top flange or a finite element model is first used to determine the arrangement of loads to
produce maximum positive moment. Fixed-end negative moments are then determined for this load arrangement
and distributed around the cross section. The final positive moment at the centerline of the slab is the positive
moment in the fixed-end top-flange structure, increased by the release of the end moments.
Figure 14.5.3.3-1 shows the load arrangement for maximum positive bending moment at the center of the top
flange. Figure 14.5.3.3-2 shows an influence surface for the maximum positive transverse bending moment at
the center of the top flange for this loading arrangement. The value of this bending moment with fixed-end
supports is 3.88 ft-kips. The fixed-end bending moments at the ends of the top flange for the same loading
arrangement are 12.0 ft-kips at the left end and 11.1 ft-kips at the right end.

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14.5.3.3 Positive Live-Load Moments at Centerline of the Top Flange

Figure 14.5.3.3-1
Summed Live Load Moments for the Maximum Negative-Moment Case

These fixed-end moments are released on the cross section as previously presented in Section 14.5.3.2. Figure
14.5.3.3-3 shows the differential moments, and Figure 14.5.3.3-4 shows the summed values. The release of the
fixed-end moments shifts the bending moment diagram in the top slab, increasing the bending moment at the
centerline of the top flange. The fixed-end centerline moment increases from 3.88 ft-kips/ft to 5.08 ft-kips/ft.
Again, the shape of the top-slab bending moment diagram between known locations is only an approximation.
Figure 14.5.3.3-2
Maximum Positive Moment in the Top Flange
for Fixed-End Conditions

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14.5.3.3 Positive Live-Load Moments at Centerline of the Top Flange/14.5.4.1 Transverse Post-Tensioning Tendon Layouts

Figure 14.5.3.3-3
Distribution of Fixed-End Live Load Moments for the Maximum Negative-Moment Case

Figure 14.5.3.3-4
Summed Live-Load Moments
for the Maximum Negative-Moment Case

14.5.4 Transverse Post-Tensioning

14.5.4.1 Transverse Post-Tensioning Tendon Layouts
The cantilever wings and top flange of precast concrete segmental box girder superstructures are typically
prestressed transversely by post-tensioning to offset tensile stresses resulting from permanent and live loads.
Narrow precast box girders with widths of 16 ft or less, which are often used for single-track transit systems, may
not greatly benefit from transverse post-tensioning. Rails that carry the normal operating train loads can be
positioned adjacent to webs, resulting in small transverse bending moments.
Figure 14.5.4.1-1 shows a typical transverse post-tensioning tendon layout for the Type 9-2 standard segment.
The transverse tendons are typically composed of either three or four 0.5–in.- or 0.6-in.-diameter strands, placed
in flat (oval-shaped) ducts and filled with cementitious grout. The profile of the tendons varies to provide needed
eccentricity over the webs and at the centerline of the top flange. The perspective view in Figure 14.5.4.1-1
shows three transverse tendons in a single 10-ft-long segment.

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14.5.4.1 Transverse Post-Tensioning Tendon Layouts/14.5.4.2 Required Prestressing Force

Figure 14.5.4.1-1
Typical Transverse Tendon Layout

14.5.4.2 Required Prestressing Force

The determination of the required prestressing force on a unit-length basis is made by summing the moments at
critical sections, evaluating each section’s prestressing requirement, and choosing the greatest required force.
LRFD Specifications Service I is the appropriate limit state for transverse prestressing design based on permissible
concrete tension [LRFD Art. 3.4.1]. The load factors for permanent and live loads at this limit state are equal to
1.0.
Table 14.5.4.2-1 summarizes the moments at the three sections studied in the example presented in this section
for the Type 9-2 standard segment.
Table 14.5.4.2-1
Transverse Moment Summary
Root of Edge of Centerline of
Section
Cantilever Top Flange Top Slab
Self weight, ft-kips −8.19 −6.64 1.52
Barrier railing, ft-kips −4.34 −0.79 −0.43
Wearing surface, ft-kips −1.52 −1.21 0.34
Live load, ft-kips −15.2 −12.04 5.08
Multiple presence factor 1.20 1.00 1.00
Dynamic allowance, IM 1.33 1.33 1.33
Total Service I moment, ft-kips −38.4 −24.7 8.19
The equations governing post-tensioning selection are:
Negative moment: −𝑀 + 𝑀𝑎 (Eq. 14.5.4.2-1)
𝐹≥
ρ𝑐2 − 𝑒
Positive moment: 𝑀 − 𝑀𝑎 (Eq. 14.5.4.2-2)
𝐹≥
ρ𝑐1 + 𝑒
Where
M = total applied service-load moment, ft-kips
Ma = moment producing the tensile stress limit, ft-kips
c1 = distance from neutral axis to extreme top fiber, ft
c2 = distance from neutral axis to extreme bottom fiber, ft
ρ = cross-section efficiency (dimensionless)
= ⅓ for a rectangular section
e = tendon eccentricity considering location of strands within the duct, ft

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14.5.4.2 Required Prestressing Force/14.5.4.3 Transverse Post-Tensioning Tendon Placement and Tensioning

The moment, Ma , producing the tensile stress limit, fa, is determined by multiplying the stress limit by the section
modulus, S, where S = bh2/6 for a rectangular section:

ℎ2
𝑀𝑎 = 𝑓𝑎 ( ) (Eq. 14.5.4.2-3)
6
According to the LRFD Specifications, the transverse flexural stress limit in the top flange of a precast concrete
segment is equal to 0.0948√𝑓𝑐′ . Using 6-ksi concrete, the stress limit would be 0.232 ksi (33.4 ksf). Table
14.5.4.2-2 shows values used to compute the prestress force requirements and the required forces.
Table 14.5.4.2-2
Transverse Prestress Force Requirements and Required Prestress Force per Foot
Root of Edge of Centerline of
Section
Cantilever Top Flange Top Slab
Moment, ft-kips −38.4 −24.7 8.19
h/2 = c1 = c2, ft 0.87 0.87 0.369
Efficiency, ρ ⅓ ⅓ ⅓
Eccentricity, e, ft −0.60 −0.60 0.19
Moment producing tensile
−16.9 −16.9 4.12
stress limit, fa, ft-kips
Required transverse
24.2 8.8 13.0
prestress force, kips/ft

Considering the limited example presented in this section, the governing cross section for required prestress
force is the root of the cantilever. The prestress force required at this section is 24.2 kips/ft.
The final selection of the number and size of the post-tensioning tendons requires a study to determine the final
force in the tendons. This study must include initial losses caused by friction, wobble, and anchor set; long-term
losses resulting from concrete creep and shrinkage; and prestressing steel relaxation. Several commercially
available software packages can be used to model the actual geometry of post-tensioning tendons, automatically
generate internal forces due to tendon tensioning, compute losses during tensioning, and calculate long-term,
time-dependent losses.
Depending on the tendon profile in the top slab, the flexural restraint provided by the webs can produce
secondary prestressing moments. These moments should be included in the summation of service limit state
moments when determining the required prestressing force. The final value of the secondary moments is a
function of the resulting prestress demand, negating a direct solution and slightly complicating the final prestress
force. For the example presented in this section, a concordant tendon profile was used that produced no
secondary moments.
The selection of the required prestress force satisfies just a part of the design requirements for the cross section.
Other tasks that need to be performed include the following:
• Tensile and compressive stresses at all sections of the cantilever wings and top flange need to be verified
at appropriate service limit states.
• Reinforcement requirements in the top flange need to be verified at appropriate strength limit states.
• Transverse bending moments in the webs need to be combined with shear reinforcement requirements to
select the final web reinforcement.

14.5.4.3 Transverse Post-Tensioning Tendon Placement and Tensioning

Figures 14.5.4.3-1 and 14.5.4.3-2 show the installation and tensioning of the transverse top-flange tendons in a
casting yard. Figure 14.5.4.3-1 shows the placement of the transverse oval duct within the reinforcing cage after
positioning into the casting machine. The transverse ducts pass over the longitudinal tendons of this cantilever
bridge and are connected to the anchorages, which are fixed to the cantilever-wing bulkhead during the concrete
pour. The ducts shown are made of plastic (typically, polypropylene), which provides an important layer of

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14.5.4.3 Transverse Post-Tensioning Tendon Placement and Tensioning

corrosion protection to the transverse post-tensioning strands. Vertical grout inspection ports are located at the
top of the anchorages to permit post-grouting inspections within the tendon.
Figure 14.5.4.3-1
Transverse Duct Placement in Casting Machine
(Photos: Corven Engineering)

The photograph on the left of Figure 14.5.4.3-2 shows the tensioning of a four-strand transverse tendon using a
monostrand tensioning ram. The photograph of the right is a close-up view of the transverse tendon anchorage
and wedge block after tensioning the two center strands. Following tensioning and quality-control verifications,
strand “tails” are cut off, permanent grout caps are placed over the anchorages, the tendons are grouted,
anchorage blockouts are filled with concrete, and protective coatings are applied.

Figure 14.5.4.3-2
Monostrand Tensioning of a Four-Strand Tendon (left);
Anchorage after Tensioning (right)
(Photos: Corven Engineering)

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14.6 Diaphragms, Anchor Blocks and Deviation Details/14.6.1 Transfer of Vertical Shear Forces to Bearings

14.6 DIAPHRAGMS, ANCHOR BLOCKS AND DEVIATION DETAILS

Special precast concrete segments at piers, expansion joints, and abutments contain diaphragms to stiffen and
strengthen the typical segment to transfer loads from the superstructure to the supporting substructure.
Diaphragms work to transfer shear forces in the webs to the bridge bearings, stiffen the box girder with regard to
torsion, and provide a location for anchoring and deviating post-tensioning tendons. This section develops basic
load-carrying considerations for diaphragm design.

14.6.1 Transfer of Vertical Shear Forces to Bearings

Figure 14.6.1-1 shows a vertical-web box girder supported by bearings on a pier. In this arrangement, the pier is
sufficiently wide to allow the bearings to be placed directly below the axes of the vertical webs. The diaphragm in
this arrangement sees no force under the action of vertical loads.
Figure 14.6.1-1
Concentric Web/Bearing Orientation

Using the diaphragm to transfer vertical forces, the spacing of bearings may be reduced along with the width of
the pier cap. This narrowing of the pier cap reduces costs significantly while enhancing aesthetics. Figure 14.6.1-
2 shows an inset bearing configuration supporting the vertical-web box girder. Horizontal forces developed as a
result of the eccentricity of the web to the bearing can be computed using strut-and-tie methods. Although the
horizontal forces occur over the depth of the box girder, the transverse reinforcement or post-tensioning used to
resist the horizontal forces is typically placed near the top of the diaphragm and detailed to fully develop the
width of the webs.
Figure 14.6.1-2
Eccentric Web Bearing Orientation

In addition to horizontal transverse tension, Figure 14.6.1-3 shows two other force transfer mechanisms that
need to be investigated when the line of action of the web is eccentric to the bearings. Shear friction at the
interface of the web and diaphragm, as shown in the sketch on the left in Figure 14.6.1-3, should be evaluated
and reinforced in accordance with the requirements in the LRFD Specifications. The section on the right illustrates
web reinforcement at the bottom of the web subjected to direct tension. The pier segments should be evaluated
for this local behavior.
Further cost savings and improved aesthetics are achieved in precast concrete segmental construction through
the use of inclined webs. Figure 14.6.1-4 shows the arrangement of forces when inclined webs are used. The

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14.6.1 Transfer of Vertical Shear Forces to Bearings/14.6.2 Transfer of Longitudinal Moment to Bearings

combination of web slope and bearing offset works to increase transverse horizontal force in the diaphragm.
Figure 14.6.1-5 depicts a box girder with significant eccentricity between the web line of action and bearings. In
this situation, transverse post-tensioning is often used to lift the web forces to the top of the diaphragm where
they are then transferred to the bearings.

Figure 14.6.1-3
General Shear-Friction and Localized Direct Tension

Figure 14.6.1-4
Force Transfer with Inclined Webs

Figure 14.6.1-5
Transverse Post-Tensioning in Diaphragms

14.6.2 Transfer of Longitudinal Moment to Bearings

Desired structural behavior may include the use of a moment-resisting connection between the superstructure
and substructure. This is typically achieved in precast concrete segmental construction with the use of two rows
of bearings on top of supporting columns. The longitudinal bending moments in the superstructure are
transferred through differential reactions on the bearings as shown in Figure 14.6.2-1. In this figure, two vertical
diaphragms are used to transfer forces to the bearings. The differential forces resulting from the moment
transferred to the bearings are used in conjunction with the vertical forces from the webs to determine
diaphragm forces.

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14.6.2 Transfer of Longitudinal Moment to Bearings

Within the pier segment, the flow of forces between the diaphragms and portions of web between the diaphragms
needs to be resolved. Figure 14.6.2-2 presents one strut-and-tie layout for this consideration. The horizontal
force in the top flange produced by the moment being transferred is distributed to four nodal points at the top of
the diaphragm-web intersections. Compression and tensile forces in the strut-and-tie model are developed
considering the specific geometry of the members. The resulting forces in the webs are superimposed with other
loads to appropriately reinforce the webs between the diaphragms.
One option available to the designer to minimize the web forces between the bearings is by using inclined
diaphragms as shown in Figure 14.6.2-3. The differential bearing forces are resolved directly into the inclined
diaphragms. The downside to this solution is that it makes the forming of the precast concrete pier segment more
difficult.
Figure 14.6.2-1
Moment-Resisting Connection
between Precast Concrete Superstructure and Substructure:
Vertical Diaphragms

Figure 14.6.2-2
Forces in the Moment-Resisting Precast Concrete Segmental Connection:
Vertical Diaphragms

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14.6.2 Transfer of Longitudinal Moment to Bearings/14.6.3 Transfer of Torsion to Bearings

Figure 14.6.2-3
Moment-Resisting Connection between Precast Concrete Superstructure and Substructure:
Inclined Diaphragms

14.6.3 Transfer of Torsion to Bearings

Forces acting on the superstructure eccentric to the shear center of the box-girder cross section will produce
torsional moments. The torsional moments are resisted in shear flow around the closed box section. The wings,
which have little effect on the torsional stiffness of the closed section, are typically ignored. The shear flow and
resulting shear stress due to torsion are given by:
𝑀𝑡
ϕ= (Eq. 14.6.3- 1)
2𝐴𝑜
ϕ
τ𝑖 = (Eq. 14.6.3- 2)
𝑡𝑖
where
Mt = applied torsional moment (length-force)
Ao = area enclosed by shear-flow path, including any area of holes
therein (length2)
ti = thickness of the ith component of the cross section (length)
 = shear flow
τi = shear stress in the ith component of the cross section (force/length2)
The sectoral area is that area bounded by the centerlines of the members comprising the closed box cross section.
Figure 14.6.3-1 shows shear-flow behavior and the limits of the sectoral area for a single, closed box-girder
section.

Figure 14.6.3-1
Shear Flow Resulting from Torsion

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14.6.3 Transfer of Torsion to Bearings/14.6.4 Anchoring External Tendons

Torsional moments along a span are transferred to the substructure at the bearings. The shear flow in the top
flange caused by the torsional moment at the pier produces a horizontal force in the top flange as shown in
Figure 14.6.3-1. Diaphragms located in the pier segments are designed to resist the horizontal force in the top
flange and maintain the integrity of the transverse cross section of the superstructure. Figures 14.6.3-2 and
14.6.3-3 show two common configurations of torsion-resisting diaphragms. The diaphragm in Figure 14.6.3-2
resists torsion in an “A-shaped” configuration, whereas the diaphragm in Figure 14.6.3-3 resists torsion in a “V-
shaped” fashion. The tension and compression components are often evaluated using strut-and-tie models.
Tension forces are resisted by either mild reinforcement or inclined post-tensioning. Compressive stresses
produced by the compressive forces are verified to establish the minimum concrete dimensions.
Figure 14.6.3-2
“A-Shaped” Torsion Diaphragm

Figure 14.6.3-3
“V-Shaped” Torsion Diaphragm

14.6.4 Anchoring External Tendons

Diaphragms that include anchorages of post-tensioning tendons are subjected to large anchorage forces. These
diaphragms must effectively develop the prestressing force into the cross section of the segmental box girders.
Longitudinal components of the prestressing forces will cause interface shear between the diaphragm and
interior of the box girder as shown in Figure 14.6.4-1. Sufficient shear friction reinforcement is used to provide
necessary strength. These forces are particularly important in expansion-joint segments (Fig. 14.6.4-1) where
the tendons permanently act in one direction. The forces are smaller in pier segments where overlapping tendons
can negate some or all of the net interface shear.

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14.6.4 Anchoring External Tendons

Figure 14.6.4-1
Shear-Friction Forces from Post-Tensioning at Expansion-Joint Segment

Anchorage of external tendons in diaphragms can also cause vertical and horizontal tensions on the faces of the
diaphragm. Figure 14.6.4-2 shows a perspective view of an expansion-joint segment diaphragm that also serves
to anchor three external tendons. Figure 14.6.4-3 shows a vertical section through this diaphragm with
superimposed strut-and-tie models for the three tendons. The component of the post-tensioning tendon forces
that are developed in the top and bottom slabs in the vicinity of the diaphragm will produce “back-face” tensions
that are typically resisted by a combination of vertical mild reinforcement and post-tensioning bars. Figure
14.6.4-4 shows a plan view of the diaphragm along with a second strut-and-tie model. This model neglects the
transverse bending stiffness of the transverse rib shown in Figure 14.6.4-2 and results in corbel-like behavior.
The resulting “front-face” tension is typically resisted with mild reinforcement. A stiffer transverse rib could lead
to a change in the analysis models to capture horizontal back-face tension in the rib.

