MT 1112: CALCULUS

Study of derivatives and integral technics, theories

and its application

1.0: Limits and continuity

1.1: Limits
 Some objects have boundaries and some have
not.
 The idea of limits is needed to show endless of
the objects due to their shapes
 Mathematics by using functions helps as to
show the limits and the continuity of objects
Examples 1
lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 Is a real number i.e 𝑎 ∈ ℝ
𝑥→𝑎
and 𝑓 is a function read as the limit of 𝑓 𝑥 as
𝑥 approaches 𝑎

If limit exist to a real number, we denote that

number with 𝐿 such that
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 𝑂𝑅 𝑓 𝑥 → L as 𝑥 → 𝑎 if number
𝑥→𝑎
does not exist we say the limit is approaches to
infinite eg lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞, and we use + ∞ for
𝑥→𝑎
positive infinite and - ∞ for negative infinite.
Example 2
Evaluate lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 2
𝑥→1

Solution 2
Given 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 2
To evaluate lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→1
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim (3𝑥 3 −𝑥 + 2 )
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

= lim(3𝑥 3 ) - lim 𝑥 + lim 2

𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
= (3(1)3 − 1 + 2
=4
NOTE: lim 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑓 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

Example 3
If 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 −3, find lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→1

Solution 3
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3) = 0 𝑂𝑅 𝑓(𝑥) → 0
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
as 𝑥 →1
Example 4
2𝑥−1
If 𝑓 𝑥 = , find lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥−2 𝑥→3
Solution 4
2𝑥 + 1
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim ( )=7
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥 − 2

Example 5
2𝑥+1
If 𝑓 𝑥 = , find lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥−2 𝑥→2

Solution 5
2𝑥+1
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim ( ) = ∞ such that 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2
as 𝑥 →2
 2𝑥+1
Graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = is drawn by the asymptotes
𝑥−2

2𝑥+1 2𝑦+1
lines at lim ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim ( ),
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑦→2 𝑦−2
2𝑥+1
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2,2 . See graph of 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−2
One and two side limits:
A lim is two side limit operator in lim 𝑓 𝑥 because
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
we have consider the behavior of 𝑓 approaches to 𝑎
from both left and right sides
Such that lim− is one side left hand limit operator and
𝑥→𝑎
lim+ is one side right hand limit operator.
𝑥→𝑎
A lim is two side limit operator in lim 𝑓 𝑥 because
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
we have consider the behavior of 𝑓 approaches to 𝑎
from both left and right sides
Such that lim− is one side left hand limit operator and
𝑥→𝑎
lim+ is one side right hand limit operator.
𝑥→𝑎

lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 is read as the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches

𝑥→𝑎
𝑎 from the right.

Example 6
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 3 evaluate
I. lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 II. lim− 𝑓 𝑥 III. lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3
See graph and guess table values for example 6.

NOTE: lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 iff lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

Question.
1
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + evalute
2
1. lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 2. lim− 𝑓 𝑥 3. lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Example 7
1
If 𝑓 𝑥 = , then lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = +∞, lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
then lim 𝑓 𝑥 does not exist.
𝑥→0
Example 8
1
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 , then lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞, lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
then lim 𝑓 𝑥 is exists.
𝑥→0
1
See the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 .
𝑥
1.2: Continuity as a property of functions
Definition
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point c if the
following conditions are satisfied
1. f(c) is defined (The limit must exist at that point)
2. limx → c f(x) exist ( The function must be defined at
that point)
3. limx → c f(x) = f(c) (The limit and the function must
have equal values at that point)
Example1
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 2𝑥 + 1.
Show that 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous function 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2.
Solution 1
1. 𝑓(2) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
2. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 2
𝑓(2) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
3. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 2 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 2
NOTE: You should attending the class for the further
solution of the examples
Example 2
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0
𝑥+2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0

Evaluate 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 0 𝑓 𝑥 .
Solution 2
1. 𝑓 0 = 2
2. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 0 𝑓 𝑥 = 2
3. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 0 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 0
Hence 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous at 𝑥 = 0
NOTE: You should attending the class for the solution
of the examples
Example 3
𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 1
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1
𝑥+2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 1

Show that 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous function 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1.

Solution 2
1. 𝑓 1 = 2
2. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 1 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
3. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 1 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑓 1
Hence 𝑓 𝑥 is not continuous at 𝑥 = 1
NOTE: You should attending the class for the further
solution of the examples
Example 4
2𝑥 + 10 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 3
3+8𝑥
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
3𝑥
7𝑥 − 5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3 < 𝑥 ≤ 5

Show that 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous function 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1.

Solution 2
1. 𝑓 1 = 2
2. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 1 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
3. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 1 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑓 1
Hence 𝑓 𝑥 is not continuous at 𝑥 = 1
NOTE: You should attending the class for the further
solution of the examples
1.3 Algebraic limits
If 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 exists then
1. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 g 𝑥
→ 𝑎
2. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 ×𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 × 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 𝑎 g 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥
3. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 𝑎 𝑔 𝑥
= →
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 𝑎 g 𝑥
→
Example
𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1
If 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2, 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1
𝑥−1
𝑓 𝑥
Evalute a. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 0
𝑝 𝑥 ×𝑔 𝑥 b. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 2 𝑔 𝑥
c. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 1
𝑓 𝑥 +𝑔 𝑥 d. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 1
𝑓 𝑥 +𝑔 𝑥
𝑥−1
e. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 1 𝑥 2 −1
1.4 Intermediate Value Theorem and Extreme Value
Theorem.
Intermediate Value theorem :
If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous in the interval
[𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑁 is between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) where
𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏), then there is number 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑁

Examples
3
1. Show there is solution of 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1in the
interval [0,8]
2. Explain why the function 2 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 1 has a root
on interval [0, +∞)
1.4 Intermediate Value Theorem and Extreme Value
Theorem cont…
Extreme Value Theorem:
If fuction 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous in the closed interval
𝑎, 𝑏 , then 𝑓(𝑥) both maximum and minimum value on
𝑎, 𝑏 .

Example find the maximum and minimum values of

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 on 0,2𝜋
Solution.
𝜋
Maximum function value is 2 at 𝑥 = and the
4
5𝜋
minimum function value is - 2 at 𝑥 =
4
NOTE: You should attending the class for the further solution of the examples
2.0 Derivatives (Concept of the derivative):
 The matters on the earth are dynamics.
 Time, temperature and difference forces cause
things on the earth to be unstable.
 These tendencies can be represented by the
mathematical functions.
 Example the slope of linear equations are uniformly
at every point while for non linear is changing from
a point to a point.
 These changes of the value of equation at a point is
well explained by derivatives concepts
2.1 Derivative presented by the graph of 𝑓(𝑥)
a. Graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏 are real
constants
b. Graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 +
𝑐, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are real constants
(see fig.1,2,3 and 4.)
2.2 Analytical representation of the derivative
From fig.1 to fig.4, we have see that,
For linear equation the rate of change (slope) is uniformly
at every points
Such that
For 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏 are real constants
𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑦3 −𝑦2 𝑦𝑛 −𝑦𝑛−1
Then 𝑎 = = …=
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑥3 −𝑥2 𝑥𝑛 −𝑥𝑛−1
While for non linea equation i.e 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 +
𝑐, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are real constants
𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑦3 −𝑦2 𝑦𝑛 −𝑦𝑛−1
𝑎= ≠ …≠ .
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑥3 −𝑥2 𝑥𝑛 −𝑥𝑛−1
Let 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = ℎ, the slope 𝑎 is true for ℎ → 0: 𝑦2 =
𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦1 = 𝑓 𝑥
See fig.4
Mathematically we may write this equation as:
 𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎= lim , such that 𝑎 is a slope at a point.
ℎ→0 ℎ

Generally we write

′ 𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = lim such that 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 is describing
ℎ→0 ℎ

the rate change of the function 𝑓 𝑥 .

