1. Illustrate Hadoop ecosystem with its Architecture in detail.

The Hadoop ecosystem is a collection of open-source software tools and frameworks that work
together to process, store, and analyze big data. The core components of the Hadoop ecosystem
include the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) for storage and the MapReduce
programming model for distributed processing. Here's an overview of the key components and
architecture of the Hadoop ecosystem:

Core Components:
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS):

Description: A distributed file system that provides scalable and reliable storage for large
amounts of data across multiple nodes. HDFS breaks large files into smaller blocks (default size
is 128 MB or 256 MB) and distributes them across the cluster.
MapReduce:

Description: A programming model and processing engine for distributed computing.

MapReduce divides a processing task into two phases—Map and Reduce—and executes them
in parallel across the nodes of a Hadoop cluster.
Additional Components:
Hadoop YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator):

Description: A resource management layer that enables multiple data processing engines to
share resources in a Hadoop cluster. YARN separates the resource management functionality
from the processing logic, allowing different applications to run simultaneously.
Apache Hive:

Description: A data warehouse infrastructure built on top of Hadoop that provides a SQL-like
query language called HiveQL. Hive enables users to query and analyze data stored in HDFS
using familiar SQL syntax.
Apache HBase:

Description: A distributed, scalable, and NoSQL database that is designed to handle large
volumes of sparse data. HBase is suitable for random, real-time read/write access to big data.
Apache Pig:

Description: A high-level scripting language for expressing data analysis programs. Pig scripts
are translated into a series of MapReduce jobs that can be executed on a Hadoop cluster.
Apache Spark:

Description: A fast and general-purpose cluster computing system that supports in-memory data
processing. Spark can be used for various tasks, including batch processing, interactive queries,
and machine learning.
Apache Sqoop:

Description: A tool for efficiently transferring bulk data between Apache Hadoop and
structured data stores such as relational databases. Sqoop simplifies the process of importing
and exporting data.

Apache Flume:
Description: A distributed, reliable, and available service for efficiently collecting, aggregating,
and moving large amounts of log data or event data to HDFS.
Apache Oozie:

Description: A workflow scheduler system used to manage Apache Hadoop jobs. Oozie allows
the coordination of various Hadoop jobs to create complex data processing workflows.
Apache ZooKeeper:

Description: A distributed coordination service that provides distributed synchronization and

configuration management. ZooKeeper helps in maintaining configuration information,
naming, and providing distributed locks.
Hadoop Ecosystem Architecture:
The architecture of the Hadoop ecosystem is based on the master-slave model, where a master
node manages the overall coordination, and multiple slave nodes handle the distributed
processing of data.

NameNode (Master): Manages the metadata of the file system, including information about the
structure of the HDFS (e.g., file names, permissions, and block locations).

DataNodes (Slaves): Store the actual data in the form of blocks and are responsible for reading
and writing data as instructed by the NameNode.

ResourceManager (Master): Part of YARN, manages the allocation of resources in the cluster
and schedules applications.

NodeManagers (Slaves): Part of YARN, execute tasks on individual nodes and monitor their
resource usage.

JobTracker (Deprecated): In older versions, JobTracker was responsible for managing and
scheduling MapReduce jobs. In newer versions, this role is handled by ResourceManager and
per-job ApplicationMaster.

TaskTrackers (Deprecated): In older versions, TaskTrackers were responsible for executing

MapReduce tasks. In newer versions, this role is handled by NodeManagers.

This architecture enables the distributed storage and processing of data across the Hadoop
cluster, providing scalability and fault tolerance.

Refer Text Book Page No :68

2. Compare and contrast RDBMS and Hadoop/HDFS.
RDMS (Relational Database Management System): RDBMS is an information
management system, which is based on a data model.In RDBMS tables are used for
information storage. Each row of the table represents a record and column represents an
attribute of data. Organization of data and their manipulation processes are different in
RDBMS from other databases. RDBMS ensures ACID (atomicity, consistency, integrity,
durability) properties required for designing a database. The purpose of RDBMS is to store,
manage, and retrieve data as quickly and reliably as possible.
Hadoop: It is an open-source software framework used for storing data and running
applications on a group of commodity hardware. It has large storage capacity and high
processing power. It can manage multiple concurrent processes at the same time. It is used in
predictive analysis, data mining and machine learning. It can handle both structured and
unstructured form of data. It is more flexible in storing, processing, and managing data than
traditional RDBMS. Unlike traditional systems, Hadoop enables multiple analytical processes
on the same data at the same time. It supports scalability very flexibly.

