Course Pack For

Subject Title: - Fundamental of Information Technology

COURSE CODE: 101
COURSE: BCA
SEMESTER: I
YEAR: 2022-23

Course Leader: Ms. Ankita Gulati

Course Instructor: Ms. Ruby

Kapoor

(Dr. D.S Bawa) (Dr. Yamini Agarwal)

Forwarded by: HOD Approved By: Director(I/C)

Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University), Institute of Management &

Research, New Delhi

An ISO 9001: 2008 & 14001:2004 Certified Institute

A-4, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi-110063(Ph: 011-25284396, 25285808, Fax

No. 011-25286442)

Note: “Strictly for Internal academic use only”

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 BVIMR SNAPSHOT

Established in 1992, Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University) Institute of

Management and Research (BVIMR), New Delhi focuses on imbibing the said
values across various stakeholders through adequate creation, inclusion, and
dissemination of knowledge in management education.
The institute has over the past few years emerged in the lead with a vision of
Leadership in professional education through innovation and excellence. This
excellence is sustained by consistent value enhancement and initiation of value-
added academic processes in institute’s academic systems.

Based on the fabulous architecture and layout on the lines of Nalanda Vishwa
Vidyalaya, the institute is a scenic marvel of lush green landscape with modern
interiors. The Institute which is ISO 9001:2015 certified is under the ambit of
Bharati Vidyapeeth University (BVU), Pune as approved by Govt. of India on the
recommendation of UGC under Section 3 of UGC Act vide its letter notification No.
F. 9 – 16 / 2004 – U3 dated 25th February 2005.

Strategically located in West Delhi on the main Rohtak Road, BVIMR, New Delhi
has splendid layout on sprawling four acres of plot with 'state-of-art' facilities with
all classrooms, Library Labs, Auditorium etc. that are fully air-conditioned. The
Institute that has an adjacent Metro station “Paschim Vihar (East)”, connects the
entire Delhi and NCR.

We nurture our learners to be job providers rather than job seekers. This is resorted
to by fostering the skill and enhancement of knowledge base of our students through
various extracurricular, co-curricular and curricular activities by our faculty, who
keep themselves abreast by various research and FDPs and attending
Seminars/Conferences. The Alumni has a key role here by inception of SAARTHI
Mentorship program who update and create professional environment for learners’
centric academic ambiance and bridging industry-academia gap.

Our faculty make distinctive contribution not only to students but to Academia
through publications, seminars, conferences apart from quality education. We also
believe in enhancing corporate level interaction including industrial projects,
undertaken by our students under continuous guidance of our faculty. These form
the core of our efforts which has resulted in being one of the premier institutes of
management.
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 At BVIMR, we are imparting quality education in management at Doctorate,
Postgraduate and Undergraduate levels.

9. Contact Details:

RUBY KAPOOR
Mobile: 8368593148,9811515208
E-Mail: rubyignou16@gmail.com

Experience and Accomplishments

In my career of 26+ years, I have 26+ Years of experience in Teaching and website designing

Skill Sets
As Teacher
 Operating Systems: Windows, Linux, UNIX.
 Databases: MS Access, SQL Server
 Programming Languages: C, C++, Java
 System Concepts: Management information system, Software
Engineering, etc,
 Knowledge of: HTML, CSS,

Ankita Gulati
Mobile: 9555538440
E-Mail: ankitagulati15@gmail.com

Experience and Accomplishments

In my career of 8+ years, I have 1+ Years of experience a designer and 7+ Years of
experience in Teaching.

Skill Sets

 Operating Systems: Windows.

 Databases: Oracle8i & 9i, MS Access, SQL Server.
 Programming Languages: C, C with Data structure, C++, C++ with Data
structure, Java,.Net
 System Concepts: Management information system, Software Engineering,
OOAD, Software testing, fundamentals of internet ,Information Security etc,

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4
 Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be) University
Institute of Management & Research, New Delhi
_______________________________________________________________________________

Course Outline:
Course: BCA -I Semester: I Academic Year: 2020-2021

Course Credit: 04 Course Code: 101 Credit Hours: 40

1. Course Title: Fundamentals of Information Technology - (This is an elementary course in

computers and information technology the main objective is to introduce IT in a simple language
to all undergraduate students, regardless of their specialization. It will help them to pursue
specialized programs leading to technical and professional careers and certifications in the IT
industry.

The focus of the subject is on introducing skills relating to IT basics, computer applications,
programming, interactive Medias, Internet basics etc.)

2. Course Overview:

 Unit one begins with the discussion of the evolution of computers in different generations,
followed by classification of computers in different categories based on their capabilities.
 Unit two covers basic computer organization including input and output devices.
 Unit three includes the primary and secondary storage units in computer systems.
 Unit four describes in detail, the various types of software, including system and application
software.
 Unit five discusses communication networks, topologies and protocols related to data
communication.
 Unit six includes the various number systems along with conversion of a number system to
another.
By the end of the 6th unit, the students will gain complete insight into fundamentals of computer
systems and information technology

Course Objective:

The main objective is to introduce IT in a simple language to all undergraduate students, regardless
of their specialization. It will help them to pursue specialized programs leading to technical and

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professionalProfessional careers and certifications in the IT industry. The focus of the subject is on
introducing skills relating to IT basics, computer applications, programming, interactive Medias,
Internet basics

3. Course Outcome:

After undergoing this course, the participants will be able to:

 CO-1: Understand basic concepts and terminology of information technology.

 CO-2: Select and judge usage of IT product and services
 CO-3: Have a basic understanding of personal computers and their operations.
 CO-4: Know about the importance of software
 CO-5: Understand the roles of computer Network and its implementations
 CO-6: Be able to learn number systems and its uses.

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 4. List of topics and modules
Unit Module Contents/ Concepts

Unit 1 : Introduction to Computers: Definition, .Basics of Computer, Characteristics of

computers, Evolution of Computer, Block Diagram Of a
computer, Generations of Computer, Classification Of
Computers, Applications of Computer, Capabilities and
limitations of computer.

Unit 2: Input Output Devices: Role of I/O devices in a computer system. Input Units:
Keyboard, Terminals and its types. Pointing Devices,
Scanners and its types, Voice Recognition Systems,
Vision Input System, Touch Screen, Outputand Output
Units: Monitors and its types. Printers: Impact Printers
and its types. Non ImpactNon-Impact Printers and its
types, Plotters, types of plotters, Sound cards, Speakers.

Unit 3 : Storage Fundamentals: Primary Vs Secondary Storage, Data storage & retrieval
methods. Primary Storage: RAM ROM, PROM,
EPROM, EEPROM. Secondary Storage: Magnetic
Disks. Flash Drives, DVD, Blue-Ray disc.

Unit 4: Software: Software and its needs, Types of S/W. System Software:
Operating System, Utility Programs Programming
Language: Machine Language, Assembly Language,
High Level Language their advantages & disadvantages.
Application S/W and its types: Word Processing, Spread
Sheets Presentation, Graphics, DBMS s/w, Algorithms
and Flow Charts.

Unit 5 : Data Communication: Communication Process, Data Transmission speed,

Communication Types (modes), Data Transmission
Medias, Modem and its working, characteristics, Types
of Networks, LAN Topologies, Computer Protocols,
Concepts relating to networking. Internet – Web
Browsers, Web servers, Internet Protocol, Hypertext
Transfer Protocol, Business Data Processing:
Introduction, data storage hierarchy, Method of
organizing data, File Types, File Organization, File
Utilities.

Unit 6 : Computer Arithmetic: Binary, Binary Arithmetic, Number System: Positional &

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 Non Positional, Binary, Octal, Decimal, Hexadecimal,
Converting from one number system to another , 1’s
Complements, 2’s Complements, Computer Codes,
Rules and laws of Boolean algebra, Basic Gates (NOT,
AND & OR

5. Session Plan

Session Topic Learning Learning Outcome

Resources

Module I: Introduction to Computers:

1 Introduction, Definition, Book page 1 to 2 Students will learn about

Characteristics of computer basics and history of
computers LO1

2 Evolution of Computer, Book page 3 to Students will learn about

Generations of Computer 11 different generations LO1

3 Basic computer organization, Book page 15 to Students will gain insight into
Applications of Computer, 18 computer basic organization,
Capabilities and limitations of various applications,
computer capabilities and limitations of
computers. LO1

4 Classification Of Computers FIT notes- Students will gain insight into

module 1 classification Of computers
LO1
5 Revision of Unit 1

Module II: Basic Computer Organization

6 Role of I/O devices in a Book –page 149 Students will get to know
computer system. Input about Keyboard, Terminals
devices: Keyboard, and pointing devices LO I &
terminals, Pointing 2
Devices

7 Scanners and its types Page 153 Discussion of Scanners and

its types LO II

8 Digitizer, e card reader, Page 157, 158, Discussion of Voice

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 speech Recognition 159 Recognition Systems, Vision
Systems, Vision Input Input System LO II
System

9 Output devices: Monitors Pg 160, 165 Detailed discussion of

and its types, plotters Monitors and its types,
speakers, sound cards,
plotters LO II

10 Printers and its types. Pg 160 to 165 Discussion of impact printers

LO II

11 Impact and Non-Impact Fit notes module Discussion of Non Impact

Printers 2 Printers and its types

12 CLASS TEST-1 module I and II Quiz from module I and II

Module III: Storage Fundamentals

13 Primary storage/ main Book Pg 108, Discussion of Primary

memory, memory cell memory LO II & III
Fit notes module
3

14 Primary Storage methods: Pg 108-113 Detailed discussion of

RAM ROM, PROM, primary storage LO II & III
EPROM, EEPROM.

15 Secondary Storage: Pg 117-124 Introduction to Secondary

Storage LO II & III
Sequential and direct
access, Magnetic Tapes

16 Magnetic disks ,Optical Pg 124-140 Detailed discussion of

disks – CD ROM and it’s Magnetic and Optical Disks
type (CD ROM, CD ROM- LO II & III
R, CD ROM-EO, DVD
ROM

17 Memory storage devices Pg 140-141 Discussion of flash drives and

memory card, with revision
(flash drive, memory card)
of complete unit LO II & III

18 Revision of Unit 3

Module IV: Software

19 Software and its needs, Pg 172-175 Introduction to Software LO

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 Types of S/W(System and IV
Application)

20 Logical system Pg175-178 Discussion on Logical system

architecture, acquiring architecture, acquiring
software software LO4

21 System software: Utility Fit notes module System software discussion

program, Application 4
software

22 Introduction to Pg 208- 216 Types of computers

programming language, Languages LO IV
Machine level language:
advantages &
disadvantages

23 Assembly Language: Pg 216- 223 Discussion of high level

advantages & languages LO4
disadvantages, High-Level
Language: advantages &
disadvantages

24 Application S/W and its Pg 278 Intro to application software

types: Word Processing LO4
software, spreadsheet

25 Presentation software, Fit Notes Discussion of Presentation

(presentation software and graphics
Graphics software
software) , software LO IV

Pg 278(graphics)

26 Assignment 1 Class test

27 Functions of O.S., Pg 251-253 Discussing Functions of O.S.

Measuring System LO4
Performance

28 Types of OS FIT notes module Discussion of types of OS

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29 Multiprogramming, Multi Pg 255-262 Discussion of multi-

Tasking, multithreading, processing, Time Sharing
Multiprogramming, Multi
Multiprocessing , Time

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 Sharing Tasking, time sharing. LO4

30 Revision of Unit 5

Module V: Data Communication

31 Communication Process, Pg 321-323, Pg Overview of Computer

characteristics of networks, 341-343 networks LO- 5
Data Transmission speed,
Communication Types
(modes), types of
networks(LAN,MAN,WA
N)

32. Communication Types Pg 341-343

(modes), types of
networks(LAN,MAN,WA
N)

332 Applications of computer Fit notes module Various applications and

networks, network 6 (applications) topologies: mesh, star, tree,
topologies ring, bus. LO- 5
Pg 328-
340(topologies)

343 Transmission Media 323-326 Guided and unguided media

354 Modem and its working & 328-220, 343 Discussion of working of
Computer Protocols Modems LO- 5

365 Computer Protocols 343 How Protocols workQuiz of

module 5
Quiz-1

37 Revision of Unit 5

38 Doubt Clearing Session

396 Discussion of Last year 116Pg 20-22 Introduction to binary

Question paperBinary, arithmetic LO-6
Binary Arithmetic,
Number System:
Positional & Non
Positional system

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4037 Discussion of Last year 117Pg 21-22 Intro to different number
Question paperBinary, systems LO-6
Octal, Decimal systems

38 Hexadecimal number Pg 22 Discussion of hexadecimal

system systems LO-6

39 Conversion of number Pg 23-27 Students will learn about

systems Conversion of number
systems LO-6

40 Conversion of number Pg 27-31 Students will learn about

systems, continued Conversion of number
systems LO-6

41 REVISION Revision of entire syllabus

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6. Evaluation Criteria:

Component Description Weight

1.First Internal The first internal will evaluate the different 10 marks
Examination aspects/conceptual knowledge of the first 3 units.

2.Second Internal The second internal will evaluate the different 10 marks
Examination aspects/conceptual knowledge of the remaining
units.
3. CES 1 - Class Class test , Quiz, Presentation 10 marks
Test

7. Recommended/ Reference Text Books and Resources:

Text Books “Computer Fundamentals” by P.K.Sinha

Reference Fundamental of Information Technology by murthy (c.s.v.)/ krishan

book (m.)/

References 1. Alex Leon & Mathews Leon, “Introduction to Computers”, Vikas Publishing
House,1999.
2. “Computer Networks” by Sanjay Gupta
3. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/index.htm

8. Suggested MOOC : Please refer these websites for MOOCS:

NPTEL / Swayam

www. edx.com

www.coursera.com

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 9. Contact Details:

Name of the Instructor: Ajay Kumar

Office Location: Room no 208

Telephone: 9953007789

Email: Ajay.kumar@bharatividyapeeth.edu
Teaching Venue: Assigned classroom as per timetable
Website: www.bvimr.com
Office Hours: 09:00 am to 05:00 pm
Online Links (Link to
172.16.0.5/moodle
Blackboard etc.):

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Study Notes

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY:

Module 1:
Introduction To Computers

A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by
performing calculations and operations on it, and generates the desired output results.

Characteristics of A Computer System

Computers are not just adding machines; they are capable of doing complex activities and
operations. They can be programmed to do complex, tedious and monotonous tasks. All computers
have certain common characteristics irrespective of their type and size. The following are the
important characteristics which took together, enable a computer to surpass its performance in
some tasks in which the human beings cannot perform efficiently:

1. Speed: A computer is a very fast device capable of data processing at unbelievable speed. It can
perform in a few seconds the amount of work that a human being may not be able to do in an entire
year even if he works day and night and does nothing else. Computers can process millions of
instructions per second thus carrying out even the complex tasks in fractions of seconds without
any mistake. While talking about the speed of a computer, we do not talk in terms of seconds
or even milliseconds (10-3). Our units of speed are the microseconds (10-6), the nanoseconds (10-
9), and even the picoseconds (10-12). A powerful computer is capable of performing about 3 to 4
million simple arithmetic operations per second.

2. Accuracy: In addition to speed, the computer has high accuracy in computing. The accuracy of
a computer is consistently high and the degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon
its design. But for a particular computer, each and every calculation is performed with the same
accuracy. Errors can occur in a computer, but these are mainly due to human rather than
technological weakness. The errors in computer are due to errors in programming and operation by
human and due to inaccurate data.
3. Versatility: A computer is a very versatile machine. Versatility is one of the most wonderful
features of the computer in the sense that they are not only capable of handling complex
arithmetical problems, but can do equally well other number of jobs. They can perform activities
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ranging from simple calculations to performing complex CAD modeling and simulations to
navigating missiles and satellites. In other words, computers can be programmed to perform any
task that can be
reduced to a series of logical steps. Computers can communicate with other computers and can
receive and send data in various forms like text, sound, video, graphics, etc. We, now, live in a
connected world and all this is because of computers and other related technologies.
4. Diligence : Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, lack of
concentration etc. and hence can work for hours together without creating any error and without
grumbling. Due to this property computers obviously score over human beings in doing routine
type of jobs, which require greater accuracy. They will perform the tasks that are given to them -
irrespective of whether it is interesting, creative, monotonous or boring; irrespective of whether it
is the first time or the millionth time - with exactly the same accuracy and speed.
5. Storage Capability: Computers have their main memory and auxiliary memory systems. A
computer can store a large amount of data. With more and more auxiliary storage devices, which
are capable of storing huge amounts of data, the storage capacity of a computer is virtually
unlimited. The factor that makes computer storage unique is not that it can store vast amount of
data, but the fact that it can retrieve the information that the user wants in a few seconds. Every
piece of information can be retained as long as desired by the user and can be recalled as and when
required. Even after several years, the information recalled is as accurate as on the day when it was
fed to computer. A computer forgets or looses certain information only when it is asked to do so.
So it is entirely up to the user to make a computer retain or forget particular information.

6. Reliability: Reliability of the computers is indeed very high. Modern electronic components
have long failure free lives. A microprocessor chip is said to have a life of 40 years even under
adverse conditions and much before it fails, it will become obsolete. Computers are also designed
in modular form so as to make maintenance easy; when a component fails, it can be replaced or
repaired at a
minimal cost.
7. Automation: The level of automation achieved in a computer is phenomenal. It is not a simple
calculator where you have to punch in the numbers and press the equal to sign to get the result.
Once a task is initiated, computers can proceed on its own till its completion. Computers can be
programmed to perform a series of complex tasks involving multiple programs. Computers will
perform these things flawlessly. They will execute the programs in the correct sequence, they will

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switch on/off the machines at the appropriate time, they will monitor the operational parameters,
and they will send warning signals or take corrective actions if the parameters exceed the control
level, and so on. Computers are capable of these levels of automation, provided they are
programmed correctly

Computer Evolution

Early Computing Machines and Inventors

ABACUS- It is a counting device which has emerged about 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor and is
still in use today, may be considered the first computer. This device allows users to make
computations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack.

Pascaline Machine - In 1642, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), invented first functional automatic
calculator called Pascaline Machine. This brass rectangular box, also called a Pascaline, used eight
movable dials to add sums up to eight figures long. The drawback to the Pascaline, of course, was
its limitation to addition.

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 Leibniz Machine- In 1694, a German mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhem von
Leibniz (1646-1716), improved the Pascaline by creating a machine that could also multiply,
divide and find the square root. Leibniz's mechanical multiplier worked by a system of gears and
dials. It lacked mechanical precision in its construction and was not very reliable.

Charles Babbage- Charles Babbage, a 19th century professor is considered as father of modern
digital computers. In 1842, he came up with his new idea of analytical engine, which was
completely automatic. It was capable of performing basic arithmetic functions for any
mathematical problem. But he was not able to produce it working model.

He proposed another machine to perform differential equations called difference engine powered
by steam and large as locomotive, the machine would have stored program and could perform
calculations and print result automatically.

Herman Hollerith- In 1889, an American inventor, Herman Hollerith (1860-1929), also applied
the Jacquard loom concept to computing. His first task was to find a faster way to compute the
U.S. census. He gave the concept of punched cards. Punched cards were used as input medium in
computers. Hollerith’s method used cards to store data information which he fed into a machine
that compiled the result mechanically.

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Some well known early computers are:

The Mark I Computer (1939-44) : It also known as automatic sequence controlled calculator, it
was first fully automatic calculating machine, designed by Howard A. Aiken.

The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-46) : This electronic machine was developed by Dr. John
Atanoff to solve certain maths equations. It was called Atanasoff Berry computer or ABC, after its
inventor’s name and his assistant, Clifford Berry.

The ENIAC (1943-46) : The Electronic Numeric Integrator and calculator was first all electronic
computer. It was constructed at Moore school of engineering in U.S.A developed for military
needs. It took wall space in 20 *40 sq feet room.

The EDVAC (1946-52) : Electronic Discrete variable Automatic computer ( EDVAC). Major
drawback of ENIAC was that its program was wired on boards, which made it difficult to change
the wired on boards, which made it difficult to change the programs. This problem was overcome
by EDVAC, as it has the stored program concept. The idea behind this concept was that the
sequence of instructions and data can be stored in memory of computer for automatically directing
the flow of operations. Due to this feature, we often refer to modern digital computer as stored
program digital computers.

The EDSAC (1947-49) : Electronic Delay storage Automatic calculator ( EDSAC). It was based
on John Von Neuman’s stored program concept. This machine executed addition operations in
1500 microseconds and multiplication operation in 4000 microseconds. It was developed by team
of Maurice Wilkes.

The UNIVAC I (1951) : Universal Automatic computer. Many UNIVAC machines were
produced, first of which was installed in 1951.