NOTE: If 𝑐 is a constant, then 𝑓 ′ 𝑐𝑥 =

𝑓 𝑐𝑥+𝑐ℎ −𝑓 𝑐𝑥
lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
𝑐𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑐( lim ) and 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0
ℎ→0 ℎ
2.3: Derivative defined as the limit
2.3.1. Derivative of linear function.
𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
Consider 𝑓′ 𝑥 = lim is the
ℎ→0 ℎ

differentiability function and 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 +

𝑏, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏 are real constants is a linear function.
(𝑎 𝑥+ℎ +𝑏)−(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
Then 𝑓′ 𝑥 : 𝑓′ 𝑥 = lim =
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑎𝑥+𝑎ℎ+𝑏 −𝑎𝑥−𝑏) 𝑎ℎ
lim = lim = lim 𝑎 = 𝑎
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0
Example
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1, find 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
solution
Consider
𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓′ 𝑥 = lim , thus 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 =
ℎ→0 ℎ

(2 𝑥+ℎ +1)−(2𝑥+1) 2𝑥+2ℎ+1 −2𝑥−1)

lim = lim =
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

2ℎ
lim = lim 2 = 2
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0
2.3.2. Derivative of quadratic function.
Consider a function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 +
𝑐, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are real constants, then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 =
𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥 𝑎(𝑥+ℎ)2 +𝑏 𝑥+ℎ +𝑐−(𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐)
lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

= lim 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎ℎ + 𝑏 = 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏.

ℎ→0
Examlpe.
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 −1, find 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 .
Solution.
 𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
Consider 𝑓′ 𝑥 = lim =
ℎ→0 ℎ

2(𝑥+ℎ)2 + 𝑥+ℎ −1−(2𝑥 2 +𝑥−1)

lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

= lim 4𝑥 + 2ℎ + 1 = 4𝑥 + 1.
ℎ→0
2.3.3. Derivative of polynomial function.
NOTE: polynomial function is a function in form of 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑐 + 𝑎0 𝑥 1 + 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑥 3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 4 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛 If
𝑛 = 3, then 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐 + 𝑎0 𝑥 1 + 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑥 3 .
Question.
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 7, find 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
2.3.4. Derivative of trigonometric functions.
Trigonometric functions include
sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥, tan 𝑥, cosec 𝑥, sec 𝑥, cot 𝑥 and their
inverses.
Example. FinShow that if
1. 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
2. 𝑓 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −sin 𝑥
3. 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
4. 𝑓 𝑥 = cosec 𝑥 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −cosec 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
d 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 if
2.3.5. Derivative of exponential functions
The function in form of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
2.3.6. Derivative of logarithmic functions functions
The function in form of 𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑐 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑥 = ln 𝑎𝑥
NOTE:
1. Attend the class for more solutions
2. Prepare your self for application of these formulae in
the next period.
2.4: Relationship between differentiability and
continuity.
There is close relation ship between differentiability and
continuity of a function.
The fig.4 well explained the differentiability of any

′ 𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
function is inform of 𝑓 𝑥 = lim , thus
ℎ→0 ℎ

clearly observed that the 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous at every

point.
Thus every differentiable function is continuous.
Theorem: If a function f is differentiable at 𝑥, then
𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥.
Proof:
𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
lim 𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓 𝑥 = lim ℎ ,
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
= lim ℎ lim ,
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ
= 0𝑓 ′ 𝑥 .
= 0,
Thus: lim (𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓 𝑥 ) = 0 (limit exists)
ℎ→0
That is lim 𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ = lim 𝑓 𝑥
ℎ→0 ℎ→0
𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ = 𝑓 𝑥 : 𝑓 is continuous function and
differentiable
 2.3.4. Derivative of trigonometric functions.
Trigonometric functions include,
𝑓 𝑥 = (sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥, tan 𝑥, cosec 𝑥, sec 𝑥, cot 𝑥)
and their inverses.
NOTE:

1. sin(𝑥 ±
Example.
1. If 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥, find 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
Solution
Given
𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥, since 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim ,
ℎ→0 ℎ
Then
sin 𝑥+ℎ −sin 𝑥
𝑓′ sin 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin 𝑥 cos ℎ+ sin ℎ cos 𝑥−sin 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin ℎcos 𝑥+ sin 𝑥 cos ℎ −sin 𝑥 sin ℎcos𝑥+ sin 𝑥 (cos ℎ −1)
= lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
sin ℎcos𝑥
Therefore, 𝑓 ′ sin 𝑥 = lim = cos 𝑥.
ℎ→0 ℎ
2. if 𝑓 𝑥 = cos 𝑥, find 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
Solution
Given
𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = cos 𝑥, since 𝑓′ 𝑥 = lim ,
ℎ→0 ℎ
Then
′ cos 𝑥+ℎ −cos 𝑥
𝑓 cos 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
cos 𝑥 cos ℎ− sin ℎ sin 𝑥−cos 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
cos ℎ cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 sin ℎ − cos 𝑥
lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
cos 𝑥 (cos ℎ − 1) − sin ℎ sin 𝑥
lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
′ − sin ℎsin 𝑥
Therefore, 𝑓 cos 𝑥 = lim = −sin 𝑥.
ℎ→0 ℎ
Show that if
1. If 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
2. If 𝑓 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −sin 𝑥
3. If 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
4. If 𝑓 𝑥 = cosec 𝑥 then 𝑓′ 𝑥 =
−cosec 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
5. 𝑓 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
6. 𝑓 𝑥 = cot 𝑥 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
2.3.5. Derivative of exponential functions.
Function in form of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑔(𝑥)
NOTE: Tylor series of 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 ∞𝑥
𝑛
𝑒𝑥 =1+𝑥+ + + +….= 0 𝑛!
2! 3! 4!
𝑓 𝑒 𝑥+ℎ −𝑒 𝑥
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 then, 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ2 ℎ3 ℎ4
𝑒 𝑥+ℎ = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 ℎ = 𝑒 𝑥 (1 + ℎ + + + +….)
2! 3! 4!
ℎ2 ℎ3 ℎ4
= 𝑒 𝑥+ℎ − 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 1 + ℎ + + + +…. − 𝑒 𝑥
2! 3! 4!
ℎ 2𝑒 𝑥 ℎ 3
ℎ𝑒 𝑥 + + 𝑒𝑥 + …
𝑓′ 𝑒𝑥 = lim 2! 3! = 𝑒𝑥
ℎ→0 ℎ
2.3.6. Derivative of logarithmic functions
Function in form of 𝑓 𝑥 = ln 𝑔 𝑥 : 𝑔(𝑥) > 0
NOTE: Tylor series of ln 𝑔 𝑥 : 𝑔(𝑥) > 0
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
ln(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 =𝑥− + − ±….
2 4 6
ln 𝑥+ℎ −ln 𝑥
If 𝑓 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 then, 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ ℎ
ln 𝑥 + ℎ = ln 𝑥 1 + = ln 𝑥 + ln ,
𝑥 𝑥
ℎ ℎ
ln 𝑥 + ln(1+𝑥) − ln 𝑥 ln(1+𝑥)
𝑓 ′ ln 𝑥 = lim = lim ,
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ ℎ 2 ℎ 4 ℎ 6
−( ) +( ) −( ) ± 1
′ 𝑥 2𝑥 4𝑥 6𝑥
𝑓 ln 𝑥 = lim =
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥
2.3.7. Derivative of a power
Function in form of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑎𝑥 : 𝑎 ∈ ℝ
NOTE: Tylor series of 𝑥 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛−2 2
(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥 ℎ+ 𝑥 ℎ + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑥ℎ𝑛−1 + ℎ𝑛
2

