ROBOTICS AND INTELLIGENT SYSTEM

BAI 3603

BTech AI 3
Robotics Systems: Overview and Preliminaries

Introduction to Robotics

 Definition: Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design,
construction, operation, and application of robots.

 Purpose: Robots are designed to perform tasks that are difficult or dangerous for
humans, with precision and efficiency.

Components of a Robotics System

1. Sensors: These gather information from the robot's environment.

 Examples include cameras, infrared sensors, ultrasonic sensors, and tactile

sensors.

2. Actuators: These are responsible for the physical movement of the robot.

 Examples include motors, pneumatic actuators, hydraulic actuators, and

electromagnets.

3. Controller: This is the brain of the robot, which processes sensory information and
sends commands to the actuators.

 Controllers can range from simple microcontrollers to advanced computers.

4. End-Effector: This is the tool or mechanism attached to the robot's arm or body, used
to interact with the environment.

 Examples include grippers, welding tools, and 3D printers.

Types of Robots

1. Industrial Robots: Designed for manufacturing tasks such as welding, painting, and
assembly.

2. Service Robots: Intended for assisting humans in tasks like cleaning, delivery, and
healthcare.

3. Mobile Robots: Equipped with locomotion capabilities for navigation in varied

environments.

4. Medical Robots: Used in surgeries, rehabilitation, and diagnostics.

 5. Military Robots: Employed in reconnaissance, bomb disposal, and unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs).

Kinematics and Dynamics

 Kinematics: Describes the motion of robots without considering the forces that cause
it.

 Includes concepts like position, velocity, and acceleration.

 Dynamics: Deals with the forces and torques acting on the robot and how they affect
its motion.

 Important for understanding stability, control, and energy consumption.

Robot Control

 Open-loop Control: Directly specifies the commands to the actuators without

considering feedback from sensors.

 Closed-loop Control: Utilizes feedback from sensors to adjust the robot's actions,
making it more accurate and adaptable.

 Feedback Control Systems: Employ sensors to measure the robot's state and compare
it with the desired state, adjusting the control signals accordingly.

Programming Paradigms

1. Procedural Programming: Involves specifying a sequence of steps for the robot to

follow to accomplish a task.

2. Behavior-Based Programming: Focuses on defining behaviors that the robot can

exhibit in different situations, allowing for more flexible and adaptive control.

3. Learning-Based Approaches: Employ machine learning algorithms to enable robots

to learn from experience and improve their performance over time.
Biological Paradigms in Robotics

Biomimicry

 Definition: The imitation of models, systems, and elements of nature for the purpose
of solving complex human problems.

 Examples:

 Velcro, inspired by burrs sticking to clothing.

 Robotic fish models, mimicking the movement of real fish for underwater
exploration.

 Gecko-inspired adhesives for climbing robots.

Biologically Inspired Algorithms

1. Genetic Algorithms: Mimic the process of natural selection to optimize solutions to

complex problems.

2. Neural Networks: Modeled after the structure and function of the human brain, used
for pattern recognition, control, and learning in robots.

3. Swarm Intelligence: Inspired by the collective behavior of social insects like ants and
bees, used for decentralized coordination and optimization in robotic swarms.

Bio-Inspired Robotics Applications

1. Medical Robotics: Drawing inspiration from biological systems to design minimally

invasive surgical tools and rehabilitation devices.

2. Search and Rescue Robots: Mimicking animal behaviors to improve agility and
adaptability in navigating complex environments during disaster response missions.

3. Soft Robotics: Emulating the flexibility and resilience of biological organisms to create
robots capable of interacting safely with humans and delicate objects.
Challenges and Future Directions

1. Complexity: Biological systems are highly complex and understanding them fully is a
challenge.

2. Ethical Considerations: As robots become more lifelike, questions arise about their
treatment and the ethical implications of their actions.

3. Integration: Bridging the gap between biological principles and engineering design
remains a significant hurdle.

4. Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Success in bio-inspired robotics requires

collaboration between biologists, engineers, computer scientists, and ethicists.