Refer Text Book Page No :72

3. What are the various distributed system challenges and explain in brief how Hadoop tried to
address them.

Distributed systems, including those used in big data processing frameworks like Hadoop, face
various challenges due to their distributed and parallel nature. Here are some common
challenges and how Hadoop attempts to address them:

Data Distribution and Replication:

Challenge: Ensuring efficient and balanced data distribution across nodes while avoiding
hotspots.
Hadoop's Approach: Hadoop's HDFS addresses this challenge by splitting large files into
smaller blocks and distributing them across the cluster. Additionally, HDFS employs data
replication to ensure fault tolerance and availability.
Fault Tolerance:

Challenge: Nodes in a distributed system may fail, leading to data loss or processing
interruptions.
Hadoop's Approach: Hadoop uses data replication to store multiple copies of each block across
different nodes. If a node fails, the system can retrieve the data from one of the replicated
copies, ensuring fault tolerance.
Data Consistency:

Challenge: Maintaining consistency across distributed data copies, especially in the presence of
failures or concurrent updates.
Hadoop's Approach: Hadoop prioritizes fault tolerance over strict consistency. In the HDFS
architecture, eventual consistency is maintained by asynchronously replicating data, allowing
for system availability even during temporary inconsistencies.
Node Communication Overhead:

Challenge: High communication overhead between nodes in a distributed system can lead to
performance bottlenecks.
Hadoop's Approach: Hadoop minimizes inter-node communication overhead by using a master-
slave architecture and leveraging mechanisms like HDFS block replication and MapReduce
task distribution to efficiently manage data and computation across the cluster.
Task Scheduling and Load Balancing:

Challenge: Efficiently distributing tasks among nodes and balancing the workload to avoid
stragglers.
Hadoop's Approach: Hadoop's YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator) component addresses
task scheduling and load balancing. YARN manages resources in the cluster, allocates them to
applications, and schedules tasks, ensuring optimal resource utilization.
Scalability:

Challenge: Adding nodes to the system should result in proportional increases in performance.
Hadoop's Approach: Hadoop's architecture is designed for horizontal scalability. New nodes
can be added to the cluster, and the system can scale out to handle larger datasets and
processing loads.
Data Locality:

Challenge: Minimizing data movement across the network by executing tasks on nodes where
the data resides.
Hadoop's Approach: Hadoop's MapReduce paradigm emphasizes data locality. It schedules
tasks to run on nodes where the data is stored, reducing the need for extensive data transfer
across the network and improving performance.

Security:
Challenge: Ensuring the security of data and resources in a distributed environment.
Hadoop's
adoop's Approach: Hadoop provides security features such as authentication, authorization,
and encryption. Components like HDFS and MapReduce have security mechanisms, and
projects like Apache Knox and Apache Ranger enhance security in Hadoop ecosystems.

Complexity
omplexity of Development and Debugging:
Challenge: Developing and debugging applications for a distributed environment can be
complex.
Hadoop's Approach: Hadoop provides high high-level
level abstractions like MapReduce and tools like
Apache Pig and Apache Hive, whi which
ch simplify the development process. Additionally,
debugging tools and logs help identify and troubleshoot issues in distributed applications.

Refer Text Book Page No : 83 83-84

4. Identify various types of NoSQL Databases
Databases.

A database is a collection of structured data or information which is stored in a computer

system and can be accessed
sed easily. A database is usually managed by a Database Management
System (DBMS).