If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 then,
𝑓′ 𝑥
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2 2
𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 ℎ+ 𝑥 ℎ + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑥ℎ𝑛−1 + ℎ𝑛 − 𝑥 𝑛
= lim 2
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑛−1 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2 2
𝑛𝑥 ℎ+ 𝑥 ℎ + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑥ℎ𝑛−1 + ℎ𝑛
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim 2
ℎ→0 ℎ
= 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
3.0: Computation of derivatives:
3.1: Computation on a polynomial function.
NOTE:
1. Polynomial function of a function in form of
𝑓 𝑥
= 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎4 𝑥 4 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛

2. If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
Example
1. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 7 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 7𝑥 6
2. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 −7 then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −7𝑥 −8
3.1: Computation by chain rule.
NOTE:
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 is known as the derivative of a function of 𝑥, that is
′ 𝑑𝑦
the rate change of 𝑦 due to change of 𝑥. (i. e𝑓 𝑥 ≅ )
𝑑𝑥
Example:
𝑛 𝑑𝑦
if 𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑛 ∈ ℝ. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥
Solution
𝑛 𝑑𝑦
Given 𝑦 = 2𝑥 , thus = 2 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 = 2𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑛 ∈ ℝ.
It is simple to solve direct from power rule.
NOTE:
some problems not come in direct ways some techniques
may be needed.
3.1: Computation by chain rule
From previous example, it is simple to use power rule to
find the derivative of 𝑦 = 2𝑒 𝑥 but it is take hardly for
3𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 2𝑒 : 𝑦 = 2𝑒 then = 2𝑒 𝑥 since 𝑓 ′ 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥
For 𝑦 = 2𝑒 3𝑥 , 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡 = 3𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑑𝑡
=3…(1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
→𝑦= 2𝑒 𝑡 → = 2𝑒 𝑡 …(2)
𝑑𝑡
From (1) and (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
× = 3 × 2𝑒 𝑡 ,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑒 𝑡 : 𝑡 = 3𝑥, therefore = 6𝑒 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 𝑑𝑦
Example: Find if,
𝑑𝑥

1. 𝑦 = sin 2𝑥
2. 𝑦 = cos 3𝑥 4
3. 𝑦 = tan 𝑒 2𝑥
1 𝑒𝑥
4. 𝑦 = ln( ) : 𝑥
𝑥
>0

5. 𝑦 = log (sin(𝑥 2 +1))

NOTE: You should not miss to attend the class.
3.2: Computation by rule of sum:
 A function may be formed by the various function.
 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + sin 3𝑥 − 5𝑒 𝑥 is a function of
polynomial, trigonometry and exponent.
 If 𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑣: 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 .
 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣
 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 − y
 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 − u + v
 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
 = +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 𝑓 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑢 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑣 for some 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑦 =
′

𝑓 𝑥 .
Example.
𝑑𝑦
Find
𝑑𝑥
1. If 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + sin 3𝑥 − 5𝑒 7𝑥 ,
Solution 1.
Given 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + sin 3𝑥 − 5𝑒 7𝑥 from rule of sum,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑(2𝑥 3 ) 𝑑(sin 3𝑥) 𝑑 sin 5𝑒 7𝑥
= + − = 6𝑥 2 +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 cos 3𝑥 −35𝑒 7𝑥 .
2. 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 2 − sec 2𝑥 + 𝑒 5𝑥
1
3. 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 + log − (𝑥 2 + 1
𝑥
3.2: Computation by product rule:
Function of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢𝑣:
 Let 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣
 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣
 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 − 𝑦
 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 − 𝑢𝑣
 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
 = 𝑢 +𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 + 𝑝 𝑥 𝑔′ 𝑥 :
′ ′

 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 𝑝(𝑥)
Example.
𝑑𝑦
Find
𝑑𝑥
1. If 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 sin 𝑥
Solution 1.
3 3 𝑑𝑢
Given 𝑦 = 2𝑥 sin 𝑥, let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 → = 6𝑥 2 , 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
sin 𝑥 → = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦
By product rule, = 𝑢 + 𝑣 → = 2𝑥 3 cos 𝑥 +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6𝑥 2 sin 𝑥
2. 𝑦 = 2𝑒 3𝑥 cot 𝑥
3. 𝑦 = 5𝑥 7 ln(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 10)
 𝑢
Function of 𝑓 𝑥 = : 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑣
𝑢
 Let 𝑦 =
𝑣
𝑢+𝑑𝑢
 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 =
𝑣+𝑑𝑣
𝑢+𝑑𝑢
 𝑑𝑦 = −𝑦
𝑣+𝑑𝑣
𝑢+𝑑𝑢 𝑢
 𝑑𝑦 = −
𝑣+𝑑𝑣 𝑣
𝑣 𝑢+𝑑𝑢 −𝑢(𝑣+𝑑𝑣) 𝑣𝑑𝑢−𝑢𝑑𝑣
 𝑑𝑦 = =
𝑣(𝑣+𝑑𝑣) 𝑣(𝑣+𝑑𝑣)
 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑣𝑑𝑢−𝑢𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢𝑑𝑥
 = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣+𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣+𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢𝑑𝑥
 As 𝑑𝑣, 𝑑𝑢, 𝑑𝑥 → 0, =
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2
Example.
𝑑𝑦
Find
𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 3
1. If 𝑦 =
sin 𝑥
2𝑒 3𝑥
2. 𝑦 = cot 𝑥
5𝑥 7
3. 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 2 −4𝑥+10)
Solution 1.
Given
2𝑥 3 3 𝑑𝑢
 𝑦= , let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 → = 6𝑥 2 ,
sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣
 𝑣 = sin 𝑥 → = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢𝑑𝑥
 By quotient rule, = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑣2

𝑑𝑦 6𝑥 2 sin 𝑥−2𝑥 3 cos 𝑥

 =
𝑑𝑥 sin2 𝑥

NOTE: Attend the class for the further solutions

4.0: Applications of derivatives:
4.1: Linear Approximations
𝑑𝑦
We know that, = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Thus , 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥
∆𝑦
∆𝑦 = . 𝑑𝑥
∆𝑥
Example: use derivatives compute,
1. 25.08
3
2. 125.059
4
3. 256.034
5
4. 32.075
Solution 1.
Given y + ∆𝑦 = 25.08, → 𝑦 = 25 = 𝑥 ,
∆𝑦 1 1
𝑑𝑥 = 0.08 → = = = 0.1.
∆𝑥 2 𝑥 2 25

∆𝑦
∆𝑦 = . 𝑑𝑥 = 0.1 × 0.08 = 0.008,
∆𝑥

→ y + ∆𝑦 = 5 + 0.008 = 5.008.
Solution 3.
4 4
Given y + ∆𝑦 = 256.034, → 𝑦 = 256 =
4 ∆𝑦
𝑥, 𝑑𝑥 = 0.034 → =
∆𝑥
4.2: Tangent line to a curve at a point and local linear
approximation.
 Tangent is the line touch the curve at once (only one
point)
 Critical point is either maximum or minimum point
on the curve (equation)
Example:1
Draw the graph of
1 4 2 3 1 2
1. 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 2𝑥.
2. 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3
3. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 6
4. 𝑦 = −3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 7
By using derivatives,
1 4 2 3 1 2 𝑑𝑦
Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 → = 𝑥3 +
4 3 2 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2.
𝑑𝑦
At turning point slope is zero, i.e = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 −
𝑑𝑥
2 = 0.
Thus 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2 =
0
19 13 22
→ 𝑥 = {−1,1, −2}and 𝑦 = {− , , − } hence
12 12 3
critical point are
13 19 22
(−1, ). (1, − ) and (-2, − ).
12 12 3
See the graph.
Example:2
Draw the graph, and hence find the slope and the
equation of a tangent to a curve at a given point.
1 4 2 3 1 2
1. 𝑓 𝑥 = 4
𝑥 +
3
𝑥 − 𝑥
2
− 2𝑥, at 𝑥 = −1