Figure 14.6.4-2
Typical Anchorage Configuration in Span-By-Span Construction

Figure 14.6.4-3
Strut-and-Tie Modeling for Back-Face Tension

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14.6.4 Anchoring External Tendons/14.8 PCI Journal Segmental Bridge Bibliography

Figure 14.6.4-4
Strut-and-Tie Modeling for Front-Face Tension

14.7 CITED REFERENCES

1. ASBI. 2019. Construction Practices Handbook for Concrete Segmental and Cable-Supported Bridges, Third
Edition. American Segmental Bridge Institute, Austin, TX. 440 pp.
https://www.asbi-assoc.org/index.cfm/publications/handbook-download.
2. ASBI. 2022. Guidelines for Design and Construction of Segmental Bridges for Rail. American Segmental Bridge
Institute, Austin, TX. 62 pp.
https://www.asbi-assoc.org/index.cfm/publications/rails-download.
3. Comite Euro-International Du Beton. 1993 CEB-FIP Model Code 1990: Design Code. Thomas Telford Ltd,
London
4. Corven, J. 2016. Post-Tensioned Box Girder Design Manual. FHWA-HIF-15-016. Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC. 389 pp.
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/concrete/hif15016.pdf.
5. Corven, J. and A. Moreton. 2013. Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation and Grouting Manual. FHWA-NHI-13-
026. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC. 184 pp.
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/construction/pubs/hif13026.pdf.
6. Corven, J., T. Eberhardt, B. Watson, B. Chavel, J. Mash, D. Paterson, and T. A. Markosky. 2022. Bridge Geometry
Manual. Publication No. FHWA-HIF-22-034. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC. 236 pp.
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/pubs/hif22034.pdf.
7. fib. 2010. fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010. Ernst and Sohn/John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, NJ.
8. Ledesma, T. 2019. Replaceable Grouted External Post-Tensioned Tendons. FHWA-HIF-19-067. Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC. 47 pp.
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/concrete/hif19067.pdf.
9. Podolny, W. and J. M. Muller. 1982. Construction and Design of Prestressed Concrete Segmental Bridges. John
Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. 561 pp.

14.8 PCI JOURNAL SEGMENTAL BRIDGE BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Abdel-Halim, M., R. M. McClure, and H. H. West. 1987. “Overload Behavior of an Experimental Precast
Prestressed Concrete Segmental Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol.
32, No. 6 (November-December), pp. 102-123.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011987.102.123.

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14.8 PCI Journal Segmental Bridge Bibliography

2. Abrahams, M. J. and G. Wilson. 1998. “Precast Prestressed Segmental Floating Drawspan for Admiral Clarey
Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 43, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 60-
79.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011998.60.79.
3. Alberdi Jr., T. 1980. “Value Engineering vs. Alternate Designs in Bridge Bidding. ”PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, Vol. 25, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 41-47.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011980.41.47.
4. Barker, J. M. 1980. “Construction Techniques for Segmental Concrete Bridges.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 25, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 66-86.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011980.66.86.
5. Bassi, K. G., W. L. Lin, G. Al-Bazi, and O. E. Ramkko. 1984. “The Twelve Mile Creek Precast Prestressed
Segmental Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 29, No. 6
(November-December), pp. 30-47.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011984.30.47.
6. Bazant, Z. P. and L. Panula. 1980. “Creep and Shrinkage Characterization for Analyzing Prestressed Concrete
Structures.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 25, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 86-
122.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011980.86.122.
7. Bender, B. F. 1977. “Provisions for Possible Reconstruction of Decks on Segmental Box Girder Bridges.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 22, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 80-84.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011977.80.84.
8. Bender, B. F. and H. H. Janssen. 1982. “Geometry Control of Precast Segmental Concrete Bridges.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 27, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 72-86.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011982.72.86.
9. Billington, S. L., R. W. Barnes, and J. E. Breen. 1999. “A Precast Segmental Substructure System for Standard
Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 44. No. 4 (July-August), pp. 56-
73.
https://doi.org/10.15554/PCIJ.07011999.56.73.
10. Breen, J. E. 1985. “Controlling Twist in Precast Segmental Concrete Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 30, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 86-111.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011985.86.111.
11. Breen. J. E. 1990. “Prestressed Concrete: The State of the Art in North America.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 35, No. 6 (November-December), pp. 62-67.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011990.62.67.
12. Bridges, C. P. and C. S. Coulter. 1979. “Geometry Control for Intercity Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 24, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 112-125.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011979.113.125.
13. Brockmann, C. and H. Rogenhofer. 2000. “Bang Na Expressway, Bangkok, Thailand―World's Longest Bridge
and Largest Precasting Operation.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 45,
No. 1 (January-February), pp. 26-38.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01012000.26.38.
14. Chandra, V. and A. L. Ricci. 2000. “Central Artery/Tunnel Project: A Precast Bonanza―Part 1.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 45, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 14-20.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05012000.14.20.
15. Chandra, V. and A. L. Ricci. 2001. “Central Artery/Tunnel Project: Boston’s Engineering Marvel―Where We
Are Now.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 45, No. 2 (March-April).
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03012001.14.21.

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16. Donington, K., P. Towell, and V. Chandra. 2000. “Central Artery/Tunnel Project: Precast/Prestressed
Structures Span the Big Dig.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 45, No. 5
(September-October), pp. 30-33.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09012000.30.33.
17. Dudra, J. 1966. “Design and Construction of Hudson Hope Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 11, No. 2 (April), pp. 52-72. https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.04011966.52.72.
18. Eriksson, R. L. and S. Zendegui. 1985. “Segmental Design of the Harbour Island People Mover.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 30, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 38-51.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011985.38.51.
19. Figg Jr., E. C. 1997. “Proposed AASHTO Standards for Segmental Bridges Represent a Growing Market for the
Precast Concrete Industry.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 42, No. 5
(September-October), pp. 30-31.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011997.30.31.
20. Figg, L. and D. Pate. 2004. “Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges―America’s Beautiful and Affordable Icons,”
PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 49, No. 5 (September-October), pp. 26-
39.
https://www.pci.org/PCI_Docs/Publications/PCI%20Journal/2004/Sept-
Oct/Precast%20Concrete%20Segmental%20Bridges.pdf.
21. Freyermuth, C. L. 1982. “Post-Tensioning Details for Long-Span Concrete Bridges.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 27, No. 6 (November-December), pp. 48-65.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011982.48.65.
22. Freyermuth, C. L. 1997. “AASHTO-PCI-ASBI Segmental Box Girder Standards: A New Product for Grade
Separations and Interchange Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol.
42, No. 5 (September-October), pp. 32-42.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011997.32.42.
23. Freyermuth, C. L. 1999. “Ten Years of Segmental Achievements and Projections for the Next Century.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 44, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 36-52.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011999.36.52.
24. Gallaway, T. M. 1980. “Design Features and Prestressing Aspects of Long Key Bridge.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 25, No. 6 (November-December), pp. 84-96.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011980.84.96.
25. Gentilini, B. and L. Gentilini. 1975. “Precast Prestressed Segmental Elevated Urban Motorway in Italy.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 20, No. 5 (September-October), pp. 26-43.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011975.26.43.
26. Gerwick Jr., B. C. 1966. “Bridge over the Eastern Scheldt.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL. Vol. 11, No. 1 (February), pp. 53-59.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.02011966.53.59.
27. Gerwick Jr., B. C. 1982. “Causes and Prevention of Problems in Large-Scale Prestressed Concrete
Construction.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 27, No. 3 (May-June), pp.
58-75.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011982.58.75.
28. Ghali, A., and M. M. Elbadry. 1989. “Serviceability Design of Continuous Prestressed Concrete Structures.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 34, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 54-91.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01011989.54.91.
29. Goñi Baamonde, J. J. and A. M. García y Benitez. 2009. “Metrorrey’s Linea 2 Extension Viaduct : A Revolution
for Light-Rail Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges,” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL. Vol. 54, No. 4 (Fall), pp. 175–188.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09012009.175.188.

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30. Grant, A. 1979. “The Pasco-Kennewick Intercity Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL. Vol. 24, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 90-111.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011979.90.109.
31. Grant, A. 1987. “Design and Construction of the East Huntington Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 32, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 20-29.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01011987.20.29.
32. Harwood, A. C. 1982. “I-205 Columbia River Bridge―Design and Construction Highlights.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 27, No. 2 (March-April), pp. 56-77.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03011982.56.77.
33. Herbert, T. J. 1990. “Computer Analysis of Deflections and Stresses in Stage Constructed Concrete Bridges.”
PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 35, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 52-63.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011990.52.63.
34. Hoffman, P. C., R. M. McClure, and H. H. West., 1983. “Temperature Study of an Experimental Segmental
Concrete Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 28, No. 2 (March-
April), pp. 78-97.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03011983.78.97.
35. Hugenschmidt, F. 1974. “Epoxy Adhesives in Precast Prestressed Concrete Construction.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 19, No. 2 (March-April), pp. 112-124.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03011974.112.124.
36. Iverson, J. K., C. Banchik, R. Brantley, and J. Sage. 1999. “Precast Segmental Seismic Retrofit for the San Mateo-
Hayward Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 44, No. 6 (November-
December), pp. 28-40.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011999.28.40.
37. Joint PCI-PTI Committee on Segmental Construction. 1982. “Recommended Practice for Precast Post-
Tensioned Segmental Construction.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 27,
No. 1 (January-February), pp. 14-61.
38. Kulka, F. and S. J. Thoman. 1983. “Feasibility Study of Standard Sections for Segmental Prestressed Concrete
Box Girder Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 28, No. 5
(September-October), pp. 54-77.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011983.54.77.
39. Lacey, G. C., J. E. Breen, and N. H. Burns. 1971. “State of the Art for Long Span Prestressed Concrete Bridges of
Segmental Construction.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 16, No. 5
(September-October), pp. 53-77.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011971.53.77.
40. Leonhardt, F. 1968. “Aesthetics of Bridge Design.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL. Vol. 13, No. 1 (February), pp. 14-31.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.02011968.14.31.
41. Leonhardt, F. 1987. “Cable Stayed Bridges with Prestressed Concrete.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 32, No. 5 (September-October), pp. 52-80.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011987.52.80.
42. Leonhardt, F. 1988. “Cracks and Crack Control in Concrete Structures.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 33, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 124-145.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011988.124.145.
43. Lester, B., and G. Tadros. 1995. “Northumberland Strait Crossing: Design Development of Precast Prestressed
Bridge Structure.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 40, No. 5 (September-
October), pp. 32-44.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011995.32.44.

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44. Lin, T. Y. and C. Redfield. 1982. “Some Design Issues Facing American Bridge Constructors.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 27, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 58-71.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011982.58.71.
45. Lovell, J. A. B. 1980. “The Islington Avenue Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL. Vol. 25, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 32-66.
h https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011980.32.66
46. Massicotte, B. and A. Picard. 1994. “Monitoring of a Prestressed Segmental Box Girder Bridge During
Strengthening.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 39, No. 3 (May-June), pp.
66-80.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011994.66.80.
47. Massicotte, B., A. Picard, Y. Gaumond, and C. Ouellet. 1994. “Strengthening of a long Span Prestressed
Segmental Box Girder Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 39, No. 3
(May-June), pp. 52-65.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011994.52.65.
48. Matt, P. 1983. “Status of Segmental Bridge Construction in Europe.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 28, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 104-125.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011983.104.125.
49. Megally, S., F. Seible, M. Garg, and R. K. Dowell. 2002. “Seismic Performance of Precast Segmental Bridge
Superstructures with Internally Bonded Prestressing Tendons.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 47, No. 2 (March-April), pp. 40-56.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03012002.40.56.
50. Megally, S., F. Seible, and R. K. Dowell. 2003. “Seismic Performance of Precast Segmental Bridges: Segment-to-
Segment Joints Subjected to High Flexural Moments and Low Shears.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 48, No. 2 (March-April), pp. 80-96.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03012003.80.96.
51. Megally, S., M. J. Veletzos, K. Burnell, J. I. Restrepo, and F. Seible. 2009. “Seismic Performance of Precast
Concrete Segmental Bridges: Summary of Experimental Research on Segment-to-Segment Joints.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 54, No. 2 (Spring), pp. 116–142.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03012009.116.142.
52. Mendorf, P. E. 1993. “Design-Construction of Precast Segmental Elevated Metro Line for Monterrey, Nuevo
León, Mexico.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 38, No. 2 (March-April),
pp. 42-56.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03011993.42.56.
53. Miller, M. 1995. “Durability Survey of Segmental Concrete Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 40, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 110-123.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011995.110.123.
54. Moreton, A. J. 1989. “Segmental Bridge Construction in Florida—A Review and Perspective.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 34, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 36-77.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011989.36.77.
55. Moustafa, S. E. 1974. “Ultimate Load Test of a Segmentally Constructed Prestressed Concrete I-Beam.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 19, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 54-75.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011974.54.75.
56. Muller, J. 1975. “Ten Years of Experience in Precast Segmental Construction―A Special Report.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 20, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 28-61.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01011975.28.61.
57. Muller, J. 1980. “Construction of Long Key Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL. Vol. 25, No. 6 (November-December), pp. 97-111.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011980.97.111.

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58. Muller, J. and J. M. Barker. 1982. “Joint Heating Allows Winter Construction on Linn Cove Viaduct.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 27, No. 5 (September-October), pp. 120-130.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011982.120.130.
59. Muller, J. M. and J. M. Barker. 1985. “Design and Construction of Linn Cove Viaduct.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 30, No. 5 (September-October), 38-53.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011985.38.53.
60. Nair, R. S. and J. K. Iverson. 1982. “Design and Construction of the Kishwaukee River Bridges.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 27, No. 6 (November-December), pp. 22-47.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011982.22.47.
61. Palmer, A. M. 2006. “Fundamentals of Launching a Precast Concrete Segmental Operation for Bridge
Construction Projects.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 51, No. 3 (May-
June), pp. 32–44.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05012006.32.44.
62. Pate, D. 1995. “The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Bridge―Design-Construction Highlights.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 40, No. 5 (September-October), pp. 20-30.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011995.20.30.
63. PCI Bridge Committee. 1975. “Tentative Design and Construction Specifications for Precast Segmental Box
Girder Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 20, No. 4 (July-August),
pp. 34-42.
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64. PCI Committee on Segmental Construction. 1975. “Recommended Practice for Segmental Construction in
Prestressed Concrete.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 20, No. 2 (March-
April), pp. 22-41.
65. Pfeifer, D. 1982. “Development of the Concrete Technology for a Precast Prestressed Concrete Segmental
Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 27, No. 5 (September-October),
pp. 78-99.
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66. Phipps, A. R. and Q. D. Spruill Jr. 1990. “Biloxi Interstate-110 Viaduct.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 35, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 120-132.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01011990.120.132.
67. Podolny Jr., W. 1979. “An Overview of Precast Prestressed Segmental Bridges.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 24, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 56-87.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01011979.56.87.
68. Podolny Jr., W. 1985. “The Cause of Cracking in Post-Tensioned Concrete Box Girder Bridges and Retrofit
Procedures.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 30, No. 2 (March-April), pp.
82-139.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03011985.82.139.
69. Podolny, Jr., W. 1986. “Evaluation of Transverse Flange Forces Induced by Laterally Inclined Longitudinal
Post-Tensioning in Box Girder Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol.
31, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 44-61.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01011986.44.61.
70. Podolny Jr., W. and A. A. Mireles. 1983. “Kuwait's Bubiyan Bridge―A 3-D Precast Segmental Space Frame.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 28, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 68-107.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01011983.68.107.
71. Polgieter, I. C. and W. L. Gamble. 1989. “Nonlinear Temperature Distributions in Bridges at Different
Locations in the United States.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 34, No. 4
(July-August), pp. 80-103.
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72. Poston, R. W., J. E. Breen, and R. L. Carrasquillo. 1989. “Design of Transversely Prestressed Concrete Bridge
Decks.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 34, No. 5 (September-October),
pp. 68-109.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011989.68.109.
73. Project Story. 1967. “Report of the FIP Commission on Prefabrication.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 12, No. 5 (October), pp. 41-53.
74. Project Story. 1979. “Quebec’s Grand’Mere Bridge―935-ft Long Post-Tensioned Segmental Structure.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 24, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 94-99.
http://www.pci.org/view_file.cfm?file=JL-79-JANUARY-FEBRUARY-7.pdf.
75. Project Story. 1984. “Dauphin Island Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
Vol. 29, No. 1 (January-February).
76. Project Story. 1985. “MARTA Rapid Transit Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL. Vol. 30, No. 2 (March-April), pp. 188-194.
77. Project Story. 1986. “Microcomputer Technology Assists Florida DOT.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 31, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 139-143.
http://www.pci.org/view_file.cfm?file=JL-86-MAY-JUNE-11.pdf.
78. Project Story. 1986. “Ramp ‘I’ Over I-75 and the Florida Turnpike Extension.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 31, No.4 (July-August), pp. 116-119.
79. Project Story. 1989. “Ramp B Bridge Over U.S. Highway 23.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 34, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 144-147.
http://www.pci.org/view_file.cfm?file=JL-89-JANUARY-FEBRUARY-10.pdf.
80. Quinn, S. B. and M. J. Kopetz. 1982. “Design and Construction of the Houston Ship Channel Bridge.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 27, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 30-57.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011982.30.57.
81. Rabbat, B. G. 1987. “Testing of Segmental Concrete Girders with External Tendons.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 32, No. 2 (March-April), pp. 86-107.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03011987.86.107.
82. Rabbat, B. G. and K. Sowlat. 1987. “Testing of Segmental Concrete Girders With External Tendons.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 32, No. 2 (March-April), pp. 86-107.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03011987.86.107.
83. Roberts-Wollmann, C. L., J. E. Breen, and M. E. Kreger. 1995. “Temperature Induced Deformations in Match-
Cast Segments.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 40, No. 4 (July-August),
pp. 62-71.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011995.62.71.
84. Rodriguez, J., M. Hedayati, A. Taddeo, and J. Parks. 2004. “Precast Concrete Light Rail System Provides Mass
Transit Solution for JFK International Airport.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago,
IL. Vol. 49, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 32-44.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01012004.32.44.
85. Rosignoli, M. 2010. “Self-launching Erection Machines for Precast Concrete Bridges,” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 55, No. 1 (Winter 2010), pp. 36-57.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01012010.36.57.
86. Salas, R., A. Schokker, J. West, J. Breen, and M. Kreger. 2008. “Corrosion Risk of Bonded, Post-Tensioned
Concrete Elements.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 53, No. 1 (January-
February), pp. 89-107.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01012008.89.108.