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 Computer Generations

‘Generation’ in computer terminology is a ‘step’ ahead in technology. As you go through the

history of evolution of computers, you will find that the earliest computers were big in size,
consumed a lot of power and heated up quickly, due to which it had to be shut down, frequently to
be cooled. They were very expensive in terms of development and maintenance.
As technology improved, computers became compact, faster and more powerful. From a user’s
perspective, they become user friendly and more affordable. This has largely contributed towards
the popularity that computers have gained these days.
The term ‘generation’ was earlier used only to distinguish between varying hardware technologies
but was later extended to include both hardware and software. A comparison of generations is
made below.
First Generation Computers (1940 to 1956)
The first generation of computers was characterized by vacuum tubes in the circuitry and
magnetic drums for memory.
These computers were enormous in size, used great deal of electricity and were expensive to
operate. They also had limited storage capacity.
First generation computers relied on machine language (binary-coded program) to perform
operations and could solve only one problem at a time. Punched cards and paper tapes were used
to input data and instructions, and output was displayed on printouts.
Early computers like ENIAC, EDVAC and UNIVAC can all be classified as first generation
computers.
Advantages
1. These computer were based on vacuum tube technology (this make possible for advent of
electronic digital computers.
2. Fastest computing devices of their times (Computation time was in milliseconds).
Disadvantages
1. Too bulky in size
2. Generate large amount of heat because of use of thousand of vacuum tubes.Therfore air
conditioning was essential.
3. Non-portable and very slow equipments.
4. Lacked in versatility and speed.
5. Expensive to operate and used a large amount of electricity.
6. Unreliable and prone to frequent hardware failure. So, constant maintenance was required.
7. Difficult to program and use since machine language was used.
8. Limited commercial use because each individual component had to be assembled manually.

Second Generation Computers (1956 to 1963)

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In the early 1950s, the discoveries of Transistor and Magnetic core memory changed the image
of computers – from unreliable to highly reliable machines with increased capability, and higher
storage capacity.

The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller in size,
cheaper, reliable and more energy efficient. Though transistor still generated a great deal of heat, it
was a substantial improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second generation of computers was also characterized by allowing programmers to specify
instructions in symbolic (or assembly) language rather than cryptic binary machine language. High
level programming languages like COmmon Business Oriented Language (COBOL) and
FORmula TRANslation (FORTRAN) were also being developed at this time.
Due to the increase in the cost of expanding programming, these machines were expensive to
purchase and operate. Such computers were, therefore, mostly found in large computer centers or
government/private laboratories with many programmers and support professionals.
Example:-PDP-8,IBM 1401 and IBM 7090
Advantages
1. Smaller in size compared to first generation computer because of Transistor.
2. Reliable and less prone to hardware failure. So less maintenance is required.
3. Reduce computational time from milliseconds to microseconds.
4. Better portability.
5. Less heat generated.
6. Wide commercial use.
7. Programming became more time-efficient since Assembly or Symbolic language was used.
Disadvantages
1. Air conditioning required.
2. Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was required.
3. Commercial production was difficult and costly.

Third Generation Computers (1964 to 1971)

The development of Integrated Circuit by Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, in
1958, was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Punched cards and printouts gave
way to devices like keyboards and monitors making it easier for the user to interact with the
computer. Computer manufacturers could provide a range of accessories like the cathode ray tube
display devices, page printers, consoles etc.
Existence of an operating system allowed the device to run various applications at one time with
the central program monitoring the memory.
For the first time, computers were being widely used in business for areas like :
 Accounting
 Payroll
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  Billing
 Tracking Inventory, etc.
Third generation computers were substantially smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Example:- NCR 395,B6500

Advantages
1. Based on Integrated Circuit(IC).
2. Reduce computational time from microsecond to nanoseconds.
3. Better portable and reliable than 2nd generation computers.
4. Consume less power and generated less heat.In some cases,air conditioning was still required.
5. Maintenance cost was quite low since hardware rarely failed.

Disadvantages
1. Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of IC chips.

Fourth Generation Computers (1971 to 1995)

The trend in 1970s was to move from single-purpose but powerful computers towards cheaper
computer systems that could support a large range of applications.
A new revolution in computer hardware came about which could shrink the computer logic
circuitry and its components using the Large Scale Integration (LSI) technology. Hundreds of
components could now fit onto a single chip!

Figure 1.4 : IC
Chips Figure 1.5 : Intel Pentium Microprocessor Chip
In the 1980s, Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) squeezed hundreds of thousands of components
onto a single chip. This shrinking trend continued and led to the introduction of personal
computers (PCs) – programmable machines that are small enough and inexpensive so that these
can be purchased and used by individuals. Companies like Apple Computers and IBM introduced
very successful PCs.
The IC technology was not only used to construct the processor, but also for the construction of
memory. The first memory chip was constructed in 1970 and could hold 256 bits.
Advantages
1. Smallest in size because of high component density.
23
2. Very reliable.

3. Heat generated is negligible.

4. No air conditioning required in most cases.

5. Much faster in computation than previous generation.

6. Hardware failure is negligible and hence minimal maintenance is required.

7. Easily portable because of their small size.

8. Totally general purpose.

9. Minimal labour and cost involved at assembly stage.

10. Cheapest among all generations.

11. Microprocessor based system.

Disadvantage

1. Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of LSI chips.

Fifth Generation Computers (1995- onwards)

The fifth generation of computers characterized by Artificial Intelligence, Parallel Processing and
Mega chips (SLSI) is in the process of development. The goal here is to develop devices that are
capable of learning and responding to natural language input. This generation of computers is
using new technologies in very large scale integration, along with new programming languages
and will be capable of amazing feats, in the area of artificial intelligence, such as voice
recognition. It was based on the concept of Artificial Intelligence(AI) i.e. try to simulate the human
way of thinking & reasoning.AI includes areas like Expert System(ES),Natural Language
Processing(NLP),Speech recognition etc.

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 DATA, INFORMATION AND INSTRUCTION

Data: Data is a fact, observation or assumption from which conclusion can be drawn. Data
relates to fact, event and transactions.

Information: Information is data that has been processed in such a way as to be meaningful
to the person who receives it.

For example:

Researchers who conduct market research survey might ask member of the public to complete
questionnaires about a product or a service. These completed questionnaires are data; they are
processed and analyze in order to prepare a report on the survey. This resulting report is
information.

Instruction: Instruction is a rules or basics through which we perform a certain task. In computer term:-

When information is entered into and stored in a computer, it is generally referred to as data. and
when this data is processed (such as formatting or printing), output data can again be
perceived as information.
Instruction is a code that tells a computer to perform a particular operation.

25
Capabilities And Limitations Of Computers

 Limitations of Computer

1. The Computer does not work on itself, it requires set of instructions to be provided, and
else computer (Hardware) is waste.

2. Computers are not intelligent, they have to be instructed about each and every step
which they have to perform

3. Computers cannot take decisions on its own, one has to program the computer to take
an action if some conditional prevail.

4) Computers unlike humans, cannot learn by experience.

26
Applications of computer:
• Medical
• Scientific
• Education
• Engineering
• Military
• Banking
• Entertainment
• Business
• Turism

Computers have their application or utility everywhere. We find their applications in almost
every sphere of life–particularly in fields where computations are required to be done at a very
fast speed and where data is so complicated that the human brain finds it difficult to cope up
with.

As you must be aware, computer now-a-days are being used almost in every department to do
the work at a greater speed and accuracy. They can keep the record of all the employees and pre
pare their pay bill in a matter of minutes every month. They can keep automatic checks on the
stock of a particular item. Some of the prominent areas of computer applications are:-

1. In Tourism: Hotels use computers to speed up billing and checkout the availability of rooms.
So is the case with railways and airline reservations for booking tickets. Architects can display
their scale models on a computer and study them from various angles and perspectives.
Structural problems can now be solved quickly and accurately.

2. In Banks: Banks also have started using computers extensively. Terminals are provided in the
branch and the main computer is located centrally. This enables the branches to use the central
computer system

27
Business

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which has
made it an integrated part in all business organizations.

Computer is used in business organizations for −

 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting

Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance
companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their
concerns.
28
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing −

 Procedure to continue with policies

 Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits
 Bonus

Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to
educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out
on this basis

29
Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −

 Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy,
and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of computerized catalogues
that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the
customers.

Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being
used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by
computerized machines.

Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer.

30
Military

Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also
employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are
−

 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons

Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category are −

 Budgets

31
 Sales tax department

 Income tax department

 Computation of male/female ratio

 Computerization of voters lists

 Computerization of PAN card

 Weather forecasting

32
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

Size Technology

BASED ON TECHNOLOGY:-

Based on Technology/working principle we classify the computer into 3 categories:-

1. Analog Computer

2. Digital Computer

3. Hybrid Computer

ANALOG COMPUTERS

Analog Computers are those computers that recognized data as a continuous measurement of
physical quantities like pressure, voltage or temperature. The output of analog computer is usually
display in the form of dial gauge reading or graphs.

Example- Automobile Speedometer, Voltmeter

33
DIGITAL COMPUTER

Digital Computers are those computers that take data in digits i.e. 0 or 1.These computer
recognizes data by counting discrete signal representing by either a high or low voltage of
electricity and store them in digits.

Example- Digital Watch, PC

HYBRID COMPUTER

Hybrid Computers are those computers which perform operation based on both i.e. analog and
digital principle. This computer measure both continuous and discrete form of data.

Example: - Measuring heart beat or ECG system in ICU.

Classification of Computers based on Size/ Types of Digital Computer

34
  Microcomputer

A microcomputer is a complete computer on a smaller scale and is generally a synonym for the
more common term, personal computer or PC , a computer designed for an individual. A
microcomputer contains a microprocessor (a central processing unit on a microchip ), memory in
the form of read-only memory and random access memory , I/O ports and a bus or system of
35
interconnecting wires, housed in a unit that is usually called a motherboard . Although these
computers have limited memory and speed, their cost makes them very attractive for applications
that would otherwise not be feasible. Moreover micros are frequently used to provide additional
computer power for companies that already have mainframes or minis. It is mostly used as a single
user. Its speed is usually counted in MHz rather than MIPS. The speed is generally from 8 MHz to
onward. The RAM is from 640 KB to onward.

 Mini Computer

Mini computers have been very popular in business. Minis are frequently used to add computer
power with mainframes. Sometimes an organization decides to decentralize or distribute its
computer power to various stations or locations within user’s departments. Mini computers are
ideal for processing data in a decentralized mode since they are small. Moreover minis have also
made it possible for many smaller organizations to afford a computer for the first time. Typically,
minicomputers have been stand-alone computers (computer systems with attached terminals and
other devices) sold to small and mid-size businesses for general business applications and to large
enterprises for department-level operations. In recent years, the minicomputer has evolved into the
"mid-range server" and is part of a network. The input/output devices are lesser as compared to
mainframe. The speed is usually from 10 MIPS to onward. RAM is from 2 MB to onward. IBM's
AS/400e is a good example.

 Mainframe

36
Mainframes are the traditional medium and large scale computer systems used in most business
organizations for information processing.A mainframe typically has a advanced control system and
is capable of linking up with dozens of input/output units and even minis for additional computer
power. It can usually perform from 16 MIPS to onward. Memory size is from 2 MB to onward.
Examples are IBM 4300 and 3300 series, Honeywell 700 series and NCR 800 series.

 Supercomputer

Super computers are the fastest, largest and costliest computers available. The speed is in the 100
million instructions per second range. They tend to be used for specific applications in weather
forecasting, aircraft design and nuclear research. Super computers are sometimes used for time
sharing as well. Memory size is in hundreds of megabytes.

Supercomputer use multiprocessing and parallel processing technologies to solve the complex
problem faster, hence they are also called as Parallel Computer. PARAM series computers are an
example of supercomputer developed by C-DAC, Pune.

37
 Basic computer organization/Computer Architecture/Design

Computer Architecture/Design

A typical computer system has an Input Unit, a Central Processing Unit, Memory Unit and Output
Unit. This is also known as Von Neumann Architecture of the computer. Over the years the
technology has changed but basic design/architecture is not changed. The important

Input Unit:

The input unit links the external environment with the computer system. Data and instructions
inputted to the computer system through this unit. The data can be inputted to the computer by
various means, it can be entered through a keyboard, through a card reader, through a mouse etc.
All the data supplied to the computer is transformed into the binary codes. Unit called input
interface accomplishes this transformation. Input interface is designed
38
to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of input devices with the requirements of
the computer system for example Keyboard, Mouse, Joy stick, Light Pen, Punched Cards, Optical
Mark Reader, Magnetic Tape, Optical Character Reader etc.

Output Unit:

It links the computer with the external environment. The job of an output unit is just opposite of an
input unit. It supplies information and results of computation to the outside world. As computers
work with binary code, the results produced are also in the binary form. Hence, before supplying
the results to the outside world, it must be converted to human readable form. Unit called output
interface accomplishes this task. Output interface is

designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of output devices (e.g. Monitor,
Printer, Plotter) with the requirement of the external environment.

Central Processing Unit:

The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the Central Processing Unit
(CPU). As in a human body, the brain takes all major decisions and controls all body parts,
similarly, in a computer system, all major computations are made by the CPU and is also
responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other units. The CPU performs the
following functions:
 It performs all calculations.
 It takes all decisions.
 It controls all units of the computer.

1. Control Unit:

The control unit is able to maintain order and direct the operation of the entire system. By
selecting, interpreting, and decoding, it executes the program instructions. This unit acts as a
central nervous system for the computer. It manages and coordinates the entire computer system. It
directs the flow of data through the CPU, and to and from other devices. Control unit controls the
input and output devices and the passing of data to the Arithmetic/Logical Unit for computation.
The control unit stores the CPU's microcode, which contains the instructions for all the tasks the
CPU can perform.
2.Arithmetic Logic Unit:
39
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual execution of
the instructions takes place during the processing operation. The data and instructions, stored in the
primary storage (RAM or Cache) prior to processing, are transferred as and when needed to the
ALU. ALU uses various CPU registers to store intermediate results of computations. The Final
result of computations is transferred back to the primary storage. After the completion of
processing, the final results that are stored in the primary storage unit are released to an output
device or to a secondary storage device.
The ALU is designed to perform all the basic Arithmetic Operations – add, subtract, multiply,
divide, Relational Operations such as comparisons using < , <=, > , >=, == etc and Logical
Operations such as AND, OR, NOT.

Storage Unit (Memory):

The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through the input unit,
before they are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are sent to the
output devices. It also saves the data for the later use. The various storage devices of a computer
system are divided into two categories.

1. Primary Storage: Stores and provides very fast. This memory is generally used to hold the
program being currently executed in the computer, the data being received from the input unit, the
intermediate and final results of the program. The primary memory is temporary in nature. The
data is lost, when the computer is switched off. In order to store the data permanently, the data has
to be transferred to the secondary memory.
The cost of the primary storage is more compared to the secondary storage. Therefore most
computers have limited primary storage capacity.

2. Secondary Storage: Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several programs,
documents, data bases etc. The programs that you run on the computer are first transferred to the
primary memory before it is actually run. Whenever the results are saved, again they get stored in
the secondary memory. The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primary memory.
Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are Hard disk, CD, etc.,

40
MCQ for Practice:

Second Generation computers were developed during

a. 1949 to 1955 b. 1956 to 1965

c. 1965 to 1970 d. 1970 to 1990

The term ‘Computer’ is derived from..........

a. Latin b. German

c. French d. Arabic

2. Who is the inventor of “Difference Engine”?

a. Allen Turing b. Charles Babbage

c. Simur Cray d. Augusta Adaming

3. Who is the father of Computer?

a. Allen Turing b. Charles Babbage

c. Simur Cray d. Augusta Adaming

A CPU contains

a. a card reader and a printing device b. an analytical engine and a control unit

c. a control unit and an arithmetic logic unit d. an arithmetic logic unit and a card reader

Which of the following controls the process of interaction between the user and the operating

system?

a. User interface b. Language translator

c. Platform d. Screen saver

The first computers were programmed using

a. assembly language b. machine language

c. source code d. object code

Which of the following statements is true ?

a. Minicomputer works faster than Microcomputer

b. Microcomputer works faster than Minicomputer

c. Speed of both the computers is the same

d. The speeds of both these computers cannot be compared with the speed of advanced

UNIVAC is
41
 a. Universal Automatic Computer b. Universal Array Computer

c. Unique Automatic Computer d. Unvalued Automatic Computer

CD-ROM stands for

a. Compactable Read Only Memory b. Compact Data Read Only Memory

c. Compactable Disk Read Only Memory d. Compact Disk Read Only Memory

ALU is

a. Arithmetic Logic Unit b. Array Logic Unit

c. Application Logic Unit d. None of above

Second Generation computers were developed during

a. 1949 to 1955 b. 1956 to 1965

c. 1965 to 1970 d. 1970 to 1990

The computer size was very large in

a. First Generation b. Second Generation

c. Third Generation d. Fourth Generation

Microprocessors as switching devices are for which generation computers

a. First Generation b. Second Generation

c. Third Generation d. Fourth Generation

42
 UNIT- 2

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

The computer will be of no use unless it is able to communicate with the outside world.
Input/output devices are required for users to communicate with the computer. In simple terms,
input devices bring information INTO the computer and output devices bring information OUT of
a computer system. These input/output devices are also known as peripherals since they surround
the CPU and memory of a computer system.
DEVICES

OUTPUT DEVICES
INPUT DEVICES

Keyboard
Mouse Monitor
Joystick Printer
Scanner Plotter
Light Pen LCD Projector
Touch Screen
Bar Code Reader
MICR
OMR

INPUT DEVICES:-
Are electromechanical device that are used for entering the data into computer in the machine
under stable form i.e. in binary form. In other words, It accepts data & instruction from the user &
other applications. Data input to a computer can be in the form of text, audio etc.
All the today’s available input devices can be broadly classified into the following categories:-

A) Human Data entry device:

 Keyboard

 Pointing Device(mouse)

 Picking device(lightpen,touchscreen)
43
 B) Source data entry Device:
 Audio input-Speech recognition
 Video Input-Digital camera
 Optical scanner-OCR,MICR,OMR.

Need for a Good Input:

a. Timeliness: If data is collected on right time & then processed faster to
generate information so that required corrective action can be taken.
b. Accuracy: Data must be accurate to save the alarming informational needs of
data.
c. Usefulness: Data are raw facts & figures & they are of no use unless its logical.
These data when processed must get converted into fruitful information that
helps in further decision making & taking corrective actions.

1. Keyboard Device
One of the primary simple input device that allows the user to input text & number. It
consists of a set of keys mounted on a board.
Alphanumeric Keypad/
Function Keys
Special-function Keys
Cursor Movement
Keys

Numeric Keypad

Figure 1.7 : Qwerty Keyboard Layout

Alphanumeric Keypad
It consists of keys for English alphabets, 0 to 9 numbers, and special characters like +
 / * ( ) etc.
Function Keys
There are twelve function keys labeled F1, F2, F3, …, F12. The functions assigned to
these keys differ from one software package to another. These keys are also user
programmable keys.
Special-function Keys
These keys have special functions assigned to them and can be used only for those
specific purposes. Functions of some of the important keys are defined below.
44
Enter
It is similar to the ‘return’ key of the typewriter and is used to execute a command or
program.
Spacebar
It is used to enter a space at the current cursor location.
Backspace
This key is used to move the cursor one position to the left and also delete the character
in that position.
Delete
It is used to delete the character at the cursor position.
Insert
Insert key is used to toggle between insert and overwrite mode during data entry.
Shift
This key is used to type capital letters when pressed along with an alphabet key. Also
used to type the special characters located on the upper-side of a key that has two
characters defined on the same key.
Caps Lock
Cap Lock is used to toggle between the capital lock feature. When ‘on’, it locks the
alphanumeric keypad for capital letters input only.
Tab
Tab is used to move the cursor to the next tab position defined in the document. Also,
it is used to insert indentation into a document.
Ctrl
Control key is used in conjunction with other keys to provide additional functionality
on the keyboard.
Alt
Also like the control key, Alt key is always used in combination with other keys to
perform specific tasks.
Esc
This key is usually used to negate a command. Also used to cancel or abort executing
programs.
Numeric Keypad
Numeric keypad is located on the right side of the keyboard and consists of keys
having numbers (0 to 9) and mathematical operators (+  * /) defined on them. This
keypad is provided to support quick entry for numeric data.
Cursor Movement Keys
These are arrow keys and are used to move the cursor in the direction indicated by the
arrow (up, down, left, right).

45
2. Point-and –draw Devices

A) Mouse
The mouse is a common pointing small hand-held input device having 2-3 buttons on upper-
side along with a wheel that you can roll over a hard, flat surface It is .used to point to a
particular place on the screen and select in order to perform one or more actions. It can be
used to select menu commands, size windows, start programs etc.
Types Of Mouse:
1)Physical Mouse: I t has a rubber ball on the bottom side that protrudes when the mouse is
moved .It require a smooth, dust free surface such as mouse pad on which its rolled.
2)Optical Mouse: It uses led to detect the movement of mouse. It requires an opaque flat surface
underneath it.
Different Functions of Mouse :-
 Pointing: Used to point to a location or an object on the screen.
 Left Click: Used to select an item, icon or a button on the screen.
 Double Click: Used to start a program or open a file.
 Right Click: Usually used to display a set of commands.
 Drag and Drop: It allows you to select and move an item from one location to another. To
achieve this place the cursor over an item on the screen, click the left mouse button and
while holding the button down move the cursor to where you want to place the item, and
then release it.
B) Joystick: A Screen-pointing Device
The joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in a direction the stick is
moved. It typically has a button (also called as triggers)on top that is used to select the option
pointed by the cursor. Joystick is used as an input device primarily used with video games,
training simulators and controlling robots.