2. 𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 at 𝑥 = 2
1
3. 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 6 at 𝑥 = −
2

4. 𝑓 𝑥 = −3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 7 at 𝑥 = −1
5. 𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 at 𝑥 = 𝑘: 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑘 ∈ ℝ
See the graph of the 𝑓(𝑥)
Solution 1.
1 4 2 3 1 2
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥.
4 3 2
𝑑𝑦 3 2 −19
→ = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2, at 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥 12
𝑑𝑦
→ = 0, thus slope a curve the same as the slope of
𝑑𝑥
the tangent.
Hence slope of a tangent is 0.
∆𝑦
Tangent equation is obtained from = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
∆𝑥
−19
∆𝑦 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑦−
12
→ =0→ =0→ =0
∆𝑥 𝑥−𝑥1 𝑥−𝑥1

19
→𝑦=
12
4.3: Second derivative
1 4 2 3 1 2
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 then
4 3 2
𝑑𝑦
𝑓′ 𝑥 = = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 and
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑(𝑓′ 𝑥 𝑑(𝑑𝑥) 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = = = = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1. Recall
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
13
from the previous example, critical point are (−1, ),
12
19 22
(1, − ) and (-2, − ).
12 3
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
Then at 𝑥 = −1, = −2 → < 0, this show that
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2
13
at (−1, ) is a local maximum point.
12
𝑑2 𝑦
At 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −2, → > 0 points are a local
𝑑𝑥 2
minimum point.
NOTE
𝑑2 𝑦
1. > 0 at 𝑥 = 𝑎 ∶ 𝑎 ∈ ℝ then 𝑎, 𝑦 is a minimum
𝑑𝑥 2

point.
𝑑2 𝑦
2. < 0 at 𝑥 = 𝑎 ∶ 𝑎 ∈ ℝ then 𝑎, 𝑦 is a maximum
𝑑𝑥 2

point.
𝑑2 𝑦
3. = 0 at 𝑥 = 𝑎 ∶ 𝑎 ∈ ℝ then 𝑎, 𝑦 is an inflection
𝑑𝑥 2

point.
1. Evaluate the critical point(s) of the following
functions and hence draw the graph of 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 and
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥
a. 𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3
b. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 6
c. 𝑓 𝑥 = −3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 7
d. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 − 𝑥 3 + 1
e. 𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑘 ∈ ℝ
2. Use critical points find the equation of a tangent to a
curve and hence draw the curve with a tangent line.
4.0: Applications of derivatives cont…
4.4: Monotonicity and Concavity of a curve
 We say that a function is increasing on an interval 𝐼 if for
all 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐼 with 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 we have 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ). We
say 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing on an interval 𝐼 if for all
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐼 with 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 we have 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 ).
 For example, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is increasing on the interval
[0,∞) and decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0].
 A function is said to be monotonic on an interval 𝐼 if it is
strictly increasing or strictly decreasing on 𝐼
Monotonicity Theorem:

 If 𝑓(𝑥) is so that 𝑓′(𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥 in the interval 𝐼,

then 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing on 𝐼. If 𝑓′(𝑥) < 0 for all 𝑥 in 𝐼,
then 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing on 𝐼.

 The proof of the Monotonicity Theorem uses the Mean

Value Theorem. The idea is that if 𝑓′(𝑥) > 0 on 𝐼, and if
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 on 𝐼, then there is a point 𝑐 between 𝑥1 and 𝑥2
𝑓 𝑥2 −𝑓(𝑥1 )
with = 𝑓′(𝑐). But if 𝑓′(𝑐) > 0 , we must have
𝑥2 −𝑥1
𝑓 𝑥2 − 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 0 , since the denominator 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 > 0.

 So 𝑓 𝑥1 < 𝑓(𝑥2 ). Hence 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing. A similar

proof works for 𝑓(𝑥) decreasing when 𝑓′(𝑐)< 0 on 𝐼.
Concavity :
We say that 𝑓(𝑥) is concave up on an interval 𝐼 iff
𝑓′′(𝑥) > 0 on 𝐼. We say that 𝑓(𝑥) is concave down on 𝐼
iff 𝑓′′(𝑥) < 0 on 𝐼. If 𝑐 is a point in the domain of
𝑓(𝑥), and if 𝑓(𝑥) has one type of concavity on (𝑎, 𝑐) and
the other type on (𝑐, 𝑏), then we say that the point
(𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)) is a point of inflection of 𝑓 𝑥 .
Example
Evaluate Monotonicity of 𝑓 𝑥 and hence draw the graph.
a. 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥
b. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 6
−3𝑥 2 +4𝑥+7
c. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 −1
Solution a.
Given 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 → 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
cos 𝑥 → 𝑓 ′ ′(𝑥) = −sin 𝑥 thus, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 = 0 →
′
𝑥 = 𝜋 and 𝑓 ′ ′(𝑥) = −sin 𝑥 → 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −sin 𝜋
′
→ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0, hence 𝑓 𝑥 is concave down at 𝑥 = 𝜋.
4.5 Velocity speed and accelerations
NOTE.
 Velocity refers to the speed and direction of an object.
 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity per unit
time.
There is the relationship between
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠 , 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣) and 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑎)
Thus
change of distance 𝑑𝑠
1. 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡
change of 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑2 𝑠
2. 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2
𝑑𝑡
Example
If a particle is moving in space with a velocity function,
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 − 8 where 𝑡 is in seconds and velocity is
measured in meters per second.
a. At what time(s), if any, is the particle at rest?
b. What is the acceleration of the particle at 𝑡 = 3
seconds?
Solution
a. 𝑣 𝑡 = 0 → 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 − 8 = 0 → 𝑡 = 2 velocity become
zero.
𝑑2 𝑠 𝑑(𝑣 𝑡 ) 𝑑(𝑡 2 −2𝑡−8)
b. = = = 2𝑡 − 2, at 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
3, 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 4𝑚/𝑠 2
Example 2
A soccer ball is kicked into the air so that the path of its
flight can be modeled by the function, where 𝑡 is time in
seconds and 𝑥 is meters above ground. X 𝑡 = −4.9𝑡 2 +
9.8𝑡 + 5.
a) At what time will the ball land?
b) What is the maximum height the ball will reach and at
what time will this occur?
c) What is the acceleration (with direction) of the ball
at 𝑡 = 3 s?
Solution
Given X 𝑡 = −4.9𝑡 2 + 9.8𝑡 + 5.
a. At what time will the ball land? This occurs when
X 𝑡 = 0, that is at
𝑡 = 2.421𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.
a. What is the maximum height the ball will reach and at
what time will this occur? This occurs when velocity is
𝑑(𝑋 𝑡 )
zero: = −9.8𝑡 + 9.8 = 0 thus 𝑡 = 1. For
𝑑𝑡
maximum height substitute into the equation : X 𝑡 =
9.9m
𝑑 2 (𝑋 𝑡 )
b. The acceleration of the ball at 𝑡 = 3s: =
𝑑𝑡 2
9.8𝑚
− Thus at 𝑡 = 3 the ball fall down at
𝑠2
acceleration of 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2
Question
An electron moves on the path 𝑋 𝑡 = 𝑒 2𝑡−1 − 1 with
respect to time 𝑡 in seconds.
a. What is the acceleration of the electron at t = 10 s?
b. At what time(s), is the electron at rest?
c. Show that, the maximum speed of the electrons is not
well defined.
4.6: Implicit differentiation:
In this study we look at how we might differentiate
functions of y with respect to x.
Consider the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 8 = 0.
This equation have more than one variable differentiated
to a fixed variable 𝑥 thus, this kind of a function is well
defined as implicit function.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
From a give example 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 −4+ 5 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 4−2𝑥
Thus =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦+5
Questions 2. Sketch the curve of
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) if and find the
1. Find of a curve if
𝑑𝑥
equation of tangent,
a. 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 − 2𝑥 + 𝑦 +
a. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25, at 𝑥 = 5
1 =0
b. 𝑒 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 = 0
b. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 −
c. ysin 𝑥 + 𝑥cos 𝑦 = 0
30 = 0, at 𝑥 = 4
𝑒 2𝑥
d. 𝑦2
+ 2𝑥𝑦 = 0

