Optics and Lasers in Engineering 99 (2017) 11–22

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Optics and Lasers in Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/optlaseng

An international review of laser Doppler vibrometry: Making light work of MARK

vibration measurement
⁎
S.J. Rothberga, , M.S. Allenb, P. Castellinic, D. Di Maiod, J.J.J. Dirckxe, D.J. Ewinsf, B.J. Halkona,
P. Muyshondte, N. Paonec, T. Ryang, H. Stegerh, E.P. Tomasinic, S. Vanlanduiti, J.F. Vignolaj
a
School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, UK
b
Department of Engineering Physics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA
c
Department of Industrial Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, Italy
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bristol, UK
e
Department of Physics, University of Antwerp, Belgium
f
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, UK
g
Department of Engineering, East Carolina University, Greenville, USA
h
Polytec GmbH, Waldbronn, Germany
i
Department of Electromechanics, University of Antwerp, Belgium
j
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Catholic University of America, Washington, DC, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: In 1964, just a few years after the invention of the laser, a fluid velocity measurement based on the frequency
Laser vibrometry shift of scattered light was made and the laser Doppler technique was born. This comprehensive review paper
LDV charts advances in the development and applications of laser Doppler vibrometry (LDV) since those first
Laser Doppler pioneering experiments. Consideration is first given to the challenges that continue to be posed by laser speckle.
Vibration measurement
Scanning LDV is introduced and its significant influence in the field of experimental modal analysis described.
Applications in structural health monitoring and MEMS serve to demonstrate LDV's applicability on structures
of all sizes. Rotor vibrations and hearing are explored as examples of the classic applications. Applications in
acoustics recognise the versatility of LDV as demonstrated by visualisation of sound fields. The paper concludes
with thoughts on future developments, using examples of new multi-component and multi-channel instru-
ments.

1. Introduction concern in LDV and Section 2 sets out the state-of-the art. Scanning
LDV has been an extremely important development with wide applica-
Laser (Doppler) Vibrometry (LDV) has its origins in fluid velocity tion and this technique is considered before considering applications in
measurements reported by Yeh and Cummins [1] at Columbia structural heath monitoring, MEMS, rotating machinery, hearing and
University in 1964. Their seminal paper described measurement of acoustics. The paper concludes with thoughts on future development.
“Doppler shifts in the Rayleigh scattered light at [flow] velocities as low Detection of the Doppler frequency shift that occurs when light is
as 0.007 cm/s” at a time when the laser was still in its infancy. Helium scattered by a moving surface is the basis of LDV [2]. This frequency
Neon (HeNe) lasers were pioneered at Bell Telephone Laboratories, shift is directly proportional to the surface velocity and so its detection
first in the infra-red in 1960. The now familiar red HeNe laser used by enables convenient and non-contact measurement of vibration velocity.
Yeh and Cummins had been developed in 1962 and it remains Detection is not entirely straightforward as the laser has a frequency
prevalent in commercial laser Doppler instruments more than 50 years typically 6 or 7 orders of magnitude higher than the Doppler shifts,
after those first experiments. which are typically in the low MHz range. Scattered light from the
This review paper begins with an introduction to the principle of target has to be mixed interferometrically with a mutually coherent
operation and a historical perspective on how the laser Doppler reference beam to produce a beat in the collected light intensity at the
vibrometer (also generally abbreviated to LDV) has reached its current difference in frequency between the target and reference beams, i.e.
state of maturity. The effects of laser speckle have been and remain a down in the MHz range where demodulation is possible electronically.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: s.j.rothberg@lboro.ac.uk (S.J. Rothberg).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2016.10.023
Received 4 July 2016; Received in revised form 26 October 2016; Accepted 27 October 2016
Available online 08 November 2016
0143-8166/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.J. Rothberg et al. Optics and Lasers in Engineering 99 (2017) 11–22