Figure:
Mouse Figure: Joystick
C) Light Pen
It is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen. It is quite like the mouse
(in its functionality) but uses a light sensitive detector to move the pointer and select any
object on the screen by pointing to the object.
Users of Computer Aided Design (CAD) applications commonly use the light pens to
directly draw on screen.
46
3. Data Scanning Devices
D) Scanner
Scanner is an input device used for direct data entry from the source document into the
computer system. It converts the document image into digital form so that it can be fed into
the computer. Capturing information like this reduces the possibility of errors typically
experienced during large data entry.

TYPES OF SCANNER

1. Flatbed scanners: also called desktop scanners, are the most versatile and commonly used
scanners. It provide high quality scan in a single pass. Its a box-shaped machine similar to a
photocopy machine &has a glass top & a lid that covers the glass. Used to scan full page
documents.

2. Handheld scanners: use the same basic technology as a flatbed scanner, but rely on the user to
move them instead of a motorized belt. This type of scanner typically does not provide good image
quality. However, it can be useful for quickly capturing text.

E) MICR

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition is a character recognition system that uses special ink and
characters. When a document that contains this ink needs to be read, it passes through a machine,
which magnetizes the ink and then translates the magnetic information into characters.

MICR technology is used by banks. Numbers and characters found on the bottom of checks
(usually containing the check number, sort number, and account number) are printed using
Magnetic Ink. To print Magnetic Ink need, you need a laser printer that accepts MICR toner.

MICR provides a secure, high-speed method of scanning and processing information.

MICR, is a character recognition technology used primarily by the banking industry to facilitate
the processing of cheques. The technology allows computers to read information (such as account
numbers) off printed documents. Unlike barcodes or similar technologies, however, MICR codes
can be easily read by humans.

MICR characters are printed in special typefaces with a magnetic ink or toner, usually containing
iron oxide. As a machine decodes the MICR text, it first magnetizes the characters in the plane of
the paper. Then the characters are passed over a MICR read head, a device similar to the playback
head of a tape recorder. As each character passes over the head it produces a unique waveform that
can be easily identified by the system.

The use of magnetic printing allows the characters to be read reliably even if they have been
overprinted or obscured by other marks, such as cancellation stamps and signature. The error rate
for the magnetic scanning of a typical check is smaller than with optical character recognition
systems. For well printed MICR documents, the "can't read" rate is usually less than 1% while the
substitution rate (misread rate) is in the order of 1 per 100,000 characters.

47
F) OCR

Optical character recognition, usually abbreviated to OCR, is the mechanical or electronic

translation of scanned images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text into machine-encoded
text. It is widely used to convert books and documents into electronic files, to computerize a
record-keeping system in an office, or to publish the text on a website. OCR makes it possible to
edit the text, search for a word or phrase, store it more compactly, display or print a copy free of
scanning artifacts, and apply techniques such as machine translation, text-to-speech and text
mining to it. OCR is a field of research in pattern recognition, artificial intelligence and computer
vision.

OCR systems require calibration to read a specific font; early versions needed to be programmed
with images of each character, and worked on one font at a time. "Intelligent" systems with a high
degree of recognition accuracy for most fonts are now common. Some systems are capable of
reproducing formatted output that closely approximates the original scanned page including
images, columns and other non-textual components.

It involves reading text from paper and translating the images into a form that the computer can manipulate (for example, into
ASCII codes).
O
Text C ASCII
Scanner Bitma
document R Text
p

An OCR system enables you to take a book or a magazine article, feed it directly into an electronic
computer file, and then edit the file using a word processor.

All OCR systems include an optical scanner for reading text, and sophisticated software for
analyzing images. Most OCR systems use a combination of hardware (specialized circuit boards)
and software to recognize characters, although some inexpensive systems do it entirely through
software. Advanced OCR systems can read text in large variety of fonts, but they still have
difficulty with handwritten text.

The potential of OCR systems is enormous because they enable users to harness the power of
computers to access printed documents. OCR is already being used widely in the legal profession,
where searches that once required hours or days can now be accomplished in a few seconds.

Benefits

 Includes assessment of coursework, the best way to assess the candidate's level of practical
skills in computing.

48
  Simple, straightforward assessment, with all examination papers externally assessed. For
the AS level, coursework weighting reduced to 20%.
 Content revised to include greater emphasis on programming and removal of topics entirely
ICT based.
 A2 exam paper cut to two hours in length, with AS one and a half hours.
 This specification is excellent preparation for those students intending to pursue computing
studies at degree level, or for anyone considering any kind of career in computing.

G)OMR

Optical Mark Recognition (also called Optical Mark Reading and OMR) is the process of
capturing human-marked data from document forms such as surveys and tests.

Optical Mark Recognition also called Mark Reading (“mark sensing”). Through the technology of
OMR a simply and reasonable method of entering data by document into a computer system is
enable. Optical Mark Reading (OMR) is one of the fastest and safest methods for data-entry into a
host until today.

OMR forms are used for collecting data. Preparation of this type of form involves several critical
steps.

Obviously, one needs to thoughtfully determine the kind of data that needs to be gathered and
layout the questions in a clear, understandable format. These questions are then sent to the designer
to figure out the best way to present these questions in an attractive layout. The designer needs to
understand how the OMR scanner reads this information and position the questions and related
response bubbles in just the right position on the form to assure that the scanner can accurately
read the information. When the form design or layout is approved by the customer, the electronic
form is moved to the printing phase. It is critical that the printer also understands the importance of
consistent positioning of the printed sheet according to the layout.

The layout is based upon a grid system that is determined by the specific parameters of the
scanner. The two basic elements of this grid are the timing marks and the response bubbles. The
timing marks appear in one column on one edge of the sheet. These rectangular marks are viewed
by the scanner as the sheet travels through it. A timing mark determines when to begin and end the
viewing of the corresponding row of bubbles and record the results. A typical form can have up to
48 bubbles across the sheet. In order for the scanner to know what bubbles to look at, a file called a
49
scanning definition needs to be created with the scanning software prior to the actual scanning
process. This scanning definition tells the scanner which bubble or bubbles in the grid to look at to
determine if they are filled in and then record the assigned value. These values or results are then
added to an Excel type data file as each form is scanned. When the scanning is finished the results
are then tabulated with the use of special reporting software. If the quality of the original scan form
has been compromised by sloppy layout or printing processes, then the scanned data and the
tabulated results potentially may not be reliable.

OMR is a great time-saving process in collecting data but can also create a huge headache if not
done correctly. It's important to do some homework and get a good handle on how OMR works
before jumping into an OMR evaluation survey project. There are many good resources to be
found on the internet that can assist you in one or all of the steps involved. Just google "omr data
collection services" for an extensive list.

How does it work?

A pen or pencil mark is made in pre-defined positions at the document to indicate each selected
response (for example: answers to a survey question or an absent pupil in a school register).
The complete forms are scanned by the Optical Mark Reader which detects the presence of a mark
by measuring reflected light levels. The reader interprets this pattern marks and spaces into a data
record and transmits it to your computer for storage, analysis and reporting.

What are the main advantages of OMR-Technology?

 simplicity: “Tick box answers” are marked with a by pen or pencil

 functionality: the OMR-Reader scans the form, detect the presence of marks and passes
information to the computer
 speed: OMR-Readers can read up to 9,000 forms DIN A4 per hour
 flexibility: OMR-readers tests for plausibility’s and transmit the processed information to
the computer with up to 38,400 Baud.
 The interpretation based on a simple “Yes/No” answer.

When to use OMR-readers?

 on applications where other entering possibilities are not present

 if a large volume of data has to be collected and processed within a short period of time
 if the persons who have to collect the data are not regular computer users
 if information mainly comprises the selection of categories or “Tick box answers” to
multiple choice questions

Where do the OMR-readers work?

 examinations at schools, colleges and universities

 public opinion polls of research institutes
 assessment tests
50
  counting of votes
 staff opinion surveys

What is possible?

 Barcode
 OCR
 Double document recognition
 Print on the form
 Sorting with two pockets

What kind of equipment do I need?

 a computer with serial interface

 the appropriate software for your application made by Binary Logic
 specially designed forms

Lecture-6

INPUT DEVICE

BAR-CODE READER

Data coded in the form of small lines (known as bars) are known as bar codes. Bar codes represent
alphanumeric data by a combination of adjacent vertical lines(bars) by varying their width and the
spacing between them. They are particularly used for unique identification of all types of goods,
books, postal packages, badges, tags, etc.

A bar code reader is a device used for reading (decoding) bar-coded data. It may be a hand-held
scanner, o or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. It scans a bar-code image and converts it
into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the computer to which the bar-code reader is
connected, just as though the alphanumeric value had been typed on a keyboard.

A bar-code reader uses a laser-beam scanning technology. The laser beam is stroked across the
pattern of bars of a bar code. Different bar code having different patterns of bars reflects the beam
in different ways, which is sensed by a light-sensitive detector. Reflected light patterns are
converted into electrical pulses and then transmitted to recognition logic circuits which convert it
into an alphanumeric value.

4. Electronic Card Reader

An electronic-card reader, which is normally connected to a computer, is used to read the data
encoded on an electronic card and transfer it to the computer for further processing.

Depending on the manner in which data is encoded, electronic card are of following two types:

51
 1. Magnetic strip cards:-

These cards have a magnetic strip on their back. The data to be encoded on the card is stored on
the magnetic strip.

1. Smart Card:-

Smart cards have a built-in microprocessor chip instead of the magnetic strip. The data to be
encoded on the card is permanently stored in the memory of the microprocessor chip. The memory
of a smart card microprocessor can contain much more data than the magnetic strip of a magnetic
strip card.

5. Voice Recognition Device/Speech Recognizer:

It is the technology by which sounds, words or phrases spoken by human are converted into digital
signal & these signals are then transformed into computer Text. It accepts the spoken word
through microphone & convert them into binary form of 1’s & 0’s. Thus they make computers
much easier to use.

Voice recognition system is normally classified into the following 2 categories:-

1. Speaker-dependent

Due to vast variation in the accent of different speaker, most voices recognition system of today
are speaker-dependent. That is they can recognize the speech of only a single individual or a few
individuals.

2. Speaker-Independent

Speaker-independent voice recognition systems can recognize words spoken by anyone.

Lecture-6

OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices are an electromechanical device that accepts data from a computer and then
processed the data & display it in a form suitable for use by the outside world (the user).
Output generated by output devices is classified into following 2 types:-
1. Soft-copy:-
 The electronic version of an output which usually resides in a computer memory is
known as soft copy.
 It is Intangible, Transient & usually displayed on the screen.
 This output includes audio & video form of output.
 Example-Monitor’s display
2. Hard-copy: -

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  It is the Physical form of output It refers to the recorded information copied from a
computer onto a paper.
 It is permanent & relatively stable form of output.
 Highly Portable.
 Example-Printout obtained from printer
Monitors
Monitors produce soft-copy output. Two basic types of monitor used today
1. Cathod Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
2. Flat-panel Monitor

1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

Monitor is an output device that resembles the television screen and uses a Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT) to display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual input of
characters and displays the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program or application
output. Like the television, monitors are also available in different sizes.

Figure: CRT Monitor

Characteristic of CRT monitors
1. Screen Size:-
Screen size of monitor varies from 5 to 25 inches. Monitors with 17 inch to 21 inch screen size are
common today with personal computer and other desktop computers.
2. Resolution:-
Overall resolution of monitor is expressed as multiple of its horizontal and vertical resolution. A
low resolution monitor has a resolution of about 320*200.Today’s computer can have resolution of
1024*768 or more.
3. Referesh Rate
The actual number of times that the electron beam scans the entire screen per second is called the
refresh rate of the monitor. The higher the refresh rate the better will be the display quality of a
monitor because it will be less strenuous for the eyes to continuously views the screen. Today most
computer operate at 60 Hz i.e. they refresh the screen 60 times per second.
4. Color

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Monitor may be either monochrome or color. A monochrome can display images only in single
color usually white, red,green,blue or amber. On the other hand color monitor can display multi-
color images.
Based on the resolution and number of colors supported, several standards for color monitor have
evolved. Each one is implemented by installing an add-on board (commonly known as Graphic
Adapter Board or a Video card) in the main computer box and connecting it to the appropriate
monitor. The four most popular of these standards are:
CGA (Color Graphic Adapter):- It has a low resolution of 320*200 and support up to 16 colors.
EGA (Extended Graphics Adaptor):-It has a resolution of 640*350 and support up to 16 colors.
VGA (Video Graphic Array):- It has a resolution of 640*480 and support up to 256 colors.
SVGA (Super Video Graphic Array):- It has a resolution from 800*600 to 1280*1024 and support
up to 256 colors.

XGA (Extended Graphics Array) is a high-resolution video display mode that provides screen
pixel resolution of 1,024 by 768 in 256 colors or 640 by 480 in high (16-bit) color. XGA monitor s
can be interlaced display s.

XGA-2 is a display mode that provides 1,024 by 768 resolution in high color and higher-refresh
rates than XGA. XGA was introduced by IBM in 1990 as an improvement on an earlier IBM
display standard, the 8514/A.

The XGA standard is used in desktop and laptop computers as well as in projection systems.

Flat-panel Monitor
The display technologies used by flat-panel monitors include liquid crystal display (LCD),
electro-luminescent display(ELD).out of these LCD are most commonly used.
LCD was introduced in the 1970s and is now applied to display terminals also. Its advantages like
low energy consumption, smaller and lighter have paved its way for usage in portable computers
(laptops).

BITS AND BYTES

All information in the computer is handled using electrical components like the integrated circuits,
semiconductors, all of which can recognize only two states – presence or absence of an electrical
signal. Two symbols used to represent these two states are 0 and 1, and are known as BITS (an
abbreviation for BInary DigiTS). 0 represents the absence of a signal, 1 represents the presence of
a signal. A BIT is, therefore, the smallest unit of data in a computer and can either store a 0 or 1.
Since a single bit can store only one of the two values, there can possibly be only four unique
combinations:
00 01 10 11
Bits are, therefore, combined together into larger units in order to hold greater range of values.
BYTES are typically a sequence of eight bits put together to create a single computer alphabetical
or numerical character. More often referred to in larger multiples, bytes may appear as Kilobytes
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(1,024 bytes), Megabytes (1,048,576 bytes), GigaBytes (1,073,741,824), TeraBytes (approx.
1,099,511,000,000 bytes), or PetaBytes (approx. 1,125,899,900,000,000 bytes).
Bytes are used to quantify the amount of data digitally stored (on disks, tapes) or transmitted (over
the internet), and are also used to measure the memory and document size.

OUTPUT DEVICES
Printer
Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on the
technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.
When we talk about printers we refer to two basic qualities associated with printers: resolution,
and speed. Print resolution is measured in terms of number of dots per inch (dpi). Print speed is
measured in terms of number of characters printed in a unit of time and is represented as
characters-per-second (cps), lines-per-minute (lpm), or pages-per-minute (ppm).

Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper
through a ribbon in order to produce output. The ink ribbon is pressed against the paper, marking
the page with the appropriate character, dot, line, or symbol. Common examples of impact printers
include dot matrix, daisy-wheel printers, and drum printer.

Dot-Matrix Printers

Dot-matrix printers print about 40-300 characters per second (cps) and can print some graphics,
although the reproduction quality is poor. Color ribbons are available for limited use of color.
Dot-matrix printers are noisy, inexpensive, and they can print through multipart forms, creating
several copies of a page at the same time.

Daisy-Wheel Printer

A type of printer that produces letter-quality type.daisy-wheel is a serial printer A daisy-wheel

printer works on the same principle as a ball-head typewriter. The daisy wheel is a disk made of
plastic or metal on which characters stand out in relief along the outer edge. To print a character,
the printer rotates the disk until the desired letter is facing the paper. Then a hammer strikes the
disk, forcing the character to hit an ink ribbon, leaving an impression of the character on the paper.
You can change the daisy wheel to print different fonts.

Daisy-wheel printers cannot print graphics, and in general they are noisy and slow, printing
from 10 to about 75 characters per second. As the price of laser and ink-jet printers has declined,
and the quality of dot-matrix printers has improved, daisy-wheel printers have become obsolete.

Drum Printer

An impact printer in which a complete set of characters for each print position on a line is on a
continuously rotating drum behind an inked ribbon, with paper in front of the ribbon; identical
characters are printed simultaneously at all required positions on a line, on the fly, by signal-
controlled hammers.
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Chain Printer

It is the character printer. The print element in a chain printer is a metallic band or chain
containing the embossed characters that rotates horizontally in front of paper. A complete chain
consists of the five sections; each section consists of 48 characters. As the print chain rotates,
properly timed print hammers strike the paper along with linked ribbon, against the proper
character on the chain as it passes. Chain printer are one of the fastest impact printers that can
produce up to 400 to 2500 characters per second. Chain Printer also called band printers,
contain characters on a rotation band. Speeds of up to 3000 lines a minute may be possible with
these machines.

Line Printer

A high-speed printer capable of printing an entire line at one time. A fast line printer can print
as many as 3,000 lines per minute. The disadvantages of line printers are that they cannot print
graphics, the print quality is low, and they are very noisy.

Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. Nonimpact printers form characters
and images without direct physical contact between the printing mechanism and the paper. They
use chemical, heat or electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, DeskJet, Laser,
Thermal printers fall under this category of printers.

Laser Printer:
Like a dot-matrix printer, a laser printer creates images with dots. However, as in a photocopying
machine, these images are created on a drum, treated with a magnetically charged ink-like
toner (powder), and then transferred from drum to paper.
- There are good reasons why laser printers are so popular. They produce sharp, crisp images of
both text and graphics, providing resolutions from 300 dpi up to 1200 dpi, which is near-typeset
quality (NTQ). They are quiet and fast. They can print 4-32 text-only pages per minute for
individual microcomputers, and more than 120 pages per minute for mainframes. (Pages with
more graphics print more slowly.) They can print in many fonts (type styles and sizes).

Ink-jet Printers

Like laser and dot-matrix printers, ink-jet printers also form images with little dots. Ink-jet
printers spray small, electrically charged droplets of ink from four nozzles through holes in a
matrix at high speed onto paper.

- Ink-jet printers can print in color and are quieter and much less expensive than a color laser
printer. However, they are slower and print in a somewhat lower resolution (300-720 dpi) than
laser printers. Some new, expensive ink-jet printers print up 1200 or 1400 dpi

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 Figure : An Inkjet Printer
Difference between Impact and Non-Impact printer are as follows :
Impact printer:-
1. It prints characters or images by striking print hammer against an inked ribbon.
2. Its speed is lower.
3. Its print quality is poor.
4. It normally uses continuous paper sheet.
5. It uses inked ribbon for printing.
6. It generates noise during printing.
7. It is less expensive.
8. Dot matrix is an example.
Non-Impact Printer:-
1. It prints character or image without striking the paper.
2. Its speed is faster.
3. Its print quality is higher.
4. It normally uses individual paper sheet.
5. It doesn’t generate noise during printing.
6. It uses toner or cartridges for printing.
7. It is more expensive.
8. Laser and Ink Jet are an example.

Plotter

Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. Plotters are ideal output devices for architects,
engineers, city planners and others who need to routinely generate high precision, hard-copy
graphic output of widely varying sizes.
Two commonly used types of plotter are:-
1. Drum Plotter
2. Flatbed plotter
Drum Plotter
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In a drum plotter the paper on which the design has to make is placed over a drum that can rotate
in both clockwise and anti-clockwise directions to produce vertical motion.
Flatbed plotter
A flatbed plotter plots a design or graph on a sheet of paper that is spread and fixed over a
rectangular flatbed table.

Figure: A Flatbed Plotter

Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) applications like CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CAM
(Computer Aided Manufacturing) are typical usage areas for plotters.

Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) applications like CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CAM
(Computer Aided Manufacturing) are typical usage areas for plotters.

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MCQ for Practice

Which of the following devices can be sued to directly image printed text?
a. OCR b. OMR
c. MICR d. All of above

The output quality of a printer is measured by

a. Dot per inch b. Dot per sq. inch
c. Dots printed per unit time d. All of above

MICR stands for

a. Magnetic Ink Character Reader b. Magnetic Ink Code Reader
c. Magnetic Ink Cases Reader d. None

What characteristic of read-only memory (ROM) makes it useful?

a. ROM information can be easily updated.
b. Data in ROM is non-volatile, that is, it remains there even without electrical power.
c. ROM provides very large amounts of inexpensive data storage.
d. ROM chips are easily swapped between different brands of computers.