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87. Sason, A. S. 1992. "Evaluation of Degree of Rusting on Prestressed Concrete Strand.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 37, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 25-30.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011992.25.30.
88. Schlaich, J., K. Schafer, and M. Jennewein.1987. “Toward a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 32, No. 3 (May-June), pp, 74-150.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011987.74.150.
89. Schupack, M. 1971. “Grouting Tests on Large Post-Tensioning Tendons for Secondary Nuclear Containment
Structures.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 16, No. 2 (March-April), pp.
85-97.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03011971.85.97.
90. Shiu, K. N. and H. G. Russell. 1983. “Knowledge Gained from Instrumentation of the Kishwaukee River Bridge.”
PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 28, No. 5 (September-October), pp. 32-
53.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011983.32.53.
91. Shushkewich, K. W. 1998. “Design of Segmental Bridges for Thermal Gradient.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 43, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 120-137.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011998.92.120.137.
92. Shushkewich, K. W. 2003. “The Strutted Box Widening Method for Prestressed Concrete Segmental Bridges.”
PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 48, No. 6 (November-December), pp. 64-
81.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11012003.64.81.
93. Smith, M. J. and D. Goodyear. 1988. “A Practical Look at Creep and Shrinkage in Bridge Design.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 33, No. 3 (May-June), pp. 108-121.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011988.108.121.
94. Sofia, M. J. and E. H. Homsi. 1994. “Fabrication and Erection of Precast Concrete Segmental Boxes for Baldwin
Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 39, No. 6 (November-December),
pp. 36-52.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011994.36.52.
95. Strasky, J. and M. Korenek. 1986. “Short Span Segmental Bridged in Czechoslovakia.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 31, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 106-132.
http://www.pci.org/view_file.cfm?file=JL-86-JANUARY-FEBRUARY-4.pdf
96. Tadros, M. K., A. Ghali, and W. H. Dilger.1979. “Long-Term Stresses and Deformation of Segmental Bridges.”
PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 24, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 66-87.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011979.66.87.
97. Tang, M-C. 1987. “Construction of East Huntington Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 32. No. 6 (November-December), pp. 32-48.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.11011987.32.48.
98. Tassin, D. 2006. “Jean M. Muller: Bridge Engineer.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL. Vol. 51, No. 2 (March-April), pp. 88-101.
http://www.pci.org/view_file.cfm?file=JL-06-MARCH-APRIL-7.pdf.
99. Towell, P. J., P. A. Mainville, V. Chandra, and E. Homsi. 2000. “Central Artery/Tunnel Project: Innovative Use of
Precast Segmental Technology.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 45, No. 4
(July-August), pp. 44-50.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07012000.44.50.
100. Veletzos, M. J. and J. I. Restrepo. 2009. “Influence of Vertical Earthquake Motion and Pre-earthquake Stress
on Joint Response of Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 54, No. 3 (Summer), pp. 99-128.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.06012009.99.128.

14 - 77 (2023)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_____________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 14
PRECAST CONCRETE SEGMENTAL BRIDGES
14.8 PCI Journal Segmental Bridge Bibliography

101. Walker, H. M., H. H. Janssen, and J. B. Kelly. 1981. “The Kentucky River Bridge―Variable Depth Precast
Prestressed Segmental Concrete Structure.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL.
Vol. 26, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 60-85.
http://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011981.60.85.
102. Ward, D. J. 1983. “An Overview of Prestressed Segmental Concrete Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 28, No.2 (March-April), pp.120-131.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.03011983.120.131.
103. West, J. S., J. E. Breen, and R. P. Vignos. 2002. “Evaluation of Corrosion Protection for Internal Prestressing
Tendons in Precast Segmental Bridges.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol
47, No. 5 (September-October), pp. 76-91.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09012002.76.91.
104. Wilkes, W. J. 1980. “Segmental Bridge Construction―The Wave of the Future.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 25, No. 5 (September-October), pp. 24-30.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.09011980.24.30.
105. Yazdani, N. and M. Issa. 2003. “Reduction of Joint Seepage and Cross-Grouting in Bridge Segments.” PCI
Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 48, No. 1 (January-February), pp. 82-90.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01012003.82.90.
106. Yu, C. K. 1984. “Segmental Box Girders for the High Level West Seattle Bridge.” PCI Journal,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 29, No. 4 (July-August), pp. 52-67.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.07011984.52.67.
107. Zollman, C. C., and S. H. Barbaux. 1986. “Rehabilitation of the Boivre Viaduct—A Multispan Prestressed Box
Girder Bridge.” PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Vol. 31, No. 3 (May-June), pp.
22-47.
https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.05011986.22.47.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
TABLE OF CONTENTS

NOTATION .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 5
15.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 11
15.1.1 General ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 11
15.1.2 Objective ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 11
15.1.3 Potential Causes of Earthquake Damage to Bridges with Precast Components ........................................... 15 - 12
15.1.4 Seismic Hazard Maps .............................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 12
15.1.5 Performance Criteria ............................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 13
15.1.6 Precast Systems and Components ..................................................................................................................................... 15 - 13
15.1.6.1 Superstructure Types .................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 13
15.1.6.2 Substructure Components ........................................................................................................................................... 15 - 13
15.1.6.3 Precast Systems and Components Not Addressed............................................................................................ 15 - 14
15.1.7 Scope............................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 14
15.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................................................................ 15 - 14
15.2.1 Foundations ................................................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 14
15.2.2 Response Characteristics of Precast Concrete Bridge Systems............................................................................ 15 - 15
15.2.2.1 Concept A—Simple-span Precast Beams Supported on a Drop Cap......................................................... 15 - 15
15.2.2.2 Concept B—Continuous Precast Beams Supported on a Drop Cap—Hinge Support ....................... 15 - 15
15.2.2.3 Concept C—Continuous Precast Beams Bearing on a Partially Precast Bent Cap .............................. 15 - 16
15.2.2.4 Concept D—Precast Beams Constructed Integrally with Bent Cap .......................................................... 15 - 17
15.2.3 Bent Cap Types .......................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 17
15.2.3.1 Simple-span Precast Beams on a Drop Bent Cap—Continuous for Live Load ..................................... 15 - 17
15.2.3.2 Partially Dropped Bent Cap ......................................................................................................................................... 15 - 18
15.2.3.3 Precast Concrete Bent Cap ........................................................................................................................................... 15 - 19
15.2.3.4 Precast Spliced Beam ..................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 19
15.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Systems ................................................................................................. 15 - 19
15.2.5 Preliminary Design Considerations .................................................................................................................................. 15 - 20
15.3 SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA ........................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 20
15.3.1 Early Seismic Design Criteria .............................................................................................................................................. 15 - 20
15.3.2 Seismic Design Criteria of the AASHTO Specifications............................................................................................. 15 - 21
15.3.2.1 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges .................................................................................. 15 - 21
15.3.2.2 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications ....................................................................................................... 15 - 21
15.3.2.3 LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications .......................................................................................................................... 15 - 22
15.3.3 California Seismic Design Criteria ..................................................................................................................................... 15 - 23
15.3.4 Other Seismic Design Criteria ............................................................................................................................................. 15 - 23
15.3.4.1 Japan Criteria ..................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 23
15.3.4.2 New Zealand Criteria...................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 23
15.4 SEISMIC ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................................................ 15 - 23
15.4.1 General ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 23
15.4.2 Force Based Analysis ............................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 23

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SEISMIC DESIGN
TABLE OF CONTENTS

15.4.2.1 Elastic Dynamic Analysis (EDA) ................................................................................................................................ 15 - 24

15.4.2.2 Column Analysis Criteria .............................................................................................................................................. 15 - 24
15.4.2.3 Secondary Effect of Axial Loads ................................................................................................................................ 15 - 24
15.4.2.4 Flexural Resistance ......................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 25
15.4.2.5 Column–to–Superstructure Connection Design ................................................................................................ 15 - 25
15.4.3 Displacement-Based Analysis ............................................................................................................................................. 15 - 25
15.4.4 Computer Modeling ................................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 26
15.5 CONNECTION DETAILS ................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 26
15.5.1 Details of Current Practice .................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 27
15.5.1.1 Beam Continuity through the Deck ......................................................................................................................... 15 - 27
15.5.1.2 Hinged Diaphragm Connection ................................................................................................................................. 15 - 27
15.5.1.3 Fixed Diaphragm Connection ..................................................................................................................................... 15 - 27
15.5.1.4 Positive Moment Connection at Pier Diaphragms ............................................................................................ 15 - 28
15.5.2 Abutment Connection for Precast, Prestressed Beam Bridges ............................................................................ 15 - 31
15.5.2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 31
15.5.2.2 Semi-integral End Diaphragm .................................................................................................................................... 15 - 31
15.5.2.3 Traditional L-shaped Abutment ................................................................................................................................ 15 - 32
15.5.2.4 Support Length Requirement ..................................................................................................................................... 15 - 33
15.5.2.4.1 Support Length for Bridges Assigned to Seismic Design Category D .............................................. 15 - 33
15.5.2.4.2 Beam Stop Details................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 33
15.5.3 Pile–to–Pile Cap Connection ................................................................................................................................................ 15 - 34
15.5.4 Haunched Beam–to–Cast-in-Place Inverted-Tee Bent ............................................................................................. 15 - 35
15.5.5 Precast Pile–to–Partial Precast Cap.................................................................................................................................. 15 - 36
15.5.6 Precast Segmental Columns in Seismic Applications ............................................................................................... 15 - 39
15.5.6.1 Grouted Duct Connection ............................................................................................................................................. 15 - 41
15.5.7 Precast Abutments ................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 43
15.5.8 Precast Spliced Beam Superstructure with Integral Cap ........................................................................................ 15 - 44
15.6 DESIGN EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 47
15.6.1 Configure Spans, Balance Stiffness, and Design Practice in California ............................................................. 15 - 47
15.6.1.1 Adjust Dynamic Characteristics ................................................................................................................................ 15 - 47
15.6.1.1.1 Outline of Procedure ............................................................................................................................................. 15 - 48
15.6.1.1.1.1 Determine Preliminary Member Sizes and Span Configuration ............................................... 15 - 48
15.6.1.1.1.2 Check for Balanced Stiffness..................................................................................................................... 15 - 49
15.6.1.2 Assess Preliminary Ductility—“Lollipop Model” ............................................................................................... 15 - 49
15.6.1.3 Transverse Pushover Analysis................................................................................................................................... 15 - 50
15.6.1.3.1 Design Column Shear ............................................................................................................................................ 15 - 50
15.6.1.3.2 Design of Bent Cap ................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 51
15.6.1.4 Longitudinal Pushover Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 15 - 51
15.6.1.5 Final Displacement Demand Assessment ............................................................................................................. 15 - 51

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

15.6.2 Precast Substructure and Superstructure Bridge with CIP Connections......................................................... 15 - 51

15.6.2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 51
15.6.2.2 Design Procedure for Positive Earthquake Loading Reinforcement at Interior Pier of a Precast Beam
Bridge...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 52
15.6.2.2.1 Given ............................................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 53
15.6.2.2.2 Design Steps: ............................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 54
15.6.3 Pushover Analysis: Two-Column Bent in the Transverse Direction .................................................................. 15 - 55
15.6.3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 55
15.6.3.2. General Model Information ........................................................................................................................................ 15 - 56
15.6.3.2.1 Model Description .................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 56
15.6.3.2.2 Spread Footings ....................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 56
15.6.3.2.3 Concrete Material Modeling ............................................................................................................................... 15 - 56
15.6.3.2.4 Columns ...................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 56
15.6.3.2.5 Superstructure ......................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 59
15.6.3.2.6 Loads ............................................................................................................................................................................ 15 - 60
15.6.3.3. Modal Analysis ................................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 60
15.6.3.3.1 Mass Source ............................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 60
15.6.3.3.2 Column Cracking ..................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 61
15.6.3.3.3 Analysis Case Setup ............................................................................................................................................... 15 - 62
15.6.3.4. Response Spectrum Analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 15 - 62
15.6.3.4.1 Seismic Hazard ......................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 62
15.6.3.4.2 Response Spectrum ............................................................................................................................................... 15 - 63
15.6.3.4.3 Analysis Case Setup ............................................................................................................................................... 15 - 64
15.6.3.4.4 Column Displacements ......................................................................................................................................... 15 - 64
15.6.3.4.5 Column Inflection Points ..................................................................................................................................... 15 - 65
15.6.3.5. Displacement Demand.................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 65
15.6.3.5.1 Response Spectrum Displacements................................................................................................................ 15 - 65
15.6.3.5.2 Displacement Magnification .............................................................................................................................. 15 - 66
15.6.3.6. P-Delta Effect Check ....................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 66
15.6.3.7. Hinge Definitions/Assignments ............................................................................................................................... 15 - 66
15.6.3.7.1 Hinge Lengths ........................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 66
15.6.3.7.2 Assign Hinges ........................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 67
15.6.3.8. Pushover Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 68
15.6.3.8.1 Load Distribution .................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 68
15.6.3.8.2 Analysis Case Setup ............................................................................................................................................... 15 - 68
15.6.3.9. Check Displacement Capacity.................................................................................................................................... 15 - 74
15.6.3.10 Check Hinge Ductility .................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 75
15.6.3.11. Check Column Shear Capacity ................................................................................................................................ 15 - 77
15.6.4 Precast Concrete Bridges in Washington ....................................................................................................................... 15 - 77

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SEISMIC DESIGN
TABLE OF CONTENTS

15.6.4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 77

15.6.4.2 Geometry ............................................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 77
15.6.4.3 Material Properties ......................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 78
15.6.4.4 Section Properties ........................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 79
15.6.4.5 Stage 1 Bent Cap Design ............................................................................................................................................... 15 - 81
15.6.4.5.1 Check Flexural Capacity ....................................................................................................................................... 15 - 81
15.6.4.5.2 Check Shear Capacity ............................................................................................................................................ 15 - 82
15.6.4.5.3 Torsional Capacity ................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 84
15.6.4.5.4 Shear Interface Calculation ................................................................................................................................ 15 - 84
15.6.4.6 Entire Bent Cap Design ................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 84
15.6.4.6.1 Superimposed Dead and Live Loads .............................................................................................................. 15 - 84
15.6.4.6.2 Extreme Event Load Demands ......................................................................................................................... 15 - 85
15.6.4.6.3 Load Summary ......................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 86
15.6.4.7 Additional Bent Cap Design Checks ......................................................................................................................... 15 - 86
15.6.5 Two-Span Spliced U-Beam.................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 86
15.6.5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 86
15.6.5.2 Description of Bridge ..................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 87
15.6.5.3 Load Combinations ......................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 89
15.6.5.4 Seismic Considerations ................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 89
15.6.5.5 Seismic Forces ................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 89
15.6.5.6 Joint Shear Design ........................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 91
15.6.5.7 Bent Cap Torsion ............................................................................................................................................................. 15 - 94
15.6.5.8 Superstructure Demands ............................................................................................................................................. 15 - 95
15.7 CITED REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................................................... 15 - 96

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SEISMIC DESIGN
NOTATION

NOTATION
A = area of section considered (for section properties)
= acceleration coefficient
Ab = area of individual reinforcing bar of column transverse reinforcement
Ae = effective concrete area resisting shear strength
Ag = gross cross-sectional area of column
J-bar
AS = total area of J-bars in the bent cap
JH
AS = total area of horizontal shear reinforcement anchored in the joint
JV
AS = total area of vertical shear reinforcement anchored in the joint
A𝓁 = longitudinal column steel
Aps = area of prestressing strand
As = effective peak ground acceleration
= area of all reinforcement passing through the shear plane
= area of longitudinal column reinforcement
Asc = total area of column reinforcement anchored in the joint
As max = maximum area of longitudinal column steel
As min = minimum area of longitudinal column steel
Ast = area of hoops
Av = area of shear reinforcement
a = acceleration
= depth of the equivalent concrete stress block
b = effective flange width
Bcap = width of cap
Beff = effective width of superstructure for resisting longitudinal seismic moments
bv = width of the section resisting shear
C = component capacity
c = depth of neutral axis
cs = distance from center of gravity of extended strands to bottom of beam
D = component force demand
Dc = diameter of column
Ds = depth of superstructure including cap beam
d = distance from top of slab to center of gravity of extended strands
= depth of the section, less the clear cover to the bottom of the stirrup
d′ = diameter of column concrete core
db = nominal strand diameter

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SEISMIC DESIGN
NOTATION

𝑑𝑏𝓁 = nominal diameter of longitudinal column reinforcing steel bars

dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of prestressing strands
ds = total depth of the section
dv = critical shear depth
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel
F1 = factor, a function of ductility demand
F2 = factor, a function of compressive axial stress
Fa = short-period site coefficient at 0.2 second period spectral acceleration
Fv = long-period site coefficient at 1.0 second period spectral acceleration
FPGA = site coefficient for PGA coefficient
𝑓𝑐′ = specified concrete compressive strength
𝑓𝑐𝑒′ = expected concrete compressive strength
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing strands
fpy = yield strength of prestressing steel
fr = modulus of rupture
ƒue = expected tensile stress of longitudinal column reinforcing steel bars for seismic design
ƒye = expected yield stress of longitudinal column reinforcing steel bars for seismic design
fyh = nominal yield stress of transverse column reinforcement
H = average height of abutment wall supporting the superstructure
= beam depth
HS = height of superstructure
h = distance from top of column to center of gravity of superstructure
hc = inside depth of u-beam
I = moment of inertia of section
IC = importance classification
Icracked = moment of inertia of the cracked section
Ie = effective moment of inertia
Ieff = effective flexural stiffness
Ig = moment of inertia of the gross concrete section about the centroidal axis, neglecting
the reinforcement
ke = effective stiffness of column
𝑘𝑖𝑒 = effective stiffness of bent or column i
𝑘𝑗𝑒 = effective stiffness of bent or column j
L = bridge length to the adjacent expansion joint, or to the end of the bridge
= column height