Such a configuration still leaves a directional ambiguity in the geometries, and measurement quality depends on the properties of
measurement because demodulation only identifies the modulus of the surface, which will be considered in the next section.
the frequency shift. Early proposals achieved the necessary discrimina-
tion by introducing a known frequency pre-shift to the reference beam
[3–5]. This modifies the frequency of the intensity beat to be less than
or greater than the pre-shift frequency depending on the direction of
the target velocity. Quadrature detection has also featured in commer- 2. Laser speckle and pseudo-vibration
cial instrumentation as a means to discriminate direction but frequency
shifting by Bragg cell reigns supreme as the preferred method in Despite 30 years or more of fairly relentless success for LDV, laser
today's commercial instrumentation. speckle has prevailed as its nemesis. When a coherent laser beam is
Flow measurements in fluids received much attention through the incident on a surface that is optically rough, i.e. the surface roughness
1960s and 70s but it was not until the latter part of this period that is large on the scale of the laser wavelength (from 633 nm for the red
Brian Moss and his team at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment HeNe laser to 1500 nm for an infra-red laser), the component wavelets
at Harwell in the UK gave serious consideration to vibration measure- of the scattered light become dephased. This condition is satisfied by
ments on solid surfaces using the laser Doppler technique [6]. Graham many of the surfaces encountered in traditional engineering structures.
Bank and his team at the loudspeaker manufacturer Celestion of The dephased, but still coherent, wavelets interfere constructively and
Ipswich in the UK added a scanning head to the Harwell instrument destructively, thus resulting in a chaotic distribution in backscatter of
to provide a “3-D isometric view of the complete vibrating surfaces of high and low intensities, referred to as a “speckle pattern”. Statistically
the test object frozen in time” [7]. The Harwell instrument was the speckles have intensities with a negative exponential probability
developed by Ometron and became the first commercially available distribution, whilst their phases are uniformly distributed between 0
scanning LDV system. Volkswagen in Germany followed Celestion's and 2π [10]. Light collection is generally a summation over several
example with its own scanning system [8]. A further significant speckles. Small adjustments in the position of the incident beam are
innovation from this period was the introduction of a parallel beam sometimes necessary to avoid low signal amplitude resulting either
instrument [9] for torsional vibration measurement on rotors. By the from low overall backscattered intensity (from an uncooperative sur-
end of the 1980s, the growing maturity of LDV was evidenced by there face) or from an unfavourable summation of speckles over the
being four prominent instrument suppliers. Polytec was an established photodetector(s). Such an unfavourable summation might be through
supplier of laser-based test instruments whose Laser Vibrometers had a dominance of darker speckles or, more subtly, as a consequence of
built an excellent reputation through successful application in the the phasor addition of each speckle in the collection. However, it is
emerging hard disk industry. Dantec's core business was in fluid flow when speckles start to move or evolve in response to target motions
measurements when they introduced their Laser Vibrometer. (other than directly in line with the laser beam) that speckle effects can
Ometron's instrument worked exceptionally well at low light levels really become problematic.
and was unique in using quadrature detection for direction discrimina- Summation on the photodetector over a changing population of
tion. Finally, Brüel & Kjær, as a leading provider of traditional noise speckles has two important effects on the Doppler signal: amplitude
and vibration instrumentation, though, unlike their competitors, with- modulation and phase modulation. The amplitude modulation can
out any track record in laser-based instrumentation, released their first mean the varying signal amplitude drops occasionally to a very low
Laser Vibrometer. Polytec and Ometron were already offering scanning level and so-called ‘signal drop-outs’ occur. This is a longstanding [11]
variants at this point and Polytec's range included a differential and ongoing [12,13] challenge. Even when adequate signal amplitude
instrument. is maintained, however, dynamic changes in the sampled speckle
A variety of optical configurations have been proposed in the pattern cause noise in the photodetector output phase which results
scientific literature and by commercial providers. Fundamentally, in ‘speckle noise’ in the vibrometer output. Its precise origins have been
however, instruments can be categorised as having a single probe explained [14] together with introduction of the more general term
beam for translational vibration measurement, or a pair of probe ‘pseudo-vibration’ [15].
beams for differential vibration measurement. Multiple single beams or The frequency content of pseudo-vibration is worthy of further
multiple pairs are of course possible. Scanning heads can be readily consideration. Both signal drop-out (evident as spikes in the output)
added to single beam instruments to automate the relocation of the and pseudo-vibration (through changes in randomly phased speckles)
beam in sequential point-to-point measurements across a structure. A contribute measurement noise across a broad frequency band. In
pair of probe beams enables the classic differential measurement in particular, where the surface vibration (or whole body motion such
which the relative velocity between two parts of a structure or device is as rotation) causing these effects is itself periodic, the resulting noise is
determined. Configuration of the pair of beams as a V (cross-beams) is pseudo-random with a spectrum comprising peaks at a fundamental
used for in-plane vibration measurement while a parallel beam frequency and higher order harmonics. These frequencies will generally
arrangement enables angular vibration measurements including tor- be those of greatest interest making the noise difficult to distinguish
sional vibrations. All instruments can be used for measurements on from the genuine vibration. While decreasing the effects of signal drop-
rotating and non-rotating structures. In all cases, orientation of the out is possible [12], particularly in the recent proposal of diversity
beam(s) determines the component of velocity measured with the reception [16], pseudo-vibration remains largely uncontrolled. To date
corollary that it is the small but inevitable misalignments that usually the most successful mitigation has been to introduce a small side-to-
determine measurement accuracy. side motion of the probe laser beam(s) sufficient to break the
The first commercial instruments claimed particular advantages periodicity of the noise [17]. This spreads a slightly increased level of
over traditional instrumentation, such as accelerometers or strain noise more evenly across the full spectrum, reducing spectral ampli-
gauges, particular for measurements on hot, light, or rotating struc- tudes at the important harmonic peaks at the expense of raised levels
tures where traditional contacting instrumentation would change elsewhere in the spectrum. Manufacturers are yet to provide expected
structural dynamics or be difficult to attach. Thin and soft structures pseudo-vibration levels for their instruments but levels have been
could be added to the list but this would still neglect the special benefits published in the literature in a format that can be widely applied by the
now routinely exploited where high frequency operation, high spatial user [18] and so-called ‘pseudo-vibration sensitivities’ have been
resolution or remote transducer operation is required. There are also quantified for a range of instruments and measurement scenarios
several important limitations: limited access limits line of sight and [19]. A proper solution for pseudo-vibration, however, should be a
makes measurement challenging, particularly on complicated 3D priority for future research.