In conclusion, robotics systems are multidisciplinary constructs that involve various

components, control mechanisms, and programming paradigms. Drawing inspiration from
biology offers promising avenues for enhancing robot capabilities and addressing real-world
challenges. However, realizing the full potential of bio-inspired robotics requires overcoming
technical, ethical, and interdisciplinary barriers.

Robotic Manipulators

Definition

 Robotic Manipulator: A mechanical system designed to move objects or tools with

various degrees of freedom.

Components

1. Links: Rigid segments connected by joints.

2. Joints: Mechanisms that allow relative motion between adjacent links.

 Types include revolute (rotational) joints and prismatic (linear) joints.

3. End-Effector: The tool or mechanism attached to the end of the manipulator for
interacting with objects.

 Examples include grippers, welding torches, and cutting tools.

Kinematics

 Forward Kinematics: Determines the position and orientation of the end-effector

given the joint angles.

 Inverse Kinematics: Calculates the joint angles required to achieve a desired end-
effector position and orientation.

Control

 Position Control: Specifies desired positions for the end-effector and regulates the
joint angles to achieve them.

 Trajectory Control: Defines a path for the end-effector to follow, adjusting joint angles
to maintain the trajectory.

Sensors and Actuators in Robotics

Sensors

1. Vision Sensors: Cameras and depth sensors for capturing visual information.

2. Range Sensors: Measure distances to objects using techniques like ultrasonics, lidar,
or infrared.

3. Tactile Sensors: Detect contact or pressure on the robot's surface.

4. Inertial Sensors: Accelerometers and gyroscopes for measuring acceleration and

orientation.

5. Force/Torque Sensors: Measure forces and torques exerted on the robot's end-effector
or joints.

Actuators

1. Electric Motors: DC motors, stepper motors, and servo motors for precise control of
rotational motion.

2. Pneumatic Actuators: Use compressed air to generate linear or rotational motion.

3. Hydraulic Actuators: Utilize pressurized fluid to produce large forces or torques.

4. Shape Memory Alloys: Materials that change shape in response to temperature

changes, used for small-scale actuation.
Low-Level Robot Control

Tasks

1. Motor Control: Sending signals to actuators to achieve desired motion.

2. Sensor Data Processing: Filtering and interpreting sensor readings to extract relevant
information about the robot's environment.

3. Feedback Control: Adjusting the robot's actions based on sensory feedback to

maintain desired states or trajectories.

Control Techniques

1. PID Control: Proportional-Integral-Derivative control for regulating system output

based on error feedback.

2. State Feedback Control: Using information about the system's internal state to
determine control inputs.

3. Model Predictive Control: Predicting future system behavior and optimizing control
inputs to achieve desired performance.

Mobile Robots

Types

1. Wheeled Robots: Move on wheels or tracks, suitable for flat and structured
environments.

2. Legged Robots: Mimic animal locomotion with legs, offering greater mobility in rough
terrain.

3. Aerial Robots (Drones): Fly using rotors or wings, providing access to inaccessible or
aerial environments.

4. Underwater Robots: Operate underwater for exploration, maintenance, or surveillance

tasks.

5. Hybrid Robots: Combine different locomotion mechanisms for versatility in varied

environments.

Navigation
 1. Localization: Determining the robot's position within its environment.

2. Mapping: Creating maps of the environment to aid in navigation and path planning.

3. Path Planning: Calculating optimal paths from the robot's current position to a desired
location while avoiding obstacles.

Applications

1. Warehouse Automation: Autonomous mobile robots for inventory management and

order fulfillment in warehouses.

2. Agricultural Robotics: Robots for planting, harvesting, and monitoring crops in

agriculture.

3. Search and Rescue: Deploying mobile robots in disaster zones to search for survivors
or assess damage.

4. Autonomous Vehicles: Self-driving cars and trucks for transportation and logistics.

In summary, robotic manipulators are mechanical systems for moving objects, sensors and
actuators enable robots to perceive and interact with their environment, low-level control
manages the execution of basic tasks, and mobile robots traverse various terrains for a wide
range of applications. Each component plays a crucial role in the functionality and performance
of robotic systems.