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
NOTATION

= length of column from point of maximum moment to the point of moment contraflexure
L1 = length of column from point of maximum moment at base to inflection point
= span length
L2 = length of column from point of maximum moment at top to inflection point
= span length
Lc = column clear distance between top of footing and bottom face of bent cap
Lp = length of plastic hinge
𝓁ac = length of column bar extension into core of bent cap
M = design moment obtained from elastic frame analysis
= ductility demand
𝐴𝑣𝑔
𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖 = average moment per beam
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑀𝑝𝑜 = plastic overstrength moment at base of column
𝐶𝐺
𝑀𝑝𝑜 = design moment at the center of gravity of the superstructure
Mcr = cracking moment
Mdes = design moment per beam
MDL = moment due to dead load
MEQ = elastic moment demand
𝐸𝑥𝑡
𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖 = moment per beam for nonadjacent beams
MF = column moment from elastic frame analysis
𝐼𝑛𝑡
𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖 = moment per beam for adjacent beams
Mn = nominal flexural resistance
Mo = overstrength moment
MoBase = column overstrength moments at the base of column
MoCG = column overstrength moments at the center of gravity of the superstructure
MoTop = column overstrength moments at the top of column
MOT = overturning moment
Mp = plastic moment
MPR = moment corresponding to ΔPR
Mr = factored flexural resistance of a section in bending
MSIDL = moment per beam due to superimposed dead load
𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖 = seismic moment
𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝑀𝑝𝑜 = plastic overstrength moment at top of column
Mu = factored moment
Mx = transverse elastic moments
My = longitudinal elastic moment
m = gravitational constant

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
NOTATION

mi = tributary mass of column or bent i

mj = tributary mass of column or bent j
N = minimum support length
𝑁𝑔𝑒𝑥𝑡 = number of beams outside the effective width
𝑁𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑡 = number of beams encompassed by the effective width
Nps = number of extended straight strands
n = modular ratio
P = axial load
PGA = peak seismic ground acceleration coefficient on rock
Pf = prestress force after all losses
pc = principal compression stress
pt = principal tension stress
R = response modification factor
= permissible force reduction factor
Rd_Trans = displacement magnification factor
S = skew angle of the support measured normal to span
= section modulus
= spacing of transverse reinforcement
= site effects
S1 = mapped spectral acceleration coefficient, 5% damped, for a 1-second period on
Class B rock
SD1 = 5% damped design spectral response acceleration coefficient at 1-second period
SDC = Seismic Design Category
SDS = 5% damped design spectral response acceleration coefficients at short periods
Sb = section modulus for extreme bottom fiber
SG = spacing of beams
SPC = Seismic Performance Category
Ss = mapped spectral acceleration coefficient, 5% damped, for short periods on Class B rock
St = section modulus for extreme top fiber
s = spacing of column transverse reinforcement
Tc = portion of column force3 clamped by D1
T’c = remaining column tension force clamped by D2 and D3 assumed to be 25% of the total column
longitudinal reinforcement.
Ts = SD1/SDS period
T* = characteristic ground motion period
TTrans = natural period of vibration for transverse direction of bridge

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SEISMIC DESIGN
NOTATION

Tw = web thickness of u-beam

ts = effective slab thickness
Vc = shear resistance of the concrete
vc = shear stress in the concrete
Vn = nominal shear resistance of the section
Vo = overstrength shear
VPR = shear force corresponding to displacement ΔPR
Vs = shear resistance of the reinforcement
WS = equivalent effective width of superstructure
wc = unit weight of concrete
= inside depth of u-beam
YCG = distance from top of column (bottom face of bent cap) to center of gravity of the superstructure
yb = distance from center of gravity to bottom fiber
yt = distance from center of gravity to top fiber
yt-slab = c.g. of superstructure to top of slab
 = factor relating effect of longitudinal strain on the shear capacity of concrete,
as indicated by the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension
1 = ratio of the depth of the equivalent uniformly stressed compression zone assumed in
the strength limit state to the depth of the actual compression zone
δb = dead load coefficient
δs = seismic moment coefficient
Δ = displacement
Δc = displacement capacity taken along the local principal axis corresponding to Δ d
Δcr+sh = displacement due to creep and shrinkage
Δd = global seismic displacement demand
ΔLD_Trans = displacement demand from response-spectrum analysis
Δp = plastic displacement
Δy = yield displacement taken along the local principal axis corresponding to Δ d
= displacement at which the hinge yields during the pushover analysis when
foundation effects are included
Δyi = idealized yield displacement
ΔPR = primary elastic deflection
ΔEQ = elastic deflection computed from the complete quadratic combination (CQC) method
Δeq = seismic displacement demand of the long period frame on one side of the expansion joint
= displacement due to earthquake loads
Δp/s = displacement due to prestressing

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NOTATION

Δtemp = displacement due to temperature effects

p = load factor for permanent loading
μc = local displacement ductility capacity
 = structural ductility
 = resistance factor
p = curvature corresponding to plastic moment
= soil spring
v = resistance factor for shear
y = yield curvature
yi = idealized first yield curvature
ρs = reinforcement ratio
θ = angle of shear failure plane
θp = plastic rotation

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SEISMIC DESIGN
15.1 Introduction/15.1.2 Objective

Seismic Design
15.1 INTRODUCTION
In 2013, the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) published the Seismic Design of Precast Concrete Bridges
State-of-the-Art Report (PCI, 2013). It is referred to here as the Seismic Design Report. The report was written by a
subcommittee of experts from the Committee on Bridges and underwent a sequence of reviews by several groups
and selected specialists as required by PCI. This chapter is taken from that report. The report contains more
information including three appendices that summarize the relevant research that pertains to the use of precast
concrete in seismically active regions; the results of an international survey about the use of precast concrete in
seismic-resistant bridges; and a summary of seismic design criteria in Japan and New Zealand. There are
references to those appendices in this chapter. An internet link is given to the report in the references at the end
of the chapter.

15.1.1 General
Precast concrete bridge components and systems provide effective and economical design solutions for new
bridge construction and for the rehabilitation of existing bridges. The use of precast components can shorten road
closure times, minimize interference with traffic flow, and accomplish the objective often cited by officials to “get
in, get out, and stay out.”
Seismic design of precast concrete bridges begins with a global analysis of the response of the structure to
earthquake loadings and a detailed evaluation of connections between precast beams and of connections between
the superstructure and the supporting substructure. Ductile behavior is desirable under earthquake loadings for
both the longitudinal and transverse directions of the bridge. Further, the substructure must be made to either
protect the superstructure from force effects due to ground motions through fusing or plastic hinging, or to
transmit the inertial forces that act on the bridge to the ground through a continuous load path.
The information in this chapter is intended to augment, and not replace the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD
Seismic Bridge Design (AASHTO, 2009) (referred to herein as the LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications) or any agency
requirements for seismic analysis or design. The designer should verify the latest applicable standards with the
owner and discuss any necessary exceptions before beginning design. For the current state-of-the-practice, the
seismic design of precast concrete bridges employs an AASHTO-LRFD Type 1 design strategy and uses
connections between precast concrete elements and between cast-in-place (CIP) concrete and precast concrete
elements that are intended to emulate the behavior of CIP concrete connections.
Seismic design is complex. Bridges of similar characteristics in different locations may behave very differently
during an earthquake. The engineer should not copy details that have been used on previous projects without a
complete understanding of the reasons behind the original design.

15.1.2 Objective
This chapter presents state-of-the-practice information on the seismic design of ordinary highway bridges
containing precast components. Ordinary bridges are defined as:
• Well-proportioned structures with span lengths less than 300 ft
• Structures where stiffness and frame geometry are balanced and without unusual geometry such as
splayed beams or abrupt changes in superstructure stiffness
• Structures without outrigger caps, changes in beam type, variable numbers of beams between spans or
variable beam spacing
• Structures constructed with either normal or lightweight concrete
• Structures either simply supported or continuous at piers or bents with beams either supported on
dropped bent caps or made integral with bent capsStructures supported on elastomeric bearings, cotton
duck pads, disc bearings, or other bearings and without the intentional use of seismic isolation or other
energy dissipating technology in the supports
• Structures supported on spread footings, driven piles, drilled shafts, or a combination of these foundation
types

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15.1.3 Potential Causes of Earthquake Damage to Bridges with Precast Components/15.1.4 Seismic Hazard Maps

15.1.3 Potential Causes of Earthquake Damage to Bridges with Precast

Components
Precast concrete bridge failures during an earthquake have been attributed to:
• Unseating of the superstructure at abutments, hinges, intermediate supports, or expansion joints due to
insufficient support length
• Column failure due to longitudinal bar buckling caused by inadequately confined reinforcement,
unraveling of spiral reinforcement, poor quality butt welds, or necking of mechanical splices
• Column failure due to lateral forces causing shear failures due to inadequate transverse reinforcement
• Column failure due to architectural flares reducing effective column height, increasing column stiffness,
and attracting more load to one column than others
• Column failure due to inadequate or nonstaggered lap splices, poor quality butt welds or necking at
mechanical splices in plastic hinging regions of column
• Column failure due to barrier rail being attached to the column and thereby shortening, stiffening, and
attracting more load to the column
• Joint shear failure at critical superstructure-to-substructure connections
• Columns punching through the superstructure due to inadequate shear resistance of the deck following
loss of the column bearing during liquefaction
• Moment failure at the base of a column due to lack of a top layer of reinforcement in the footing
• Inadequate transverse support or transverse stop mechanism at beam supports
• Pile-to-pile cap connection failure
• Concrete bearing failure due to the yield of elastomeric bearings, or tipping of steel rocker bearings
• Inadequate detailing of reinforcement in support

15.1.4 Seismic Hazard Maps

Seismic hazard is not limited to the western United States. Although most states nationwide have not had
significant levels of earthquake activity during recent history, the occurrence of past notable earthquakes
demonstrates that significant earthquake hazards exist in the Missouri–Illinois–Tennessee tri-state region, in
South Carolina, and along the St. Lawrence Seaway, as well as in the western United States, Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto
Rico and the U. S. Virgin Islands. Mapping of fault zones and discovery of hidden or inactive faults have brought
increased concerns. Most states include some form of seismic criteria in their bridge design policies.
Seismic maps typically depict peak ground acceleration, determined as the lesser of probabilistic and
deterministic ground motion parameters. Maps for bridges and buildings are available from the United States
Geological Service (USGS) website: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/designmaps/usdesign.php. The maps
for bridges and buildings are not the same because of differences in the targeted earthquake return period, the
targeted risk rather than uniform-hazard ground motion, and the use of the maximum direction rather than the
geometric mean for the spectral response acceleration. Probabilistic maps are based on the strain rate for each
documented event.
One of the most significant recent revisions by the LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications has been the adoption of
seismic maps that use a 1,000 year return period (7% probability of exceedance in 75 years). The maps for bridge
design on the USGS website are available in downloadable form and were created by the USGS under agreement
with the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). The USGS software
provides a ground motion tool that develops peak seismic ground accelerations (PGA), spectral accelerations, and
response spectra for a given postal zip code or grid location.
Prior to September 2009, the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) used deterministic maps based
on seismic records, the maximum credible event for each known fault, and a specific seismic attenuation
relationship. After September 2009, the hazard maps were revised to reflect values based on hybrid
deterministic-probabilistic relationships.
Earthquake motions can result in ground and hydrological response modifications that can subject bridges to
forces different from, and additional to, the forces associated with earthquake motions alone. Ground response
can result in lateral spreading and liquefaction that markedly affect the substructure and consequently the
response of the superstructure of the bridge. Where such effects are likely, a thorough soils investigation should

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15.1.4 Seismic Hazard Maps/15.1.6.2 Substructure Components

be completed and its results taken into account before any detailed seismic design is undertaken. In coastal areas
of the western United States, subduction zone motions can give rise to tsunamis and marked ground elevation
changes. The National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program is led by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) and the USGS. Tsunami inundation maps are available on a state-by-state basis and the
extent of those areas should be considered for design of coastal bridges.

15.1.5 Performance Criteria

Acceptable seismic performance criteria for precast concrete bridge structures must satisfy both safety and
economic criteria. A bridge is part of a highway system and most agencies have earthquake response and
recovery plans that identify primary, secondary, and tertiary response routes within that system. Ideally, the
acceptable seismic performance for bridges on a given route will vary with the priority of the route and may need
to be higher than that for collapse prevention as specified in the LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications. Requiring all
bridges to be serviceable immediately after an earthquake is not economically feasible for most agencies. Still,
preventing bridge collapse and possible loss of life should be achievable if, as required by the LRFD Seismic Guide
Specifications, bridges are designed for a life safety performance objective considering the seismic hazard
corresponding to a 7% probability of exceedance in 75 years. This chapter is concerned with seismic design for
the collapse-prevention performance level. Higher levels of performance, with operational objectives, may be
deemed necessary for a given bridge, and the research results reported in Appendix A of the Seismic Design Report
(PCI, 2013), can help provide information for desirable response guidelines for higher levels of performance.
Designing for life safety means that significant damage can result. Significant damage includes permanent offsets,
damage between approach structures and the bridge superstructure, between spans at expansion joints,
permanent changes in bridge span lengths, and permanent displacements at the top of bridge columns. Damage
also consists of severe concrete cracking, yielding and buckling of reinforcement, major spalling of concrete, and
severe cracking of the bridge deck slab. These conditions may require closure of the bridge to repair the damages.
Partial or complete replacement of columns may be required in some cases. For sites with lateral flow due to
liquefaction, piles may suffer significant inelastic deformation and partial or complete replacement of the columns
and piles may be necessary. If replacement of columns or other components is to be avoided, a design strategy
that produces minimal or moderate damage—such as seismic isolation or a control and reparability design
concept—should be used. Designing for life safety means that significant disruption to service level performance
is likely, resulting in the need for limited access (reduced lanes, light emergency traffic) on the bridge and
possible requirements for shoring.

15.1.6 Precast Systems and Components

The precast structural systems covered in this chapter are as follows:

15.1.6.1 Superstructure Types

• Precast, pretensioned concrete beams with CIP concrete deck
• Precast, post-tensioned concrete spliced beams with CIP concrete deck

15.1.6.2 Substructure Components

• Precast concrete column segments post-tensioned together in the field
• Precast concrete bent caps (“dropped caps” where the beams sit on the top surface; also known as
hammerhead caps)
• Partially precast bent caps (beams sit on a precast “yoke” that fits over columns and has stirrup extensions;
top-half of cap is CIP with deck concrete)
• Integral bent caps (CIP concrete that encapsulates beam ends; bottom of cap is flush with bottom of beams)
• Precast columns on CIP footings
• Precast drop caps on precast columns
• Precast piles
• Precast pile caps
• Precast abutments
• Precast walls

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15.1.6.3 Precast Systems and Components Not Addressed/15.2.1 Foundations

15.1.6.3 Precast Systems and Components Not Addressed

Precast segmental members and systems for bridges constructed using the balanced cantilever method are not
covered in this chapter. Seismic design considerations for extraordinary bridges and major bridges are not
covered in this chapter.

15.1.7 Scope
Considerations for the selection of structural systems for precast concrete bridges are addressed in depth in
Section 15.2. Structural response varies from hinged, in the case of simply-supported beams, to emulative of fixity,
where monolithic cast-in-place concrete, beam–to–cap and column details are used. Because modeling techniques
have not yet been implemented for jointed details, the focus of this chapter is on procedures for the evaluation of
system response and the detailing of connections for emulative behavior. Since the desired structural response is
noncollapse of the superstructure, the preferred approach is to force damage into the columns that are more
easily repaired or replaced than the deck. The bent cap details are essential to forcing this desired behavior and
therefore bent cap details are the primary focus of Section 15.2.
Relevant seismic design criteria are discussed in Section 15.3. The criteria of early years are summarized along
with the current criteria of the LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications, Standard Specifications (AASHTO, 2002), the
LRFD Specifications (AASHTO, 2007), and the Seismic Design Criteria (Caltrans, 2006), Specifications for Highway
Bridges (Japan, 2002) and Chapter 5 of the New Zealand Bridge Manual (New Zealand, 2003) requirements.
Seismic analysis procedures are discussed in Section 15.4. While the primary emphasis is on force-based analysis
procedures, displacement-based analysis and computer modeling are also discussed.
Relevant information on connection details used in current practice, additional to the information on bent cap
details of Section 15.2, are discussed in Section 15.5. Issues covered include details of beam–to–diaphragm
connections, abutment connections, pile–to–pile cap connections, and use of precast elements for segmental
columns. Design for low and moderate, as well as high seismic risk applications, is discussed.
Cited references and references for additional information are provided in Section 15.7.
Design examples, in addition to the bent cap example details covered in Section 15.2, are provided in Section 15.6.
Examples include details of calculations for a bridge with cast-in-place concrete sub- and superstructure
connections, a pushover design example for design of a two-column bent loaded in the transverse direction, some
typical details used for Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) bridges, and design
considerations for a two-span spliced U-beam bridge.
In the Seismic Design Report (PCI, 2013), Appendix A contains summary details of relevant precast concrete
bridge research by several agencies. Caltrans has done much testing, numerical modeling, and research on framed
structures. Similar efforts on emulative structures have recently been completed by WSDOT and are continuing as
part of the agency’s Highways for Life (HfL) project, funded in part by the Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA) through its HfL program. Included is information related to superstructure–substructure connections,
substructure connections, and precast piers. The appendices contain the results of a survey of DOTs on their
usage of precast elements.

15.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

15.2.1 Foundations
As more is learned about the effect of soil-structure interaction (SSI), new guidelines and procedures continue to
be developed to enhance the accuracy of predictions of bridge response to seismic loading. However, practical
limitations prevent detailed incorporation of SSI effects into every project.
Where a situation warrants the development of a site-specific spectra, extra effort in site investigation, laboratory
testing and modeling may be required. On very long bridges, the subsurface conditions may vary to the extent that
a single-response spectrum is not an accurate representation of the soil conditions. In these cases, multiple-
support excitations may be required. SSI modeling may not be required if site-specific spectra are used.