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S.J. Rothberg et al. Optics and Lasers in Engineering 99 (2017) 11–22

3. Scanning laser Doppler vibrometry (SLDV) and Measurement at many points can be accelerated by continuous-scan
experimental modal analysis laser Doppler vibrometry (CSLDV), where the laser beam scans
continuously along a defined path across a structure at specifically
The potential for automating the relocation of a single laser beam selected scan frequencies. Small-scale circular and conical scans have
using optical devices (typically a pair of orthogonally mounted galvan- been used [23] to measure multiple vibration components simulta-
ometer mirrors) to scan point-by-point across a structure was recog- neously at a point. Using these principles, a dedicated scanning head
nised at a relatively early stage [7] in the evolution of LDV. Particular has enabled all six degrees of freedom to be measured at a point on a
applications emerged in the automotive [20] and aerospace [21] structure in a single measurement [26].
industries. While SLDV offers much to vibration testing generally, it For modal testing, the significance of CSLDV is that it replaces the
is in the area of Experimental Modal Analysis (EMA) that SLDV has exclusively temporal view with much greater emphasis on the spatial
been so influential. EMA has been developed over the last 50 years [22] properties of a structure's modal model. This can greatly accelerate
for the measurement of a structure's vibration, characterised in terms modal testing but requires specialised processing algorithms because
of its ‘modal’ properties which comprise two elements: temporal the measurement point is constantly moving. The first measurements
(natural frequencies and damping factors) and spatial (mode shapes). were from a line scan on a cantilever beam [27] (using a cross-beam
In essence, a modal test consists of applying and measuring an LDV partly because of a mistaken view about the unsuitability of a
excitation force to a structure, and then measuring the response at single beam LDV), while both line and area scanning methods have
various points. All the temporal properties can be extracted from the since been developed using sinusoidal [23,28,29], impact [30], and
response measurement at a single point. The spatial properties, pseudo-random excitation [31]. Fig. 3 shows an area scan on a vehicle
however, can only be extracted by measurement at many points and, panel with single frequency excitation. Different horizontal and vertical
when individual transducers are used, the number of measurement scan frequencies produce the spectrum shown, which comprises
points is limited by cost and setup time, which compromises the harmonic sidebands, centred about the excitation frequency and
resulting modal model. Using SLDV transformed this longstanding spaced by the scan frequencies. The Fourier components are related
imbalance between the temporal and spatial modal properties. It would to the coefficients in the polynomial description of the deflection
be impractical to attach 100s or 1000s of individual transducers to pattern. A more complicated shape requires higher order polynomial
capture a structure's mode shapes in detail but with an LDV it is coefficients for accurate reconstruction and so the precision of CSLDV
possible to measure rapidly the response with a spatial resolution is set by the number of harmonics that stand out above the noise floor
limited only by the laser beam diameter, typically a few tenths of a mm, in the measured spectrum. This can be limited by signal drop-outs,
and the time required to capture each time record. Polynomial curve- primarily related to surface quality, and speckle noise, especially at
fitting of such a comprehensive measurement data set can reveal the higher scan speeds [32].
underlying order of the deflection shape [23] and inform the subse- CSLDV data can also be processed by the “lifting” approach [33], in
quent measurement density necessary to capture all the information in which the responses from each incremental location along the laser
an optimal way. path are grouped together and treated as if they are the outputs from an
Fig. 1a and b show mode shapes for the second string modes of a array of sensors fixed at these locations, except that the responses are
tennis racket [24]. These mode shapes demonstrate clearly one of not measured simultaneously. The time increment in these recon-
LDV's main advantages – the ability to measure from very light structed responses is equal to the scan period and aliasing can occur. In
structures, in this case the strings. The typical challenges of SLDV a study using the lifting approach to extract the natural frequencies and
were all evident in these measurements including positioning the laser mass-normalized mode shapes of a free-free beam under impact
beam automatically on surfaces that are discontinuous or with local excitation [33], the need for the scan frequency to be larger than twice
orientations that make light collection problematic, and suspending the the maximum frequency of interest was demonstrated. Where this is
test structure such that the laser beam remains at the required location not possible, the scan frequency can be chosen to ensure that the
during measurements. modes do not overlap after being aliased to the band of half of the scan
Today's SLDV state-of-the-art offers automated, tri-axial vibration frequency. The harmonic transfer function (HTF) concept [34] can be
surveys on large, three-dimensional structures (such as a vehicle) using used with CSLDV to address output only modal analysis, where the
three SLDVs each mounted on a robot arm, as shown in Fig. 2a, or on input is not measured but can be assumed to be broadband and
microscopic structures with a scanning confocal microscope [25]. random. This approach was successfully applied to CSLDV measure-
Fig. 2b shows a mode shape from a 3D SLDV analysis on a whole ments of a parked wind turbine excited by a light wind [35].
vehicle body combining 1000 measurements (0–500 Hz, 0.75 Hz
resolution, 30 averages per point, measurement time 8 h).
In traditional SLDV, the laser beam dwells at each measurement 4. Applications
point for a duration set by the spectral resolution required.
The honour of having the first published application paper goes to