Which of the following are input devices?

a. Keyboard b. Mouse
c. Card reader d. Any of these

Examples of output devices are

a. Screen b. Printer
c. Speaker d. All of these

Which of the following is also known as brain of computer

a. Control unit b. Central Processing unit
c. Arithmetic and language unit d. Monitor

IBM stands for

a. Internal Business Management b. International Business Management
c. International Business Machines d. Internal Business Machines

............ translates and executes program at run time line by line

a. Compiler b. Interpreter
c. Linker d. Loader

VDU is also called

a. Screen b. Monitor
c. Both 1 & 2 d. printer

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 BIOS stands for
a. Basic Input Output system b. Binary Input output system
c. Basic Input Off system d. all the above

A modem is connected to
a. a telephone line b. a keyboard
c. a printer d. a monitor

Cathode Ray Tube is a form of.......

a. Keyboard b. Mouse
c. Monitor d. Mother board

Trackball is a...........
a. Input device b. Output device
c. Programming language d. Software

Light pen and joystick are............

a. Algorithm b. Input devices
c. Output devices d. Portals

Touch Screen is............

a. Input device b. Output device
c. Both a & b above d. None of these

.............printer is the cheapest in terms of price and operating cost

a. Inkjet b. Laser
c. Thermal d. Dot matrix

.......... printer is a non-impact printer and is quite in working

a. Inkjet b. Laser
c. Thermal d. Dot matrix

.......... are high-end printers

a. Inkjet b. Laser
c. Thermal d. Dot matrix

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 MODULE 3: STORAGE FUNDAMENTALS

A computer memory is a device or medium that accepts data, hold them & deliver them on
demand at a later time.

Memory cell

 Building block of computer data storage.

 Entire RAM is divided into a number of equal parts, known as memory cells.
 Each memory cell can store one-byte of data.
 Each memory cell has unique address.
Units to measure Computer memory:
1) Bit: smallest unit of information. It can hold either 0 or 1.
2) Byte: A unit of 8 bits is known as a byte.
3) Kilobyte: 1024 bytes
4) Megabyte: 1024 kilobyte
5) Gigabyte: 1024 Megabyte.
6)Terabyte: 1024 gigabyte.

Primary Memory
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1) Internal processor memory: This memory is placed in the CPU (processor) or is attached
to a special fast bus. Internal memory usually includes cache memory and special registers
both of which can be directly accessed by the processor. This memory is used for
temporary storage of data and instructions on which the CPU is currently working.
Processor memory is the fastest among all the memory. Cache memory is used in between
the CPU and the RAM and holds most frequently used data or instructions.
2) Primary Memory: RAM (Random accessible memory) and ROM (Read only memory)
make up the primary memory. RAM is volatile. It is a place where the computer stores its
Operating System, application programs and current data. ROM is non volatile. It contains
boot firmware(called BIOS). This contains just enough information so that the computer
can check its hardware and load its operating system into RAM. There are two types of
Primary memory--- RAM and ROM
a) RAM(Random Access Memory)- It allows the computer to store data for immediate
manipulation and to keep track of what is currently being processed. It is the place in a
computer where the operating, application programs and data in current use are kept so that
they can be accessed quickly by the computer processor. RAM is much faster to read from
and write to than other kinds of storage in a computer like hard disk or floppy disk.
Types of RAM
 Static RAM- This RAM retains the data as long as power is provided to the memory
chips. It does not need to be ’refreshed’ periodically. SRAM is much fast but much
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 more expensive than DRAM. SRAM is often used as cache memory due to its high
speed.
 Dynamic RAM- Unlike SRAM, it must be continually ’refreshed’ in order for it to
maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that
rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system
memory because it is cheap and small.

b) ROM(Read only Memory)-It is a non-volatile primary memory. It does not lose its content
when the power is switched off. As the name suggest it has read only facility and no write
capability. After the information is stored in ROM, it is permanent and cannot be corrected.
It stores standard processing programs that permanently reside in the computer.

Types of ROM:
 Masked ROM: They are hard-wired devices that contain a pre-programmed set
of data and instructions.
 Programmable ROM (PROM): or one-time programmable ROM (OTP),
can be written to or programmed via a special device called a PROM
programmer. Typically, this device uses high voltages to permanently destroy
or create internal links within the chip. Consequently, a PROM can only be
programmed once.
 Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) can be erased by
exposure to strong ultraviolet light (typically for 10 minutes or longer), then
rewritten with a process that again needs higher than usual voltage applied.
Repeated exposure to UV light will eventually wear out an EPROM, but
the endurance of most EPROM chips exceeds 1000 cycles of erasing and
reprogramming. EPROM chip packages can often be identified by the
prominent quartz "window" which allows UV light to enter. After
programming, the window is typically covered with a label to prevent accidental
erasure. Some EPROM chips are factory-erased before they are packaged, and
include no window; these are effectively PROM. At time of erasing entire
EPROM is erased.
 Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is based
on a similar semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its entire contents
(or selected banks) to be electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so that
they need not be removed from the computer (or camera, MP3 player, etc.).
EEPROM can be erased one byte at a time.
 Flash ROM or Flash memory, also called as BIOS, is a type of constantly
powered non-volatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks.
It is variation of EEPROM, which unlike flash memory, is erased and
reprogrammed and rewritten at byte level. Flash memory is often used to hold
control code such as BIOS.

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The primary storage of a computer system has the following limitations:

1) Limited capacity: the storage capacity of the primary storage of today’s computers is not
sufficient to store the large volume of data, which needs to be handled by most data
processing centre.
2) Volatile: The primary storage is volatile and data stored in it is lost, when the electric
power is turned off or interrupted. However, the computer systems need to store data on a
permanent basis for several days, several months or even several years.

To overcome the limitations of primary storage, additional memory, called auxiliary memory or
secondary storage is used with most computer systems.

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 Secondary memory: Secondary memory is also known as auxillary memory. It provides
the backup storage for instructions and data. It has large storage capacity than primary
memory. Instructions and data stored on such storage devices are permanent in nature. The
most commonly used secondary memory devices are hard disk, magnetic disk and
magnetic tapes.

Secondary Storage
Device

Sequential Access Direct Access

Storage Device Storage Device

Magnetic Tape Magnetic Optical Disk

Disk

CD-ROM
Hard Disk
CD-RW

DVD
Floppy
Disk WORM

Depending on the access mechanism used we categorized the secondary memory into two
types:-
Sequential Access Storage Devices (SASD): It is a class of data storage devices that read their data
in sequence and the time for access depends on the location of the data desired. While sequential
access memory is read in sequence, accesses can still be made to arbitrary locations by "seeking"
to the requested location. Magnetic sequential access memory is typically used for secondary
storage in general-purpose computers due to their higher density at lower cost compared to RAM,
as well as resistance to wear and non-volatility.
Example: Magnetic tape

Direct Access Storage Devices (DASD): are also called random-access devices. It allows stored
data to be accessed in any order in very nearly the same amount of time for any storage location or
size of memory device. In case of direct access devices data can be accessed in a random manner.
Example: Magnetic Disk
Direct memory access may be required in the following cases:

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 1) In a computerized bank, where at any instance it is required to determine the exact balance
in the savings account of a particular customer.
2) In a computerized airline ticket booking system, immediate access may be required to
reservation system records, to find out if seats are currently available on a particular flight.

Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape is a form of auxiliary memory which is more commonly used as back up storage.
Magnetic tape is thin plastic reel coated with iron oxide substance that can be magnetized. Data is
represented as magnetized and non-magnetized spots representing 1s and 0s respectively, Because
of continuous length read/write head cannot jump to the desired location, thus tape must be read or
written sequentially. The magnetic tape can be erased and reused indefinitely.
The tape of magnetic tape storage is divided into vertical columns called frames and horizontal
rows called tracks. In magnetic tape the records are separated by blank spaces on the tape, called
Inter record gaps (IRG). When a tape contains a large number of very short records with an IRG
after each record, more than half of the tape could be unused. To overcome this problem of
efficiency in storage space utilization, records are grouped usually in blocks of two or more
separated by an inter-block gap (IBG). The process of grouping two or more records together to
form a block of data is known as blocking and the number of records put together in each block is
called blocking factor. Blocking factor generally depends on record length. The generally followed
rule for deciding blocking factor is – a block should be at least ten times as long as the IBG.
Storage capacity of tape= Data record density * length.
Types of Magnetic Tapes

Data recording density and data transfer rate of Magnetic tape depends largely on the data
organization and principles of operation various types of magnetic tape and their tape drives.
Commonly used ones are:

1) ½-inch tape reel

2) ½-inch Tape cartridge

3) 1/4 –inch streamer tape

4) 4-mm digital audio tape

Uses

Magnetic tapes are used for the following applications:

1) For taking backups of data that re stored on an on-line storage device (i.e disks) so that data
can be retrieved from the backup if data on the disk is lost accidently.
2) Archiving of data which may be required rarely.

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 3) Magnetic tapes are generally used for distribution of software by vendors.
4) Magnetic tapes are used for applications which require sequential data processing.

Advantages

1) High Storage Capacity: The storage capacity is extremely high and it can store large
amount of data.
2) Low Cost: Magnetic tape reels and cartridges have high data recording densities. Thus cost
per bit of storage is less.
3) Reusability: Magnetic tapes can be erased and reused many times.
4) Easy to handle: Magnetic tapes and cartridges are compact and light in weight.
5) Portability: Magnetic tapes are often used for transferring data and program from one
computer to another because of its compact size, light in weight and high storage capacity.
Limitations

1) Magnetic tape is not suitable for applications which require random access of data, because
tape can only be accessed sequentially.
2) Tape must be stored in dust-free and moisture free environment.
3) It needs to be labeled in order to avoid ambiguity.

Magnetic disks are most commonly used direct access storage device. A magnetic disk's medium
contains iron particles, which can be polarized—given a magnetic charge—in one of two
directions. Each particle's direction represents a 1 (on) or 0 (off), representing each bit of data that
the CPU can recognize.

A disk drive uses read/write heads containing electromagnets to create magnetic charges on the
medium.

The most commonly used magnetic disks are floppy disks and hard disks.

Floppy Disks

A floppy disk is a disk storage medium composed of a disk of thin and flexible magnetic storage
medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes dust particles. They
are read and written by a floppy disk drive (FDD). Invented by IBM, floppy disks in 3.5-
inch (89 mm), 5.25-inch (133 mm) and 8-inch (200 mm) forms Floppy disks store less data than a
CD-ROM or USB flash drive. A current 3½ inch floppy (known as 3½ Double-Sided, High-
Density floppies) can take 1.44 megabytes of data. This is usually enough for text documents.
Special floppies (known as 3½ Double-Sided, Extended-Density floppies) were made to hold 2.88
MB of data, but they were not commonly available. Basically, a floppy disk drive reads and writes
data to a small, circular piece of metal-coated plastic similar to audio cassette tape.

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Hard Disk

A magnetic disk on which you can store computer data. The term hard is used to distinguish it
from a soft, or floppy, disk. Hard disks hold more data and are faster than floppy disks. A hard
disk, for example, can store anywhere from 10 to more than 100 gigabytes, whereas most floppies
have a maximum storage capacity of 1.4 megabytes.

A single hard disk usually consists of several platters. Each platter requires two read/write heads,
one for each side. All the read/write heads are attached to a single access arm so that they cannot
move independently. Each platter has the same number of tracks, and a track location that cuts
across all platters is called a cylinder.

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Uses:

1) Magnetic Disk is used for application that requires random data processing.

2) As a backup device for off-line data storage. If data on an On-line storage device is somehow
corrupted, it can be retrieved from backup storage.

3) Archiving of data that are not used frequently but may be used occasionally.

4) Transferring of data & programs between two computers that are not linked together. Floppy
disk & zip disk are often used for this purpose.

Advantages:

1) Magnetic Disk support direct access of data making them more suitable for a wider range of
application.

2) Floppy disk & zip disk being compact in size & light in weight are easy to handle & store. They
enable storage of very large amount of data in a small storage space.

3) Magnetic disk is less vulnerable to data corruption due to careless handling or unfavorable
temperature and humidity conditions than magnetic tape.

4) Due to their low cost & high data recording densities, cost per bit of storage is low for magnetic
disk. An additional cost benefit is that magnetic disk can be erased & reused many times.

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5) Magnetic disk is suitable for both on-line & off-line storage of data.

6) Due to random access property, magnetic disk are often used by multiple users simultaneously
as a shared device.

Limitations

1) Although magnetic Disks can be used for both types of application (random as well as
sequential data processing),use of magnetic disk is less efficient than magnetic tape for sequential
applications.

2) It is more difficult to maintain security of information stored on those magnetic disks that are
used as shared, on-line secondary storage devices as compared to information store on magnetic
tapes or on other types of magnetic disks.

3) Some type of magnetic disks such as disk packs & Winchester disk are not so easily portable
as magnetic tapes.

4) They must be stored in a dust-free environment.

OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES

 Optical disk is flat, circular plastic plate coated with a thin layer of metal like aluminum,
gold or silver on which data may be stored in form of highly reflective area and
significantly less reflective area from which data is read or written into through a laser
beam.
 These disks are capable of storing enormous amount of data in a limited amount of space.
Example-CD,DVD
 Optical disk comes in various sizes and capacity. A CD can store 600-700 MB of data
while DVD can store data in GB.

Optical Disk Storage Organization

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  Unlike magnetic disk where each platter/plate contains multiple tracks, an optical disk
contains a single long track in the form of spiral shape.
 The spiral shape of the track makes the optical disk suitable for reading large blocks off
sequential data such as music.
 The track is further divided into sector of fixed size.
 In optical disk no arm movement is required that is used in magnetic disk.

ACCESS MECHANISM

Laser beam technology is used for reading/writing of data. This technology uses 2 laser beam
source of different intensity. The greater intensity laser beam is used to write data on the surface of
platter by turning it on and off at a varying rate so that the tiny pits are burnt into the surface of
disk. The lesser intensity beam is required to read the data which is strongly reflected by the coated
surface called “Pit”. The beginning or end of pit represent 1 and no change in elevation between
intervals represent 0.

CD-ROM

Read-Only Discs: CD-ROM and DVD-ROM Discs

CD-ROM (compact disc read-only memory) is an abbreviation of Compact Disc Read-Only

Memory. A CD-ROM is a CD that contains computer data, which cannot be rewritten. In
computers, CD-ROM is the most commonly used optical storage technology. CD-ROM is a
compact disc that contains information, which is accessible by a computer. It is composed of
polycarbonate plastic, thin reflective metal layers, made of aluminum and a lacquer coating. Data
is stored on the disc as a series of light and dark pits; the light portion refers to the spaces between
the pits. A laser beam reads the pits and the data can be accessed. A standard 120 mm CD-ROM
holds up to 700 MB of data, or about 70 minutes of audio.

DVD-ROM (digital versatile disc read-only memory). DVD-ROM is an optical disc storage
media format that can be used for data storage, which includes movies with high video and sound
quality. DVD-ROM is a non-volatile optical storage medium similar to CD-ROM, which contains
computer data that cannot be erased or rewritten. These DVDs are read-only disks that have
storage capacity for 133 minutes of high quality video, in format, and audio full- length feature
film. The discs are pressed in a similar fashion as the CDs. The reflective surface is gold or silver

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colored. DVD-ROM can be accessed using a DVD-ROM drive attached to the personal computer.
A standard DVD disc stores up to 9.4 GB of data.
.

Recordable Discs: CD-R, DVD-R, and DVD+R Discs

Recordable discs can be written to, but the discs cannot be erased and reused. Recordable CDs
are referred to as CD-R discs; recordable DVDs are called DVD-R or DVD+R discs, depending
on the standard being used (different optical disc and drive manufacturers support different
standards). Recordable CDs are commonly used for backing up files, sending large files to others,
and creating custom music CDs from MP3 files legally downloaded from the Internet or from
songs on CDs the user owns. DVD-Rs can be used for similar purposes when more storage space
than is available on a CD-R disc is needed, as well as for storing home movies and other video
applications since video requires a tremendous amount of storage space. Standard-sized 4 1/2-
inch CD-R discs hold 700 MB, 3-inch mini CD-R discs hold about 200 MB, business-card-sized
CD-R discs hold 50 MB, and DVD-R or DVD+R discs can store 4.7 GB per side. The recording
laser inside the CD-R or DVD-R drive is less powerful than the one used to create read-only discs,
but still makes permanent marks on the disc to represent Os and Is. The process of recording data
onto an optical disc is called burning. To bum a CD-R or DVD-R disc, special software is
needed.

Rewritable Discs: CD-RW, DVD-RW

The newer rewritable discs can be recorded on, erased, and overwritten just like a magnetic
disk. The most common types of rewritable optical media are CD-RW, DVD-RW,
and DVD+RW discs. CD-RW discs are written to using a CD-RW drive and can be read by
most CD and DVD drives. DVD-RW discs and DVD+RW discs are recorded using a DVD-
RW drive or DVD+RW drive, respectively, and can be read by most DVD drives.
CD-RW discs hold 700 MB, DVD+RW and DVD-RW discs hold 4.7 GB per side, and DVD-
RAM discs typically hold between 2.6 and 9.4 GB, depending on the speed of the disc and the
number of sides used.

To record and erase rewritable optical discs, phase-change technology is most often used. With
this technology, the recordable CD or DVD disc is coated with a special metal alloy compound
that has two different appearances once it's been heated and then cooled, depending on the
temperature reached during the heating process. With one temperature, the surface is reflective;
with a higher temperature, it's not. Before any data is written to a disc, the disc is completely
reflective. To record onto the disc, pits are burned into the surface by creating non-reflective
areas; unburned areas (lands) remain reflective. Just as with other CDs and DVDs, these pits
and lands are interpreted as 1 s and 0s when the disc is read. To erase the disc, the appropriate
temperature is used to change the areas to be erased back to their original reflective state.

MCQ for Practice

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What characteristic of read-only memory (ROM) makes it useful?

a. ROM information can be easily updated.

b. Data in ROM is non-volatile, that is, it remains there even without electrical power.

c. ROM provides very large amounts of inexpensive data storage.

d. ROM chips are easily swapped between different brands of computers.

What do you call the programs that are used to find out possible faults and their causes?

a. operating system extensions b. cookies

c. diagnostic software d. boot diskettes

A normal CD- ROM usually can store up to _________ _data?

a. 680 KB b. 680 Bytes

c. 680 MB d. 680 GB

EEPROM stands for

a. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

b. Easily Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

c. Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

d. None of the above

RAM stands for

a. Random origin money b. Random only memory

c. Read only memory d. Random access memory

1 Byte =?

a. 8 bits b. 4 bits

c. 2 bits d. 9 bits
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MPS stands for

a. Switched mode Power Supply b. Start mode power supply

c. Store mode power supply d. Single mode power supply

Reusable optical storage will typically have the acronym-

a. CD b. DVD c. ROM d. RW

The most common type of storage devices are-

a. Steel b. optical c. magnetic d. flash

A device that connects to a network without the use of cables is said to be-

a. Distributed b. free c. centralized d. none of these

A DVD is an example of a (n)-

a. hard disk b. optical disc

c. output device d. solid-state storage device

The process of transferring files from a computer on the Internet to your computer is called

a. Downloading b. uploading

c. FTP d. JPEG

.......... is the process of dividing the disk into tracks and sectors.

a. Tracking b. Formatting c. Crashing d. Allotting

Help Menu is available at which button?

a. End b. Start

c. Turnoff d. Restart

Which of the following is not a binary number?

a. 001 b. 101 c. 202 d. 110

Which of the following does not store data permanently?

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 a. ROM b. RAM c. Floppy Disk d. Hard Disk

Which of the following is the smallest storage?

a. Megabyte b. Gigabyte c. Terabyte d. None of these

Which of the following contains permanent data and gets updated during the processing of transactions?

a. Operating System File b. Transaction file

c. Software File d. Master file

Which of the following helps to protect floppy disks from data getting accidentally erased?

a. Access notch b. Write-protect notch

c. Entry notch d. Input notch

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 MODULE 4: Software:

Software is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex codes (Known as programs) that
make the computer perform tasks. In other words, software tells the computer what to do, some
programs exist primary for the computer’s use & help the computer perform & manage its own
task. Other types of program exist primarily for the user & enable the computer to perform task
such as creating documents or drawing pictures.

Types of Software

Types of software
A wide variety of computer software is available today. Although the range of software
available is vast and varied, most software can be divided into two major categories:
1. System software,
2. Application software

System Software
System software is a set of one or more programs designed to control the operation and extend the
processing capability of a computer system. It acts as an intermediary between the computer
hardware and application program, it also provides interface between user and computer In
general, a computer's system software performs one or more of the following functions:
1. Supports the development of other application software.
2. Supports the execution of other application software.
3. Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources such as CPU, memory,
peripherals, etc.
4. Communicates with and controls the operation of peripheral devices such as printer,
disk, tape, etc.
5. It helps the hardware components work together and provides support for the
6. Development and execution of application software (programs).
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 7. The programs included in a system software package are called system programs and the
programmers who prepare system software are referred to as system programmers.