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15.2.1 Foundations/15.2.2.2 Concept B—Continuous Precast Beams Supported on a Drop Cap—Hinge Support

In addition to SSI analyses, site stability should be considered. Issues include soil liquefaction, basin effects, soft-
clay sites, and slope hazards. Investigation into soil liquefaction includes analysis for lateral spread, loss of
support, and dynamic settlement, as well as mitigation of such effects through site improvements. Large site
amplification effects are possible for soft-clay sites. Slope failure has been recognized as one of the major causes
of bridge collapse due to earthquakes.

15.2.2 Response Characteristics of Precast Concrete Bridge Systems

The structural response of a precast bridge varies from hinged in the case of simply-supported beams to
emulative of fixity for bridges with monolithic cast-in-place beam–cap–column details. The desired seismic
structural response is collapse prevention of the superstructure. This response can be accomplished by forcing
damage into the columns, which are then more easily repaired or replaced than the superstructure. For precast
concrete construction, bent cap detail is a key to the implementation of that strategy. Four bent cap–beam
connection concepts, Concepts A through D, are discussed in the following four sections. Each provides
progressively less jointed behavior and progressively more ability to drive plastic hinging into the columns.

15.2.2.1 Concept A—Simple-span Precast Beams Supported on a Drop Cap

This connection type is shown in Figure 15.2.2.1-1. The bearings for the precast beams sit directly on the top of
the drop caps. The beams can be either simply supported or the deck slab made continuous for live load and
superimposed dead loads. The joint between the beams is left open. Such structures exhibit jointed behavior and
are practical for regions of low and moderate seismic hazard. Such structures are widely used in the Midwest and
East regions and are easy to build, but can require maintenance of bearings and joints (Martin and Sanders,
2007).
Figure 15.2.2.1-1
Precast Beams on a Drop Cap—Simply Supported
Deck Joint

Precast Beam Precast Beam

Bearing Pad (Typ.)

Drop Cap

15.2.2.2 Concept B—Continuous Precast Beams Supported on a Drop Cap—Hinge Support

This concept is illustrated in Figure 15.2.2.2-1. The precast beams sit directly on the top of the drop caps. The
beams are made continuous at intermediate piers by providing full-height diaphragms that fill the gap between
the beams of adjacent spans. The deck slab is made continuous for live load and superimposed dead loads.
Reinforcement extending from the bottom of the beams and spliced within the diaphragm is proportioned to
resist creep and shrinkage demands. A central hinge bar extends from the drop cap up into the diaphragm. Such
structures behave as if they possess a continuous superstructure with a pinned connection to the substructure
(Martin and Sanders, 2007). They are suitable for use in regions of moderate and high seismic hazard.

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15.2.2.2 Concept B—Continuous Precast Beams Supported on a Drop Cap—Hinge Support/
15.2.2.3 Concept C—Continuous Precast Beams Bearing on a Partially Bent Cap
Figure 15.2.2.2-1
Precast Beams on Drop Cap—WSDOT

Precast Beam Precast Beam

Hinge Bar

End of Precast Beam Oak Block (To Be Removed

Drop After Casting Diaphragm)
Cap
Extended Strands Per
CR and SH Demands

15.2.2.3 Concept C—Continuous Precast Beams Bearing on a Partially Precast Bent Cap
This concept is illustrated in Figure 15.2.2.3-1. Beams and deck slab are continuous at the intermediate pier with
beams framed into the pier diaphragm. Such structures are thought to exhibit behavior as a continuous
superstructure with a fixed moment resistant connection to the substructure. This connection concept is
commonly used by WSDOT for bridges Hinge Pier Connection
in moderate and high seismic zones, but has not yet been proof tested
(Martin and Sanders, 2007).
Figure 15.2.2.3-1
Precast Beams on Partial Drop Cap (WSDOT)

Top of Precast Beam

End of Precast Beams

Slab Slab

C.G. of
Precast Beam Precast Beam Superstructure

Drop Cap Stirrups

Extended Strands
Per Seismic Demands
Column

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15.2.2.4 Concept D—Precast Beams Constructed Integrally with Bent Cap/
15.2.3.1 Simple-span Precast Beams on a Drop Bent Cap—Continuous for Live Load
15.2.2.4 Concept D—Precast Beams Constructed Integrally with Bent Cap
This type of connection is illustrated in Figure 15.2.2.4-1. Beams are framed into the bent cap, so that generally,
the bottoms of the beams are flush with the bottom of the cap. The column(s) or pier top(s) are effectively fixed,
and the bent cap is made integral with the superstructure. The behavior emulates that of a framed structure
(Martin and Sanders, 2007) and the connection is appropriate for regions of high seismic hazard. This connection
concept has not yet been proof tested.
Figure 15.2.2.4-1
Precast Beams and Integral Bent Cap—Fixed Connection

Top of Precast Beam

End of Precast Beams

Slab Slab

C.G. of
Precast Beam Precast Beam Superstructure
Superstructure

Column Stirrups

Extended Strands
Per Seismic Demands

15.2.3 Bent Cap Types

This section describes in more detail the characteristics of some of the different types of bent caps. Test results for
some typical bent cap details are also reported in Restrepo et al., 2011.

15.2.3.1 Simple-span Precast Beams on a Drop Bent Cap—Continuous for Live Load
Where traditional simple-span precast beams and precast beams made continuous in the deck for live loads and
superimposed dead loads (Concepts A and B) are supported on dropped bent caps, there is an absence of
monolithic action between the superstructure and the bent cap. The beam seats on the bent cap act as rollers or
pinned connections. Consequently, for multi-column bents with a continuous end diaphragm, good frame stability
exists in the cap in the transverse direction. However, stability in the longitudinal direction requires the column
bases to be fixed to the foundation supports. This requirement can result in substantial force demands on the
foundations, particularly in areas of moderate to high seismicity.
Providing a moment connection between the superstructure and substructure makes it possible to introduce a
pinned connection at the column bases. The resultant hinging at the base of the column permits foundation design
for the lesser of the unreduced elastic or plastic moment of the column.
The longitudinal moment demand in a typical beam system near the pier consists of the sum of the permanent
loads and a portion of the column seismic (plastic) moment on one side of the pier, and the difference between
permanent loads and the remaining portion of the column seismic (plastic) moment on the other side. During a
seismic event the moment rapidly changes with the cyclic behavior. On one side the moments are additive while a
relatively smaller and constant positive moment occurs on the opposite side. This distribution is reversible
depending on the direction of the earthquake force and is intensified by vertical ground motion in larger events.
Therefore, the beams must be designed to carry both a high negative moment near the pier and a smaller positive
moment for an extended length on each side of the pier.

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15.2.3.1 Simple-span Precast Beams on a Drop Bent Cap—Continuous for Live Load/15.2.3.2 Partially Dropped Bent Cap

Structures that are skewed in plan are subjected to in-plane rotation toward the obtuse corners due to lateral
seismic forces. Fuses, in the form of concrete shear keys, may be required in moderate to high seismic regions.
Where precast beams frame into the bent cap, similar to Figure 15.2.3.1-1, if the bottom of the beam is flush with
the bottom of the cap, and the column(s) or pier top(s) are fixed, then the bent cap is integral with the
superstructure.
Figure 15.2.3.1-1
Continuous Bridge with Semi-raised Bent Cap (WSDOT)

Approach
Slab

Precast
Backfill Beam Backfill

Bearing Connection Beam Stop To

Restrain
Transverse
Movement

L-Shape Abutment Shaft Stub Abutment

15.2.3.2 Partially Dropped Bent Cap

In a partially dropped bent cap (Concept C), to emulate frame behavior between the superstructure and
substructure at intermediate supports, the beams are encapsulated into the cap and the entire cap is post-
tensioned in the transverse direction. Beams are also spliced monolithically at the supports and at approximately
the third points along each span. Typical details for this form of construction for the Sacramento Bridge are
shown in Figure 15.2.3.2-1.
Figure 15.2.3.2-1
Continuous Bridge with Semi-raised Bent Cap at Intermediate Pier

B
C

C
B Drop
Cap

℄ Column ℄ Column

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15.2.3.2 Partially Dropped Bent Cap /15.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Systems

Figure 15.2.3.2-1
Continuous Bridge with Semi-raised Bent Cap at Intermediate Pier (continued)
℄ PIER ℄ PIER

Tendons For End of

Transverse Precast
Post-Tensioning Beam

SECTION B-B SECTION C-C

15.2.3.3 Precast Concrete Bent Cap

Successful use of precast concrete bent caps requires attention to constructability in addition to consideration of
the seismic performance of the connections. Early uses of precast bent caps were limited to nonseismic
applications where minimal moment and shear transfer were required at connections. In seismic regions, the
bottom half of the cap must be able to develop the strength of the columns for the transverse and longitudinal
directions and also provide a connection with adequate joint shear reinforcement. Constructability requires
attention to both the strength and flow of concrete. Connections must often be made using grouted bars. Relevant
research on grouted sleeves by the University of Washington is summarized in Appendix A of the Seismic Design
Report (PCI, 2013), Section A.2.1.3. (Pang et al., 2010). Precast bent caps can also be post-tensioned to the piers.

15.2.3.4 Precast Spliced Beam

Caltrans has tested an integral precast spliced system that utilizes a continuous bulb tee or U-beam section
erected over the support. Splices are only necessary at third points in the spans.
Temporary supports are then erected at approximately third points so that the mid-span beams can be erected
and post-tensioned for continuity. This system is described later in this chapter.

15.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Systems

• Precast beams: very economical for multi-span bridges where repetition can be utilized.
• Precast bent caps: suitable for accelerated construction, but tolerances may be restrictive when fixity is
required at the tops of columns or piers. Recent research and bridge construction projects (WSDOT) have
proven the suitability of this method for accelerated bridge construction.
• Precast columns and bents: suitable for accelerated construction in seismic regions but may be more
expensive without the need for significant time savings.
• Precast spliced continuous beams: good performance, but falsework or hangers are required to support
drop-in segments. See Sections 5.8 and 6.5.
• Precast decks: These accelerate construction, but performance of deck connection details during seismic
events is not well understood. Deck durability and longevity may be reduced due to opening and closing of
joints during seismic events.
The use of precast, prestressed concrete spliced beams permits rapid construction and longer spans that reduce
the number of piers. Through the use of post-tensioned continuous members, the bridge superstructure depth can
be minimized to obtain necessary vertical clearance for rail or vehicular traffic. The resultant minimization of
falsework improves traffic flow and improves safety for traffic and construction workers. The beam spacing can
also be increased so that the number of beam lines and the total project cost are reduced.

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15.2.5 Preliminary Design Considerations/15.3.1 Early Seismic Design Criteria

15.2.5 Preliminary Design Considerations

The following suggestions should be considered during bridge type selection. Use of these guidelines can enhance
seismic performance and help avoid problems during final design.
• Use columns preferably of equal height in multi-column bents. Short columns are stiffer than tall columns
of equal diameter, and will attract more loads.
• Avoid highly irregular or suddenly changing member stiffness so as to prevent concentration of load
demands on a particular bent or frame. This constraint will also minimize any tendency of the bridge to
undergo in-plane rotation.
• Use continuous frames and plastic hinging design concepts, i.e. plastic hinges at the top or bottom of
selected columns, piers, and bents. Jointed behavior may be permissible in the future only after more
research and testing.
• Do not allow plastic hinges to form in the superstructure.
• Ask the owner if “drive-by” inspection after a major earthquake is required. If so, all plastic-hinging of
vertical members must be above grade.
• Consider a depth of flexibility for piers and shafts below the actual ground level. Isolation materials have
been used around the upper portions of some foundations in California.
• Consider using larger shaft diameters for columns below ground than above ground in order to force
hinging above ground.
• Avoid skews for abutments, intermediate supports, and hinges that are greater than 30 degrees from the
centerline of the bridge.
• Make the superstructure depth at integral bent caps, or wherever the top of the column is fixed to the cap,
equal to or greater than the maximum column diameter. This improves performance of the joint in a
seismic event.
• Make the bent cap width greater than the column diameter or pier width. Caltrans requires bent caps to
extend at least 1 ft beyond the face of the column on each side.
• Use isolation details for architectural flares at the top of columns, or if the flares are to be relied upon
structurally, use proper confinement and analyze for the reduced column height.
• Consider using integral and semi-integral abutments for shorter bridges in low seismic areas and where
rapid post-earthquake inspection is not required.
• Do not use integral abutments in high seismic areas. Inspection requires earth-moving equipment and
repair can be complicated and costly.

15.3 SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA

15.3.1 Early Seismic Design Criteria
The American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO), predecessor to AASHTO, published the first bridge
design standards for the United States in 1931. Neither the first edition nor subsequent editions of the standards
published prior to 1941 addressed seismic design. The editions published in the 1940s mentioned seismic loading
only to the extent that bridge structures must be proportioned for earthquake stresses.
Seismic design commenced with Caltrans’ requirement that bridges resist lateral forces that were a percentage of
their self-weight. In 1940, a lateral load of 6% of the dead load was required. In 1965, the period of the structure
was added as a main design variable and the maximum lateral seismic design force was increased to 13% of the
self-weight for select bridges. Provisions were in part based on the lateral force requirements for buildings
developed by the Structural Engineers Association of California (SEAOC).
The collapse of several California bridge structures during the 1971 San Fernando earthquake was a major
turning point in the development of seismic design criteria for bridges in the United States. In 1973, Caltrans
developed a specification based on research that considered the relationship of the site to known active faults, the
seismic response of the soils at the site and dynamic response characteristics of the bridge. In 1975, AASHTO
adopted interim specifications that were a slightly modified version of the 1973 Caltrans provisions.

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15.3.1 Early Seismic Design Criteria/15.3.2.2 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications

The 1971 San Fernando earthquake was a catalyst for research activity by the FHWA. In 1978, FHWA funded a
major research project headed by the Applied Technology Council (ATC) that focused on development of
improved seismic design guidelines for highway bridges in all regions of the United States. Seismic Retrofitting
Guidelines for Highway Bridges (ATC-06, 1983) provided guidelines to incorporate elastic Response Spectrum
Analysis (RSA), and factors to account for redundancy in the structure, ductility of the structural components, and
risk. Proper detailing for ductile behavior and prevention of collapse even after significant structural damage
occurs was emphasized.

15.3.2 Seismic Design Criteria of the AASHTO Specifications

15.3.2.1 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
AASHTO adopted the ATC-06 recommendations as a guide specification in 1983, and incorporated them into the
Standard Specifications in 1992. After the earthquakes in Loma Prieta, Calif. (1989), Costa Rica (1991), and the
Philippines (1991), AASHTO requested that the Transportation Research Board (TRB) review the provisions and
prepare revised specifications as appropriate. Funded by the National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP), the National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (NCEER, now MCEER) developed seismic
design provisions that were adopted in Division I-A of the Standard Specifications.
The principles used in the development of the AASHTO provisions were:
• The design ground motion must have a low probability of being exceeded during the normal lifetime of the
bridge (10% probability of being exceeded in 50 years or a 475-year return period).
• The bridge must have a low probability of collapse due to the design ground motion.
• Structural damage is acceptable as long as it does not result in collapse or loss of life; and, where possible,
damage that does occur should be readily detectable and accessible for inspection and repair. Small and
moderate earthquakes should be resisted within the elastic range of the structural components without
significant damage.
• Functionality of essential bridges must be maintained.
• The provisions must be applicable to all regions of the United States.

15.3.2.2 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications

The “force-based” seismic provisions of the 1992 Standard Specifications were rewritten in load-and-resistance-
factor-design (LRFD) format, and included in the LRFD Specifications beginning with the 1st Edition. Research
findings available at that time, which had not been included in the Standard Specifications were also added.
Additional items included:
1. Separate soil profile site coefficients and seismic response coefficients (response spectra) for soft soil
conditions.
2. Three levels of importance—“critical,” “essential,” and “other”—as opposed to the two levels defined in
previous AASHTO provisions. The R factors were adjusted accordingly.
The 2008, Interim Revisions to the 4th Edition of the LRFD Specifications revised the design event to have a 1,000-
year return period, that is, a 7% chance of exceedance in 75 years. An extensive set of maps was provided for the
United States showing peak ground acceleration and spectral response acceleration for structures with natural
periods of 0.2 and 1.0 second. Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico were included, and enlarged diagrams with
improved resolution were provided for California, the New Madrid, Salt Lake City, and Charleston areas with
more frequent seismic activity. Significant changes were also made to site (soil) classification. The analysis,
design, and detailing procedures remained for the most part unchanged from those for the 1 st Edition except for
the following:
1. Some structures were placed in a higher hazard zone due to changes in mapping and soil classification.
2. Eccentric axial load P-Delta (P-) effects on columns had to be kept to less than 25% of the factored
resistance.
3. The amount of longitudinal column steel A𝓁 had to be between 1% and 6% of the gross cross-sectional area
Ag in Zone 2, and between 1% and 4% in Zones 3 and 4.
4. The resistance factor for column flexural design was revised to have a constant value of 0.9.
5. Support length requirements for beams were increased

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15.3.2.2 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications/15.3.2.3 LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications

Bridges are assigned to one of four seismic zones. Single-span bridges need only satisfy seat length and minimum
horizontal force requirements, regardless of zone. Multi-span bridges in Zone 1 require no seismic analysis. Multi-
span bridges in Zones 2 through 4 require either single- or multi-mode equivalent static analysis, or multi-mode
elastic spectral or time–history dynamic analysis, depending on the bridge location, importance, and the
regularity of the structure geometry. Guidance is given for developing both standard and site-specific seismic
response spectra. Coefficients are plotted as a function of period, and the appropriate coefficient is then
multiplied by the equivalent static weight. The resulting elastic forces are divided by a response modification
factor R that varies according to member function. Columns and piers have R-values greater than one to
compensate for inelastic behavior and energy dissipation. Design is performed for these reduced force effects
with some additional reductions permitted on foundation components in Zone 2. Detailing requirements for each
zone are successively more stringent. Displacements are evaluated to check for adequate support lengths only.