Fig. 1. String mode shapes (second transverse mode pair) on a tennis racket measured by LDV.

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S.J. Rothberg et al. Optics and Lasers in Engineering 99 (2017) 11–22

Fig. 2. 3D SLDV on a whole vehicle body: a) instruments mounted on a robot arm, b) a typical vehicle mode shape. Courtesy of ASDEC 〈http://asdec.co/〉.

Fig. 3. CSLDV on a vehicle cab showing scan pattern (left), measured velocity spectrum (top right) and ODS reconstructed from polynomial fit (bottom right).

Davis and Kulczyk and their work on turbine blades published in tion and insensitivity to target shape (for rough surfaces) prove
Nature in 1969 [36]. Further applications were scarce for over a decade especially valuable operational features. The fourth section on hearing
then work in loudspeakers [7] and hearing [37,38] appeared, followed exemplifies activity in the areas of biological and biomedical science
by hard disk drive measurements [39,40] and the first rotor applica- and is another of the classic applications. Finally, the fifth section on
tions [41,42], including engine torsional vibrations [43]. These were acoustics recognises not only the important relationship between
accompanied by less predictable studies on the fiddler crab [44] and structural vibration and noise radiation but also the versatility of
plants [45]. Today, LDV is well established as an effective alternative to LDV which can even be used to visualise sound fields.
traditional contacting vibration transducers in diverse applications.
In this section, a selection of those applications is presented. This is 4.1. Structural health monitoring
no simple task. To do full justice to a technique that has been applied so
widely not only across the many sectors of mechanical, electrical and LDV has proved to be an effective diagnostic tool in damage
civil engineering, and their underpinning science, but also in areas such detection on structures because of its ability to make non-contact
as medieval fresco condition [46], fruit ripeness [47] and infant measurement over a dense grid of points. Composite materials have
respiratory health [48] is quite a challenge. Nonetheless, the authors attracted most attention but the same principles have been applied to
have selected five broad areas to showcase the capability of LDV. assessing detachment of mediaeval frescoes [46] and the detection of
The first section on structural health monitoring and the second on landmines [49].
MEMS demonstrate LDV's applicability on structures of all sizes, from The location of defects has been considered extensively [50–55] by
the very large to the very small. The third section on rotor vibrations analysing wave propagation, modal response or operational deflection
covers one of the classic applications quoted in the early years of shapes (ODS). While the exact location of a defect has been found in
commercial instrumentation and in which remote, non-contact opera- these studies, test structures have been relatively simple. Techniques

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S.J. Rothberg et al. Optics and Lasers in Engineering 99 (2017) 11–22

Fig. 4. a) Change of ODS over 12 measurements and b) example of 4 full ODSs.