Advantages
1. Good system software allows application packages to be run on the computer with less
time and effort.
2. Without system software, application packages could not be run on the computer system. A
system software is an indispensable part of a total computer system.
3. A computer without some kind of system software would be very ineffective and most
likely impossible to operate.

Examples
Some examples of system software are:
 Operating systems
 Programming language translators
 Utility programs

 Operating Systems
 An operating system is a set of integrated programs that manages overall
Performance and functioning of the computer system by controlling the resources such as
CPU, memory, I/O devices and overall flow of information within the system.
 It provides as an interface between machine and its users.
 Examples of operating system are Windows XP, Linux.Unix.
 Every computer has an operating system software that takes care of the effective and
Efficient utilization of all the hardware and software components of the computer system.

 Programming Language Translators

Translator refers to program that translate or convert the programming languages into
machine languages. In other words translator is a program which accept the program
written in a programming language and executed them by transforming them into a form
suitable for execution.

1)Compiler:
Definition:.A compiler is a computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source
code written in a programming language (the source language) into another computer
language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code). In other
words,a compiler is a translator program that translates a high-level language program into
its equivalent machine language program.
High Level Language Input Compiler Output Machine Level
Language

Program

One-to-many correspondence
(Source Program) (Object Program)

The input to the compiler is the high-level language program (often referred to as a source
program) and its output is the machine language program (often referred to as an object program).
The compiler translates each high level language instruction into a set of machine language
instructions rather than a single machine language instruction.
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During the process of translation of a source program into its equivalent object program by the
compiler ,the source program is not being executed. It is only being converted into a form
that can be executed by the computer's processor.
A compiler can translate only those source programs, which have been written in
the language for which the compiler is meant. For example, a C compiler is only capable of
translating source programs, which have been written in C.Therefore, each computer requires a
separate compiler for each high-level language that it supports.

How Does Complier Works?

High Level
language
program on disk LOAD Source
program in
memory

Object Code Compiler

in Machine translate
language whole program
Execute

Compilers are large programs, which reside permanently on secondary storage.

STEP1:When a source program is to be translated, the compiler and the source program
are copied from secondary storage into the main memory of the computer. The
compiler, being a program, is then executed with the source program as its input
data.
STEP2:It generates the equivalent object program as its output, which is normally
saved in a file on secondary storage.
STEP3: Whenever there is a need to execute the program, the object program is copied from
secondary storage into the main memory of the computer and executed.

Characteristics of Compiler

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1.There is no need to repeat the compilation process every time you wish to execute the
program: This is because the object program stored on secondary storage is already in machine
language. You simply have to load the object program from the secondary storage into the
main memory of the computer, and execute it directly.
2.Compilation is necessary whenever we need to modify the program: That is, to incorporate
changes in the program, you must load the original source program from secondary storage into
the main memory of the computer, carry out necessary changes in the source program, recompile
the modified source program, and create store an updated object program for execution.
3.Compilers also automatically detect and indicate certain types of errors in source
programs. These errors are referred to as syntax errors and are
typically of the following types:
1. Illegal characters
2. Illegal combination of characters
3. Improper sequencing of instructions in a program
4. Use of undefined variable names

Limitations
1. A compiler, however, cannot detect logic errors. It can only detect grammatical(syntax
errors) in the source program.
2. Programs containing logical errors will be successfully compiled and the object code will
be obtained without any error message.
3. It is necessary that each computer must have its own "personal" compiler for a particular
language.

2)Interpreter:
An interpreter analyses and executes the source code in line-by-line manner, without looking at the
entire product. In other words, an interpreter translates a statement in a program and execute the
statement immediately before translating the next source language statement. The advantage of
interpreter is that they can execute the program spontaneously.
 Like compiler, interpreter also converts the source program written in high level language
program into machine language.
 Unlike compiler, interpreter scans each line of code of source program for finding the error.
 If error found, it will display on screen.
 After rectifying the error, interpreter scans the next line of code in a program.

Difference between compiler and interpreter

1. Compiler scan the whole program at once for finding the syntax error but interpreter scan
each line of program.
2. Compiler is faster in execution while interpreter slow in execution.
3. Compiler is slow in debugging while interpreter fast in debugging.

3)Assembler

 Assembler is a language translator that converts the assembly language program into object
code in machine language.

ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLER OBJECT

LANGUAGE CODE
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  In assembly language we use mnemonic code like for addition we use ADD, for
multiplication we use MULT and so on.
 Assembler recognizes the character string that makes up the symbolic names of various
machine operation and substitute the required machine code for each instruction.
 At the same time, it also calculate the required address in memory for each symbolic name
or mnemonic code and substitute those address for the names resulting in a machine
language program that can run on its own at any time.
Example of Assembly Program
 Each line of assembly program consists of four column called fields.
[LABEL] <OP CODE> <OPERAND> [COMMENT]
 Bracket indicates that it is optional to use in program.
For example-
[LABEL] <OP CODE> <OPERAND> [COMMENT]
BEGIN ADD A,B ; Add B to A

LINKER AND LOADER

 Linkers and loaders are utilities that function in the execution, or running, of programs.
 A linker, which can also be called a link editor or a binder, is a program that combines
object modules together to form a program that can then be executed.
 Modules are parts of programs. Until modules are combined, or linked, the program will
not function. An individual module can contain one or several routines, and so can be
linked with other modules to support programs of differing functionality.
 A linker performs an important function. Without it, programs would have to be written
completely. The presence of the linker allows a large program to be broken into small,
more manageable pieces.
 In addition to the combining function, a linker can replace a so-called symbolic address
with a real address. Even a program consisting entirely of one module may need to be
linked, if address replacement is done.

 A loader is a utility of an operating system. It copies programs from a storage device to a

computer's main memory, where the program can then be executed. Like linkers, loaders
can also replace virtual addresses with real addresses. Most loaders function without user
involvement. They are invisible to the user, but are a recognizable utility to the operating
system.
 Loader perform 4 basic task:-
1. Allocation
It allocates memory space for the program.
2. Linking
It combines two or more separate object program and supplies the
information needed to allow references between them.
3. Relocation
It prepares a program to execute properly from its storage area.
4. Loading

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 It places the data and machine instruction into memory.
 There are two types of Loader:-
1. Absolute Loader
2. Relocating Loader
Working of linker and loader:-
High Level Machine
language executable
Compile Linker Library files
program Program

Memory
Utilities
These are a set of programs that help users in system maintenance tasks andLoader
in performing
tasks of routine nature. Some of the tasks commonly performed by utility programs include the
following:
1. Formatting hard disks or floppy disks.
2. Reorganizing files on a hard disk to conserve storage space.
3. Taking backup of files stored on hard disk on to a tape or floppy disk.
4. Searching a particular file from a directory of hundreds of files.
5. Checking the amount of available memory.
6. Checking the amount of available storage space on hard disk.
7. Reducing the file size for more efficient transmission over a data communication
link.
Application Software
1. Application software is a set of one or more programs designed to solve a specific
problem or do a specific task.
2. Application software, also known as an application or an "apps", is computer software
designed to help the user to perform specific tasks.
3. The programs included in an application software package are called application programs
and the programmers who prepare application software are referred to as application
programmers.

Examples
Some of the most commonly known application software are briefly described below.

1.Word-Processing Software
Word-Processing is a term that describes the use of computers to create, edit, view,
format, store, retrieve and print documents (written material such as letters, reports,
books, etc.). A word-processing software is an application software that enables the user
to do all these on a computer system. The need to create documents is so common in
every walk of life, whether it is at work, at school, or at home, that word-processing
software is the most commonly used application software.

2.Graphics Software
A graphics software enables us to use a computer system for creating, editing, viewing,
storing, retrieving and printing designs, drawings, pictures, graphs and anything else that
can be drawn in the traditional manner.
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3.Education Software
Education software allows computer systems to be used as a teaching and learning tool. A
few examples of such applications are:
1. Applications that teach young children to do mathematics, how to recognize the
alphabet, or how to read whole words and sentences. The use of a computer allows the
learning process to be made interesting by incorporating audio-visual effects in the
application.
2. For example, use of encouraging spoken words (like excellent, marvelous,
etc.) when the correct answer is given, and display of marks obtained leads to interesting
learning process.

4.Entertainment Software
Entertainment software allows computer systems to be used as an entertainment tool. A
few examples of such applications are:
1. Video Games. Today thousands of video game applications are available on
computer systems. Special audio and visual effects are used in these applications to make
the games thrilling and exciting for the users.
2. Interactive Television. These applications allow users to either use their computer
systems as an interactive television or to convert their conventional televisions into an
interactive television.
3. Game Partner. These applications allow computers to become a game partner of an
individual for playing conventional games that require two players. A good example of
such an application is the use of computers for playing chess.

Introduction to Programming Languages

In all over the world, language is the source of communication among human beings. Different
countries/regions have different languages. Similarly, in order to communicate with the computer
user also needs to have a language that should be understood by the computer. For this purpose,
different languages are developed for performing different types of work on the computer, such
languages are known as Programming Languages. Basically, languages are divided into two
categories according to their interpretation.
1. Low Level Languages.
2. High Level Languages.

Low Level Languages

Low level computer languages are machine codes or close to it. Computer cannot understand
instructions given in high level languages or in English. It can only understand and execute
instructions given in the form of machine language i.e. language of 0 and 1. There are two types of
low level languages:
 Machine Language.
 Assembly Language

First-Generation: Machine language

The first generation computer language was machine language, all the machine used machine code
which consisted of 0s and 1s. Machine language is highly efficient and allows direct control of
each operation; however programmers had to write computer programs using 0 and 1.

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Originally, no translator was used to compile or assemble the first-generation language. The first-
generation programming instructions were entered through the front panel switches of the
computer system.

The main benefit of programming in a first-generation programming language is that the code a
user writes can run very fast and efficiently, since it is directly executed by the CPU. However,
machine language is a lot more difficult to learn than higher generational programming languages,
and it is far more difficult to edit if errors occur. In addition, if instructions need to be added into
memory at some location, then all the instructions after the insertion point need to be moved down
to make room in memory to accommodate the new instructions. Doing so on a front panel with
switches can be very difficult. Furthermore, portability is significantly reduced - in order to
transfer code to a different computer it needs to be completely rewritten since the machine
language for one computer could be significantly different from another computer. Architectural
considerations make portability difficult too. For example, the number of registers on one CPU
architecture could differ from those of another.

Advantages of first Generation language programs were:-

 Translation free: - Since computer understand only machine language program, no
conversion is required.
 High Speed: - Since no conversion is required, applications developed using machine
languages are fast.

Drawbacks of the first generations languages were:-

 Complex Language :- Programs were difficult to write and debug
 Tedious :- Programming process was tedious time consuming
 Machine Dependent: - A program written in one computer can’t be run on other computer
because each computer has different architecture.
 Error Prone: - Programs were error prone because programmer has to remember all the
opcode and memory location which is very difficult task that leads to an error in program.

Second Generation Languages: Assembly language

These were developed in the early 1950s with the ability to use acronyms to speed programming
and coding of programs. Assembly languages are symbolic programming languages that use
symbolic notation to represent machine-language instructions. Symbolic programming languages
are strongly connected to machine language and the internal architecture of the computer system
on which they are used. They are called low-level languages because they are so closely related to
the machines.

It uses mnemonic codes, or easy-to-remember abbreviations, rather than numbers. Examples of

these codes include ADD for addition, CMP for compare, MULT for multiply, and STO for
storing information into memory. Like programs written in other programming languages,
assembly language programs consist of a series of individual statements or instructions that tell the
computer what to do.

Normally an assembly language statement consists of a label, an operation code, and one or more
operands. Labels are used to identify and reference instructions in the program. The operation code
is a symbolic notation that specifies the particular operation to be performed, such as move, add,

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subtract, or compare. The operand represents the register or the location in main memory where
the data to be processed is located

Machine dependence is a significant disadvantage of assembly language. A program coded in

assembly language for one machine will not run on machines from a different or sometimes even
the same manufacturer.

Advantages of Assembly Language:-

 Easy to understand and use:- Program written in assembly language are much easier to
understand and use as compared to its machine language counterpart because of use of
mnemonics codes instead of codes in 0 & 1.
 Less error prone: - bcoz of use of mnemonic codes and symbolic addresses.
 Efficiency:- Assembly language program can run much faster and use less memory and
other resources compared to similar program written in machine language.

Disadvantages of Assembly Language:-

 Machine Dependent: - Program written in these language can’t run on other machine
because different computer architecture have their own machine and assembly language.
 Harder to learn: - Every type of computer architecture require different assembly
language, making it hard to remember and understand every dialect of assembly.
 Slow Development Time: - for application development compared to high level language.
 Less Efficient
 No Standardization: - Can’t be standardized because each type of computer has a different
instruction set and therefore a different assembly language.

Third Generation Languages: High level language

A programming language in which the program statements are not closely related to the internal
characteristics of the computer is called a high-level language.

High-level programming languages were developed to make programming easier and less error-
prone.

High-level languages fall somewhere between natural languages and machine languages, and were
developed to make the programming process more efficient. Languages like FORTRAN
(FORmulaTRANslator) and COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language) made it possible for
scientists and business people to write programs using familiar terms instead of obscure machine
instructions.

Programs were written in an English-like manner, making them more convenient to use and giving
the programmer more time to address a client's problems.

Again, a translator is needed to translate the symbolic statements of a high-level language into
computer-executable machine language. The programs that translate high-level programs into
machine language are called interpreters and compilers.

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Advantages of high level language:-
 Readability: -High level languages are closer to natural languages so they are easier to
learn and understand.
 Machine Independent: - program written in these languages can be run on other machine
with very little or no change.
 Easy debugging
 Low Development Cost
 Easy Documentation

Disadvantages of high level language:-

 Poor control on hardware: - HLL (High Level language) are developed to ease the
pressure on programmer so that they don’t have to know the intricacies of hardware.
 Less Efficient: - HLL applications are less efficient as far as computation time is
concerned.

Fourth Generation: 4 GL

With each generation, programming languages have become easier to use and more like natural
languages.4 GL are Non-Procedural where as 3 generation language is Procedural. In non-
procedural method we simply state the needed output instead of specifying each step one after
another to perform a task. In other words, the computer is instructed what it must do rather than
how a computer must perform a task. An example of a 4GL is the query language like SQL that
allows a user to request information from a database with precisely worded English-like sentences.

Advantages of 4 GL:-
 Instructions are written in English-like sentences.
 They are nonprocedural, so users can concentrate on the "what" instead of the "how".
 They increase productivity because programmers type fewer lines of code to get something
done.
Disadvantages of 4 GL:-
 Programs written in 4 GL are quite lengthy so they need more disk space and large memory
capacity as compared to 3 GL.
 5 GL cannot directly utilize the computer power available at hardware level as compared to
other level of languages.

Fifth Generation Programming Languages

5GL is an abbreviation for fifth-generation language. 5 GL are just the conceptual view of what
might be the future of programming languages. These languages will be able to process natural
languages. The users will be free from learning any programming language to communicate with
the computers. The programmers may simply type the instruction or simply tell the computer by
way of microphones what it needs to do. Since these languages are still in their infancy, only a few
are currently commercially available. They are closely linked to artificial intelligence and expert
systems.

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 SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS:

1. WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE: MS WORD

Definition:
Microsoft Word is a word processing program introduced by Microsoft Corporation. It is a
program of MS Office package. This program helps you to create professional looking documents
easily. A word processing program allows you to create different kinds of documents. For
example: resumes, reports, letters etc.. A word processor allows a user to manipulate the text on
your screen, add pictures, correct any mistake that you made, and change the margins.

2. SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE :MS- EXCEL

Definition:
Microsoft Excel is a very powerful spreadsheet application that is designed, primarily, to perform
mathematical calculations. It also can be used to create a simple (non-relational) database or to
create charts and graphs. The power behind Excel is that once formulas are entered into a
worksheet, calculations can be performed on data entered into the worksheet.

What is a spreadsheet (Worksheet)?

A spreadsheet is similar to working with tables—it has rows and columns, and the space where
these two intersect are called “cells”.

3. PRESENTATION SOFTWARE: MS-POWERPOINT

Microsoft PowerPoint is a slide show presentation program currently developed by Microsoft.

PowerPoint is the presentation graphics software in the Microsoft 2007 Office suite. With
PowerPoint, you can use its easy-to-use predefined layouts, themes, and templates to create
dynamic and professional presentations.

Operation
PowerPoint presentations consist of a number of individual pages or "slides". The "slide" analogy
is a reference to the slide projector. A better analogy would be the "foils" (or transparencies/plastic
sheets) that are shown with an overhead projector, although they are in decline now. Slides may
contain text, graphics, sound, movies, and other objects, which may be arranged freely. The
presentation can be printed, displayed live on a computer, or navigated through at the command of

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the presenter. For larger audiences the computer display is often projected using a video projector.
Slides can also form the basis of webcasts.
PowerPoint provides three types of movements:

Entrance, emphasis, and exit of elements on a slide itself are controlled by what
PowerPoint calls Custom Animations.
Transitions, on the other hand, are movements between slides. These can be animated in a
variety of ways.
Custom animation can be used to create small story boards by animating pictures to enter,
exit or move.

4. GRAPHICS SOFTWARE: ADOBE PHOTOSHOP

In computer graphics, graphics software or image editing software is a program or collection of
programs that enable a person to manipulate visual images on a computer. These are the
application software which lets the user to create and manipulate any type of computer graphics
with the use of an operating system.
Computer graphics can be classified into two distinct categories: raster graphics and vector
graphics. Many graphics programs focus exclusively on either vector or raster graphics, but there
are a few that combine them in interesting ways. It is simple to convert from vector graphics to
raster graphics, but going the other way is harder. Some software attempts to do this.
In addition to static graphics, there are animation and video editing software. The exact sources of
graphics may vary for different tasks, but most can read and write files.
Most graphics programs have the ability to import and export one or more graphics file formats. It
also can export files to one or more files. Computer graphics also can be used by other editing
software such as Adobe Photoshop, Pizap, Microsoft Publisher, Picasa, etc.
Adobe Photoshop is a raster graphics editor developed and published by Adobe
Systems for Windows and OS X.
Photoshop was created in 1988

DATABASES

A database is an organized collection of data. It is the collection of schemes, tables, queries,

reports, views and other objects.Database management systems (DBMS) are computer
software applications that interact with the user, other applications, and the database itself to
capture and analyze data. A general-purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation,

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querying, update, and administration of databases. Well-known DBMSs include MySQL and
ORACLE.

OPERATING SYSTEM:

Operating System is system software, which makes a computer to actually work. It is the software
the enables all the programs we use. The OS organizes and controls the hardware. OS acts as an
interface between the application programs and the machine hardware.A program that controls the
execution of application programs. An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that
manages computer hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The
operating system is a vital component of the system software in a computer system. Application
programs require an operating system to function. Operating system is a platform between
hardware and user which is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the
sharing of the resources of a computer. Examples: Windows, Linux, UNIX.
STRUCTURE OF OPERATING SYSTEM:

OBJECTIVES OF OPERATING SYSTEM:

1) Makes the computer more convenient to use

2) Allows computer system resources to be used in an efficient manner
3) Ability to evolve: Permit effective development, testing, and introduction of new system
functions without interfering with service.
4) The user interacts with the operating systems through the user interface and usually
interested in the “look and feel” of the operating system.
5) An operating system controls how processes may access resources.

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FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM:

1. Resource Management: The resource management function of an OS allocates computer

resources such as CPU time, main memory, secondary storage, and input and output devices for
use.

2. Data Management: The data management functions of an OS govern the input and output of the
data and their location, storage, and retrieval.

3. Job Management: The job management function of an OS prepares, schedules, controls, and
monitors jobs submitted for execution to ensure the most efficient processing. A job is a collection
of one or more related programs and their data
4. Process management: It deals with running multiple processes. Most operating system allows a
process to be assigned a priority which affects its allocation of CPU time. Interactive operating
systems also employ some level of feedback in which the task with which the user is working
receives higher priority. In many systems there is a background process which runs when no other
process is waiting for the CPU.

5. Memory management: The memory manager in an OS coordinates the memories by tracking

which one is available, which is to be allocated or deallocated and how to swap between the main
memory and secondary memories. The operating system tracks all memory used by each process
so that when a process terminates, all memory used by that process will be available for other
processes.

6. Disk and file systems: Operating systems have a variety of native file systems that controls the
creation, deletion, and access of files of data and programs.

7. Security: Most operating systems include some level of security.

8. Device drivers: A device driver is a specific type of computer software developed to allow
interaction with hardware devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with
the device, through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hardware is
connected to, providing commands to and/or receiving data from the device, and on the other end,
the requisite interfaces to the operating system and software applications.