Modelling Dynamic Systems

Definition

 Dynamic Systems: Systems that change over time, influenced by various forces,
inputs, and initial conditions.

Importance

 Understanding and modeling dynamic systems are crucial for predicting their behavior,
designing control strategies, and optimizing performance.

Kinematics of Rigid Bodies

Definition

 Kinematics: The study of motion without considering the forces causing it.
  Rigid Bodies: Objects whose shape and size do not change during motion.

Concepts

1. Position: Describes the location of a point on the rigid body in space.

2. Velocity: Specifies the rate of change of position with respect to time.

3. Acceleration: Measures the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

4. Angular Motion: Describes rotation about an axis, characterized by angular position,

velocity, and acceleration.

Equations

1. Translation: r=r0+vt

2. Rotation: θ=θ0+ωt

Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

Definition

 Dynamics: Study of forces and torques acting on objects and their resulting motion.

Newton's Laws of Motion

1. First Law (Law of Inertia): An object will remain at rest or move at a constant velocity
unless acted upon by an external force.

2. Second Law (Force = Mass × Acceleration): The acceleration of an object is directly

proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.

 F=m⋅a

3. Third Law (Action and Reaction): For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.

Equations of Motion

1. Translation: F=m⋅a

2. Rotation: τ=I⋅α
Conservation Laws

1. Linear Momentum Conservation: In an isolated system, the total momentum remains

constant.

 ΣF=dtd(mv)=0

2. Angular Momentum Conservation: In the absence of external torques, the total

angular momentum of a system remains constant.

 Στ=dtd(Iω)=0

3. Energy Conservation: Total mechanical energy (kinetic + potential) remains constant

in the absence of non-conservative forces.

Methods of Analysis

1. Eulerian Method: Describes motion from an external reference frame.

2. Lagrangian Method: Formulates equations of motion based on the kinetic and

potential energies of the system.

3. Newton-Euler Equations: Utilizes Newton's laws and Euler's equations to derive

equations of motion for complex systems.

Applications

1. Robotics: Modeling and controlling robotic manipulators, mobile robots, and aerial
vehicles.

2. Mechanical Engineering: Designing machinery, vehicles, and structures subject to

dynamic forces.

3. Aerospace Engineering: Analyzing the motion of aircraft, spacecraft, and satellites.

In summary, modeling dynamic systems involves understanding the kinematics (motion) and
dynamics (forces) of rigid bodies. This knowledge is essential for predicting and controlling
the behavior of mechanical systems in various engineering applications.
Continuous-Time Dynamic Models

Definition

 Continuous-time models describe systems where variables change continuously over

time.

 Represented by differential equations, which express how rates of change of variables

depend on other variables and parameters.

Examples

1. Differential Equations: Describe rates of change of variables with respect to time.

 Example: dtdx=f(x,t)

2. Dynamical Systems: Mathematical models representing time-evolving systems.

 Example: x˙=f(x)

Properties

1. Smoothness: Continuous-time models assume that variables change smoothly and

continuously.

2. Real-Time Applications: Used for systems where time is a continuous variable, such
as analog control systems, mechanical systems, and continuous processes.

Analysis

1. Analytical Solutions: Some continuous-time models have closed-form solutions that

can be derived analytically.

2. Numerical Methods: For complex systems, numerical methods like Euler's method,
Runge-Kutta methods, and finite element methods are used to approximate solutions.

Discrete-Time Dynamic Models

Definition

 Discrete-time models describe systems where variables change at discrete intervals of

time.

 Represented by the difference equations, which express how variables evolve from one
time step to the next.
Examples

1. Recurrence Relations: Express relationships between variables at successive time

steps.

 Example: xt+1=f(xt,t)

2. State-Space Models: Represent systems by discrete-time state equations and output

equations.