such as 3D-SLDV and its use for strain measurements [56] may hold fluid pumps for applications as varied as inkjet printers or lab-on-a-
the key to locating defects on more complex structures, particularly if chip technology. In dynamic MEMS systems, a part of the system is
the goal is to develop a near real-time inspection technique for instant driven to vibrate, often at resonance, with applications including
detection of the onset of damage. ODS measurements using CSLDV are surface acoustic devices, micro-mirror arrays and sensors. Here,
well suited to real-time inspection because of the speed with which data LDV's distinct advantages over microscopy based techniques include
can be acquired. Choice of excitation location is an important factor three-dimensional measurements [59,60] of picometre displacements,
that can make the ODS more sensitive to defects [57]. For vibration- over a wide area [61] and at GHz frequencies.
induced fatigue on a flat composite plate (100×300 mm), it was For such a challenging application, LDV is not without issues. These
observed that some samples exhibited changes in ODS during endur- include laser spot size, laser heating, specular reflections, optical access
ance trials, as shown in Fig. 4 for the first bending mode [58]. due to complex geometries and heat dissipation issues, as well as the
The ODS analysis is based on spectral sidebands, which character- need to look through a window into a controlled test environment.
ise all CSLDV measurements and are the signature of the specific ODS. In macro-scale structures, the laser beam diameter is generally
Monitoring sidebands should therefore be sufficient to diagnose an negligible but this is not the case on micro-structures. Practically, the
emerging defect without the need to complete the ODS post-proces- LDV probe beam cannot be smaller than about half the optical
sing. Fig. 5 shows from simulation [58] how additional spectral wavelength, typically 633 nm. To satisfy the spatial Nyquist limit
sidebands appear as damage grows. Step-sine excitation is suited to requires at least two measurements per structural wavelength, placing
finding the frequency range most affected by the damage. a limit on the measureable structural wavelength that is approximately
equal to the optical wavelength. However, resonant devices are often
operated in vacuum to reach high Q values [62]. In this case, the
4.2. MEMS
converging probe beam passes through a glass window which intro-
duces spherical aberration that results in larger beam diameters and so
In Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS), semiconductor fab-
a lower frequency limit for modal analysis.
rication technology is used to create systems with coupled mechanical
The laser power, typically 1 mW, has a measurable thermal effect
and electronic properties. These can include small-scale motors and
on the smallest scale systems as a consequence of the high fraction of
the incident laser light absorbed by silicon and of heat transfer rates for
small slender geometries. This can cause devices with a characteristic
cross-section dimension of 1 µm or smaller to have a temperature
differential of 10 °C or more along their length. This may result in
significant shifts in resonance frequencies or dimensional expansion.
As a result, commercial micro-LDV systems have facility to dim the
probe beam.
Fig. 6 shows an example of a MEMS device using resonant
cantilevers for attogram mass detection [63]. The capture of a target
molecule results in a measurable shift in resonant frequency which can
then be related back to the added mass. Fig. 7 shows a micro-LDV scan
of a cantilever pair. In these measurements, scanning is achieved by
placing the specimen on a computer-controlled translation stage,
rather than by scanning the laser beam itself. The cantilevers are
0.5 mm in length, 90 µm wide and the pixel size is 8×21 µm. These
data reveal a slight twist in the fundamental mode (25,320 Hz) and a
Fig. 5. Appearance of additional sidebands as a consequence of damage. Blue dashed
higher twisting mode in the right cantilever at 40,670 Hz and illustrate
line is the damaged case and the undamaged case is the solid red line. (For interpretation
of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of the unrivalled capability of scanning micro-LDV for MEMS applica-
this article.) tions.

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Fig. 6. A mass sensing cantilever (left) uses a functionalized tip to capture a target molecule. The added mass shifts the resonance frequency (right) which can be related to the added
mass.

4.3. Rotating machinery scanning mirrors can be computed such that the laser beam follows
the chosen point of interest on the target.
Vibration has long been acknowledged as the most effective Further TLDV applications include rolling tyres and timing belts
measure of the condition of rotating machines and LDV offers direct (partial track) [72] and on targets with vibrating parts fixed to a
measurement of the favoured parameter (i.e. velocity) with dynamic component with a large whole body motion such as windscreen wipers
and frequency ranges at least matching and generally exceeding those [72,73]. Fig. 9 shows a vibration map for a rolling tyre wall as a
offered by piezo-electric accelerometers. LDV applications for axial function of radius, quantifying the extent of the bulge and recovery in
vibration measurement directly from rotating blades date back over 40 the tyre wall as the tracked point approaches and leaves the contact
years [36] and interest in similar applications continues today using point on the roller. The attractions of tracking and scanning simulta-
both stationary [64] and scanning [65] laser beams, respectively known neously on a rotor have also been explored [74,75] in order to measure
as Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches. When scan frequency and path operational deflection shapes.
is synchronised with the whole body motion of a target, a measurement An image-based system (iTLDV) system [76] is a natural evolution
can be performed in which the probe laser beam tracks a particular of TLDV with closed-loop control using position signals for the target
point on the target and this is the subject of the first part of this section. obtained from a CCD camera and a real-time image processing
Torsional vibration measurement with a parallel beam configuration is algorithm. As shown in Fig. 10, a camera is aligned with the optical
an established and successful use of LDV with applications including axis of the LDV system and its image is observed through the same
torsional damper health [17], electric machines [66], railway wheel- mirrors used for the LDV scanning head. The instantaneous position of
sets [67], backlash in gears [68] and crankshaft bending and driveshaft the target point relative to that of the laser beam is used as the error for
vibration [69]. Measurement is facilitated by inherent insensitivity to the feedback signal, overcoming limitations of the open-loop TLDV
translational vibrations. Radial and bending (pitch/yaw) vibration system including the need for geometrical information and the
measurements have also been successfully demonstrated [69] but there encoder.
are important practical considerations for the user and these are dealt The response time of the galvanometer mirrors used in all of these
with in the second part of this section. TLDV systems places a limit on the scan frequency and scan radius
attainable. For this reason, schemes in which oscillatory mirror
motions are replaced by whole body rotations of optical devices have
4.3.1. Tracking and self-tracking LDV been considered. These include self-tracking systems [77], an arrange-
The technique of Tracking Laser Doppler Vibrometer (TLDV) was ment incorporating wedge prisms [78], and a commercial system using
developed in the 1990s as an alternative to a traditional de-rotator and a rotating Dove Prism [79], which is well known in optics as an image
as a way to take advantage of the SLDV. Its first reported application rotator. A framework suitable for modelling tracking and self-tracking
was on a propeller rotating in water [70], followed by analysis of systems with a detailed quantitative analysis of uncertainty related to
measurement uncertainty [71]. Fig. 8 shows the set-up in which the geometry and inevitable misalignments has been developed [80].
orthogonal scanning mirrors within the SLDV head are controlled to
track a fixed point on a rotating target. As an open-loop control system,
knowledge of the scanning head and target geometries is required as 4.3.2. Radial and bending (pitch/yaw) vibration
well as definition of the point to be tracked. Most importantly, an Radial vibration measurements are of particular interest in auto-
encoder is required from which the angular positions of the two motive powertrain [69], hard disks and their drive spindles [81,82],