NoSQL is a non-relational
relational database that is used to store the data in the nontabular form. NoSQL
stands for Not only SQL. The main types are documents, key key-value, wide-column
column, and graphs.
Types of NoSQL Database:
 Document-based
based databases
 Key-value stores
 Column-oriented
oriented databases
 Graph-based
based databases

Document-Based Database:
The document-based
based database is a nonrelational database. Instead of storing the data in rows
and columns (tables), it uses the documents to store the data in the database. A document
database stores data in JSON, BSON, or XML documents.

Documents can be stored

tored and retrieved in a form that is much closer to the data objects used in
applications which means less translation is required to use these data in the applications. In the
Document database, the particular elements can be accessed by using the index value that is
assigned for faster querying.
Collections are the group of documents that store documents that have similar contents. Not all
the documents are in any collection as they require a similar schema because document
databases have a flexible schema.

Key features of documents database:

Flexible schema: Documents in the database has a flexible schema. It means the documents in
the database need not be the same schema.
Faster creation and maintenance: the creation of documents is easy and minimal maintenance is
required once we create the document.
No foreign keys: There is no dynamic relationship between two documents so documents can
be independent of one another. So, there is no requirement for a foreign key in a document
database.
Open formats: To build a document we use XML, JSON, and others.
Key-Value Stores:
A key-value store is a nonrelational database. The simplest form of a NoSQL database is a key-
value store. Every data element in the database is stored in key-value pairs. The data can be
retrieved by using a unique key allotted to each element in the database. The values can be
simple data types like strings and numbers or complex objects.

A key-value store is like a relational database with only two columns which is the key and the
value.
Key features of the key-value store:
Simplicity.
Scalability.
Speed.
Column Oriented Databases:
A column-oriented database is a non-relational database that stores the data in columns instead
of rows. That means when we want to run analytics on a small number of columns, you can
read those columns directly without consuming memory with the unwanted data.

Columnar databases are designed to read data more efficiently and retrieve the data with greater
speed. A columnar database is used to store a large amount of data. Key features of columnar
oriented database:
Scalability.
Compression.
Very responsive.
Graph-Based databases:
Graph-based databases focus on the relationship between the elements. It stores the data in the
form of nodes in the database. The connections between the nodes are called links or
relationships.
Key features of graph database:
In a graph-based database, it is easy to identify the relationship between the data by using the
links.
The Query’s output is real-time results.
The speed depends upon the number of relationships among the database elements.
Updating data is also easy, as adding a new node or edge to a graph database is a
straightforward task that does not require significant schema changes.
Refer Text Book Page No : 59-60
5. Explain HDFS in detail along with its commands.

Listing Files and Directories:

Command: hadoop fs -ls /path

Description: Lists files and directories in the specified path.

Creating a Directory:
Command: hadoop fs -mkdir /new_directory
Description: Creates a new directory in the HDFS file system.

Copying from Local to HDFS:

Command: hadoop fs -copyFromLocal local_path hdfs_path
Description: Copies a file or directory from the local file system to HDFS.

Copying from HDFS to Local:

Command: hadoop fs -copyToLocal hdfs_path local_path
Description: Copies a file or directory from HDFS to the local file system.

Moving or Renaming a File/Directory:

Command: hadoop fs -mv old_path new_path
Description: Moves or renames a file or directory in HDFS.

Removing a File or Directory:

Command: hadoop fs -rm /path
Description: Removes a file in HDFS.

Displaying File Content:

Command: hadoop fs -cat /file
Description: Displays the content of a file in the HDFS.
Refer Text Book Page No : 93-95
6. Illustrate various components to interact with Hadoop Ecosystem.

Following are the components that collectively form a Hadoop ecosystem:

HDFS: Hadoop Distributed File System

YARN: Yet Another Resource Negotiator
MapReduce: Programming based Data Processing
Spark: In-Memory data processing
PIG, HIVE: Query based processing of data services
HBase: NoSQL Database
Mahout, Spark MLLib: Machine Learning algorithm libraries
Solar, Lucene: Searching and Indexing
Zookeeper: Managing cluster
Oozie: Job Scheduling
key components in the Hadoop ecosystem. Here's a brief summary of each component:
HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System):

Description: A distributed file system that provides scalable and reliable storage for large
datasets across multiple nodes. It breaks large files into smaller blocks and distributes
them across the cluster.
YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator):

Description: A resource management layer that allows multiple data processing engines to
share resources in a Hadoop cluster. YARN separates resource management from
application logic.
MapReduce:

Description: A programming model and processing engine for distributed computing.