15.3.2.3 LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications

The LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications, 1st Edition, is “displacement-based,” meaning that bridges designed to this
guide should have adequate displacement capacity to accommodate earthquake demands. The commentary to
Article 3.10.1 recommends that the displacement capacity of bridges be checked using a displacement-based
procedure, especially for those bridges located in regions of high seismic risk. The “force-based” methodology of
the LRFD Specifications (2007) has been found to both “miss” potential seismic weaknesses in some cases, and
lead to over-design in others.
The overall objective of the performance criteria is life safety during a 1,000-year seismic event. The LRFD Seismic
Guide Specifications says, “the bridge has a low probability of collapse but may suffer significant damage and
significant disruption to service. Partial or complete replacement may be required.” In a major event, offsets,
cracking, reinforcement yielding, and major spalling of concrete are expected. While the 1,000-year return period
is judged as applicable to most bridges, higher levels of performance may be required by the bridge owner, as in
the case of “critical” or “essential” bridges that provide life safety transportation, bridges that are essential to the
economy, or bridges required for local emergency plans. Site- or project-specific design criteria are generally
developed for such projects.
Three global seismic design strategies are identified. The seismic designs of most structures with precast concrete
components in service prior to 2011 have used the Type 1 design strategy: a ductile substructure with an
essentially elastic superstructure. Type 1 behavior emulates that of a concrete frame structure. Rather than
describe the methodology here, the reader is urged to study the seismic design flow charts that are part of the
LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications. The Type 2 strategy uses an essentially elastic substructure with a ductile
superstructure and applies only to steel structures. The Type 3 strategy uses an elastic sub- and superstructure
with a fusing mechanism between them, involves use of isolation devices, and is beyond the scope of this chapter.
The soil classification, P- effect checks of eccentrically loaded columns, and the hazard maps described for the
2008 Interim Revisions to the Standard Specifications (2002) are also used in the LRFD Seismic Guide
Specifications (2009). Other seismic technology that is new to LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications (2009) includes:
• Displacement-based design methodology; plastic-hinge definition, plastic hinge length calculations, and
transverse reinforcement requirements
• Permissible earthquake-resisting-systems (ERS) and permissible earthquake-resisting-elements (ERE),
including ERE requiring owner-approval and unacceptable ERE
• Use of expected rather than specified material properties
• Balanced bent stiffness and frame geometry requirements for improved seismic behavior
• Curvature-based methodology for evaluating shear resistance
• Joint-shear requirements for integral bent caps that must be 1 ft wider than the face of the column or pier
width and principal stress check
• Load factor taken as 1.0 for permanent loads; all resistance factors taken as 1.0
The LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications does not explicitly address precast, pretensioned or post-tensioned
elements. The precast beams made continuous for live loads must have beam–to–beam or beam–to–cap
connections that can be expected to remain undamaged during the 1,000-year seismic event. Opening and closing
of the bottom flange-to-flange or flange-to-cap joint connection is not permitted. Precast segmental
superstructures must also be designed so that the joints do not open during a seismic event, and essentially follow

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15.3.2.3 LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications/15.4.2 Force Based Analysis

a Type 1 design strategy. Segmentally-precast, post-tensioned columns or piers do not clearly fit into either the
Type 1 or Type 3 design strategies.

15.3.3 California Seismic Design Criteria

Under a Caltrans-funded project, the Applied Technology Council (ATC) reviewed and recommended seismic
design standards, performance criteria, specifications, and practices. The project synthesized the results of recent
research in the field of bridge seismic design, observations on the performance of Caltrans-designed bridges in
the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, and studies of other structures in other recent earthquakes. The work was
published as Report No. ATC-32, Improved Seismic Design Criteria for California Bridges: Provisional
Recommendations (ATC, 1996) and used as one of the fundamental references in the preparation of Caltrans’
original Seismic Design Criteria (Caltrans, 2006).
Caltrans’ ongoing support of seismic research and further knowledge gained after the Northridge, Kobe, and other
earthquakes have resulted in ongoing improvements to Seismic Design Criteria. An interim revision 1.5 (2009),
the latest version 1.6, and the original v1.4 are available on-line at
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/techpubs/manual/othermanual/other-engin-manual/seismic-design-
criteria/sdc.html. V1.6 was introduced to provide hybrid deterministic-probabilistic fault maps. The prior
version, v1.4, which was issued in 2006, was the version used in 2011 and is the basis for some of the examples
included in this chapter.

15.3.4 Other Seismic Design Criteria

15.3.4.1 Japan Criteria
Specifications for Highway Bridges (JRA, 2002) is available from the Japan Road Association. “Seismic Design” is
Part V. Following the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Kobe Earthquake in 1995, these requirements were revised in 1996 and
then again in 2002. Many seismic retrofit projects have since taken place.

15.3.4.2 New Zealand Criteria

Specifications for earthquake-resistant design of bridges are published in Chapter 5 of the Bridge Manual (New
Zealand, 2004). The manual requires that the primary objective of the seismic design is to ensure that the bridge
can safely perform its function of maintaining communications after a seismic event. The extent to which this is
possible will depend on the severity of the event, and thus by implication, on its return period. For design
purposes, bridges are categorized according to their importance, and assigned a Risk Factor related to the seismic
return period. This approach results in an equivalent design earthquake hazard and consequent loading.
Brief descriptions of seismic design specifications of Japan and New Zealand are provided in Appendix C of the
Seismic Design Report (PCI, 2013).

15.4 SEISMIC ANALYSIS

15.4.1 General
Two general approaches are available for evaluation of the seismic response of a bridge. The first approach is
conventional force-based analysis, while the second involves the use of a displacement ductility criterion. The
LRFD Specifications (2007) prescribes the force-based approach while the new LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications
(2009) uses the displacement ductility method. In recent years, more emphasis has been placed on the latter
because of its better accuracy in predicting displacements.

15.4.2 Force Based Analysis

In the force-based analysis method, a linear elastic multi-modal response spectrum analysis is performed and the
force effects in various bridge or structure components are determined. Equivalent static analysis of lateral loads
based on a percentage of the dead load is also permitted by some agencies. The capacities of the components are
evaluated and the component demand/capacity (D/C) ratios are then calculated. A particular component is said
to have adequate capacity if its D/C ratio is less than the permissible force reduction factor, R, for that component.

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15.4.2 Force Based Analysis/15.4.2.3 Secondary Effect of Axial Loads

When the R factor is greater than 1.0, limited inelastic behavior is being permitted. The R factor depends on the
type of component.

15.4.2.1 Elastic Dynamic Analysis (EDA)

A linear elastic multi-modal spectral analysis uses the appropriate response spectrum selected by the designer.
The number of degrees of freedom and the number of modes considered in the analysis needs to capture at least
90% mass participation in the longitudinal and transverse directions. A minimum of three elements per column
and four elements per span should be used in the linear elastic mode. The EDA model results should be combined
using the complete quadratic combination (CQC) method. The CQC method (LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications) is
a statistical rule for combining modal responses from an earthquake load applied in a single direction to obtain
the maximum response due to this earthquake load.
EDA, based on design spectral accelerations, can produce stresses in some elements that exceed their elastic limit.
The presence of such stresses indicates nonlinear behavior. The forces generated by linear elastic analysis could
vary considerably from the actual force demands on the structure. Sources of nonlinear response that are not
captured by EDA include the effect of the surrounding soil, yielding of structural components, opening and closing
of expansion joints, and nonlinear restrainer and abutment behavior.

15.4.2.2 Column Analysis Criteria

An effective flexural stiffness, Ieff, should be used when modeling the response of reinforced concrete columns for
seismic analysis purposes. Ieff can be assumed to be either 0.5Ig, or derived from empirical curves that depend on
the axial load, P, and reinforcement ratio, P/Ag, for the column. Such curves are provided in Figure 5.6.2-1 of the
LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications for rectangular and circular columns. More accurate Ieff values can also be
determined by column moment-curvature analysis.

15.4.2.3 Secondary Effect of Axial Loads

Consideration of the secondary force effect due to geometric nonlinearity, (P- due to axial loads), is required by
the LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications Article 4.11.5. A modified approach that can be used to perform a second-
order analysis to magnify the extreme event moments is as follows:
Mu = bMDL + s(MEQ/R)
where
MEQ = elastic moment demand obtained from the seismic analysis, ft-kips
R = response modification factor defined in the LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications Table 3.10.7.1-1
b, s = dead load and seismic moment coefficients, respectively
The design procedure may be summarized as follows:
Columns are designed to form plastic hinges at a specified percentage of the computed fully elastic seismic
moment demand. This hinging will occur at a deflection and shear force corresponding to MEQ/R. Beyond this
point, inelastic deflections will continue to some unknown maximum, but bending moments and shear forces in
the columns will theoretically not increase. Therefore, the problem is to compute the additional design moment,
M, due to the slenderness effect such that:
MEQ/R + M = sMEQ/R
A recommended second-order analysis is as follows:
Estimate the maximum primary elastic deflection, PR, of the frame:
PR = EQ/R
where EQ = the CQC elastic deflection computed from the seismic analysis
Apply PR to the frame model. This will yield a set of primary deflections and forces, MPR and VPR, corresponding to
PR. (Note that these forces may not agree exactly with the results of the seismic analysis. An approximation of
±5% is commonly acceptable). The design moments for the columns are then given by:

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15.4.2.3 Secondary Effect of Axial Loads/15.4.3 Displacement-Based Analysis

Mu = MDL + MEQ/R + M
where
M = MF – MPR obtained from the elastic frame analysis
where MF = the column moment from elastic frame analysis, ft-kips
The response modification factor, R, used for footing or pile design is generally less than the value used for
columns. Therefore a separate analysis may be required to obtain the footing design moment.

15.4.2.4 Flexural Resistance

Once the magnified moment has been established, the resisting capacity of the column section must be made
adequate to carry the magnified moment. In addition, the superstructure and the foundation must also be
designed to resist this magnified moment.
The biaxial strength of columns cannot be less than that required for flexure, as specified in Article 5.7.4 of the
LRFD Specifications and in Article 3.10.8 for the extreme event limit state. The resistance factor for columns with
either spiral or tie reinforcement is taken as equal to 0.9, as specified in Article 5.7.4.

15.4.2.5 Column–to–Superstructure Connection Design

The LRFD Specifications requires that connections to the superstructure be designed for the elastic demand
moment at the top of the column using either the unreduced elastic moment or the plastic moment capacity of the
top of the column, whichever is less. These column moments are to be carried into the diaphragm of the
superstructure and accounted for in the design of the beam connections.

15.4.3 Displacement-Based Analysis

Displacement-based or inelastic quasi-static analysis is commonly referred to as pushover analysis. Displacement
capacities of a structure or frame as it reaches its limit of structural stability are determined. Expected material
properties of modeled members are used.
Pushover analysis addresses typical sources of material nonlinearity as well as geometric nonlinearity. Material
nonlinearity includes soil, concrete, soil-structure interaction, and yielding of the reinforcement. Geometric
nonlinearity refers to the P- effect. The bridge frame is pushed laterally along both its longitudinal and
transverse directions until the target displacement is obtained. Some software offers two types of the lateral
loading patterns, namely acceleration and modal load patterns. The collapse mechanism and plastic hinge
sequence of formation for the typical bridge structure due to the two loading patterns are similar. The analysis
indicates where the first and subsequent plastic hinges are formed at the top or bottom of the column.
The analysis is incrementally linearly elastic and captures the overall nonlinear behavior of the elements,
including soil effects, by pushing the frame laterally to initiate plastic action. Each increment pushes the frame
until a plastic hinge forms, and redefines the structural system after each hinge forms until the potential collapse
mechanism is achieved. Because the analytical model accounts for the redistribution of internal actions as
components respond inelastically, a more realistic measure of behavior can be obtained from pushover
procedures than from elastic analysis procedures.
The following steps outline the displacement-based design procedure currently used by Caltrans. This procedure
is intended to achieve a “No Collapse” condition for standard ordinary bridges using one level of seismic safety
evaluation. The basic assumption is that the displacement demand obtained from linear-elastic response
spectrum analysis is an upper bound to the displacement demand even if there is considerable nonlinear plastic
hinging.
Pushover steps:
1. Choose a well-balanced span configuration—design for service and strength loads.
2. Perform linear elastic response spectrum analysis of the bridge using design acceleration spectra specified
by national or local specifications.
3. Note the transverse and longitudinal displacement demands.

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15.4.3 Displacement-Based Analysis/15.5 Connection Details

4. Develop moment-curvature diagrams for each column, and from those diagrams determine the elastic,
plastic, and ultimate curvatures for each column.
5. Using the above information and pier geometry (single or multi-column configuration), compute the plastic
displacement of each column, and the ultimate displacement capacity. The displacement ductility should
be based on: c = c/y > 3, d < c.
where
d = global seismic displacement demand
c = displacement capacity taken along the local principal axis corresponding to d
y = yield displacement taken along the local principal axis corresponding to d
6. Perform pushover analysis of each bent for its transverse direction. For this purpose, the plastic hinging
moment for each column must be computed, and it may be necessary to incorporate foundation flexibility
by use of soil springs.
7. Compare the total displacement capacity of the bent to the displacement demand from the elastic analysis.
If the capacity is insufficient, then higher ductility is required.
8. Perform similar pushover analysis for the longitudinal direction of the entire bridge and for each frame in
the case of a multi-frame bridge, and check the displacement capacity versus displacement demand.
9. Design the superstructure (cap) and foundation (e.g., footing) for 20% higher capacity than the plastic
capacity of the columns to ensure that plastic hinges occur within the column.

15.4.4 Computer Modeling

In most cases, the solutions to the equations of motion to determine the force and displacement demands are
based on a linear elastic multi-mode Response Spectrum Analysis (RSA). This type of analysis is considered
acceptable for continuous precast beam bridges with integral caps or other details such that hinging is only at the
top or bottom of columns. RSA offers the following advantages:
1. It is usually simple to use.
2. It eliminates the need for extensive testing (modeling nonlinearity often requires additional data to
describe the behavior of the material).
3. It provides acceptable limit state solutions. Limit states are often used in conjunction with an iterative
process to envelop the behavior of the structure. Each limit state is a worst-case scenario corresponding
to a set of boundary conditions or material properties. Examples of commonly used limit states are the
tension and compression models of a bridge with expansion hinges and abutment supports. The tension
model corresponds to the opening of all expansion hinges and lack of abutment soil springs (stiffness),
while the compression model corresponds to the closing of all gaps and the engaging of the soil at one or
both abutments.
4. It uses pre-defined acceleration response curves, except when the size of the project and/or the geology
requires site-specific information. The curves take into account such factors as proximity to fault zone and
site geology (primarily depth-to-rock).

15.5 CONNECTION DETAILS

Seismic design practices and requirements vary from region to region, depending on the level of anticipated
seismic activity and philosophy of the governing jurisdictions. Similarly, connection details vary. Nevertheless,
good seismic performance depends on well thought out details that accommodate the load path and overall
seismic strategy.
Plastic moment demands at tops of the columns must be transferred into the superstructure without yielding
either the beam seat or the ends of the precast beams. In other words, the beams should not lift or rotate relative
to the cap. To achieve this condition, the connection of the beam ends to the cap must be designed to resist the
forces transferred from the column. Ideally, longitudinal moment from the top of the column is distributed to
multiple beams in the vicinity of the column.

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15.5.1 Details of Current Practice/15.5.1.3 Fixed Diaphragm Connection

15.5.1 Details of Current Practice

15.5.1.1 Beam Continuity through the Deck
The most basic precast bridge consists of precast, prestressed concrete beams made continuous for live load by
forming and placing a continuous deck. Precast beams are erected onto the cap and temporarily supported on
elastomeric bearings or wood blocks until the cast-in-place concrete diaphragm is complete. The strands from the
beam ends are sometimes extended for additional continuity. As previously shown in Figure 15.2.2.2-1, the
wood block location should be away from the edge of bent cap to prevent edge failure, or spalling, due to dead
loads from beam, slab, and construction loads.

15.5.1.2 Hinged Diaphragm Connection

A hinge connection used by WSDOT is shown in Figure 15.2.2.2-1 for continuous spans at intermediate pier
diaphragms. The requirements for using this detail are:
• All beams of adjoining spans should be of equal depth, spacing, and type
• Reinforcement for negative moments due to live loads and superimposed dead loads from traffic barriers,
pedestrian walkways, utilities, etc. is provided in the deck at intermediate piers
The hinge bar size and spacing is designed for anticipated lateral loads due to seismic and other load
combinations.