TYPES OF OS

1. BATCH PROCESSING SYSTEMS:

In a batch processing operating system interaction between the user and processor is limited or
there is no interaction at all during the execution of work. Data and programs that need to be
processed are bundled and collected as a ‘batch’ and executed together. Batch processing operating
systems are ideal in situations where:

- There are large amounts of data to be processed.

- Similar data needs to be processed.

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- Similar processing is involved when executing the data.

The system is capable of identifying times when the processor is idle at which time ‘batches’
maybe processed. Processing is all performed automatically without any user intervention. In
Batch processing same type of jobs batch (BATCH- a set of jobs with similar needs) together and
execute at a time. The OS was simple, its major task was to transfer control from one job to the
next. The job was submitted to the computer operator in form of punch cards. At some later time
the output appeared. The OS was always resident in memory. Common Input devices were card
readers and tape drives. Common output devices were line printers, tape drives, and card punches.

2. MULTI-TASKING OPERATING SYSTEM:

In this type of Operating System several applications maybe simultaneously loaded and used in the
memory. While the processor handles only one application at a particular time it is capable of
switching between the applications effectively to apparently simultaneously execute each
application. This type of operating system is seen everywhere today and is the most common type
of OS, the Windows operating system would be an example. Multitasking is a method where
multiple tasks, also known as processes, are performed during the same period of time. The tasks
share common processing resources, such as a CPU and main memory. In the case of a computer
with a single CPU, only one task is said to be running at any point in time, meaning that the CPU
is actively executing instructions for that task. Multitasking solves the problem by scheduling
which task may be the one running at any given time, and when another waiting task gets a turn.
The act of reassigning a CPU from one task to another one is called a context switch. When
context switches occur frequently enough the illusion of parallelism is achieved. Even on
computers with more than one CPU (called multiprocessor machines), multitasking allows many
more tasks to be run than there are CPUs. Multitasking is a interleaved execution of multiple jobs
(often referred to as task of same user) in a single-user system. Typically computer systems used
for such purposes are uniprocessor system. For Example, while editing a file in foreground, sorting
job can be given in background.

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3. TIME SHARING SYSTEMS:
Time sharing, or multitasking, is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Multiple jobs are
executed by switching the CPU between them. In this, the CPU time is shared by different
processes, so it is called as “Time sharing Systems”. Time slice is defined by the OS, for sharing
CPU time between processes. Examples: Multics, UNIX, etc. Time-sharing is the sharing of a
computing resource among many users by means of multiprogramming and multi-tasking. By
allowing a large number of users to interact concurrently with a single computer, time-sharing
dramatically lowered the cost of providing computing capability, made it possible for individuals
and organizations to use a computer without owning one, and promoted the interactive use of
computers and the development of new interactive applications.
Example: Assume that there are four interactive users with the following memory requirements:

Job1 – 15K

Job2 – 20K

Job3 – 05K

Job4 – 10K

Initially the monitor loads in Job1 and transfers control to it. Later, the monitor decides to transfer
control to Job2. Because Job2 requires more memory than Job1, Job1 must be written out first, and
then Job2 can be loaded. Next Job3, is loaded in to be run. However, because Job3 is smaller than
Job2, a portion of Job2 can remain in the memory, reducing disk writ time. Later, the monitor
decides to transfer control back to Job 1. An additional portion of Job2 must be written out when
Jb1 is loaded back into memory. When Job4 is loaded, part of Job1 and the portion of Job2
remaining in memory are retained. At this point, if either Job1 or Job2 is activated, only a partial
load will be required. In this example, it is Job2 that runs next. This requires that Job4 and the
remaining resident portion of Job1 be written out and that the missing portion of Job2 is read in.

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ADVANTAGES OF Time-Sharing System:
1) Reduces Idle Time:
As User speed of typing & thinking is slower than processing speed of a computer, while a user is
engaged with these task, time-sharing system services many other user. Thus, reduces idle time of
CPU & provide higher system throughput.
2) Provide advantage of Quick response Time:
Time sharing system ensures quick response from every user.This feature helps in improving
programmers efficiency by making interactive Programming &debugging much simpler and
quicker.
3) Offer good computing facility to users:
Users can gain direct access to more sophisticated hardware & software than they could otherwise
just afford. In time-sharing system, they merely pay a fee for the resource they use,& are relieved
of hardware, software & personnel problems associated with acquiring & maintaining their own
installation.

4. REAL-TIME SYSTEMS:

Often used as a control device in a dedicated application such as controlling scientific experiments,
medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, and some display systems.
Well-defined fixed-time constraints Real-time systems are those systems in which the correctness
of the system depends not only on the logical result of computation, but also on the time at which
the results are produced. RTOS is therefore an operating system that supports real-time
applications by providing logically correct result within the deadline required. Basic Structure is
similar to regular OS but, in addition, it provides mechanisms to allow real time scheduling of
tasks. Though real-time operating systems may or may not increase the speed of execution, they
can provide much more precise and predictable timing characteristics than general-purpose OS.

RTOS is key to many embedded systems and provides a platform to build applications. All
embedded systems are not designed with RTOS. Embedded systems with relatively simple/small
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hardware/code might not require an RTOS. Embedded systems with moderate-to-large software
applications require some form of scheduling, and hence RTOS.

RTOS CLASSFICATION:
RTOS specifies a known maximum time for each of the operations that it performs. Based upon
the degree of tolerance in meeting deadlines, RTOS are classified into following categories:

· Hard real-time: Degree of tolerance for missed deadlines is negligible. A missed deadline can
result in catastrophic failure of the system

· Firm real-time: Missing a deadly ne might result in an unacceptable quality reduction but may
not lead to failure of the complete system

· Soft real-time: Deadlines may be missed occasionally, but system doesn’t fail and also, system
quality is acceptable

5. MULTIPROGRAMMING:

Multiprogramming is a technique to execute number of programs simultaneously by a single

processor. In Multiprogramming, number of processes resides in main memory at a time. The OS
picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the main memory. If any I/O wait happened in a
process, then CPU switches from that job to another job. Computer multiprogramming is the
allocation of a computer system and its resources to more than one concurrent application, job or
user. The use of multiprogramming was enhanced by the arrival of virtual memory and virtual
machine technology, which enabled individual programs to make use of memory and operating
system resources as if other concurrently running programs were, for all practical purposes, non-
existent and invisible to them. Multiprogramming should be differentiated from multi-tasking
since not all multiprogramming entails—or has the capability for-- "true" multi-tasking. This is the
case even though the use of multi-tasking generally implies the use of some multiprogramming
methods. In this context, the root word "program" does not necessarily refer to a compiled
application, rather, any set of commands submitted for execution by a user or operator. Such
"program" could include a script or job control stream and any included calls to macro-
instructions, system utilities or application program modules. An entire, interactive, logged-in user
session can be thought of as a "program" in this sense. A program generally comprises numerous
tasks, a task being a relatively small group of processor instructions which together achieve a
definable logical step in the completion of a job or the execution of a continuous-running
application program. A task frequently ends with some request requiring the moving of data, a
convenient opportunity to allow another program to have system resources, particularly CPU time.
Hence CPU is not idle at any time. The main memory consists of 5 jobs at a time, the CPU
executes one by one. Multiprogramming is interleaved execution of multiple jobs (of same or
different users) in a multi-user system.

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6. MULTIPROCESSOR:

Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within a single
computer system. The idea of using I/O processor to improve system performance was carried a
step further by designing system with multiple CPUs. Such systems are called multiprocessing
Systems because they use multiple Processors (CPUs) and can execute multiprocessors
concurrently. Multiple CPUs of these Systems are used to process either instructions from different
and independent programs different instructins from same program simultaneously. There are
many variations on this basic theme, and the definition of multiprocessing can vary with context,
mostly as a function of how CPUs are defined (multiple cores on one die, multiple dies in one
package, multiple packages in one system unit, etc.).Multiprocessing sometimes refers to the
execution of multiple concurrent software processes in a system as opposed to a single process at
any one instant. However, the terms multitasking or multiprogramming are more appropriate to
describe this concept, which is implemented mostly in software, whereas multiprocessing is more
appropriate to describe the use of multiple hardware CPUs. A system can be both multiprocessing
and multiprogramming, only one of the two, or neither of the two of them.

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Multiprocessing systems are of two type types- tightly-coupled systems and loosely-coupled
systems. In tightly-coupled systems, there is a single system-wide primary memory shared by all
processors. On the otherhand, in loosely-coupled systems, and each processor has its own local
memory.

7.EMBEDDED OPERATING SYSTEM:

It refers to the operating system that is self-contained in the device & resident in the ROM. Since
embedded system are usually not general purpose systems, these operating system are lighter or
less-resource intensive as compared to general-purpose OS. For Example: Household appliances,
traffic control system, car management system etc. Unlike a General purpose operating system,
the embedded operating system does not load and execute applications. This means that the system
is only able to run a single application.

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MCQ for Practice

CAD stands for

a. Computer aided design b. Computer algorithm for design

c. Computer application in design d. Computer analogue design

A computer cannot 'boot' if it does not have the

a. Compiler b. Loader

c. Operating System d. Assembler

Example of non-numeric data is

a. Employee address b. Examination score

c. Bank balance d. All of these

What is embedded system?

a. The programme which arrives by being wrapped in box.

b. The programme which is the permanent part of the computer

c. The computer which is the part of a big computer

d. The computer and software system that control the machine

First page of Website is termed as-

a. Homepage b. Index c. JAVA script d. Bookmark

. ..................... Is the appearance of typed characters?

a. Size b. Format c. Point d. Colour

When a file is saved for the first time

a. a copy is automatically printed

b. it must be given a name to identify it

c. it does not need a name

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 d. it only needs a name if it is not going to be printed

Which programming languages are classified as low level languages?

a. BASIC, COBOL, Fortran b. Prolog

c. C, C++ d. Assembly languages

Which of the following is not anti- viruses’ software?

a. NAV b. F-Prot

c. Oracle d. McAfee

DOS stands for

a. Disk Operating System b. Disk operating session

c. Digital Operating System d. Digital Open system

Who is the chief of Microsoft

a. Babbage b. Bill Gates c. Bill Clinton d. none of these

COBOL is widely used in application s

a. Commercial b. Scientific c. Space d. Mathematical

ASCII is a coding system that provides

a. 256 different characters b. 512 different characters

c. 1024 different characters d. 128 different characters

Malicious software is known as:

a. Badware. b. Malware. c. Maliciousware. d. Illegalware.

..are specific to users’ needs

a. System software b. Application software

c. Assemblers d. Compiler

Which of the following is/ are operating systems

a. Windows b. Unix
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 c. OS/2 d. All of these

MODULE 5 : COMPUTER NETWORKS

As a result of rapid technological progress, these areas are rapidly converging and the differences
between collecting, transporting, storing, and processing information are quickly disappearing.
Organizations with hundreds of offices spread over a wide geographical area routinely expect to be
able to examine the current status of even their most remote outpost at the push of a button. As our
ability to gather, process, and distribute information grows, the demand for ever more
sophisticated information processing grows even faster.
The merging of computers and communications has had a profound influence on the way computer
systems are organized. The concept of the ''computer center'' as a room with a large computer to
which users bring their work for processing is now totally obsolete. The old model of a single
computer serving all of the organization's computational needs has been replaced by one in which
a large number of separate but interconnected computers do the job. These systems are called
computer networks.
There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer network and a distributed
system. The key distinction is that in a distributed system, a collection of independent computers
appears to its users as a single coherent system. Usually, it has a single model or paradigm that it
presents to the users. Often a layer of software on top of the operating system, called middleware,
is responsible for implementing this model. A well-known example of a distributed system is the
World Wide Web, in which everything looks like a document (Web page).
In a computer network, this coherence, model, and software are absent. Users are exposed to the
actual machines, without any attempt by the system to make the machines look and act in a
coherent way. If the machines have different hardware and different operating systems, that is fully
visible to the users. If a user wants to run a program on a remote machine, he has to log onto that
machine and run it there.

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS:

1. BUSINESS APPLICATIONS
Many companies have a substantial number of computers. For example, a company may have
separate computers to monitor production, keep track of inventories, and do the payroll. Initially,
each of these computers may have worked in isolation from the others, but at some point,
management may have decided to connect them to be able to extract and correlate information
about the entire company.
Put in slightly more general form, the issue here is resource sharing, and the goal is to make all
programs, equipment, and especially data available to anyone on the network without regard to the
physical location of the resource and the user. An obvious and widespread example is having a
group of office workers share a common printer. None of the individuals really needs a private
printer, and a high-volume networked printer is often cheaper, faster, and easier to maintain than a
large collection of individual printers.
In the simplest of terms, one can imagine a company's information system as consisting of one or
more databases and some number of employees who need to access them remotely. In this model,
the data are stored on powerful computers called servers. Often these are centrally housed and
maintained by a system administrator. In contrast, the employees have simpler machines, called
clients, on their desks, with which they access remote data, for example, to include in spreadsheets
they are constructing. (Sometimes we will refer to the human user of the client machine as the
''client,'' but it should be clear from the context whether we mean the computer or its user.) The

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client and server machines are connected by a network, as illustrated in Fig. 1-1. Note that we have
shown the network as a simple oval, without any detail. We will use this form when we mean a
network in the abstract sense. When more detail is required, it will be provided.

2 HOME APPLICATIONS
Some of the more popular uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:
1. Access to remote information.
2. Person-to-person communication.
3. Interactive entertainment.
4. Electronic commerce.
Access to remote information comes in many forms. It can be surfing the World Wide Web for
information or just for fun. Information available includes the arts, business, cooking, government,
health, history, hobbies, recreation, science, sports, travel, and many others. Fun comes in too
many ways to mention, plus some ways that are better left unmentioned.
The second broad category of network use is person-to-person communication, basically the 21st
century's answer to the 19th century's telephone. E-mail is already used on a daily basis by
millions of people all over the world and its use is growing rapidly. It already routinely contains
audio and video as well as text and pictures. Smell may take a while.
Any teenager worth his or her salt is addicted to instant messaging. This facility, derived from the
UNIX talk program in use since around 1970, allows two people to type messages at each other in
real time. A multi person version of this idea is the chat room, in which a group of people can type
messages for all to see.
Our third category is entertainment, which is a huge and growing industry. The killer application
here (the one that may drive all the rest) is video on demand. A decade or so hence, it may be
possible to select any movie or television program ever made, in any country, and have it
displayed on your screen instantly. New films may become interactive, where the user is
occasionally prompted for the story direction (should Macbeth murder Duncan or just bide his
time?) with alternative scenarios provided for all cases. Live television may also become
interactive, with the audience participating in quiz shows, choosing among contestants, and so on.
On the other hand, maybe the killer application will not be video on demand. Maybe it will be
game playing. Already we have multi person real-time simulation games, like hide-and-seek in a
virtual dungeon, and flight simulators with the players on one team trying to shoot down the
players on the opposing team. If games are played with goggles and three-dimensional real-time,
photographic-quality moving images, we have a kind of worldwide shared virtual reality.
Our fourth category is electronic commerce in the broadest sense of the term. Home shopping is
already popular and enables users to inspect the on-line catalogs of thousands of companies. Some
of these catalogs will soon provide the ability to get an instant video on any product by just
clicking on the product's name. After the customer buys a product electronically but cannot figure
out how to use it, on-line technical support may be consulted.
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Another area in which e-commerce is already happening is access to financial institutions. Many
people already pay their bills, manage their bank accounts, and handle their investments
electronically. This will surely grow as networks become more secure.

3) Mobile Users
Mobile computers, such as notebook computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs), are one of
the fastest-growing segments of the computer industry. Many owners of these computers have
desktop machines back at the office and want to be connected to their home base even when away
from home or en route. Since having a wired connection is impossible in cars and airplanes, there
is a lot of interest in wireless networks
People on the road often want to use their portable electronic equipment to send and receive
telephone calls, faxes, and electronic mail, surf the Web, access remote files, and log on to remote
machines. And they want to do this from anywhere on land, sea, or air. For example, at computer
conferences these days, the organizers often set up a wireless network in the conference area.
Anyone with a notebook computer and a wireless modem can just turn the computer on and be
connected to the Internet, as though the computer were plugged into a wired network. Similarly,
some universities have installed wireless networks on campus so students can sit under the trees
and consult the library's card catalog or read their e-mail.
Wireless networks are of great value to fleets of trucks, taxis, delivery vehicles, and repairpersons
for keeping in contact with home. For example, in many cities, taxi drivers are independent
businessmen, rather than being employees of a taxi company. In some of these cities, the taxis
have a display the driver can see. When a customer calls up, a central dispatcher types in the
pickup and destination points. This information is displayed on the drivers' displays and a beep
sounds. The first driver to hit a button on the display gets the call.
Wireless networks are also important to the military. If you have to be able to fight a war anywhere
on earth on short notice, counting on using the local networking infrastructure is probably not a
good idea. It is better to bring your own

4 Social Issues
The widespread introduction of networking has introduced new social, ethical, and political
problems. popular feature of many networks are newsgroups or bulletin boards whereby people
can exchange messages with like-minded individuals.
The trouble comes when newsgroups are set up on topics that people actually care about, like
politics, religion, or sex. Views posted to such groups may be deeply offensive to some people.
Worse yet, they may not be politically correct. Furthermore, messages need not be limited to text.
High-resolution color photographs and even short video clips can now easily be transmitted over
computer networks. Some people take a live-and-let-live view, but others feel that posting certain
material (e.g., attacks on particular countries or religions, pornography, etc.) is simply
unacceptable and must be censored. Different countries have different and conflicting laws in this
area.
Another fun area is employee rights versus employer rights. Many people read and write e-mail at
work. Many employers have claimed the right to read and possibly censor employee messages,
including messages sent from a home computer after work.

All Uses of Computer Network

● File sharing: Have you ever needed to access a file stored on another computer? A network
makes it easy for everyone to access the same file.
● Printer sharing: If you use a computer, chances are you also use a printer. With a network,
several computers can share the same printer.

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● Communication and collaboration: It's hard for people to work together if no one knows
what other one is doing. A network allows employees to share files, view other people's work,
and exchange ideas more efficiently.
● Data protection: A network makes it easier to back up all of your company's data on an
offsite server
● Business Applications: As resourse sharing ex an network with 2 client and 1 server
● Access to remote information:
● Home reservations for airplanes, trains, hotels, restaurants, theaters, and so on, anywhere in
the world with instant confirmation.
● Online banking and shopping.
● On-line and personalized electronic newspapers, journals, and libraries.
● Access to WWW (World Wide Web) which contains information about many topics.
● Person-to-person communication:
● Electronic mails or emails for everyone. Emails may contain digitized voice, pictures,
moving TV and video images (and even smell !).
● Real-time video conferencing and virtual meeting environments, allow remote users to
communicate with no delay, possibly seeing and hearing each others as well.
● Interactive entertainment:
● Video on demand (the killer application): the user can select any movie or TV program
ever made, in any country, and have it displayed on his screen instantly.
● Live and interactive TV: audience may participate in quiz shows, and so on.
● Multiperson real-time games (maybe the alternative killer application): hide-and-seek,
flight simulators, etc.

Data Communication

When we communicate we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote. Between
individuals, local communicate usually occurs face to face, while remote communicate takes place
over distance. These are exchange of data between 2 devices via Some form of transmission
medium such as wire cable. 4 characteristics:-
 Delivery The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or that user.
 Accuracy The system must deliver data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
 Timelyness The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless.
 Jitter Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.

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Data Communication has 5 components:-
1. Message: - Information to be communicated. Like text, pictures, audio.
2. Sender:- Device that sends the data message, like comp. telephone, workstation.
3. Receiver:- That receives d massage use handset, computer.
4. Transmission medium: physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
Like radio waves, coaxial cables.
5. Protocol :- Set of rules that govern data communicate without this 2 devices may be
connected between but not communicating, just as person speaking French cannot be
understand by person who speaks only Japanese.

Distributed processing
Distributed processing is a phrase used to refer to a variety of computer systems that use more than
one computer (or processor) to run an application. This includes parallel processing in which a
single computer uses more than one CPU to execute programs.
More often, however, distributed processing refers to local-areanetworks (LANs) designed so that
a single program can run simultaneously at various sites. Most distributed processing systems
contain sophisticated software that detects idle CPUs on the network and parcels out programs to
utilize them.
Distributed computing also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational
problems. In distributed computing, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved
by one or more computers
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers.
Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate
computers (usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.

//Standards and organization.

Line Configuration
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A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communication pathway
that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur , two devices must be
connected in some way to the link at the same time. There are two possible types of
connections:point to point and multipoint.

Point to Point: It provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point to point connections use an actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two ends. When you change television channels by infrared
remote control, you are establishing a point to point connection between remote control and
television control system.

Multipoint: This connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link. In
multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared , wither spatially or temporally.