 Example: xt+1=Axt+But

Properties

1. Time Sampling: Variables are measured or updated at discrete time intervals.

2. Digital Control Systems: Widely used in digital control systems, computer

simulations, and discrete event systems.

Analysis

1. Difference Equations Solutions: Analytical solutions may be found for some simple
difference equations.

2. Simulation: Discrete-time models are often simulated using computational software or

programming languages.

3. Stability Analysis: Techniques like Z-transforms and Lyapunov stability are used to
analyze stability of discrete-time systems.
Comparison

Aspect Continuous-Time Models Discrete-Time Models

Representation Differential Equations Difference Equations

Time Domain Continuous Discrete

Analog Control Systems, Digital Control Systems,

Applications Mechanical Systems Computer Simulations

Analytical and Numerical Analytical and Simulation

Analysis Methods Methods

Lyapunov Stability, Eigenvalue

Stability Analysis Analysis Z-transforms, Eigenvalue Analysis

Real-Time Digital Hardware, Computer

Implementation Hardware with Analog Signals Software

Applications

1. Continuous-Time Models:

 Analog control systems in automotive, aerospace, and industrial applications.

 Modeling physical systems like mechanical systems, electrical circuits, and

chemical processes.

2. Discrete-Time Models:

 Digital control systems in robotics, automation, and embedded systems.

 Simulation and modeling of discrete event systems, queueing systems, and

digital signal processing.

In summary, both continuous- and discrete-time dynamic models are essential tools for
analyzing and simulating dynamic systems in various fields of engineering and science. The
choice between continuous and discrete representations depends on the nature of the system,
the available resources, and the specific requirements of the application.
Linearization

Definition

 Linearization: The process of approximating the behavior of a nonlinear system

around a particular operating point by a linear model.

 Used to simplify the analysis and design of nonlinear systems, making them amenable
to techniques developed for linear systems.

Procedure

1. Select Operating Point: Choose a nominal operating point around which to linearize
the system.

2. Linearize Equations: Linearize the system's equations of motion or state-space

representation by approximating nonlinear terms as first-order terms.

3. Obtain Linear Model: Derive the linearized equations, typically in the form of state-
space equations or transfer functions.

Linearization Techniques

1. Taylor Series Expansion: Approximates a function as a sum of its derivatives at a

given point.

2. Jacobian Matrix: Represents the linearization of a vector-valued function using its

partial derivatives.

3. Small-Signal Analysis: Linearizes around small deviations from the operating point,
assuming linearity holds within this range.

Linear Response

Definition

 Linear Response: The response of a system to an input signal is linearly related to the
input signal itself.

 In linear systems theory, the output is a scaled version of the input, with no distortion
or nonlinear effects.

Properties
 1. Superposition: The response to a sum of inputs equals the sum of the responses to each
input individually.

2. Homogeneity: Scaling the input by a constant scales the output by the same constant.

3. Time-Invariance: The system's response is independent of when the input signal is

applied.

Linear Systems

1. Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems: Systems where the superposition,

homogeneity, and time-invariance properties hold.

 Examples include passive electrical circuits, linear mechanical systems, and

linear control systems.

2. Linearization of Nonlinear Systems: Nonlinear systems can be approximated as

linear within a small range around an operating point, allowing linear analysis
techniques to be applied.

Analysis Techniques

1. Transfer Function Analysis: Describes the relationship between the input and output
of a linear system in the frequency domain.

2. State-Space Representation: Represents the evolution of a linear system's state

variables over time using linear differential or different equations.

3. Frequency Response Analysis: Studies how a system responds to sinusoidal inputs at

different frequencies.

Applications

1. Control Systems: Design and analysis of feedback control systems for stabilization,
tracking, and disturbance rejection.

2. Signal Processing: Filtering, modulation, and demodulation of signals in

communication systems and digital signal processing.