15.5.1.3 Fixed Diaphragm Connection

The connection shown in Figure 15.5.1.3-1 is used by WSDOT for continuous spans and assumed to provide a
moment resistant connection between the superstructure and the substructure at intermediate piers. Pier caps
are wider for fixed connections than hinged connections. Precast beams are supported on blocks or pads on the
bent caps. The diaphragm is cast in place in two stages. The first stage, a portion of the depth, is to ensure precast
beam stability after erection, and the second stage, the balance of the depth, is cast after slab casting and initial
creep has occurred. Adequate extended strands and reinforcing bars are provided to ensure elastic performance
of the connection during a major seismic event. The design recommendations for this detail are:
• All beams of adjoining spans are of equal depth, spacing, and preferably the same type
• Negative moment reinforcement for live loads, impact, and superimposed dead loads from traffic barriers,
pedestrian walkways, utilities, etc. is provided in the deck at intermediate piers
• Resultant plastic hinging forces at the centroid of the superstructure are evaluated
• The number of extended strands resists seismic positive moment and restraint moment due to time-
dependent forces
• The diaphragm reinforcement is designed to resist the resultant seismic forces acting at the centroid of the
diaphragm
• Beam ends are designed for interface shear transfer between the precast beams and the cast-in-place
concrete diaphragms

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15.5.1.3 Fixed Diaphragm Connection/15.5.1.4 Positive Moment Connection at Pier Diaphragms

Figure 15.5.1.3-1
Fixed Diaphragm at Intermediate Piers (WSDOT)

Top of Precast Beam

End of Precast Beams

Slab Slab

C.G. of
Precast Beam Precast Beam Superstructure

Extended Strands
Per Seismic Demands

15.5.1.4 Positive Moment Connection at Pier Diaphragms

Strand extension details with strand extensions and strand anchor chucks used for continuous spans at fixed
diaphragms for WSDOT bridges are shown in Figure 15.5.1.4-1, and are suitable for use with most common
prestressed concrete beam bridges. Note that it is necessary to seat the wedges in the chucks. The effect of time-
dependent positive moments from creep and shrinkage should be considered in determination of the positive
moment capacity available. A minimum of four extended strands is desirable regardless of design requirements.
The procedure used to calculate the required number of extended strands is described in this section. Calculations
assume development of the tensile strength of the strands at ultimate loads. Strands used for this purpose must
be developed within the short distance between the two beam ends. A minimum distance of 2 ft between beam
ends is desirable. Strand anchors are then installed at 1 ft 9 in. from the beam ends. The number of extended
strands cannot exceed the number of straight strands available in the beam.

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15.5.1.4 Positive Moment Connection at Pier Diaphragms

Figure 15.5.1.4-1
Strand Extension Details

Slab Reinforcement

Harped Strands
Precast Beam

Cast-in-Place
Diaphragm

Longitudinal
Reinforcement

Strand
Anchor
Extended Strands
(1 2" or 0.6" Diam.)

a) Schematic Drawing of Strands and Reinforcement Extended into Diaphragm

b) Extended Strands with Anchor Chucks and c) Extended Strands and Reinforcement without
Plates Additional Anchorage

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15.5.1.4 Positive Moment Connection at Pier Diaphragms

The design moment at the center of gravity of the superstructure, MpoCG is calculated using the following equation:
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐶𝐺 𝑡𝑜𝑝 (𝑀𝑝𝑜 + 𝑀𝑝𝑜 )
𝑀𝑝𝑜 = 𝑀𝑝𝑜 + ℎ
𝐿𝑐
where
𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝑀𝑝𝑜 = plastic overstrength moment at top of column, ft-kips
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑀𝑝𝑜 = plastic overstrength moment at base of column, ft-kips
h = distance from top of column to c.g. of superstructure, ft
Lc = column clear height used to determine overstrength shear associated with the overstrength
moments, ft

This moment is resisted by the bent cap through torsion. The torsion in the bent cap is distributed into the
superstructure based on the relative flexibility of the superstructure and the bent cap. Hence, the superstructure
does not resist column overstrength moments uniformly across its width. To account for this, an effective width
approximation is used, where the maximum resistance per unit of superstructure width is distributed over an
equivalent effective width to provide an equivalent resistance. The equivalent width concept is illustrated in
Figure 15.5.1.4-2.
Figure 15.5.1.4-2
Effective Superstructure Width for Extended Strand Design

Beff Beff

Ds

Dc Dc
K 1A K 1B K 1A

For concrete bridges, with the exception of box beams and solid superstructure, this effective width can be
calculated as follows:
Beff = Dc + Ds
where
Dc = diameter of column, ft
Ds = depth of superstructure including cap beam, ft
Structural testing at the University of California at San Diego in the late 1990s (Holombo, 2000) recommended
that roughly two-thirds of the column plastic moment should be resisted by the two beams adjacent to the column
(encompassed by the effective width) and the other one-third should be resisted by the nonadjacent beams.

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SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.1.4 Positive Moment Connection at Pier Diaphragms/15.5.2.2 Semi-integral End Diaphragm

Based on this effective width, Beff , the moment per beam line is calculated as follows:
• For adjacent beams (encompassed by the effective width):
𝐶𝐺
𝐼𝑛𝑡
2𝑀𝑝𝑜
𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡
3𝑁𝑔
• For nonadjacent beams:
𝐶𝐺
𝐸𝑥𝑡
𝑀𝑝𝑜
𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖 =
3𝑁𝑔𝑒𝑥𝑡
The seismic moment is then calculated:
If 𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖
𝐼𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑡
≥ 𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖 then 𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖 = 𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖
𝐼𝑛𝑡

𝐶𝐺
𝑀𝑝𝑜
If 𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖
𝐼𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑡
< 𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖 then 𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖 =
𝑁𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑁𝑔𝑒𝑥𝑡
where
𝑁𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑡 = number of beams encompassed by the effective width
𝑁𝑔𝑒𝑥𝑡 = number of beams outside the effective width
Total number of extended straight strands, Nps, needed to develop the required moment capacity at the end of
beam is based on the yield strength of the strands:
1
𝑁𝑝𝑠 = 12[𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑖 (𝐾 − 𝑀𝑆𝐼𝐷𝐿 )]
0.9ϕ𝐴𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑦 𝑑
where
Aps = area of each extended strand, in.2
fpy = yield strength of prestressing steel specified in LRFD Specifications Table 15.5.4.4.1-1, ksi
d = distance from top of slab to c.g. of extended strands, in.
MSIDL = moment due to superimposed dead loads (traffic barrier, sidewalk, etc.) per beam, ft-kips
K =span moment distribution factor. Use maximum of K1 and K2
 = strength reduction factor for flexure

15.5.2 Abutment Connection for Precast, Prestressed Beam Bridges

15.5.2.1 Introduction
The typical abutment in regions of moderate and high seismic hazard is a cast-in-place concrete pier wall
supported on spread footings, piles, or shaft foundations. Precast beams are often supported on elastomeric
bearing pads at end piers. Semi-integral end diaphragms may be used for shorter bridges. An L-shaped abutment
(Figs. 15.2.3.1-1 and 15.5.2.3-1) is often used for longer precast bridges. In this type of connection, the bridge
ends are free for longitudinal movement but restrained for transverse seismic movement by beam stops. The
bearing system is designed for the service load condition but may not be adequate to resist seismic loading. The
bearings are designed to be accessible so that the superstructure can be lifted and the bearings replaced after a
major seismic event. Approach slabs rest on a notch provided at the superstructure end, thereby providing a ramp
up to and on to the bridge, should soil behind the abutment settle during a seismic event.

15.5.2.2 Semi-integral End Diaphragm

Figure 15.5.2.2-1 shows a semi-integral end pier detail used by WSDOT. This type of end diaphragm eliminates
the need for expansion joints at end piers. The gap between the end pier wall and the end diaphragm is designed
to be greater than the longitudinal seismic movement requirement for the extreme event limit state, and thermal
expansions at the service limit state for bridge lengths less than 450 ft.

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SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.2.2 Semi-integral End Diaphragm/15.5.2.3 Traditional L-shaped Abutment

Figure 15.5.2.2-1
Semi-integral End Pier Connection (WSDOT)
CIP Slab

Approach Slab

Beam Stop to Restrain

Gap for Transverse Movement
Seismic
Movement

15.5.2.3 Traditional L-shaped Abutment

A typical abutment detail for medium to long spans is shown in Figure 15.5.2.3-1. The diaphragm is cast in place
between the beams and is not shown. The seat width must be greater than the anticipated longitudinal seismic
movement in the extreme event limit state. The gap between the superstructure and the back wall must be
designed to accommodate the longitudinal seismic movement for the extreme event limit state, and the thermal
expansion for the service limit state. For bridges with large longitudinal movement, the back wall could be
designed to shear during a seismic event.
Figure 15.5.2.3-1
Traditional Abutment on Spread Footing

Expansion
Joint CIP Slab

Approach Precast Beam

Slab
Backfill Elastomeric
Bearing Pad

Support Length for

Seismic Movement

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.2.4 Support Length Requirement/15.5.2.4.2 Beam Stop Details

15.5.2.4 Support Length Requirement

The minimum displacement requirements at the expansion bearing should accommodate the greater of the
maximum displacement calculated from a displacement analysis or a percentage of the empirical seat width, N,
specified in Equation 4.12.2-1 of Restrepo et al., 2011.
N = (8 + 0.02L + 0.08H)(1 + 0.000125S2) (Restrepo et al., 2011, Eq. 4.12.2-1)
where
N = minimum support length, in.
L = bridge length to the adjacent expansion joint, or to the end of the bridge, ft
H = average height of abutment wall supporting the superstructure in ft as
described in LRFD Specifications Article 4.7.4.4
S = skew angle of the support measured normal to span, degrees
The empirical seat width is modified as shown in Table 15.5.2.4-1 for different seismic zones.
Table 15.5.2.4-1
Percentage N by SDC and Effective Peak
Ground Acceleration, As
Seismic Effective Peak Ground Percentage
Zone Acceleration, As N
A < 0.05 ≥ 75
A ≥ 0.05 100
B All Applicable 150
C All Applicable 150

15.5.2.4.1 Support Length for Bridges Assigned to Seismic Design Category D

For SDC D, the beam bearing support length, N, must accommodate the relative longitudinal earthquake
displacement demand at the supports or at a hinge within a span between two frames. That length is determined
as:
N = (4+1.65eq)(1+0.00025S2) ≥ 24 (LRFD Seismic Guide Specifications Eq. 4.12.3-1)
where eq = relative earthquake loading longitudinal displacement demand
Caltrans’ Seismic Design Criteria (2006) permits the hinge seat length in “well-balanced frames” (adjacent frames
for which the ratio of the natural periods is equal to or greater than 0.7) to be evaluated as follows:
N = p/s + cr+sh + temp + eq + 4 in. (Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria Eq. 7.5)
where
p/s = displacement due to prestressing
cr+sh = displacement due to creep and shrinkage
temp = displacement due to temperature effects
eq = relative earthquake loading longitudinal displacement demand

15.5.2.4.2 Beam Stop Details

A typical beam stop detail used at end piers is shown in Figure 15.5.2.4.2-1. Elastomeric pads are provided at the
sides of the beam stops to prevent concrete–to–concrete impact during a seismic event while also allowing bridge
longitudinal movement under service motions. The beam stops need to be adequately dimensioned and
reinforced to resist the transverse seismic force. The abutment foundation must also be able to transmit the
lateral load, or resist the design load if the beam stops are designed to shear in a seismic event.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.2.4.2 Beam Stop Details/15.5.3 Pile–to–Pile Cap Connection

Finally, the lateral resistance of any pile- or shaft-supported abutment should exceed the transverse seismic force
to avoid below-grade damage that cannot be easily detected.
Figure 15.5.2.4.2-1
Beam Stop at End Piers
℄ Beam
1
8" Gap Between
Beam Stop Elastomeric Stop
Pad And Beam (Typ.)
1
2" Thick 3" Min.
Elastomeric Stop
Pad (Typ.)
Construction Joint With
Roughened Surface (Typ.)
3
8 " From Face Of Elastomeric Bearing Pad
Beam To Face Of Grout Pad
Beam Stop (Typ.)

15.5.3 Pile–to–Pile Cap Connection

Precast concrete 12- and 16-in.-square piles are frequently used under cast-in-place abutment, bent, and
retaining wall footings. Caltrans requires that “the size and number of piles and the pile group layout be designed
to resist service level moments, shears, and axial loads and the moment demand induced by the column plastic
hinging mechanism” in competent soils. Marginal soils may call for a more ductile pile that can withstand larger
deflections.
Different philosophies exist concerning the optimum pile embedment into the cap, especially when the piles are
to be fixed against rotation. A larger embedment may improve fixity, but it also reduces the effective flexural
depth in the footing at locations over the piles. Resistance to punching shear is also diminished. Simulated seismic
loads on a test specimen with 3-in. embedment conducted at the University of California at San Diego resulted in a
brittle failure after spalling of the concrete cover around the pile. The unit, however, did reach its theoretical
flexural capacity under compressive and tensile axial loading, and exhibited sufficient displacement ductility. Test
specimen details are shown in Figure 15.5.3-1. Anchorage bars are left straight for driving, but may be hooked in
the field around the top mat of footing reinforcement. In this event, the bars should be rechecked for appropriate
development length.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.3 Pile–to–Pile Cap Connection/15.5.4 Haunched Beam–to–Cast-in-Place Inverted-Tee Bent

Figure 15.5.3-1
Precast Pile–to–Cast-in-Place Concrete Cap Connection
Bottom Reinforced
#14 - Pile Cap

Vertical
Reinforcement
#6 - Pile Cap
20"
Anchorage
Length

3"
Embedment Top 6" To Have 5 Turns
At 1" Pitch

2 - W6.5 Spirals
at 2.5" Pitch

2'-0" Additional 2 - #6 Only At

Pile / Load Stub Connection
Place Rebar As Shown
4 Strands (Minimum -
1'-0" Fp After Losses = 100 kips)
Square

4 - #6 Longitudinal
Reinforcement

Longitudinal reinforcement must be properly confined in the top 15 ft of the pile when in place, and be developed
into the cap. If a pile meets refusal at an elevation higher than that for which it was designed, obvious issues arise
with confinement and cutting of prestressing steel.

15.5.4 Haunched Beam–to–Cast-in-Place Inverted-Tee Bent

When haunched precast beams are placed on a cast-in-place inverted-T bent cap, as shown in Figure 15.5.4-1,
there is no positive moment connection. Testing may eventually show that the confinement provided on each side
of the beam is adequate to compensate for the lack of beam connection. But until that testing is completed and
corresponding analytical tools are developed, this detail should be used only in regions of low–to–moderate
seismic risk. A strut-and-tie model is needed to design the inverted-T bent cap. A design example can be found in
Martin and Sanders, 2007.

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SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.4 Haunched Beam–to–Cast-in-Place Inverted-Tee Bent/15.5.5 Precast Pile–to–Partial Precast Cap

Figure 15.5.4-1
Haunched Precast Beams on Cast-In-Place Inverted-T Bent Cap

#6 @ 18" max.

4#7/beam deep beam skin reinf.

= 0.10 of flexural reinforcement
Cross bar weld 9#6/interior beam
to #7 bar 8#6/exterior girder

6' - 0" 1'-6"

A' s 4#6
@ beam ends 3' - 0"
#5
#5 @ 12" Section Between Columns
centered under
girders

#6 @ 12"
crossbar
3' - 0"
#5 @ girders
#5
#5 @ 12"

Section @ Column

#5 @ 12"
4#6

4#6
#5 @ 12"
Section Between Girders

15.5.5 Precast Pile–to–Partial Precast Cap

The current approach to seismic design of precast bent caps is to emulate the behavior of cast-in-place concrete
caps. For the San Mateo–Hayward Bridge, a precast “yoke” was lifted into place over the columns/piles and
temporarily supported. This precast unit ultimately became the lower half of the bent cap, and it supports the
precast I-beams or bulb-tee beams during their erection. After the beams are placed, the top half of the bent cap is
formed, reinforced, and cast. Details are shown in Figures 15.5.5-1 and 15.5.5-2. Precast deck panels were used.
Seismic analysis of the cap was the same as that for a similar cast-in-place cap.

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SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.5 Precast Pile–to–Partial Precast Cap

Figure 15.5.5-1
Precast Pile–to–Partial Precast Cap—1

Symmetrical about ℄ Pile

3" typ.
℄ Beams 'NTW' Line
Roughen ℄ Pile = ℄ Opening
Surface 3'-8" ∅ opening
11 5 8" (typ)
#9 tot 8
℄ Bent A
A
#7 #7
Edge of deck #10
cont. 14 1 4 "

46'-3" 12" 10'-9"

typ
Plan
C
℄ Pile = ℄ Opening Detail 'A'
Symmetrical about ℄ Pile
#10 B #5
cont #7 #9

Precast Cap
3" 3" B #7
typ. typ. #11
cont
@ 6"
3'-6" ∅ PC P/S #7 C
concrete pile #7 @ 2"

Section A - A 12"

Level

Detail "A"

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SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.5 Precast Pile–to–Partial Precast Cap

Figure 15.5.5-2
Precast Pile–to–Partial Precast Cap—2

℄ Bent
#19 stirrup

Roughen Surface
#19 @ 150
except @ piles
40 clr #32 cont. tot 6

#6 cont. tot 4
760
#36 cont. tot 6
430
50 clr #19 tot, Discontinuous
430 typ
@ face of opening
1980
Section B-B

Top of deck
℄ Bent
300
clr

coupler
2 - #19
tot 4 each side

230
330

#19 x 460 coupled

with #19
pile reinf.