Fig. 7. A micro-LDV scan of a pair of micro-cantilevers. The colours differentiate motion that is in-phase (red) and out-of-phase (green) with the excitation. (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of the first TLDV system.

and tool condition monitoring in turning [83] and milling [84]. Early V
attempts to use LDV for radial vibration measurements on rotors,
however, identified a significant cross-sensitivity to the radial vibration
MOVING
component perpendicular to the radial component it is intended to TARGET
measure as a consequence of oscillation in the position of the rotor
centre relative to the fixed line of incidence of the beam [85]. SCANNING
Unavoidable detection of the velocity component due to the rotation MIRRORS
itself results in a cross-sensitivity that cannot be resolved by laser beam
orientation alone but which requires a dedicated resolution procedure LASER LINE
[86]. This requires simultaneous orthogonal vibration measurements DIELECTRIC
and a rotation speed measurement, as shown in Fig. 11, followed by MIRROR
post-processing.
These cross-sensitivity studies had concentrated on rotating sur-
faces treated with retro-reflective tape (Scotchlite high-gain sheeting
type 7610), a common surface treatment intended to maximise the
intensity of light scattered back towards the instrument's collecting HIGH SPEED SINGLE POINT
optics. In a separate study [87], radial vibration measurements on a CAMERA VIBROMETER
painted rotor confirmed the presence of this cross-sensitivity but
measurements made on a polished rotor (Ra 20 nm) showed no such Fig. 10. Layout of image Tracking LDV.
cross-sensitivity, emphasising an urgent need to resolve this contra-
diction. Important practical recommendations have now been made measurement is still possible without post-processing but only up to
[88] about the roughness ranges in which accurate measurements can around 10% beam diameter. For rougher surfaces or for non-circular
be made. For surface roughness below 10 nm, radial vibration mea- cross-sections, retro-reflective surface treatment must be used and
surement is possible on a circular cross-section rotor without post- post-processing applied, though the synchronous component cannot be
processing provided the displacement amplitude does not exceed resolved. This is a fundamental limitation of the measurement and not
approximately half of the beam diameter. At roughness up to 50 nm, a deficiency of the post-processing technique.

Fig. 9. TLDV map on a tyre sidewall.

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Fig. 12. Normalized velocity of the stapes footplate in 3 sample human cadaver ears.
Solid lines for an intact ossicular chain, dashed lines with a prosthesis that directly
couples the eardrum to the stapes ossicle. (For interpretation of the references to color in
this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