e. ln 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 4 𝑦 2 − tan 𝑥 = 0
5.0: Integrals
5.1: Interpretations and properties of definite integrals
 Integral simply is the antiderivative of a function.
 The integral sign used for this operation is a
stretched-out S ( ). this is well explained by
Riemann sum as we shall discuss in the following
section.
 The shape comes from the word sum.
𝑏
 The whole expression is the integral, i.e 𝑎
𝑓
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
where 𝑏 is upper bound and 𝑎 is lower bound
 The function inside the integral sign is called the
integrand, i.e 𝑓 𝑥
5.1: Interpretations and properties of definite integrals
cont…
Thus,
𝑏 𝑏
1. 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑏 𝑎
2. 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
3. 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
4. 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏
5. 𝑎
𝑘𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∀𝑘 ∈ ℝ
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
6. 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ± 𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
7. −𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 0 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 if it is even and
𝑎
−𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 if it is odd
5.2 Computation of Riemann sums
5.2.1:Definite integral using right Riemann sums with
uniform partitions
Steps.
𝑏−𝑎
1. Calculate the width of the rectangle (∆𝑥 ): ∆𝑥 = :𝑏 >
𝑛
𝑎, 𝑎 is lower bound and 𝑏 is upper bound.
2. Locate right end point of each the rectangle: 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 +
∆𝑥 . 𝑖
3. Compute the right Riemann sum: 𝐴 = 𝑛𝑖=1 ∆𝑥 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 )
Example.
Approximate
4
1. 0 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 , use right Riemann sum with 4
subinterval interval.
9 𝑥 2 +1
2. 1 ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 , use right Riemann sum with 4 equal interval
Solution.
4
We need to approximate 0 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 using right
Riemann sum with 4 subinterval interval.
Steps.
𝑏−𝑎
1. Calculate the width of the rectangle (∆𝑥 ): ∆𝑥 = =
𝑛
4−0
=1:
4
a = 0, b = 4.
2. Locate right end point of each the rectangle: 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 +
∆𝑥 . 𝑖
𝑥1 = 0 + 1 × 1 = 1,
𝑥2 = 0 + 1 × 2 = 2,
𝑥3 = 0 + 1 × 3 = 3,
𝑥4 = 0 + 1 × 4 = 4.
 𝑛
3. Compute the right Riemann sum: 𝐴 = 𝑖=1 ∆𝑥 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 )
𝑛
𝐴= 𝑖=1 ∆𝑥 𝑓 𝑥𝑖 = ∆𝑥 𝑓 𝑥1 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 𝑥2 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 𝑥3 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 𝑥4 ,

= 1𝑓 1 + 1𝑓 2 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 3 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 4 ,
= 1 × 3 + 1 × 4 + 1 × 3 + 1 × 0 = 10.
Hence;
4
0
4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 ≈ 10. See the area of rectangle
under 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2
5.2.2:Definite integral using left Riemann sums with
uniform partitions
Steps.
𝑏−𝑎
1. Calculate the width of the rectangle (∆𝑥 ): ∆𝑥 = :𝑏 >
𝑛
𝑎, 𝑎 is lower bound and 𝑏 is upper bound: 𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑏.
2. Locate right end point of each the rectangle: 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 +
∆𝑥 . (𝑖 − 1)
3. Compute the right Riemann sum: 𝐴 = 𝑛𝑖=1 ∆𝑥 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 )
Example.
Approximate
4
1. 0 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥, use left Riemann sum with 3 equal
interval
9 𝑥 2 +1
2. 1 ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 , use right Riemann sum with 4 equal interval
Solution.
4
We need to approximate 0
4𝑥− 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 using left Riemann
sum with 4 subinterval interval.
Steps.
𝑏−𝑎
1. Calculate the width of the rectangle (∆𝑥 ): ∆𝑥 = =
𝑛
4−0
=1:
4
a = 0, b = 4.
2. Locate right end point of each the rectangle: 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 +
∆𝑥 . 𝑖
𝑥1 = 0 + 1 × (1 − 1) = 0,
𝑥2 = 0 + 1 × (2 − 1) = 1,
𝑥3 = 0 + 1 × (3 − 1) = 2,
𝑥4 = 0 + 1 × (4 − 1) = 3.
 𝑛
3. Compute the left Riemann sum: 𝐴 = 𝑖=1 ∆𝑥 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 )

𝐴=
𝑛
𝑖=1 ∆𝑥 𝑓 𝑥𝑖 = ∆𝑥 𝑓 𝑥1 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 𝑥2 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 𝑥3 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 𝑥4
,
= 1𝑓 0 + 1𝑓 1 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 2 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 3 ,
= 1 × 0 + 1 × 3 + 1 × 4 + 1 × 3 = 10.
Hence;
4
0
4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 ≈ 10. See the area of rectangle
under 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2
5.2.2:Definite integral using Midpoint Riemann sums with uniform
partitions
Steps.
𝑏−𝑎
1. Calculate the width of the rectangle (∆𝑥 ): ∆𝑥 = : 𝑏 > 𝑎, 𝑎 is
𝑛
lower bound and 𝑏 is upper bound: 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏.
2. Locate right end point of each the rectangle: 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 + ∆𝑥 . (𝑖)
𝑥 +𝑥
3. Compute the right Riemann sum: 𝐴 = 𝑛𝑖=1 ∆𝑥 𝑓( 𝑖 𝑖+1 )
2
Example.
Approximate
4
1. 0 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥, use Midpoint Riemann sum with 3 equal interval
9 𝑥 2 +1
2. 1 ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 , use right Riemann sum with 4 equal interval
Solution.
4
We need to approximate 0
4𝑥− 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 using Midpoin Riemann
sum with 4 subinterval interval.
Steps.
𝑏−𝑎 4−0
1. Calculate the width of the rectangle (∆𝑥 ): ∆𝑥 = = =
𝑛 4
1:
a = 0, b = 4.
2. Locate right end point of each the rectangle: 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 + ∆𝑥 . 𝑖
𝑥0 = 0 + 1 × (0) = 0,
𝑥1 = 0 + 1 × (1) = 1,
𝑥2 = 0 + 1 × (2) = 2,
𝑥3 = 0 + 1 × (3) = 3,
𝑥4 = 0 + 1 × (4) = 4.
 𝑛
3. Compute the left Riemann sum: 𝐴 = 𝑖=1 ∆𝑥 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 )
𝑛 𝑥𝑖 +𝑥𝑖+1
𝐴= 𝑖=1 ∆𝑥 𝑓( ).
2
𝑥0 +𝑥1 𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑥2 +𝑥3
= ∆𝑥 𝑓 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 +
2 2 2
𝑥3 +𝑥4
∆𝑥 𝑓
2
,
= 1𝑓 0.5 + 1𝑓 1.5 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 2.5 + ∆𝑥 𝑓 3.5 ,
1.75 + 3.75 + 3.75 + 1.75 = 11.
Hence;
4
0
4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 ≈ 11. See the area of rectangle
under 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2
 Use Midpoint, right and left Riemann sum with 5
subinterval approximate