3. Mechanical Systems: Modeling and analysis of linearized dynamics for stability

analysis and control of mechanical systems like robotic manipulators and vehicles.
In summary, linearization is the process of approximating the behavior of a nonlinear system
by a linear model around a particular operating point, while linear response describes the
property of a system where the output is linearly related to the input. Linear analysis techniques
are powerful tools for understanding and designing systems in various engineering disciplines,
offering simplicity and tractability in many cases.

Controller Hardware/Software Systems

Hardware Components

1. Microcontrollers: Small computing devices embedded into control systems to execute

control algorithms.

2. Digital Signal Processors (DSPs): Specialized microprocessors optimized for

processing digital signals in real-time.

3. Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs): Configurable integrated circuits used to

implement custom digital logic for specific control tasks.

4. Actuators and Sensors Interface: Circuits and modules for interfacing with actuators
and sensors, converting analog signals to digital signals and vice versa.

5. Communication Interfaces: Ethernet, USB, CAN bus, and other communication

protocols for interfacing with external devices and networks.

Software Components

1. Embedded Software: Programs running on microcontrollers or DSPs to execute

control algorithms and manage hardware interfaces.

2. Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS): Operating systems designed for deterministic

and predictable execution of tasks in real-time applications.

3. Control Algorithms: PID controllers, state-space controllers, model predictive

controllers, and other control algorithms implemented in software.

4. Simulation and Modeling Tools: Software tools for simulating and modeling control
systems behavior before deployment.

5. Programming Languages: C/C++, MATLAB/Simulink, Python, and other languages

used for developing control software.
Integration

1. Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) Simulation: Testing control algorithms by integrating

software simulations with real hardware components.

2. Rapid Prototyping: Developing and testing control algorithms on hardware platforms

like Arduino, Raspberry Pi, or custom development boards.

3. Code Generation: Automatically generating code from control algorithms designed in

modeling and simulation environments like Simulink.

4. Real-Time Monitoring and Debugging: Tools for monitoring and debugging control
systems in real-time, providing insights into system behavior and performance.

Sensor Systems and Integration

Types of Sensors

1. Position and Motion Sensors: Encoders, accelerometers, gyroscopes, and GPS

receivers for measuring position, velocity, and orientation.

2. Force and Torque Sensors: Load cells, strain gauges, and torque transducers for
measuring forces and torques exerted on objects.

3. Temperature Sensors: Thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), and

thermistors for measuring temperature changes.

4. Vision Sensors: Cameras and depth sensors for capturing visual information about the
environment.

5. Environmental Sensors: Humidity sensors, pressure sensors, and gas sensors for
monitoring environmental conditions.

Integration

1. Sensor Fusion: Combining data from multiple sensors to improve accuracy and
reliability of measurements.

2. Calibration: Adjusting sensor outputs to account for systematic errors and biases,
ensuring accurate measurements.

3. Filtering and Signal Processing: Filtering noise and unwanted artifacts from sensor
data using techniques like Kalman filtering or Fourier analysis.
 4. Sensor Networks: Connecting multiple sensors to a central controller or network for
distributed sensing and data aggregation.

5. Data Transmission: Transmitting sensor data wirelessly or through wired

communication interfaces to control systems for real-time processing and decision-
making.

Applications

1. Industrial Automation: Monitoring and controlling manufacturing processes using

sensors for quality control and optimization.

2. Autonomous Vehicles: Integrating sensors like lidar, radar, and cameras into
autonomous vehicles for navigation and perception.

3. Smart Buildings: Using sensors for energy management, environmental monitoring,

and occupant comfort control.

4. Healthcare: Wearable sensors for monitoring vital signs, activity levels, and patient
health in real-time.

5. Environmental Monitoring: Deploying sensor networks for tracking air and water
quality, weather conditions, and natural phenomena.

In summary, controller hardware/software systems and sensor systems integration are essential
components of modern control systems, enabling precise control and monitoring of physical
processes across various domains. Integration of sensors with control systems enhances system
performance, reliability, and adaptability, paving the way for advanced automation and
intelligent systems.