MapReduce divides tasks into Map and Reduce phases and processes them in parallel
across the nodes of a Hadoop cluster.
Spark:

Description: An open-source, in-memory data processing engine for large-scale data

processing. Spark provides APIs for various programming languages and supports diverse
workloads, including batch processing, interactive queries, and machine learning.
PIG and HIVE:

PIG Description: A high-level scripting language for processing and analyzing large
datasets. Pig scripts are translated into MapReduce jobs.
HIVE Description: A data warehousing infrastructure built on top of Hadoop. Hive
provides a SQL-like query language (HiveQL) for querying and analyzing data in
Hadoop.
HBase:

Description: A distributed, scalable, and NoSQL database that provides real-time

read/write access to large datasets. HBase is suitable for sparse data with low-latency
requirements.
Mahout and Spark MLLib:

Mahout Description: A library of scalable machine learning algorithms. Mahout is

designed for distributed computing and integration with Hadoop.
Spark MLLib Description: A machine learning library for Spark that provides scalable
implementations of various machine learning algorithms.
Solr and Lucene:

Solr Description: An open-source search platform that provides full-text search

capabilities. Solr is often used for building search applications.
Lucene Description: A high-performance, full-featured text search engine library that is
used as the core search technology in Solr.

Zookeeper:

Description: A distributed coordination service that provides primitives for building

 distributed applications. Zookeeper is used for managing configuration information,
synchronization, and group services in a Hadoop cluster.
Oozie:

Description: A workflow scheduler system for managing and scheduling Hadoop jobs.
Oozie allows users to define and execute workflows that consist of multiple Hadoop jobs
and other processing tasks.
This comprehensive set of components addresses various aspects of big data processing,
storage, analysis, and coordination within the Hadoop ecosystem. Each component plays a
specific role in enabling organizations to build scalable and distributed data processing
solutions.
Refer Text Book Page No : 104-105

7. List the various hadoop distributions available in the market.

Hadoop distributions were available in the market, each offering a set of tools, services, and
support for big data processing and analytics. It's essential to note that the landscape may have
evolved since then, and new distributions or changes to existing ones may have occurred. As of
my last update, some prominent Hadoop distributions include:
Cloudera Distribution for Hadoop (CDH):

Description: Cloudera is one of the leading providers of Hadoop-based solutions. CDH includes
a comprehensive set of Hadoop ecosystem components, management tools, and additional
features for enterprise-grade big data processing.
Hortonworks Data Platform (HDP):

Description: Hortonworks, now part of Cloudera, offered the Hortonworks Data Platform. HDP
was an open-source Hadoop distribution that included various Apache projects for data
processing, storage, and management.
MapR Distribution:

Description: MapR provided a distribution that focused on delivering performance, reliability,

and ease of use for big data and analytics. MapR featured its own file system, MapR-FS, and a
range of additional components.
Apache Hadoop (Community Distribution):

Description: Apache Hadoop itself is an open-source project, and users can download and
configure the core Hadoop components directly from the Apache Software Foundation. This is
often referred to as the "community distribution."
IBM Open Platform (IOP):

Description: IBM offered the Open Platform for Apache Hadoop (IOP), which was an open-
source Hadoop distribution that included various Apache projects along with additional IBM
tools and support.
Amazon EMR (Elastic MapReduce):

Description: Amazon EMR is a cloud-based Hadoop distribution provided by Amazon Web

Services (AWS). It allows users to launch and manage Hadoop clusters on the AWS cloud,
leveraging resources on-demand.
Microsoft Azure HDInsight:
Description: HDInsight is a cloud-based Hadoop distribution provided by Microsoft Azure. It
allows users to deploy and manage Hadoop clusters on the Azure cloud, integrating with other
Azure services.
Pivotal HD:
Description: Pivotal HD was an Hadoop distribution offered by Pivotal Software, which
focused on providing a high-performance and easy-to-use platform for big data analytics.
Pivotal has undergone changes, and its assets were acquired by VMware in 2020.
8. List and explain the important features of Hadoop

Several Hadoop features simplify the handling of large amounts of data. Let us explore the
range of fundamental features of Hadoop that make it preferred by professionals in big data and
various industries. They are as follows –

1. Open-Source Framework
Hadoop is a free and open-source framework. That means the source code is freely available
online to everyone. This code can be customized to meet the needs of businesses.