6 3 𝑑𝑥,
1. 1
1 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥
10 2𝑥 2 +1
2. 0 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 , use right Riemann sum with 4 equal
interval
5.3: Anti-derivatives
NOTE:
𝑑
1. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 then 𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑐.
𝑏
2. 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑐 ]𝑏𝑎 = 𝑓 𝑏 + 𝑐 −
𝑓 𝑎 +𝑐
5.3: Anti-derivatives cont…
5.3.1: Integration of linear function.
𝑛+1 𝑑𝑦
Consider 𝑦 = 𝑥 → = 𝑛 + 1 𝑥 𝑛 → 𝑑𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥

𝑛 + 1 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥
→ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑛 + 1 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑦 = 𝑛 + 1 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥,

𝑦 𝑥 𝑛+1
→ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = = + 𝑐,
𝑛+1 𝑛+1

𝑥 𝑛+1
→ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐,
𝑛+1
Example
Evaluate
3 4
1. 1
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 4
2. 0
3𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1 − 2𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
Solution
3 4 𝑥 4+1 𝑥5 35
1
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐 = [ + 𝑐]13 = +𝑐 −
4+1 5 5

15
+ 𝑐 = 48.4,
5
5.3.2: Integration of trigonometric function
Let 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 ∀𝑐 ∈ ℝ
𝑑𝑦
→ = cos 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑦 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑑𝑦 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
𝑑𝑥
→ 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 → sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 →
cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝑐.
Then
1. cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝑐
2. sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐
3. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑐
4. −cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = cosec 𝑥 + 𝑐
Recall derivative functions.
5.3.3: Integration of exponential functions
𝑑𝑦
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑐 ∀𝑐 ∈ ℝ → = 𝑒 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 →
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

→𝑦= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐 .
5.3.4: Integration of logarithmic functions
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 + 𝑐 then
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= → 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 →
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

1 1
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 𝑐.
𝑥 𝑥
5.3.4: Techniques used on definite integrals selected
examples.
1 3𝑥
1. 0
𝑒 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝑑𝜃
2.
4
ln
2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1. 𝜋
1+sin 5𝜃
1 1+𝑥 2 2
𝜋 𝑥2 2 𝑑𝑥
3. sin 𝑑𝑥 2. 1 9+𝑥 2
−𝜋 𝜋
1 1 5𝑑𝑥
4. 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3. −1 9+4𝑥+𝑥 2
0
1 3 3𝑥 4 1+2𝑥+_𝑥 2
5. 0
𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 4. 1 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
5 3 𝜋 cos 2𝜃𝑑𝜃
6. 1
((2𝑥 + 1) + 1)𝑑𝑥 5. 0 1+sin 5𝜃
2 𝑥 1 1 2𝑥
7. 1
𝑒 ln
𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 6. 𝑒 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋 1 ±𝑑𝑥
8. 𝜋 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 7.
4 0 1−𝑥 2
𝑏 𝑝 1 𝑑𝑥
9. 𝑎 𝑝𝑥+1
𝑑𝑥 ∀𝑎,𝑏,𝑝 ∈ ℝ and 8. 0 𝑥 𝑥 2 −1
1 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 < 𝑏. 9. 0 1+𝑥 2
2 2𝑥 2 2 3 1
10. 1 2𝑥+1
𝑑𝑥 10. 𝑥 ln 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥2
5.3.4.1 Substitution techniques
examples
1 3𝑥
1. 0 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
4 2𝑥
2. 1
ln
1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝑥2
3. −𝜋
sin 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
5 3
4. 1
((2𝑥 + 1) + 1)𝑑𝑥
Solution1
𝑑𝑢
let𝑢 = 3𝑥 → =
𝑑𝑥
1 3𝑥 1 𝑢1 1 𝑢 1 3𝑥 1
3, 0
𝑒 𝑑𝑥 → 0 𝑒 𝑑𝑢 → 𝑒 → [ 𝑒 ]0
3 3 3
1 3 1
= 𝑒 − ≈ 6.36.
3 3
NOTE: attend the class or the further solution
5.3.4.2 Integration by part
1
1. 0 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 3 3𝑥
2. 0 𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 1
3. 1 𝑒 ln 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2 3 1
4. 1 𝑥 ln 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
NOTE: = 𝑢 + 𝑣 → 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑑𝑢 → 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢
→ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑢 → 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣𝑑𝑢.
Solution 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑣 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
1 1
Then 0 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 0 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
[𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥] 01 ≈ 0.38177
NOTE: attend the class or the further solution
5.3.4.3 Integration by inverse trigonometric function
Consider the derivative of inverse trigonometric function.
𝑑𝑦 1 1 1
𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 → sin 𝑦 = 𝑥 → = = = .
𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑦 1−sin2 𝑦 1−𝑥 2

1 −1 𝑥 + 𝑐.
Thus, 2
𝑑𝑥 = sin
1−𝑥

−1 −1 𝑥 + 𝑐,
2
𝑑𝑥 = cos
1−𝑥

1
𝑑𝑥 = sec −1 𝑥 + 𝑐,
𝑥 𝑥 2 −1

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑐,
1+𝑥 2
Other techniques are
Integration by trigonometric substitution, logarithmic
function, Integration by partial fraction, reduction, etc.
𝜋 𝑑𝑥
1. 𝜋
2 1+sin 𝑥
𝜋 𝑑𝑥
2. 𝜋
2 1−5 cos 𝑥
𝜋 𝑑𝑥
3. 𝜋
2 2+3 cos 5𝑥
𝑏 𝑝
4. 𝑎 𝑝𝑥+1
𝑑𝑥 ∀𝑎,𝑏,𝑝 ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 < 𝑏.
2 2𝑥 2
5. 1 2𝑥+1
𝑑𝑥
𝜋
6. 𝜋 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4
4 1+2𝑥+_𝑥 2
7. 1 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
5.3.4.5 Integration by trigonometric substitution
Recall half angle formulae
𝜃 2 𝜃 2 𝜃
Let 𝑡 = tan → 𝑑𝑡 = sec 𝑑𝜃 → 1 + tan 𝑑𝜃 = 1 +
2 2 2
𝑡 2 𝑑𝜃
2𝑡 1−𝑡 2
Thus, dt = 1 + 𝑡 2 𝑑𝜃, sin 𝜃 = 2 , cos 𝜃 = 2
1+𝑡 1+𝑡
𝜋 𝑑𝑥
1. 𝜋
2 1+sin 𝑥
𝜋 𝑑𝑥
2. 𝜋
2 1−5 cos 𝑥
𝜋 𝑑𝑥
3. 𝜋
2 2+3 cos 5𝑥
NOTE: Some times partial fractions may be used in
𝜋 𝑑𝑥
solving problems example 𝜋
2 4 cos 𝑥−3 cos 𝑥
Solution. 1
𝑥 1 2𝑥
Let 𝑡 = tan → 𝑑𝑡 = sec 𝑑𝜃
2 2 2
1 2𝑥 1
→ (1 + tan 𝑑𝜃) = (1 + 𝑡 2 𝑑𝜃),
2 2 2
2 2𝑡
Thus, 2dt = 1 + 𝑡 𝑑𝑥, sin 𝑥 =
1+𝑡 2
3𝜋 3 2𝑑𝑡 3 3
4 𝑑𝑥 4
𝜋 1+𝑡2 4
𝜋 2𝑑𝑡 4
𝜋 2𝑑𝑡
𝜋 = 𝜋 2𝑡 = 𝜋 = 𝜋 =
1+sin 𝑥 1+ 2 1+2𝑡+𝑡 2 (1+𝑡)2
2 2 1+𝑡 2 2
3
2 4𝜋
−[ ] = 4,
𝜋
1+𝑡
2
5.3.4.5 Integration by logarithmic function.
Consider
𝑏 𝑝 𝑏 𝑑(𝑝𝑥+1) 𝑏,
𝑎
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 = [ln(𝑝𝑥 + 1)] 𝑎
𝑝𝑥+1 𝑝𝑥+1
𝑝𝑎+1
= ln 𝑝𝑎 + 1 − ln 𝑝𝑏 + 1 = ln ,
𝑝𝑏+1
𝑝𝑎+1
The solution is value if > 0,
𝑝𝑏+1
5
3
𝜋
𝜋 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 can be solved by
4
5 5
3
𝜋 3
𝜋 sin 𝑥
𝜋 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 𝑑𝑥,=
cos 𝑥
4 4
5 −𝑑 cos 𝑥 5
3
𝜋 𝑑𝑥 3
𝜋
𝜋 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [− ln cos 𝑥] , 𝜋
cos 𝑥
4 4
5
3
𝜋
= [ln sec 𝑥] ≈ 0.721.
𝜋
4
QUESTIONS
Evaluate
0.9 𝑥 −1
1. 0.1 ln 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