Physical Topology :
Way in which network is laid out physically, two or more devices connect to a link; two or more
links form a topology. Topology is geometric representation of relationship of all the links &
nodes to one onther.

1. Mesh topology-:
Every device has a dedicated pt 2 pt link to every other device. Dedicated means that link carries
traffic only between two devices it connects. In mesh topology to find no of physical links in fully

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connected mesh network with n nodes we must consider that each mode is connected to every
other node. We need n(n-1)/2 duplex mode links.

Adv :- Eliminates traffic problem, it is robust, privacy.

Disadv.:- Amt. of cabling & no. of I/O parts reqd. installation & reconnection are difficult. Bulk of
wiring can be greater than available space. Hardware reqd. to connect each link can be expensive.
2 Star Topology: Each device has a dedicated point to point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub.The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology a
star topology doesn't allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If
one device wants to send data to one another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays
the data to the other connected device.

Advantages:
It is less expensive than mesh topology.
In star each device needsonly one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This
makes it easy to install and reconfigure.
Far less cabling needs to be housed,andadditions,moves, and deletions involove only
oenconnection:between the device and the hub.
It is robust.If one link fails, only that link is affected
Disadvantage:
It is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point,the hub. If the hub goes down, the
whole system is dead.

3 Bus Topology :
Bus Topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
Nodes are connected running between the device & the main cable. A tap is a connector that either
splices into main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with metallic core.
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As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. It becomes
weaker & weaker as it travels further & further. For this reason there is a limit on the number of
taps a bus can support & on the distance between those tops.

Advantage :-
Ease of installation, bus uses less cabling than mesh or star, redundancy is eliminated.
Disadvantage:-
Difficult reconnection & fault isolation.
Difficult to add new devices.
4 Ring topology: Each device has a dedicated point to point connection with only the two devices
on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a
signal intended for a device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.

Figure:- Ring topology with six station

Advantages:
A ring is easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors.
To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
Fault isolation is simplified.
Disadvantage:
Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
In a simple ring, a break in the ring can disable the entire network.

5Tree or Expanded Star

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of
star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 3). Tree topologies
allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet
their needs.

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Fig. 3. Tree topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

6 Hybrid Topology:-

A network can be Hybrid for ex we can have a main star topology with each branch connecting
several stations in a bus topology as shown in the fig. below.

Data Flow/Transmission mode

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half duplex or full duplex

1 Simplex
In simplex mode, communication is unidirectional, as on a one way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Keyboards and monitors are the examples of simplex devices. Simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

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Advantages of Simplex
 Cheapest communication method.
Disadvantage of Simplex
 Only allows for communication in one direction.

2 Half Duplex
Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending
other can only receive, and vice versa
Half duplex is like one lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. Walky Talkies and CB are
both examples of half duplex.
It is used in the cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same
time.

Advantages of Half Duplex

 Costs less than full duplex.
 Enables for two way communications.
Disadvantages of Half Duplex
 Costs more than simplex.
 Only one device can transmit at a time.

3 Full Duplex
In full duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
The full duplex mode is like a two way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same
time.
Example of full duplex is the telephone network. When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. Full duplex is used when communication
in both direction is required all the time.
Advantage of Full Duplex.
 Enables two-way communication simultaneously.
Disadvantage of Full Duplex.
 The most expensive method in terms of equipment because of two bandwidth channels is
required.
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 Categories of Networks

1 Local Area Networks

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect personal
computers and workstations in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and
exchange information. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three
characteristics: (1) their size, (2) their transmission technology, and (3) their topology.
LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded and
known in advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs that
would not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management.
LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the machines are
attached, like the telephone company party lines once used in rural areas. Traditional LANs run at
speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very
few errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.

ADVANTAGES OF LAN
1.It allows sharing of expensive resources such as Laser printers, software and mass storage
devices among a number of computers.
2.LAN allows for highspeed exchange of essential information.
3.It contributes to increased productivity. A LAN installation should be studied closely in the
context of its proposed contribution to the long range interest of the organization.

DISADVANTAGES OF LAN
1.The financial cost of LAN is still high in comparison with many other alternatives.
2.It requires memory space in each of the computers used on the network. This reduces the
memory space available for the user’s programs.
3. Some type of security system must be implemented if it is important to protect confidential data.
4.Some control on the part of the user is lost. You may have to share a printer with other users.
You may face a situation like, for example, the entire network suddenly locking up because one
user has made a mistake.
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2 Metropolitan Area Networks
A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the
cable television network available in many cities. This system grew from earlier community
antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception. In these early systems, a
large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and signal was then piped to the subscribers'
houses.
At first, these were locally-designed, ad hoc systems. Then companies began jumping into the
business, getting contracts from city governments to wire up an entire city. The next step was
television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only. Often these channels
were highly specialized, such as all news, all sports, all cooking, all gardening, and so on. But from
their inception until the late 1990s, they were intended for television reception only.
Starting when the Internet attracted a mass audience, the cable TV network operators began to
realize that with some changes to the system, they could provide two-way Internet service in
unused parts of the spectrum. At that point, the cable TV system began to morph from a way to
distribute television to a metropolitan area network.
1) The network size falls intermediate between LAN and WAN. A MAN typically covers an area
of between 5 and 50 km diameter. Many MANs cover an area the size of a city, although in some
cases MANs may be as small as a group of buildings or as large as the North of Scotland.
2) A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources. It is also
frequently used to provide a shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN.

Characteristics of MAN
1) It generally covers towns and cities (50 kms)
2) It is developed in 1980s.
3) Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
4) Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

3 Wide Area Networks

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It
contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. We will
follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts. The hosts are connected by a
communication subnet, or just subnet for short. The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g.,
people's personal computers), whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and operated
by a telephone company or Internet service provider. The job of the subnet is to carry messages
from host to host, just as the telephone system carries words from speaker to listener. Separation of
the pure communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the application aspects (the
hosts), greatly simplifies the complete network design.
In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines and
switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be made of copper
wire, optical fiber, or even radio links. Switching elements are specialized computers that connect
three or more transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element
must choose an outgoing line on which to forward them. These switching computers have been
called by various names in the past; the name router is now most commonly used
Characterstics of WAN
1) It generally covers large distances (states, countries, continents).
2) Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are connected by
routers.
3) Routers forward packets from one to another (Table 1) a route from the sender to
the receiver.

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 Transmission/Communication media
GUIDED MEDIA
The guided transmission media includes cables/wires to transmit the information from source to
destination. The wire may be made up of copper or other metal or may be of glass/fiber. It includes
electrical and light signals to flow in these wires. But these cables are very sensitive to noise and
this degrades the signal also called as attenuation. There are three types of guided media
transmission cables.

I. Twisted Pair Cables:

It has two copper wires and twisted with one another to form a helical structure. It is twisted
because to lower the attenuation and crosstalk from the noise. Cross talk is also known as bleeding
of signals. It is common wire used in telephone lines .

Advantages:
1. It is simple and flexible.
2. It is easy to install and maintain.
3. Lower in weight and inexpensive.
Disadvantages :
1. It possesses high attenuation, so we have to use repeater for long distances.
2. It has low bandwidth, so we can't use broadband applications.
3. Maximum data rate is of 1 Mbps, which is quite lower.

II. Co-axial Cable :

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This cable consists of a solid wire core and it is surrounded by one or more wire shield (fishnet),
these are separated by a plastic insulator. The inner core carries signals and shield provides the
ground and protect from electro-magnetic interference. It is used in cable-TV.
Advantages :
1. It offers higher bandwidth upto 400 MBPS
2. Transmission is better than twisted pair cable.
3. We can have several channels (frequencies) through one cable, simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
1. Expensive as compared to twisted pair.
2. Not compatible with any other cable.
3. Only one use in cable TV.
Types:
i. Thick net: The thick net coaxial cable segments can up to 500 meters ling.
ii. Thin net: The thin net coaxial cable segments up to 185 meters long.

III. Optical Fiber :

These cables are made up of glass or plastic fibers. Its sources are LED or laser diodes. It uses light
beam to transmit the signals. Firstly, the signal converted in to light signal from electrical signal. It
has core and cladding, core is under the cladding. The refractive index of cladding is lower than
that of core.
Advantages :
1. It is immune to electro-magnetic interference, as it used light signals.
2. It is suitable in all types of environment.
3. It guarantees the secure transmission of information.
Disadvantages :
1. It is quite tough to install the equipment of optical fibers.
2. It is expensive.
3. Connection losses are common problems in optical fiber.
Types :
i. Single node: It supports the segment length of up to 2 kilometers.
ii. Multi node: It supports the segment length of up to 100 kilometers.

UNGUIDED MEDIA
1. Radio Waves
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum longer than infrared light. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed
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of light. Naturally-occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by astronomical objects
Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio
communication,broadcasting, radar and other navigation systems, satellite communication,
computer networks and innumerable other applications.
Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's
atmosphere; long waves may cover a part of the Earth very consistently, shorter waves can reflect
off the ionosphere and travel around the world, and much shorter wavelengths bend or reflect very
little and travel on a line of sight.
 Range:
o 2GHz-6GHz: 70km
o 18GHz-45GHz: 1.6-8km

2 Microwave
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmit station must be in visible
contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending on the
local geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's curvature is only 50 km to the
horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal can hop, skip and jump across the
country.

Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to carry large
quantities of data due to their large bandwidth.
Advantages:
a. They require no right of way acquisition between towers.
b. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies.
c. Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small area.
d. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae.
Disadvantages:
a. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.
b. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
c. Diffracted (split) around solid objects.
d. Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from receiver.

3 Satellite

Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency and retransmit on another) that are
set in geostationary orbits directly over the equator. These geostationary orbits are 36,000 km from
the Earth's surface. At this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth and the centrifugal force of
Earth's rotation are balanced and cancel each other out. Centrifugal force is the rotational force
placed on the satellite that wants to fling it out into space.

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The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite. The downlink is the receiver of data. Uplinks
and downlinks are also called Earth stations because they are located on the Earth. The footprint is
the "shadow" that the satellite can transmit to, the shadow being the area that can receive the
satellite's transmitted signal.

4 Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770
nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies,
cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one
system and another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected by
another system in the next room. When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere
with the use of the remote by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared
signals useless for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside
a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication.

Applications
The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Such a wide
bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate. The Infrared Data
Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared waves, has established
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standards for using these signals for communication between devices such as keyboards, mice,
PCs, and printers. For example, some manufacturers provide a special port called the IrDA port
that allows a wireless keyboard to communicate with a PC. The standard originally defined a data
rate of 75 kbps for a distance
up to 8 m. The recent standard defines a data rate of 4 Mbps.
Infrared signals defined by IrDA transmit through line of sight; the IrDA port on the keyboard
needs to point to the PC for transmission to occur.

S.No.
Guided Media Unguided Media

The signal energy propagates within the guided

1. The signal energy propagates through air.
media .i.e. through wires.

It is mainly suited for point to point line It is mainly used for broadcasting
2.
configurations. purpose.

The signal propagates in the form of voltage, The signal propagates in the form of
3.
current or photons. electromagnetic waves.

Examples of guided media are:-

Examples are:-
=>Twisted Pair Cable
4. =>Microwave or Radio Links
=>Co-axial Cable
=>Infrared
=>Optical Fiber Cable

Digital and Analog Data Transmission

Data is propagated from one point to another point by means of electrical signals,
which may be in digital or analog form.

Analog Signals

Analog signals are continuous electrical signals that vary in time as shown in figure 4a. Most of
the time, the variations follow that of the non-electric (original) signal. Therefore, the two are
analogous hence the name analog.

Analog Signal
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Not all analog signals vary as smoothly as the waveform shown in Figure 4a. Analog signals
represent some physical quantity and they are a ‘MODEL’ of the real quantity.

Example:Telephone voice signal is analog. The intensity of the voice causes electric current
variations. At the receiving end, the signal is reproduced in the same proportion. Hence the electric
current is a ‘MODEL’ but not one’s voice since it is an electrical representation or analog of one’s
voice.

Digital Signals

Digital signals are non-continuous, they change in individual steps. They consist of pulses or digits
with discrete levels or values. The value of each pulse is constant, but there is an abrupt change
from one digit to the next. Digital signals have two amplitude levels called nodes. The value of
which are specified as one of two possibilities such as 1 or 0, HIGH or LOW, TRUE or FALSE
and so on. In reality, the values are anywhere within specific ranges and we define values within a
given range.

Analog verses Digital transmission

In todays world Signals are also sent in digital mode.In this case modems are not nedded. When
digital mode of transmission is used over long distances a repeater is used to receive and then
transmit the signal.

Digital transmission of digital data is preferred to analog transmission of digital data due to the
following reasons:

 Lower cost
 No modems required
 Higher transmission speed possible
 Lower error rate(higher reliability)

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MCQ for Practice

MAN” stands for

a. Maximum Area Network b. Minimum Area Network

c. Main Area Network d. Metropolitan Area Network

Which of the following is a network topology

a. LAN b. WAN

c. MAN d. BUS

Which of the following is a type of network

a. Ring b. Bus c. Star d. PAN

VOIP stands for..........

a. Voice over IP b. Video over IP

c. Viruses over IP d. Virtual over IP

The first web browser is

a. Mosaic b. Netscape

c. Internet explorer d. Collabra

LAN stands for...............

a. Limited Area Network b. Logical Area Network

c. Local Area Network d. Large Area Network

......... are set of rules and procedures to control the data transmission over the internet

a. IP address b. Domains

c. Protocol d. Gateway

NOS stands for

a. Node operating system b. Non-open software

c. Network Operating system d. Non-operating software

............. are system software to facilitate editing of text and data

a. MS Word b. Editors

c. PowerPoint d. MS publisher
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Computers, combine both measuring and counting, are called :

a. Analog b. Digital c. Hybrid d. All of these

In world today, most of the computers are :

a. Digital b. Hybrid c. Analog d. Complex

Physical structure of computer is called :

a. Software b. Hardware c. Human ware d. All of these

------ is the measurement of things such as fingerprints and retinal scans used for security access.

a. Biometrics b. Bio measurement

c. Computer security d. Smart weapon machinery

What is the most common tool used to restrict access to a computer system?

a. User logins b. Passwords

b. Computer keys d. Access-control software

Hardware or software designed to guard against unauthorized access to a computer

network is known as a(n):

a. Hacker-proof program. b. Firewall.

c. Hacker-resistant server. d. Encryption safe wall.

The scrambling of code is known as:

a. Encryption. b. a firewall.

c. Scrambling. d. Password proofing.

To prevent the loss of data during power failures, use a(n):

a. Encryption program. b. Surge protector.

c. Firewall. d. UPS.

------Is defined as any crime completed through the use of computer technology.

a. Computer forensics b. Computer crime

c. Hacking d. Cracking

------ refers to electronic trespassing or criminal hacking.

a. Cracking b. Jacking c. Spoofing d. Smarming

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The process of transferring files from a computer on the Internet to your computer is called

a. Downloading b. uploading

c. FTP d. JPEG

Communication between a computer and a keyboard involves ______________ transmission

a. Automatic b. Half-duplex c. Full-duplex d. Simplex

Data communication system spanning states, countries, or the whole world is

a. LAN b. WAN c. MAN d. PAN

Bluetooth is an example of

a.personal area network b. local area network

c. virtual private network d. WAN

In IPV 4, the IP address 200.200.200.200 belongs to

a.Class A b.Class B c. Class C d. Class D

Networks that use different technologies can be connected by using

a. Packets b. Switches c. Bridges d. Routers

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 MODULE 6 : COMPUTER ARITHMETIC

Number system

Number Systems are two types:

1.NonPositionalNumberSystem
2. Positional Number System

Non-Positional Number Systems

In early days, human begins counted on fingers. When ten fingers were not adequate, stones,
pebbles, or sticks were used to indicate values. This method of counting uses an additive approach
or the non-positional number system. In this system, we have symbols such as I for 1, II for 2, III
for 3, IIII for 4, IIIII for 5, etc. Each symbol represents the same value regardless of its position in
the number and the symbols are simply added to find out the value of a particular number. Since it
is very difficult to perform arithmetic with such a number system, positional systems were
developed.

Positional Number Systems

In a positional number system, there are only a few symbols called digits, and these symbols
represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the number. The value of each
digit in such a number is determined by three considerations:

[5.] The digit itself,

2. The position of the digit in the number, and
3. The base of the number system.

Example:
Decimal, Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal number system.

Note:-Following 2 characteristic are suggested by the value of base in all positional system:-

[1.] The value of base determines the total number of different symbol or digit available in the
number system. The first digit is always 0.
[2.] Maximum value of single digit is always equal to one less than the value of the base.

Decimal Number System

 We use decimal number system in everyday work.

 Decimal number system has base 10.So there are 10 digits or symbols in this system and
first digit is 0.
 Maximum value of digit is (10-1) =9.
 Therefore 10 digits or symbols in Decimal number system are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
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  Each position of digit or symbol has some value associated with it which called as
Positional Weight and it is represented by some power of base (10 x) where x is position
value of digit that it occupy in the number starting with 0 from rightmost side of number
and increase it by 1 going towards left of number.(applicable for number with no fractional
part).
 For number with fractional part value of x start with -1 after the decimal point.
 Base is used as subscript to indicate the particular number system. Here 10 is used to
indicate that this number is in Decimal number system.
 For Example take a number 4598.We write it as (4598) 10 to indicate that it is in Decimal
Number System.

Here digit 8 has positional weight of 100 because it is at rightmost position in number.

Here digit 9 has positional weight of 101because it is at 2nd position in number.

Here digit 5 has positional weight of 102because it is at 3rd position in number.

Here digit 4 has positional weight of 103because it is at 4th position in number.

 By summing the product of digit and its associated positional value we get the
corresponding number in decimal system.

Example:
(4598.24)10 = 4 × 103 + 5 × 102 + 9 × 101 + 8 × 100 +2 × 10-1 + 4 × 10-2
= 4000 + 500 + 90 + 8 + 0.2 + 0.04
= 4598.24

.(decimal
5 9 8 2 4
4 point)
103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2

Fig:-Decimal Number System With Positional Weight

Binary Number system

 It has base 2.So we have only 2 symbols or digits. First digit is 0.

 Maximum vale is (base-1) i.e. (2-1) =1.
 Therefore in binary system symbols or digits are 0 & 1.
 Positional weight of each digit is some power of 2 i.e. 2x.
 For example take 10101.11 as binary number. We write it as (10101.11) 2 to indicate that it
is Binary System.

Here digit 1 has positional weight of 20 because it is at rightmost position in number.

Here digit 0 has positional weight of 21because it is at 2nd position in number.

Here digit 1 has positional weight of 22because it is at 3rd position in number.

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 Here digit 0 has positional weight of 23because it is at 4th position in number.

Here digit 1 has positional weight of 24because it is at 4th position in number.

In Fractional part

digit 1 after decimal point has positional weight of 2-1 because it is at 1st position after
decimal point.

digit 1 after decimal point has positional weight of 2-2 because it is at 2nd position after
decimal point.

 Binary digits are often refferedas a BITS.

 Bits means either 0 or 1.
 With n-bit we can have 2n different patterns of 0 and 1.
.(decimal
0 1 0 1 1
1 point)
23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2
F IG:-BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM WITH POSITIONAL WEIGHT

Octal Number System

 It has a base of 8. So we have only 8 symbols or digits. First digit is 0.

 Maximum vale is (base-1) i.e. (8-1) =7.
 Therefore in octal system symbols or digits are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
 Positional weight of each digit is some power of 8 i.e. 8x.
 For example take 5261.34 as octal number. We write it as (5261.34) 8 to indicate that it is
Octal System.
.(decimal
2 6 1 3 4
5 point)
83 82 81 80 8-1 8-2
F IG:-OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM WITH POSITIONAL WEIGHT

Hexadecimal Number System

 It has a base of 16. So we have only 16 symbols or digits. First digit is 0.

 Maximum vale is (base-1) i.e. (16-1) =15.
 Therefore in Hexa system symbols or digits are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
 In hexadecimal letter A to F are equivalent to decimal value 10 to 15 meana A is
equivalent to 10,B is equivalent to 11,C is equivalent to 12,D is equivalent to 13,E is
equivalent to 14,F is equivalent to 15.
 Positional weight of each digit is some power of 16 i.e. 16x.
 For example take 4B10.A4 as octal number. We write it as (5261.34) 8 to indicate that it is
in Hexadecimal System.
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 .(decimal
B 1 0 A 4
4 point)
163 162 161 160 16-1 16-2
F IG:-HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM WITH POSITIONAL WEIGHT

//Below is a chart of the digits or characters each number system uses:

Binary: 0|1

Octal: 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7

Decimal: 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9

Hexadecimal: 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|A|B|C|D|E|F
Where A = 10; B = 11; C = 12; D = 13; E = 14; F = 15

// Here is a chart showing some decimal numbers and their equivalent representations in
each of the mentioned number systems:

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

 Rules of Conversion From Decimal to Binary

To convert a number from decimal to Binary, we follow a standard procedure:

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The rule is to divide a given decimal number by 2 and make a note of the remainder. Continue
dividing, until you cannot divide by 2 anymore. When you note down the remainders starting from
the bottom, you get the binary number. The rule is simple and you will get a hold of it by the help
of the following examples.