2. Cost-Effectiveness
Hadoop is a cost-effective model because it makes use of open-source software and low-cost
commodity hardware. Numerous nodes make up the Hadoop cluster. These nodes are a
collection of commodity hardware (servers or physical workstations). They are also reasonably
priced and offer a practical way to store and process large amounts of data.

3. High-Level Scalability
The Hadoop cluster is both horizontally and vertically scalable. Scalability refers to –

Horizontal Scalability: This means the addition of any number of nodes in the cluster.
Vertical Scalability: This means an increase in the hardware capacity (data storage capacity) of
the nodes.
This high-level and flexible scalability of Hadoop offers powerful processing capabilities.

4. Fault Tolerance
Hadoop uses a replication method to store copies of data in each block on different machines
(nodes). This replication mechanism makes Hadoop a fault-tolerant framework because if any
of the machines fail or crash, a replica copy of the same data can be accessed on other
machines. With the more recent Hadoop 3 version, the fault tolerance feature has been
enhanced. It employs a replication mechanism called ‘Erasure Coding’ to provide fault
tolerance while using less space, with a storage overhead of no more than 50 percent.

5. High-Availability of Data
The high availability of data and fault tolerance features are complementary to each other. The
fault tolerance feature provides data availability at any time if any of the DataNode or
NameNode fails or crashes. A copy of the same data is available on either of these three
platforms. Let us see how –
Case 1: Availability of Data in Case of a DataNode Failure
Even if a data node fails, the cluster is still accessible to users in the following ways –

HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) stores copies of files on different nodes, and by
default, the DataNodes send NameNode heartbeat signals every three seconds.
The DataNode is considered dead by the NameNode if it does not receive a heartbeat signal
after a specified time (10 minutes).
Replication of data begins when NameNodes instruct DataNodes that already have a copy of
the data to duplicate it on additional DataNodes.
When a user seeks access, NameNode sends it the IP address of the nearest DataNode that has
the requested data.
If the requested DataNode cannot be accessed, NameNode directs the user to another DataNode
that has the same data.
Case 2: Availability of Data in Case of NameNode Failure
To use the file system in the cluster, access to NameNode is required. There are two NameNode
configurations – active and passive. An active NameNode is a running node, whereas the
passive NameNode is the standby node in the cluster. The passive NameNode assumes
responsibility for providing uninterrupted client service if the currently active NameNode fails.

6. Data-Reliability

Data reliability in Hadoop is because of the –

Replication mechanism in HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System), which creates a duplicate
of each block, HDFS reliably stores data on the nodes.
Block Scanner, Volume Scanner, Disk Checker, and Directory Scanner are built-in mechanisms
provided by the framework itself to ensure data reliability.
7. Faster Data Processing
Hadoop has overcome traditional data processing challenges which were slow and sluggish.
Enough resources were not available to process the data smoothly and fast. The distributive
storage property of the Hadoop cluster of nodes enables faster data processing of huge amounts
of data at lightning speed.

8. Data Locality
This is one of the most distinctive features of Hadoop. The MapReduce component has a
feature called data locality. This attribute helps by placing calculation logic close to where the
actual data is located on the node. As a result, network congestion is reduced and system
performance is improved overall.

9. Possibility of Processing All Types of Data

The Hadoop framework can process all types of data – structured, semi-structured, and
unstructured that includes databases, images, videos, audio, graphics, etc. It makes it possible
for the users to work with any kind of data for analysis and interpretation irrespective of their
format or size. In the Hadoop ecosystem, various tools like Apache Hive, Pig, Sqoop,
Zookeeper, GraphX, etc., can process the dat
data.