10 2𝑥 2
2. 1 𝑥 3 −4
𝑑𝑥

𝑏 2𝑥+1
3. 𝑎 𝑥 2 −2𝑥+4
𝑑𝑥
5.5 Indeterminate Forms and L'Hopital's Rule.
L'Hôpital's rule states that for any
functions f(x) and g(x) which are
Differentiable on an open interval I except possibly at a
𝑓(𝑥)
point c contained in I (𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 does not exist and
𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓′ (𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 ′ does exists) then 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 =
𝑔 (𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓′ (𝑥)
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 ′ ∀x ≠ c
𝑔 (𝑥)

The rule helps to evacuate the Indeterminate problems

±∞ 0
like 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 0 × ∞ 𝑜𝑟 ± ∞ − ∞𝑜𝑟 1∞ 𝑜𝑓 00
±∞ 0
5.5 Indeterminate Forms and L'Hopital's Rule cont…
Example.

Apply L'Hopital's Rule

evaluate.
sin 𝑥 ln 𝑥
1. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0
𝑥 1. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞
𝑥
cos 𝑥
2. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 +𝑒 𝑥
𝑥 2. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞
ln 𝑥− cos 𝑥
𝑥2
3. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥 2 +5𝑥+1
𝑒 3. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞
3𝑥 2 −1
𝑥+2
4. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→−2 5𝑡 4 −4𝑡 2 −1
2+3𝑥+𝑥 2 4. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→1
10−𝑡−9𝑡 3
Solution
sin 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓′ 𝑥
1. Let 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0 → 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0 ′ =
𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔 𝑥

cos 𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0 = 1.
1

𝑥 2 +5𝑥+1 𝑓 𝑥
3. Let 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ →
3𝑥 2 −1 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑓′ 𝑥 2𝑥+5 𝑓′′ 𝑥 2
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ ′ = → 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ ′′ =
𝑔 𝑥 6𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 6

𝑥 2 +5𝑥+1 1
Thus 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ 2 =
3𝑥 −1 3
6.0 Application of integrals:
6.1 Area of a region between two curves
Area of region between two curves can be calculated by
the formula
𝑏
Area = 𝑎
[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
Example.
1. Sketch the region and find area between 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 and 𝑓 𝑥 = 0
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 10.
The area between the two curves
10 10 1 2 10
is 0 [𝑥 − 0]𝑑𝑥= 0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥= [ 𝑥 ]0
2
Hence Area of the region is 50 unit sq.
6.1 Area of a region between two curves cont…
2. Find the area between two curves 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 and
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥3 within the interval [0,1].
3. Calculate the total area of the region bounded between
the curves
𝑦 = 1 + 6𝑥 – 𝑥2 and 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥2.
4. Calculate the area of the region bounded by the curves
𝑦2 + 4𝑥 – 𝑦 = 0 and the straight line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Solution 3
To calculate the total area of the region bounded between
the curves
𝑦 = 1 + 6𝑥 – 𝑥2 and 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥2.
Limits at the intersection of the curve:
1 + 6𝑥 – 𝑥2 = 1 + 𝑥2 → 6𝑥 − 2𝑥2 = 0 → 𝑥 6 − 2𝑥 = 0
→ 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
3
The area between curves is 0
(1 + 6𝑥 – 𝑥2 −(1 + 𝑥2)𝑑𝑥
3 2 2 3
→ 0
(6𝑥 – 2𝑥2)𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 21 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑞.
3 0
6.2 The disc method volume
Let 𝑅 be the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑥 =
𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0. Suppose we form a solid by revolving it
around the 𝑥-axis. The volume of the solid is given by:
𝑏
𝑉=𝜋 (𝑓(𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
And
If 𝑅 be the region bounded by 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦), 𝑦 = 𝑎, 𝑦 =
𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 0. Suppose we form a solid by revolving it
around the 𝑦-axis. The volume of the solid is given by:

𝑏
𝑉=𝜋 (𝑓(𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦
𝑎
Example
1. Let 𝑅 be a region bounded 𝑏𝑦 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 = −2,
𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥-axis. Use disc method find the volume of the
solid obtained by rotating the region 𝑅 about 𝑥-axis.
2. Let 𝑅 be a region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5,
𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 4 and the 𝑥-axis. Use disc method find the
volume of the solid obtained by rotating the
region R about 𝑥-axis.
3. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 on the interval 𝑦 = 0 a𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 1. Use
disc method find the volume of the solid rotatedaround 𝑦-
axis.
Solution.1
Given 𝑅 be a region bounded 𝑏𝑦 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 = −2,
𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥-axis. Volume of the solid obtained by
rotating the region 𝑅 about 𝑥-axis:
3
2 2
1 53
𝑉=𝜋 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋[ 𝑥 ]−2 = 55𝜋 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡.
−2 5

Attend the class for more solutions.

6.3 The Shell Method
𝑏
Volume between parallel axis, 𝑉 = 2𝜋 𝑎 𝑟(𝑥)ℎ(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
1. Find the volume of the solid formed by rotating the region
bounded by
𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 about 𝑦 = 2 using the Shell Method.
2. Find the volume of the solid formed by rotating the region
bounded by
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 about the y-axis.
Solution. 1
Since our shells are parallel to the axis of rotation, we must consider
the radius and height functions in terms of y. The radius of a sample
shell will be
𝑟(𝑦) = 2 − 𝑦 and the height of a sample shell will be ℎ(𝑦) = 𝑦 −
𝑦 2 . The y bounds for the region will be 𝑦 = 0 to 𝑦 = 1 resulting in
the integral
1
2
𝜋
𝑉 = 2𝜋 2 − 𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
0 2
5. Differential Equations:
5.1 introduction to D.E
 The equation contains with derivatives of the variable
𝑑𝑥
 The equation in form of =𝑓 𝑥 ±𝑓 𝑦 ±
𝑑𝑦
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
a. = 𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 +1 1
b. 𝑑𝑦
=
𝑦+1 𝑥𝑦
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
c. 𝑑𝑥
+ + 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
=0
Where a and b are first order D.E, c is second order D.E
Differential Equations can be classified as
Ordinary differential equations (ODE) is an
equation that contains only one independent
variable and one or more of its derivatives with
respect to the variable.
 Partial differential equations
Others are
 Linear differential equations
 Nonlinear differential equations
 homogeneous differential equations
types of first order differential equations
This includes separable, linear, exact, homogeneous and
Bernoulli D.E.