ear in birds) transfers sound energy almost as efficiently as the three-

ossicle mammalian ear. Fig. 12 shows responses, with acoustic excita-
Fig. 11. Laboratory tests in which orthogonal single laser beams measure orthogonal
tion of the eardrum, of the human ear for three human cadaver
radial vibration components and a parallel beam instrument measures rotation speed.
samples. The solid lines are for an intact ossicular chain, while the
dashed lines are with an implanted prosthesis which, after fracturing
Similar issues of cross-sensitivity are encountered when a pair of
the ossicular chain, directly couples the eardrum to the stapes ossicle to
parallel beam instruments is deployed for bending (pitch/yaw) mea-
resemble a columella. At a sound pressure level of 94 dB, oscillation
surements [89] i.e. sensitivity in a pitch measurement to yaw motion
amplitudes are around 0.1–1 mm/s and LDV is indispensable for
and vice-versa for rough rotors but no cross-sensitivity when rotors are
measurement of such small velocities with good precision. These
polished-circular. Two preferred measurement configurations exist:
fundamental studies are intended to advance the design of human
from the side of a polished-circular rotor and from the end face of a
ossicular prostheses [98].
(rough) rotor coated in retro-reflective tape. Rotors with surface
roughness up to 50 nm satisfy the’polished’ condition provided the
vibration displacement at the rotor surface does not exceed 20% beam 4.5. Acoustics
diameter. For surfaces with roughness of 10 nm this can be extended to
50%. For rough rotor measurements and those taken from the end face Non-contact measurements on lightweight structures with LDV has
of a polished rotor, post-processing is required to resolve the inherent been particularly important in the field of acoustics and this was
cross-sensitivity. recognised at an early stage by loudspeaker designers [7,99]. Similar
The significant difference in behaviour between the rough and applications include the characterisation of microphones [100] and
polished-circular rotors is associated with the way in which the ultrasound sensors [101]. For the same reason, LDV-based analyses of
polished-circular rotor preferentially reflects light that passes through musical instruments have been numerous [102] and included violins
the rotor centre line back to the collecting optics of the instrument. In [103], guitars [104] and percussion instruments [105,106].
this way, the collected intensity is dominated by wavelets of the laser Calculation of radiated sound pressures is another important
beam that do not sense a component of the rotor tangential velocity application area, enabled by the convenience of LDV for vibration
and so do not exhibit the problematic cross-sensitivity. A corollary of measurements on a structure with high spatial resolution [107].
this is when pitch/yaw measurements are taken from the polished end- Successful applications have been found in automotive [108], aero-
face of a rotor. In such a case, there is no surface shape to cause the space [109], machine design [110] and construction [111] systems.
required preferential reflection and so cross-sensitivity is encountered The examples in this section so far have been measurements of
despite the surface being polished. structural vibration to understand acoustic phenomena rather than
direct acoustic measurements. Direct measurement of acoustic velocity
4.4. Hearing is possible with micro-particles seeded in a fluid [112] or on an
acoustically transparent membrane [113]. There is, of course, a small
The eardrum and the three ossicles of the mammalian middle ear but unavoidable effect on the sound field itself when using seeding
act as an acoustic impedance match between air and the fluid-filled particles or membranes. This is not the case in refracto-vibrometry in
inner ear, from where electrical impulses are sent to the brain. At the which the change in refractive index of a fluid due to sound pressure is
threshold of hearing sensation, the eardrum vibration displacement is measured in a particularly innovative application of LDV. The resulting
less than 0.1 nm. The introduction of heterodyne Doppler vibrometry optical path variation is detectable as a Doppler shift [114] and sound
[37,90], long before commercial systems were available, was a major waves can be visualized in air [115] or underwater [116].
breakthrough in understanding this complicated and impressive me- The major limitation of refracto-vibrometry is that measurement is
chanical system. Today, commercial LDVs are the instruments of based on an integration along the path of the laser rather than from a
choice for an ever-increasing range of research studies in hearing point. Using 3D tomographic reconstruction techniques this projection
mechanics. LDV was used to investigate the motions of the eardrum can be demodulated to obtain the full 3D pressure field [117]. Refracto-
and the ossicles in a single axis [91] and in 3D [92]. The high linearity vibrometry has been applied to determination of the acoustic absorp-
of the technique made it possible to determine small nonlinearities tion of materials [118]. This determination is possible in a glass tube
within the response of the system [93,94]. terminated with the test material or between two parallel plates
In clinical applications, from the research laboratory to the operat- terminated by the test material as shown in Fig. 13. Sound waves
ing theatre, studies have been made of ossicular prostheses [95] and radiated from the end of a tube connected to a loudspeaker are
active middle ear implants [96,97]. For example, LDV measurement reflected from the test material for which the acoustic absorption
combined with finite element modelling has revealed how the colu- coefficient is to be measured. The SLDV is directed at a rigid reflector
mella (the single ossicle connecting the eardrum directly to the inner such that the laser beam traverses the sound field between the two glass

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S.J. Rothberg et al. Optics and Lasers in Engineering 99 (2017) 11–22

Fig. 15. Optical setup for 3D microscope based LDV.

