Subject: Data Structures and Algorithms

Submitted To: Sir Imran Shazad

Submitted By: Samia Fatima

CIIT/SP22-BCS-177/SWL

Section: D

COMSATS University Islamabad

i-Graphs:
In computer science and mathematics, a graph is a data structure that consists of a set of nodes
(vertices) and a set of edges connecting these nodes. Graphs are widely used to model
relationships and connections between entities. They can represent various real-world scenarios,
such as social networks, transportation networks, and dependency relationships in software.
ii-Graph Representations: There are two main ways to represent a graph:
• Adjacency matrix
• Adjacency list.
Adjacency Matrix: An adjacency matrix is a 2D array where each element (i, j) represents
whether there is an edge between vertex i and vertex j.
Example:
A B C
A 0 1 1
B 1 0 0
C 1 0 0
Advantages:
• Simple implementation for dense graphs.
• Edge presence can be checked in constant time.
Disadvantages:
• Consumes more space for sparse graphs.
• Adding or removing vertices is costly.
Adjacency List: An adjacency list represents a graph as an array of lists. Each list corresponds
to a vertex and contains all the vertices adjacent to that vertex.
Example:
A -> [B, C]
B -> [A]
C -> [A]
Advantages:
 • More memory-efficient for sparse graphs.
• Adding or removing vertices is easier and consumes less space.
Disadvantages:
• Checking if an edge exists between two vertices may take longer.
• Traversing all edges of a vertex requires traversing its adjacency list.
Question 2: Breadth-First Search (BFS) and Applications
a. Describe the Breadth-First Search (BFS) algorithm in detail. Discuss its key steps and how it
traverses a graph.
i- Breadth-First Search (BFS) Algorithm:

Breadth-First Search (BFS) is a graph traversal algorithm that explores all the vertices of a graph
in breadthward motion, i.e., it visits all the vertices at the same level before moving on to the next
level. BFS is often used to find the shortest path in an unweighted graph.
ii- Key Steps:
Initialization:
• Create an empty queue to keep track of the vertices to be visited.
• Choose a starting vertex and enqueue it into the queue.
• Mark the starting vertex as visited.
BFS Traversal:
• While the queue is not empty:
• Dequeue a vertex from the front of the queue.
• Process the dequeued vertex (print, store, or perform any desired operation).
• Enqueue all the adjacent vertices of the dequeued vertex that have not been visited.
• Mark the newly enqueued vertices as visited.
iii- Termination: The algorithm terminates when the queue becomes empty, indicating that all
reachable vertices have been visited.
Example:
A -- B -- C
| | |
D -- E -- F
->The BFS traversal would proceed as follows:
• Enqueue A: Queue [A], Visited [A]
• Dequeue A, enqueue its neighbors (B, D): Queue [B, D], Visited [A]
• Dequeue B, enqueue its neighbors (A, C, E): Queue [D, A, C, E], Visited [A, B]
 • Dequeue D, enqueue its neighbors (A, E): Queue [A, C, E, A, E], Visited [A, B, D]
• Dequeue A, which is already visited.
• Dequeue C, enqueue its neighbor (B): Queue [E, B], Visited [A, B, D, C]
• Continue until the queue is empty.
BFS Traversal Order: A, B, D, C, E, F
b. Explore real-world applications where BFS algorithms are utilized. Provide specific examples
and explain how BFS is beneficial in solving practical problems.
Some specific examples where BFS is utilized and how it proves beneficial:
i- Network Routing:
Example: In computer networks, BFS is often employed for routing and discovery of the shortest
path between two nodes. It helps in finding the most efficient route for data transmission, ensuring
minimal latency.
ii-Web Crawling:
Example: Search engines like Google use BFS to index web pages. The algorithm starts from a
seed URL, explores all its links, then moves on to the links on those pages, and so on. This ensures
a systematic and comprehensive exploration of the web.
iii-Social Network Analysis:
Example: BFS is applied in social networks to discover relationships, connectivity, and degrees
of separation between individuals. It helps identify the shortest path between two users and analyze
the overall network structure.
iv-Shortest Path Problems:
Example: BFS is commonly used to find the shortest path between two locations in a geographical
map, such as in GPS navigation systems. It ensures that the path discovered has the minimum
number of edges or nodes.
v-Puzzle Solving:
Example: BFS is used in solving puzzles such as the sliding puzzle or the Eight Puzzle. It
systematically explores possible states and moves towards the goal state, ensuring the shortest
solution.
In these applications, BFS is valued for its ability to systematically explore and discover the
shortest paths or solutions, making it a versatile algorithm in various domains.