10. Easy Operability

Hadoop is an open-source
source software framework written in Java. To work on it, users must be
familiar with programming languages such as SQL, Java, and others. The framework handles
the complete data processing and storage disseminati
dissemination
on process. Therefore, it is easy to operate
on it.

Refer Text Book Page No : 65

9. Compare between SQL versus NoSQL databases.

There are a lot of databases used today in the industry. Some are SQL databases, some are
NoSQL databases. The conventional database is SQL database system that uses tabular
relational model to represent data and their relationship
relationship.. The NoSQL database is the newer one
database that provides a mechanism for storage and retrieval of data other than tabular relations
model used in relational databases.
Following is a list of differences between SQL and NoSQL database:

10. What are the advantages of Hadoop? Explain Hadoop Architecture and its Components
with proper diagram.
Hadoop, an open-source framework for distributed storage and processing of large datasets,
offers several advantages that make it a popular choice for big data analytics. Here are some
key advantages of Hadoop:

Scalability:

Description: Hadoop is designed to scale horizontally, allowing organizations to easily add

more nodes to their cluster as data volume and processing needs grow. This scalability makes it
well-suited for handling vast amounts of data.
Cost-Effectiveness:

Description: Hadoop runs on commodity hardware, eliminating the need for expensive
specialized hardware. It leverages the economics of scale, making it a cost-effective solution for
storing and processing large datasets.
Fault Tolerance:

Description: Hadoop provides fault tolerance by replicating data across multiple nodes in the
cluster. In the event of node failures, the system can recover by accessing replicated copies of
the data from other nodes, ensuring data integrity and availability.
Flexibility with Data Variety:

Description: Hadoop can handle diverse types of data, including structured, semi-structured,
and unstructured data. This flexibility allows organizations to store and analyze data in various
formats, such as text, JSON, XML, and more.
Distributed Storage (HDFS):

Description: The Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) allows for the distributed storage of
large files across multiple nodes. It breaks files into smaller blocks and distributes them across
the cluster, enabling efficient storage and retrieval of data.
Parallel Processing (MapReduce):

Description: Hadoop uses the MapReduce programming model for distributed processing. It
divides tasks into smaller sub-tasks and processes them in parallel across nodes, resulting in
faster data processing for large-scale analytics.
Data Locality:

Description: Hadoop optimizes data processing by executing tasks on nodes where the data is
stored. This minimizes data movement across the network, reducing latency and improving
overall processing efficiency.
Community Support:

Description: Hadoop benefits from a large and active open-source community. This community
support ensures continuous development, improvement, and innovation in the Hadoop
ecosystem. Users can access a wealth of resources, documentation, and forums for assistance.
Compatibility with Various Tools:

Description: Hadoop is compatible with a wide range of tools and technologies in the big data
ecosystem. This compatibility allows organizations to integrate Hadoop with other tools such as
Hive, Pig, Spark, and more, enhancing its capabilities for data processing and analytics.
Adaptability to Changing Workloads:

Description: Hadoop is well-suited for batch processing of large datasets, but it can also adapt
to changing workloads. The ecosystem includes tools like Apache Spark that support real-time
and iterative processing, providing versatility for different analytical requirements.
Security Features:

Description: Hadoop has implemented security features to protect data and resources. This
includes authentication, authorization, and encryption mechanisms. Components like Apache
Ranger contribute to fine-grained access control and auditing.
Support for Multi-Tenancy:
Description: Hadoop can support multi-tenancy, allowing multiple users or applications to
share the same cluster resources while maintaining isolation. This is beneficial in scenarios
where different departments or projects utilize the same Hadoop infrastructure.
Support for Structured and Semi-Structured Data:
Description: Hadoop ecosystem components like Apache Hive provide a SQL-like query
language, making it easier for users familiar with relational databases to analyze structured and
semi-structured data stored in HDFS.
These advantages make Hadoop a powerful and versatile solution for organizations dealing
with large-scale data processing and analytics.