Convert the Following Decimals Numbers To their Binary Forms:

 Fixed Part:

1) 10

10 ÷ 2 = 5, remainder is 0
5 ÷ 2 = 2, remainder is 1
2 ÷ 2 = 1, remainder is 0
1 ÷ 2 = 0, remainder is 1

Now the division stops here, as there is nothing to divide further by 2. So, as I said, starting
from the bottom, write down the remainders and work your way up the list. In this case, it
will be 1010 (starting from the bottom remainder).

2) 356

356 ÷ 2 = 178, remainder is 0

178 ÷ 2 = 89, remainder is 0
89 ÷ 2 = 44, remainder is 1
44 ÷ 2 = 22, remainder is 0
22 ÷ 2 = 11, remainder is 0
11 ÷ 2 = 5, remainder is 1
5 ÷ 2 = 2, remainder is 1
2 ÷ 2 = 1, remainder is 0
1 ÷ 2 = 0, remainder is 1

So, 356 = 101100100.

 Fractional Part

(0.182)10 -> (?)2

Div Product Remainder Binary Number (Χ)

0.182 * 2 0.364 0 0.0

0.364 * 2 0.728 0 0.00

0.728 * 2 1.456 1 0.001

0.456 * 2 0.912 0 0.0010

0.912 * 2 1.824 1 0.00101

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 0.824 * 2 1.648 1 0.001011

0.648 * 2 1.296 1 0.0010111

(0.182)10 -> (0.0010111)2 (After we round and cut the number)

 Rules of Conversion from Binary to decimal

At first, we count the number of digits that our number to convert consists of starting from 0 and
going from right to left when the number is an integer. However, when the number is decimal,
then we count the digits of the number right after the decimal point, starting from left and going to
the right, indexing them starting from -1. So, in order to convert a number from Binary to decimal
follow these two steps:-

Step 1:- Determine the positional value of each digit in the number

Step 2:- Multiply each digit with its corresponding positional value then add all the multiplied
values.

Convert from binary to decimal :

Fixed Part:

[1)] (1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1)2 = (?)10

1*27 + 0*26 + 0*25 + 1*24 + 0*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 + 1*20

= 128 + 16 + 4 + 1
= 149

Fractional Part:

[2)] (101101.0010111)2 -> (?)10

Determine positional value of each digit

1 0 1 1 0 1 . 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
25 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7

Multiply and sum each digit with its corresponding positional value

1 * 25 + 0 * 24 + 1 * 23 + 1 * 22 + 0 * 21 + 1 * 20 + 0 * 2-1 + 0 * 2-2 + 1 * 2-3 + 0 * 2-4 + 1 * 2-5 + 1 *

2-6 + 1 * 2-7 =

32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 0.125 + 0 + 0.03125 + 0.015625 + 0.007813

= (45.179688)10
124
  Rules of conversion from Decimal to Octal:
1. Divide the number by 8.
2. Take the remainder and record it on the side.
3. REPEAT UNTIL the number cannot be divided
into anymore.
4. With the remainder bits, record them in order from Bottom to Top.

E.g.:

i)Integer Part:

[1)] (45)10 -> (?)8

Div Quotient Remainder

45 / 8 5 5

5/8 0 5

[(45)10] -> (55)8

ii)Fractional Part

1) (0.182)10 -> (?)8

Mul Product Integer Binary Number (Χ)

0.182 * 8 1.456 1 0.1

0.456 * 8 3.648 3 0.13

0.648 * 8 5.184 5 0.135

0.184 * 8 1.472 1 0.1351

0.472 * 8 3.776 3 0.13513

0.776 * 8 6.208 6 0.135136

(0.182)10 -> (0.135136)8 (After we round and cut the number)

 Rules of conversion from Decimal to Hexadecimal:

1. Divide the number by 16.
2. Take the remainder and record it on the side.
3. REPEAT UNTIL the number cannot be divided
into anymore.
4. With the remainder bits, record them in order from Bottom to Top.
125
 i)Integer Part:

1) (45)10 -> (?)16

Div Quotient Remainder Hex Number(Χ)

45 / 16 2 13 D

2 / 16 0 2 2D

(45)10 -> (2D)16

ii)Fractional Part:

2) (0.182)10 ->(?)16
Mul Product Integer Binary Number(Χ)

0.182 * 16 2.912 2 0.2

0.912 * 16 14.592 14 0.2Ε

0.592 * 16 9.472 9 0.2Ε9

0.472 * 16 7.552 7 0.2Ε97

0.552 * 16 8.832 8 0.2Ε978

0.832 * 16 13.312 13 0.2Ε978D

(0.182)10 -> (0.2E978D)16 (After we round and cut the number)

 Rules of conversion from Binary to Hexadecimal:

1) Begin at the rightmost 4 bits. If there are not 4 bits, pad 0s to the left until you hit 4.
Repeat the steps until all groups have been converted.

i)Integer Part:
1) (1000101)2= ( ? )16
0100 | 0101 //Note that we needed to pad a 0 to the left.
4|5

Answer: (45)16

ii)Fractional Part:

2) (110101000.101010)2 -> (?)16

|4 | | 4| | 4| | 4| | 4|
126
 0001 1010 1000 . 1010 1000

1 Α 8 . Α 8

(110101000)2 ->(1Α8.Α8)16

 Rules of conversion from Hexadecimal to Binary:

Given a hexadecimal number, simply convert each digit to it’s binary equivalent. Then,
combine each 4 bit binary number and that is the resulting
answer.

i)Integer Part:

1) (A2F)16 = ( ?)2
A| 2 |F
1010 | 0010 | 1111

Answer:(1010 0010 1111)2

ii) Fractional Part:

[2)] (1Α8.Α8)16 -> (?)2

1 Α 8 . Α 8

0001 1010 1000 . 1010 1000

(1Α8.Α8)16 -> (000110101000.10101000)2

 Rules of conversion from Hexadecimal to Decimal:

Step 1:- Determine the positional value of each digit in the number
Step 2:- Multiply each digit with its corresponding positional value then add all the
multiplied values

i)Integer Part:
(F4C)16->( ?)10
(F x 162) + (4 x 161) + (C x 160)

(15 x 256) + (4 x 16) + (12 x 1)

3840+64+12=(3916)10

ii) Fractional Part:

(2D.2E978D)16 ->(?)10

Determine positional value of each digit

2 D . 2 E 9 7 8 D
127
 161 160 16-1 16-2 16-3 16-4 16-5 16-6

Multiply and sum each digit with its corresponding positional value

2 * 161 + 13 * 160 + 2 * 16-1 + 14 * 16-2 + 9 * 16-3 + 7 * 16-4 + 8 * 16-5 + 13 * 16-6 =

32 + 13 + 0,125 + 0.0546875 + 0.00219727 + 0.00010681 + 0.00000762 + 0.00000077

= (45.18199997)10

 Rules of conversion from Octal to Binary:

Simply look up each octal digit to obtain the equivalent group of three binary digits.

Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110

1 11
i)Integer Part:
1) (345)8 = (?)2

Octal = 3 4 5
Binary = 001 100 101 =(001100101)2
ii) Fractional Part:

[1)] (650.52)8-> (?)2

6 5 0 . 5 2

110 101 000 . 110 010

(650.52)8 ->(110101000.110010)2

 Rules of conversion from Octal to Decimal:

Step 1:- Determine the positional value of each digit in the number
Step 2:- Multiply each digit with its corresponding positional value then add all the
multiplied values
i)Integer Part:
1) (85)8 = ( ? )10
8 * 81 + 5 * 80 = (69)10

ii) Fractional Part:

(55.135136)8 -> (?)10

5 5 . 1 3 5 1 3 6
128
 81 80 8-1 8-2 8-3 8-4 8-5 8-6

Multiply and sum each digit with its corresponding positional value

5 * 81 + 5 * 80 + 1 * 8-1 + 3 * 8-2 + 5 * 8-3 + 1 * 8-4 + 3 * 8-5 + 6 * 8-6 =

40 + 5 + 0,125 + 0.03125 + 0.009766 + 0.000244 + 0.0001 + 0.0000229

= (45.1663829)10

 Rules of conversion from Octal to Hexadecimal:

Converting from octal to hexadecimal, it is often easier to first convert the octal number
into binary and then from binary into hexadecimal. For example, to convert 345 octal into
hex:

Octal = 3 4 5
Binary= 011 100 101

Drop any leading zeros or pad with leading zeros to get groups of four binary digits (bits):
Binary 011100101 = 1110 0101

Binary = 1110 0101

Hexadecimal = E 5 = E5 hex

Therefore, through a two-step conversion process, octal 345 equals binary 011100101
equals hexadecimal E5.

BINARY ARITHMETIC

When arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division performed on
the binary numbers then it is called as binary arithmetic.

1. BINARY ADDITION

Addition is done exactly like adding decimal numbers, except that you have only two
digits (0 and 1).
Rules of Binary Addition

 0+0=0
129
  0+1=1
 1+0=1
 1 + 1 = 0,and carry 1 to the next more significant bit

For example,
00011010 + 00001100 = 00100110 1 1 carries
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 = 26(base 10)
+0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 = 12(base 10)
0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 = 38(base 10)

00010011 + 00111110 = 01010001 1 1 1 1 1 carries

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 = 19(base 10)
+0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 = 62(base 10)
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 = 81(base 10)

2. BINARY SUBTRACTION
Rules of Binary Subtraction

 0-0=0
 0 - 1 = 1, and borrow 1 from the next higher significant bit
 1-0=1
 1-1=0

for example,
00100101 - 00010001 = 0 borrows
00010100 0 0 1 10 0 1 0 1 = 37(base 10)
- 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 = 17(base 10)
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 20(base 10)

00110011 - 00010110 = 0 10 1 borrows

00011101 0 0 1 1 0 10 1 1 = 51(base 10)
- 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 = 22(base 10)
0 0 01 11 0 1 = 29(base 10)

 Subtraction using the method of borrow is less efficient for computer system.
 Computer uses additive method for subtraction.
 This additive approach is known as COMPLEMENTRY SUBTRACTION.

Steps to obtain the result using complementary subtraction:-

 Here we take the complement of the number which we subtract from other number.
 Then add this to other number from which we want to subtract.
 If there is a carry of 1 add it to the LSB and obtain result
 If no carry, recomplement the sum and attach (-)ve sign to obtain the result
130
1’s Complement

 1’s complement is obtained by subtracting each digit from 1.

Example:-

Q. Find 1’s complement of (101001)2.

111111
101001 (-)
010110

 Subtracting from 1 causes the bit to change from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0. i.e. Reversing the bit
value.

Q1.Do the subtraction using 1’s complement on

(1010100-1000011)2

Answer:-

Here we do the subtraction by addition by writing like this

1010100 + (-1000011)

Now take the 1’s complement of negative number i.e. 1000011 by reversing the each bit value. So

1’s complement of 1000011 is 0111100.Now add this number with 1010100.

1010100
0111100 (+)
Carry 1 0010000

Now add the carry to the obtained sum to get the final result

0010000
1 (+)
0010001

So, (1010100-1000011)2 = (0010001)2.

Q2. Do the subtraction using 1’s complement on

(1000011-1010100)2

Here we do the subtraction by addition by writing like this

1000011 + (-1010100)

131
Now take the 1’s complement of negative number i.e. 1000011 by reversing the each bit value. So

1’s complement of 1010100 is 0101011.Now add this number with 1000011.

1000011
0101011 (+)
1101110

Because there is no carry so recomplement the obtained sum and attach (-)ve sign to it.

So, (1010100-1000011)2 = (-0010001)2.

Binary multiplication
Is actually much simpler than decimal multiplication. In the case of decimal multiplication, we
need to remember 3 x 9 = 27, 7 x 8 = 56, and so on. In binary multiplication, we only need to
remember the following,

0x0=0
0x1=0
1x0=0
1x1=1

Note that since binary operates in base 2, the multiplication rules we need to remember are those
that involve 0 and 1 only. As an example of binary multiplication we have 101 times 11,
101
x11

First we multiply 101 by 1, which produces 101. Then we put a 0 as a placeholder as we would in
decimal multiplication, and multiply 101 by 1, which produces 101.

101
x11
101
1010<-- the 0 here is the placeholder

The next step, as with decimal multiplication, is to add. The results from our previous step indicate
that we must add 101 and 1010, the sum of which is 1111.

101
x11
101
1010
1111
Q. 1101
x1110
0000
11010
110100
+1101000
10110110
132
 Binary Division

Binary division is simple. As in any number system division by 0 is meaningless. The complete
table for binary division is as follows:

0/1=0
1/1=1
The rules of binary division are as follows:

1) Start from left of the dividend.

2) Perform a series of subtraction in which the divisor is subtracted from the dividend.
3) If subtraction is possible put a 1 in the quotient and subtract the divisor from the
Corresponding digits of dividend.
4) If subtraction is not possible I.e., the divisor is greater than the remainder record a 0 in the
quotient.
5) Bring down the next digit to add the remainder digit. Proceed as before if the division is
remaining.
Example: Divide 100001 by 110

Notes

Binary Number System

System Digits: 0 and 1

Bit (short for binary digit): A single binary digit
LSB (least significant bit): The rightmost bit
MSB (most significant bit): The leftmost bit
Upper Byte (or nibble): The right-hand byte (or nibble) of a pair
Lower Byte (or nibble): The left-hand byte (or nibble) of a pair

Binary Equivalents

133
1 Nibble (or nibble) = 4 bits
1 Byte = 2 nibbles = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 kilobytes = 1,048,576 bytes
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 megabytes = 1,073,741,824 bytes

134
5.11 LOGIC GATES

The information is represented in the computer in binary form. Binary information is represented
using signals in two states off or on which correspond to 0 or 1, respectively. The manipulation
of the binary information is done using logic gates. Logic gates are the hardware electronic
circuits which operate on the input signals to produce the output signals. Each logic gate has a
unique symbol and its operation is described using algebraic expression. For each gate, the truth
table shows the output that will be outputted for the different possible combinations of the input
signal. The AND, OR and NOT are the basic logic gates. Some of the basic combination of gates
that are widely used are—NAND, NOR, XOR and XNOR.

Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an electronic circuit having
one or more than one input and only one output. The relationship between the input and the
output is based on a certain logic. Based on this, logic gates are named as AND gate, OR gate,
NOT gate etc.

AND Gate

The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called "false" and 1 is called "true," the gate acts in the
same way as the logical "and" operator. The following illustration and table show the circuit
symbol and logic combinations for an AND gate. (In the symbol, the input terminals are at left and
the output terminal is at right.) The output is "true" when both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the
output is "false."

A circuit which performs an AND operation is shown in figure. It has n input (n >= 2) and one
output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

135
OR Gate
A circuit which performs an OR operation is shown in figure. It has n input (n
>= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

NOT Gate
NOT gate is also known as Inverter. It has one input A and one output Y.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

136
NAND Gate
A NOT-AND operation is known as NAND operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

NOR Gate
A NOT-OR operation is known as NOR operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

137
XOR Gate
XOR or Ex-OR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder and
subtractor. The exclusive-OR gate is abbreviated as EX-OR gate or sometime as X-OR gate. It
has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

XNOR Gate
XNOR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder and subtractor.
The exclusive-NOR gate is abbreviated as EX-NOR gate or sometime as X-NOR gate. It has n
input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram
138
Truth Table

139
MCQ for Practice

Which of the following is not a type of number system?

a) Positional
b) Non-Positional
c) Octal
d) Fractional

How is the number 5 represented in non-positional number system?

a) IIIII
b) 5
c) V
d) v

A device that uses positional notation to represent a decimal number.

a) Abacus
b) Calculator
c) Pascaline
d) Computer

The 2’s complement of 5 is ______________

a) 1011
b) 0101
c) 1010
d) 0011

The value of base in a decimal number system is ____________

a) 8
b) 2
c) 10
d) 16

The hexadecimal representation of 14 is _______________

a) A
b) F
c) D
d) E

140
Which of the following is not a decimal number?
a) 114
b) 43.47
c) 99.9A
d) 10101

Which of the following is not a positional number system?

a) Roman Number System
b) Octal Number System
c) Binary Number System
d) Hexadecimal Number System

The value of radix in binary number system is _____________

a) 2
b) 8
c) 10
d) 1

A computer language that is written in binary codes only is _____

a) machine language
b) C
c) C#
d) pascal

The input hexadecimal representation of 1110 is _______________

a) 0111
b) E
c) 15
d) 14

A bit in a computer terminology means either 0 or 1.

a) True
b) False

Which of the following is not a binary number?

a) 1111
b) 101
c) 11E
d) 000

141
What could be the maximum value of a single digit in an octal number system?
a) 8
b) 7
c) 6
d) 5

The binary number 111 in octal format is ________________

a) 6
b) 7
c) 8
d) 5

The octal equivalent of the binary number (0010010100)2 is ______________

a) 422
b) 242
c) 224
d) 226

Convert (5401)8 to hexadecimal.

a) A01
b) A02
c) B01
d) C01

What does the symbol D represent in a hexadecimal number system?

a) 8
b) 16
c) 13
d) 14

ABC is a valid hexadecimal number.

a) True
b) False

The hexadecimal digits are 1 to 0 and A to ……..

A. E
B. F
C. G
D. D
The main advantage of hexadecimal numbers is the case of conversion from hexadecimal to…….
A. decimal
B. Binary
C. ASCII
D. BCD

142
Binary coded decimal (BCD) numbers express each digit as a ……
A byte
B. nibble
C. bit
D all of these

ASCII code is a 7 bit code for……

A. letters
B. numbers
C. other symbols
D. all of these

How many bytes are there in 1011 1001 0110 1110 numbers?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 4
D. 8

An OR gate has 6 inputs, how many input words are in its truth table?
A. 64
B. 32
C. 16
D. 128

What number system is used internally by computers?

A. Decimal
B. Binary
C. Octal
D. Hexadecimal

143
144
145
146
147
 Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University)
Institute of Management and, New Delhi
Internal Examination

Course : BCA Semester : -

Subject : --- Course Code: 101
Max. Marks: 40 Max. Time: 2 Hours

Instructions (if any):- Give Examples & Diagrammatic Representations wherever as possible

Question No. 1 is compulsory. Attempt any two questions from Q2 to Q5.

Attempt any two question from section 2.
Each Question in Section 1 carries 6 marks & Each Question in Section 2 carries 11 marks

Section 1

Answer in 400 words. Each question carry 06 marks.

Q. 1.
Q. 2.
Q. 3.
Q. 4
Q.5.
A
b)
c)

Section 2

Answer in 800 words. Attempt any 2 questions. Each question carry 11 marks

Q6.
Q7.
Q8.
a) b) c)

148
 Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University)
Institute of Management and, New Delhi
2nd Internal Examination (October 2018)

Course : BCA Semester : I

Subject : Fundamental of IT Course Code: 101
Max. Marks: 40 Max. Time: 2 Hours

Instructions (if any):- Give Examples & Diagrammatic Representations wherever as possible

Question No. 1 is compulsory. Attempt any two questions from Q12 to Q5.
Attempt any two question from section 2.
Each Question in Section 1 carries 86 marks & Each Question in Section 2 carries 121 marks

Section 1

Answer in 400 words. Each question carry 086 marks.

Q. 1. Define operating system ? Explain at least 3 types of operating system?

Q. 2. How many types of software are there? Explain at least two example of each
Q. 3. Explain different data transmission media in details.
Q. 4. Explain different types of Network topologies.
Q.5. Write Short Note on any two. Answer in 300 words. Each carry 03 marks.
a) Compiler and Interpreter
b) Half duplex and full duplex
c) File organisation

Section 2
Answer in 800 words. Attempt any 2 questions. Each question carry 11 marks
Q6. What is computer Network ? Explain different types of Computer Network .
Q7. What is programming languages ? Explain low level and high level languages in details
Q8. Convert the following Numbers:

a) (10010)2 to ( ? )10 2.5 marks

b) (124 )10 to ( ? )2 2.5 marks
149
 c) (10010)2 to ( ? ) 8 3 marks
d) ( 127) 8 to ( ? )2 3 marks

####################### ALL THE BEST #######################################

150
151
Ajay Kumar working as assistant professor in Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be university)
Institute of management & research New Delhi. He has 10 years’ experience in teaching and his
area of interest is Network Security and machine learning . He is Pursuing Ph.D from Mewar
University..His subject areas are Computer network, database management system

152
Declaration by Faculty:
I, Ankita Gulati /Ajay Kumar, Designation asst. professor and Preeti Taneja/
Ms. Ruby Kapoor Teaching Fundamental of Information Technology subject in
BCA course I Sem have incorporated all the necessary pages
section/quotations papers mentioned in this check list above.

153