Section C-C

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.6 Precast Segmental Columns in Seismic Applications

15.5.6 Precast Segmental Columns in Seismic Applications

Precast segmental substructures can be a very efficient solution especially when there is repetition of shapes.
Precasting can also be the best solution for unique sections that require high quality concrete or geometry
control, and when there is a long lead time for deep foundations that allows the contractor to fabricate pier
sections concurrently with foundation work. The major advantage of precasting piers is the speed of construction.
The WSDOT Highways for Life (HfL) project involved the development of a totally prefabricated bridge bent
system, including prefabricated segmental columns, prefabricated bent cap, and prefabricated superstructure as
shown in Figures 15.5.6-1 through 15.5.6-3. To accelerate construction without sacrificing seismic resistance,
the beam–to–column connections were made with a small number of large-diameter reinforcing bars that were
grouted into much larger diameter ducts. The HfL project demonstrated that the product could be deployed in a
wide range of applications. The HfL project was accomplished in four phases:
1. Proof testing of project-specific and alternative-design variations of the system
2. Development of project-specific and general design provisions and specifications
3. Development of design examples
4. Deployment of the basic system in the field
In order for precast column design to be economical, segments should be dimensioned for practical fabrication,
transport, and erection. The resulting sections are typically sized for a maximum weight on the order of 50 tons or
less, enabling erection by standard cranes. Column segments can be assembled with mild reinforcement, post-
tensioning tendons, or high strength bars.
Figure 15.5.6-1
Precast Segmental Column
3'-0"

Precast Bent Cap

1" Thick Joint
4'-10"

Sealer (Typ.)
(8) #14
Precast Column Segment 3
Grouted Joint w/ See Detail K
Shear Key (typ.)
48
Precast Column Segment 2
1 See Detail J
Begin 1:48 Taper

(16) #10

2'-8"
(typ)
Precast Column Segment 1
4'-10"

See Detail H
(8) #14

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SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.6 Precast Segmental Columns in Seismic Applications

Figure 15.5.6-2
Precast Segmental Column

4" ∅ Duct (Typ)

(8 Total)

2'-6"
(Typ)

Y Varies
6'-0"
(8) #10 48
4'-10" (2) #10 Bundled
1 (8 Total Bundles)
3'-0' 4'-10"

Nut (Typ) 2'-0"

2'-0"
4'-0" (Typ)
(8) #14

4'-0"

Detail H Detail J Detail K

Precast Column Segment 1 Precast Column Segment 2 Precast Column Segment 3

Figure 15.5.6-3
Precast Segmental Column

Construction joint w/
roughened surface ℄Column & Crossbeam
Top of girder
5" C.I.P. Conc. Slab
3" Conc. Pad 3'-0" Construction joint w/
roughened surface
3"

A 1'-0"
3'-0" 1'-0"
1'-0"
Precast bent cap
#14 Typ. 1" Gap (typ)
48
Precast column
1

Crossbeam Section

℄Column & Crossbeam

Line of top of column
Line of recess of column
15 - 40 #11 (Typ) (Aug 14)
#5 Spiral @ 4" Pitch
4" ∅ Duct through
 3'-0"1'-0"
Note: 1'-0"
Ecxtracted from the PCI BDM Third Edition for Reference Only
Precast bent cap
1" Gap (typ)
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________
#14 Typ. 48
CHAPTER 15
Precast column SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.6
1 Precast Segmental Columns in Seismic Applications/15.5.6.1 Grouted Duct Connection

Figure 15.5.6-3 Crossbeam Section

Precast Segmental Column (continued)

℄Column & Crossbeam

Line of top of column
Line of recess of column
#11 (Typ)
#5 Spiral @ 4" Pitch
4" ∅ Duct through
bent cap (typ)
#14 (Typ)
(8 Total)

Hatched area denotes

1" Elastomeric Joint Sealer

Section A

15.5.6.1 Grouted Duct Connection

Where grouted connections are used, transverse reinforcement in the form of tied column reinforcement, spirals,
hoops, or intersecting spirals or hoops must be provided. The minimum transverse reinforcement in the joint for
grouted duct connections should be based on Equation 8.15.3.1-1 of Article 8.15.3.1 of Restrepo et al. (2011).
Spacing of transverse reinforcement should not exceed 0.3Ds or 12 in. Articles 8.15.5 and C8.15.5 in the same
reference summarize related design provisions and background information on nonintegral bent cap systems
completed using grouted duct or cap pocket connections.
Minimum transverse joint reinforcement is required in the joint to ensure that the connection does not become a
weak point in a precast bent system. However, the additional joint shear reinforcement required for SDC B, C, and
D is not required.
Grouted duct connections should be reinforced in accordance with the requirements of Article 8.13.4.2.2a. Details
of the connection include ducts, vertical stirrups inside the joint, and bedding layer reinforcement. The
embedment lengths shown in Table 15.5.6.1-1 were validated by University of Washington pullout tests of large
diameter bars embedded in grouted ducts, as summarized in Appendix A, Section A.2.1.3 of the Seismic Design
Report (PCI, 2013). These embedment lengths were adopted in the WSDOT Bridge Design Manual.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.6.1 Grouted Duct Connection

Table 15.5.6.1-1
Embedment Requirements for Grouted Duct Connections

Bar Size Nominal Embedment Embedment/Bar

No. Duct Size, in. Length, in. Diameter

3 2 12 29
4 2.5 15 27
5 3 15 21
6 3 15 18
7 3 20 21
8 3.5 20 18
9 3.5 20 16
10 3.5 25 18
11 4 25 16
14 4 30 16
18 4.5 40 16
The grout specification for the grouted duct connection is shown in Table 15.5.6.1-2.

Table 15.5.6.1-2 Grout Specification for Grouted Duct Connection

(Restrepo et al., 2011)
Property Value
Age Compressive strength (psi)
Mechanical 1 day 2,500
3 days 4,000
Compressive strength 7 days 5,000
(ASTM C109, 2 in. cubes) 28 days Maximum [6,000
1.25(𝑓′𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑝 + 500)]
Compatibility
Expansion requirements Grade B or C—expansion per ASTM C1107
(ASTM C827 & ASTM C1090)
Modulus of elasticity 2.8–5.0×106 psi
(ASTM C469)
Coefficient of thermal expansion 3.0–10.0×10-6/deg F
(ASTM C531)
Constructability
Flowability Fluid consistency efflux time: 20–30 seconds
(ASTM C939;
CRD-C611 Flow Cone)
Set Time (ASTM C191)
Initial 2.5–5.0 hrs
Final 4.0–8.0 hrs
Durability
Freeze Thaw (ASTM C666) 300 cycles, RDF 90%
Sulfate Resistance (ASTM C1012) Expansion at 26 weeks < 0.1%

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SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.7 Precast Abutments

15.5.7 Precast Abutments

Precast abutments can be a very efficient solution for standard pier shapes or when accelerated bridge
construction is necessary. Precasting can also be the best solution for unique sections that require high-quality
concrete or geometry control, when there is a long lead time that allows the contractor to fabricate abutment
sections concurrently with precast superstructure members, and when a precasting yard is located in the region.
Figures 15.5.7-1 and 15.5.7-2 show the use of a precast abutment for accelerated bridge construction. The cast-
in-place backwall and the shear key are designed to resist the lateral seismic forces from the retained soil.

Figure 15.5.7-1
Use of Precast Abutment for Bridge Construction

Rebar for WW’s

and Shear Keys

Leveling Pad

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SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.7 Precast Abutments/15.5.8 Precast Spliced Beam Superstructure with Integral Cap

Figure 15.5.7-2
Abutment Details

BB or EB ℄ Abut and Bearing

BB or EB
12"
18" 18"
#6x800 @ 12"

Structure
Approach Slab #4 @ 12"
#4 @ 18" Max.
#4 @ 12"
#5 @ 12"
Construction 1'-8"
Joint 6#6 cont.
#6 @ 12" #4 @ 12
2 1 2" clr typ
#6 @ 12"
#4 @ 18"
18" 3"
12" #6 @ 12 10#6 cont.
18" 3" clr
#4 @ 12" 3" clr

5'-0" 3'-0" Typical Section

15.5.8 Precast Spliced Beam Superstructure with Integral Cap

With the increasing desire for bridges with longer spans, the need for increased vertical clearances, and the
demand for faster construction, precast, prestressed, spliced concrete beams have been successfully used. A
spliced beam is a precast, prestressed concrete member that is fabricated in several relatively long pieces (beam
segments). These beams are assembled into a single beam or a continuous beam onsite. Post-tensioning is
generally used to reinforce the connection longitudinally between beam segments. The bridge cross section is
typically a conventional shape in which multiple precast beams support a cast-in-place concrete composite deck.
The spliced beam, with longitudinal post-tensioning, can provide not only superstructure continuity, but also an
integral cap–to–column connection if designed properly.
Figures 15.5.8-1 through 15.5.8-3 show details for a precast spliced beam superstructure with an integral bent
cap that provides optimal clearance.

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SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.8 Precast Spliced Beam Superstructure with Integral Cap

Figure 15.5.8-1
Precast Box Beam Elevation
℄ Bent

8"

5"
12'-0" taper
#4 Stirrups
15 @ 12" = 15'-0" 15 @ 9" = 11'-0" 26 @ 6" = 13'-0"

Limits of Debonded
2 Strands
13'-4" (Aps debonded = 2.44 in. )

Figure 15.5.8-2
Integral Bent Cap Details
℄ Beam
Additional Reinf.
Top Pretensioning
See "Beam Reinforcement"
Strands
Sheet
Deck Reinf. #5 cont
14#10
(7 bundles)

#8 Construction Joint

Post-Tensioning Duct 5 - #10

5#10 Precast Beam Reinf.

Bundled Vertically
#4 cont

Denotes Debonded
Pretensioning Strands
at Beam Ends
#6 cont

14#11(7 bundles)
Bottom of
Bent Cap
Bonded Bottom
Pretensioning Strands Note: Bent Cap
Stirrups Not Shown

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SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.8 Precast Spliced Beam Superstructure with Integral Cap

Figure 15.5.8-2
Integral Bent Cap Details (continued)
Details Symmetrical
about ℄ Bent
Face of
Bent Cap
9#5 cont. 14#10
(7 bundles)
2'-8" 2'-8" Construction Joint
Precast Beam Extend Into Cap
Reinf. Bonded Prestressing
Strands from Each
Typ. for all Beams
Connecting into
Beam.
5#10
6#6 cont .

Precast Beam
Reinf.

6"
#5
Extend Into Cap Bonded 1 1 2" clr
Prestressing Strands from 14#11
Each Beam, Typ. for all (7 bundles) 1"
Beam Ends Connecting #5 x 5'-0" End of Beam Face of Bent Cap
Into Bent Cap. Centered
on ℄ Beam

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.8 Precast Spliced Beam Superstructure with Integral Cap/15.6.1.1 Adjust Dynamic Characteristics

Figure 15.5.8-3
End Diaphragm at Bent Cap
24'-8"
5#10 , Bent
Cap End only
#4 Stirrup @ 6"
3'-4"
Place Parallel to ℄ Beam 6#5 Top Pretensioning
#4 End of Strands, Extend
Precast Into Bent Cap
#4
Beam

#4 cont, Extend 8 #4

2'-0"
Web Bars Into Bent
Cap Shear Keys
3" Fillet, 6 Equal Spaces
typ 2'-6"
typ.
3'-8"
3#4

1 1 2" (typ.) R = 18" typ.

7#5 (Adjust 18"
to Clear Prestress
Strands and Ducts) 15" min. 4'-6" Extend Bonded Bottom
Pretensioning Strands
Into Bent Cap
Beam End Diaphragm (at Bent Cap)

15.6 DESIGN EXAMPLES

15.6.1 Configure Spans, Balance Stiffness, and Design Practice in California
15.6.1.1 Adjust Dynamic Characteristics
During preliminary design, the following should be considered to achieve acceptable seismic performance (Figs.
15.6.1.1-1 and 15.6.1.1-2).
Column:
• Adjust effective column lengths (lower footing, pile cap, or shaft)
• Vary cross section
• Vary longitudinal reinforcement details
• Add, subtract, or relocate columns
Frame:
• Use or modify end flexibility
• Reduce or redistribute superstructure mass
• Modify the hinge or expansion joint layout

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
15.6.1.1 Adjust Dynamic Characteristics/15.6.1.1.1.1 Determine Preliminary Member Sizes and Span Configuration

Figure 15.6.1.1-1
Balance Stiffness

Frame 1 Frame 2

Bent 2 Bent 6
Bent 3
Bent 4 Bent 5

T1 T2

k2 k6
k3 k4 k5

Figure 15.6.1.1-2
Bridge Typical Sections

Ds

Dc Dc
K 1A K 1B K 1A

15.6.1.1.1 Outline of Procedure

15.6.1.1.1.1 Determine Preliminary Member Sizes and Span Configuration

𝐷𝑐
0.70 < < 1.00 (Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria Eq. 7.24)
𝐷𝑠
where
Dc = column diameter, ft
Ds = superstructure depth, ft
For the column, As max < 0.04Ag and As min > 0.01Ag (Caltrans SDC Eqs. 3.28, 3.29)

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
15.6.1.1.1.1 Determine Preliminary Member Sizes and Span Configuration/15.6.1.2 Assess Preliminary Ductility—“Lollipop Model”

where
As = area of longitudinal column steel, in.2
Ag = gross cross-sectional area of column, in.2
4𝐴𝑏
ρ𝑠 = (Caltrans SDC Eq. 3.31)
𝑑′𝑠
where
ρ𝑠 = volumetric ratio of column lateral reinforcement
Ab = area of column transverse reinforcement, in.2
d′ = diameter of column concrete core, in.
s = spacing of column transverse reinforcement, in.
For the cap, Bcap = Dc + 2 (Caltrans SDC Eq. 7.10)
where Bcap = width of cap, ft

15.6.1.1.1.2 Check for Balanced Stiffness

𝑘𝑖𝑒 𝑚𝑗
≥ 0.5 (Caltrans SDC Eq. 7.1a)
𝑘𝑗𝑒 𝑚𝑖
where
𝑘𝑖𝑒 , 𝑘𝑗𝑒 = effective stiffness of any two bents within a frame or between any two columns
within a bent
mi, mj = tributary mass of column or bent i and j
𝑘𝑖𝑒 𝑚𝑗
≥ 0.75 (Caltrans SDC Eq. 7.2a)
𝑘𝑗𝑒 𝑚𝑖
where
𝑘𝑖𝑒 , 𝑘𝑗𝑒 = effective stiffness between adjacent bents or between adjacent columns within a bent
mi, mj = tributary mass of column or bent i and j
15.6.1.2 Assess Preliminary Ductility—“Lollipop Model”
Material properties:
𝑓𝑐𝑒′ = greater of 1.3√𝑓𝑐𝑒′ or 5.0, ksi (Caltrans SDC Eq. 3.13)
where 𝑓𝑐𝑒′ = expected concrete compressive strength, ksi
Ec = 33,000(wc)1.5√𝑓𝑐′ , ksi (Caltrans SDC Eq. 3.11)
Use idealized bilinear moment-curvature (M-) relationship to estimate plastic rotation
θp = Lpp
where
θp = plastic rotation capacity
Lp = plastic hinge length, in.
p = idealized plastic curvature (assumed constant over length Lp)
Lp = 0.08L + 0.15fyedb𝓁 ≥ 0.3fyedb𝓁 (Caltrans SDC Eq. 7.25)
where
ƒye = expected yield, ksi
db𝓁 = diameter of longitudinal bars, in.
L = column height, in.

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
15.6.1.2 Assess Preliminary Ductility— “Lollipop Model”/15.6.1.3.1 Design Column Shear

Evaluate plastic displacement: p = θp(L – 0.5Lp)

Evaluate displacement capacity: c = y + p
where Δy = yield displacement taken along the local principal axis corresponding to Δd
Evaluate displacement demand:
(𝑚)(𝑎)
∆𝑑 =
𝑘𝑒
where
a is taken from the appropriate Caltrans Acceleration Response Spectrum (ARS) curve based on the period
of the fundamental mode of vibration, and multiplied by the gravitational constant
ke = effective stiffness of column
Δc
μ𝑐 = >3 (Caltrans SDC Eq. 3.6)
Δy
where c is the local displacement ductility capacity, calculated for each bent
Finally, check preliminary d < c (Caltrans SDC Eq. 4.1)

15.6.1.3 Transverse Pushover Analysis

Software input includes section properties, Mp, Ie, and soil springs y, p
where
Mp = plastic moment capacity, ft-kips
Ie = effective stiffness, in.4
y = yield curvature
p = plastic curvature
Except for single-column bents, the designer must iterate for change in column axial force (until less than 5%) due
to earthquake loading and revise Mp. The lateral force at the first yield displacement, y, is then multiplied by the
bent height to determine the overturning moment MOT.
Repeat steps in 15.6.1.2 for maximum tension and maximum compression in columns.
Check that P- effects are less than 20% of the seismic demand.

15.6.1.3.1 Design Column Shear

Vn > Vo (Caltrans SDC Eq. 3.14)
where
Vo = overstrength shear = Mo/L, kips
Vn = Vc + Vs
where
Mo = column overstrength moment = 1.2Mp, ft-kips
L = member length from point of maximum moment to point of contra-flexure, ft
Vc = vcAe
where
Ae = effective area resisting shear = 0.8Ag, in.2 (Caltrans SDC Eqs. 3.16, 3.17)
vc = F1F2√𝑓𝑐′ < 4√𝑓𝑐′ , ksi (inside plastic hinge zone) (Caltrans SDC Eq. 3.18)
where F1 is a function of ductility demand and F2 is a function of compressive axial stress

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PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL_______________________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 15

SEISMIC DESIGN
15.6.1.3.2 Design of Bent Cap/15.6.2.1 Introduction

15.6.1.3.2 Design of Bent Cap

Design bent cap for flexure and shear. Note that exterior column–to–cap connection may behave as a knee joint.
For typical T-joints, calculate principal tension and compression stresses.
Principal compression pc ≤ 0.25√𝑓𝑐′ , psi (Caltrans SDC Eq. 7.8)

Principal tension pt ≤ 12√𝑓𝑐′ , psi (Caltrans SDC Eq. 7.9)

Minimum volumetric ratio of transverse column reinforcement when pt ≤ 3.5√𝑓𝑐′ , psi:

3.5√𝑓𝑐′
ρ𝑠 ≤ , psi (Caltrans SDC Eq. 7.18)
𝑓𝑦ℎ
where
fyh = yield strength of hoops otherwise, minimum ratio
𝐴𝑠𝑡
ρ𝑠 ≤ 0.4 2
(Caltrans SDC Eq. 7.23)
𝑙𝑎𝑐
where
lac = length of column bar extension into core, in.
Ast = area of hoops, in.2
Vertical stirrups are taken as 20% of column reinforcement anchored in joint region (Caltrans SDC Eq. 7.19)

15.6.1.4 Longitudinal Pushover Analysis

Steps for longitudinal pushover analysis:
• Determine abutment soil springs.
• Lump columns together; ignore overturning.
• Determine ductility capacity and demand, including P- Perform analysis similar to that for transverse
pushover analysis. Check shear in longitudinal direction.
• Determine seismic strength of concrete superstructure (not addressed explicitly for precast members in
Caltrans’ Seismic Design Criteria, but must remain elastic), including effects of continuity forces.
• Check seat widths including effects due to creep, shrinkage, temperature, and earthquake.

15.6.1.5 Final Displacement Demand Assessment

If any modifications were made to the original