Fig. 13. SLDV measurement of sound field between glass plates. matic with reflective microstructures. Optical crosstalk would be a
particular concern because the three beams would have to be posi-
plates twice. Fig. 14 shows the sound fields for a rigid reflection (steel tioned so closely together to achieve the required spatial resolution,
beam) and from a melamine foam. Reflection coefficients of 99% and typically microns. The novel solution proposed is shown in Fig. 15.
3% respectively were obtained. Unlike the one-dimensional measure- Rather than using separate optical heads, the configuration incor-
ment in a tube, 2D measurement between the glass plates allows porates a single probe beam and simultaneous light collection in three
investigation of the acoustic absorption coefficient for non-normal directions. Channel 1 is only sensitive to out-of-plane motion (z-
incidence. direction) while channels 2 and 3 each collect light at an angle φdet to
the z-axis. In the general setup in Fig. 15, the channel 2 collection
direction sits in the (x, z) plane while that for channel 3 sits in the (y, z)
5. Future developments plane to ensure equal sensitivity in both directions. The collection
directions of the optimised geometry balance the competing require-
Advances in measurement science and technology including the ments of sensitivity to in-plane vibration and collection of sufficient
ability to capture large volumes of data at high rates, in combination light intensity. This results in a beam diameter below 3.5 µm, depth of
with the computational capacity for subsequent analysis, are driving focus of ± 10 µm and a working distance of 36.7 mm. Laser beam
higher and higher expectations from measured data. In the case of intensity can be varied between approximately 15 µW (to avoid any
LDV, this manifests itself in the users’ desire for high resolution heating effect) and 5 mW (to reduce measurement noise). Scanning is
(spatial and temporal), multi-component, multi-channel measure- again achieved by placing the specimen on a translation stage. Fig. 16
ments and the technology providers’ efforts to satisfy their appetite. indicates the importance of 3D measurement on a PZT MEMS
In this section, two examples are presented. The first is concerned with cantilever in a higher order bending mode with significant in-plane
the provision of 3D vibration data for MEMS devices and the second motion.
looks at multi-channel capability for transient measurements.
5.2. Multi-channel measurements
5.1. 3D measurements on MEMS devices
Where multiple simultaneous non-contact measurements are de-
LDV's status as the premier technique for analysis of MEMS devices sired or required, for example for transient vibrations on a delicate
was established in Section 4.2. For some time, 3D measurements have structure, use of individual LDVs quickly becomes a prohibitively costly
been provided by combining an out-of-plane LDV measurement with solution. Multi-beam solutions have been proposed [119,120] but with
in-plane vibration measurements using video microscopy. Superior limited flexibility on beam orientations. More recent developments
measurement of all three vibration components is desirable but have seen user-configurable sensor heads [121,122] connected to a
simultaneous measurements with separate optical heads, while suited central unit containing a single laser system and a multi-channel
to measurements on larger objects with scattering surfaces, is proble- interferometric detection system. In the multi-point head shown in

Fig. 14. Sound fields in-between the parallel glass plates a) rigid reflection (steel beam) b) from melamine foam of 4 cm thickness.

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S.J. Rothberg et al. Optics and Lasers in Engineering 99 (2017) 11–22

Fig. 16. 3D displacement of PZT MEMS cantilever in higher order bending mode.

6. Conclusions

For over 30 years, the successes of LDV in providing measurement

solutions in challenging applications have driven a culture of innova-
tion in instrumentation without parallel amongst alternative vibration
measurement techniques. Rather than satisfying the user community,
these successes have inspired an apparently insatiable ambition. The
further developments described in Section 5 typify this but there are
many more examples. The desire for long-range measurements without
compromise to signal quality has seen the introduction of an instru-
ment with a higher power infra-red (invisible) fibre laser, used in
conjunction with a green laser for sighting purposes. The infra-red
laser technology is now migrating into instrument designs for short-
range applications on optically less cooperative surfaces, finally chal-
lenging the supremacy of the HeNe laser after more than 50 years of
LDV. For ultra-high frequency (up to 1.2 GHz) measurements on radio
frequency MEMS resonators, a new algorithm [124] has found a
legitimate means to breach a fundamental limit within frequency
modulation theory to enable demodulation at frequencies higher than
the carrier frequency. Meanwhile, at very low frequencies, seismic
applications [125] have incentivised development of a technique to
compensate for instrument vibration [126], recognising that LDVs, for
all the successful applications, actually measure relative rather than
absolute motion. Expectations remain high for the next 30 years in
which many predict that multi-channel measurements will open up a
Fig. 17. 8 channel optical setup of Polytec Multipoint Vibrometer. new chapter in the story of LDV.

Fig. 17, eight sensor heads are connected to one optical unit [123]. Up Acknowledgments
to six optical units can be cascaded allowing configuration of up to 48
synchronous measurement channels. Inside the optical unit the output The authors wish to acknowledge the many funding bodies that
of the laser is split into eight measurement and eight reference have contributed to their work.
channels. For each measurement channel, light is coupled into an
optical fibre for that measurement head and focused on the measure- References
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