I. Separation of the variable

The differential equation which variable can be
separated such that
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 𝑦 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
→ = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
𝑓 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
→ = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
𝑓 𝑦
Examples
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦+1 2 𝑑𝑦
1. = 3𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑦 2. = 3. 𝑦 =𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥
Solution
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1. = 3𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑦 → = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑥3 + C →𝑦=
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 −𝑦
ln 𝐴𝑥 3 .

𝑑𝑦 𝑦+1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2. = → = →
𝑑𝑥 𝑥−1 𝑦+1 𝑥−1
ln(𝑦 + 1) = ln 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)
→ 𝑦 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1) → 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 − 1(𝐴 + 1)

𝑑𝑦 1 1
3. 𝑦 2=𝑥 → 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥𝑑𝑥 → 𝑦3 = 𝑥2 + 𝐶 →
𝑑𝑥 3 2
3 3 2
𝑦 = 𝑥 +𝐶
2
NOTE:
If there is particular solution i.e. 𝑦 = 0 at 𝑥 = 1 Solution1 will be
𝑦 = ln 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 = 0 at 𝑥 = 0 solution2 will be 𝑦 = −𝑥 and
3
𝑦 = 0 at 𝑥 = 2 solution 3 will be 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 6
2
Questions.
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑥
1. Find the general solution of =
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 +1
2 𝑑𝑦
2. Solve (1 + 𝑥 ) + 𝑥𝑦 = 0, and find the
𝑑𝑥
particular solution when 𝑦(0) = 2.
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
3. Solve = , and find the particular solution
𝑑𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
when 𝑦(1) = 3
𝑑𝑦
4. Find the general solution of 1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 (𝑦 −
𝑑𝑥
II. Linear differential equation
𝑑𝑦
The differential equation of the form + 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥), ∀𝑃,𝑄 ∈
𝑑𝑥
ℝ or
𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑄(𝑦), ∀𝑃,𝑄 ∈ ℝis called the first order linear
𝑑𝑦
differential equation.
𝑑𝑦
Equation + 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥) can be solved by multiplying by the
𝑑𝑥
other function of 𝑥 i.e. 𝑔(𝑥) such that
𝑑𝑦
𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑃𝑔(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥), this 𝑔(𝑥) is known as the
𝑑𝑥
𝑃𝑑𝑥
integration factor (IF) normally 𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒
𝑃𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑃𝑑𝑥 𝑃𝑑𝑥 𝑑(𝑦𝑒 𝑃𝑑𝑥 )
That is 𝑒 + 𝑃𝑒 𝑦 =𝑒 𝑄 𝑥 → =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑄 𝑥 𝑒 𝑃𝑑𝑥 → 𝑦𝑒 𝑃𝑑𝑥 =
𝑄 𝑥 𝑒 𝑃𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑦 = 𝑒− 𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝑄 𝑥 𝑒 𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥.
Examples
1. Find the general solution of the differential equation
𝑥𝑑𝑦 − (𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑦
2. Find the derivative of + y sec 𝑥 = tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
3. − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 6𝑥 2 = 0
𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑦
4. 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑥𝑦 =1 at 𝑦 1 = 2 and 𝑥 > 0.
5. 3𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solution
1. 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 1
→ − = 2𝑥 →𝑃=− , 𝑄 𝑥 = 2𝑥,
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑥
1
−𝑥𝑑𝑥 1
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒 = 𝑒 − ln 𝑥 = ,
𝑥
1
Thus 𝑦 = 𝑥 2𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 𝐶 at 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 1the
𝑥
equation is 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2
Exact differential equation in form of
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦: 𝑑𝑓 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
The equation 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0 helps to
check whether the equation is EDE .
The differential equation 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 is exact if
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
and only if =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Example: solve the equation
1. 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑦 = 0
2. 𝑥 1 − sin 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 − (cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0
3. 3𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
4. 3𝑥 2 𝑦−)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 3 + 6𝑦 − 𝑦 2) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solutions
1. 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑦 = 0
→ 𝑀 = 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥, 𝑁 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 1
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
→ = 2𝑦, = 2𝑦 thus 𝑀𝑑𝑥 = 𝑁𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
→ (𝑦 2 −2𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = (2𝑥𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑦 → 𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑐 =
𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 + 𝑐
Thus 𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 = 0

2. 𝑥 1 − sin 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 − (cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
→ = 1 − sin 𝑦 , = 1 − sin 𝑦 thus
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
(cos 𝑦 − cos 𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥(1 − sin 𝑦)𝑑𝑦
Thus 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑥 = 𝑜
First order homogenous differential equation
A function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be homogeneous of degree n if
the equation 𝑓(𝑧𝑥, 𝑧𝑦) = 𝑧 𝑛 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦). The 𝑛 = 1 is First
order homogenous differential equation.
Example 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 is homogeneous of degree 2
since
𝑓 𝑧𝑥, 𝑧𝑦 = 𝑧𝑥 2 + 𝑧𝑦 2 = 𝑧 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑧 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦).
Homogeneous equation can be solved by letting 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑢
such that 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥𝑑𝑢 + 𝑢𝑑𝑥.
Example solve the following homogeneous differential
equation
1. 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
2. 2 𝑥 + 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 1 = 0.
3. 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
4. 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 = 0
Solution
1. (𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0 Let 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑢 such that
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥𝑑𝑢 + 𝑢𝑑𝑥.
The the equation will be (𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑢 2 )𝑑𝑥 +
𝑥(𝑥𝑢)(𝑥𝑑𝑢 + 𝑢𝑑𝑥) = 0
(𝑥 2 −𝑥 2 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑢(𝑥𝑑𝑢 + 𝑢𝑑𝑥) = 0
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑢𝑑𝑢 + 𝑥 2 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑢2
𝑢𝑑𝑢 = − → = − ln 𝑥 + 𝑐 →
𝑥 2
𝑢2 = −2 ln 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑦 2 2 2 𝐴
( ) = −2 ln 𝐴𝑥 → 𝑦 = 2𝑥 ln .
𝑥 𝑥
Bernoulli differential equations
𝑑𝑦
Equation inform of + 𝑝 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑔 𝑥 𝑦 𝑛 …………(1)
𝑑𝑥
−𝑛 𝑑𝑦
The equation can be rearranged to 𝑦 +
𝑑𝑥
𝑝 𝑥 𝑦1−𝑛 = 𝑔 𝑥 ……..(2)
Then letting 𝑣 = 𝑦1−𝑛 → 𝑑𝑣 = 1 − 𝑛 𝑦 −𝑛 𝑑𝑦
𝑦𝑛
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑣…………..(3) By substituting (3) into(2)
1−𝑛
𝑦𝑛
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑦 −𝑛 1−𝑛
+𝑝 𝑥 𝑣 =𝑔 𝑥 → +𝑝 𝑥 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑥 (1−𝑛)𝑑𝑥
𝑔 𝑥 :
1 − 𝑛 ∈ ℝ, 𝑣 = 𝑦1−𝑛
This is linear form and can be solved easily.
Example
𝑑𝑦 4
1. + 𝑦 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 2 = 0, 𝑦 −1 = 2.
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
2. + 5𝑦 − 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑦 −2 = 0, 𝑦 0 = 2.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
3. 6 − 2𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 4 = 0, 𝑦 0 = −2.
𝑑𝑥
Solution
𝑑𝑦 4 3 2 𝑑𝑦 4 3 2 −2 𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦−𝑥 𝑦 =0→ + 𝑦 =𝑥 𝑦 →𝑦 +
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4 −1
𝑦 = 𝑥3.
𝑥
−𝑑𝑣 4
Let 𝑣 = 𝑦 −1 → 𝑑𝑣 = −𝑦 −2 𝑑𝑦 → + 𝑣 = 𝑥3 →
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑣 4
− 𝑣 = −𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1
1 𝑑𝑥
This is linear D.E: 𝑃 = 𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒 𝑋
𝑋
−16
Then the solution is 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑥 4 (1+16 ln2)