Physics of the Dark Universe 32 (2021) 100820

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Physics of the Dark Universe

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/dark

Cosmic acceleration with bulk viscosity in modified f (Q ) gravity

∗
Raja Solanki a , S.K.J. Pacif b , Abhishek Parida c , P.K. Sahoo a ,
a
Department of Mathematics, Birla Institute of Technology and Science-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad 500078, India
b
Department of Mathematics, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
c
Centre for Theoretical Physics, Jamia Milia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this article, we have investigated the role of bulk viscosity to study the accelerated expansion of the
Received 31 March 2021 universe in the framework of modified f (Q ) gravity. The gravitational action in this modified gravity
Received in revised form 13 April 2021 theory has the form f (Q ), where Q denote the non-metricity scalar. In the present manuscript, we have
Accepted 14 April 2021
considered a bulk viscous matter-dominated
( ) cosmological model with the bulk viscosity coefficient
Keywords: of the form ξ = ξ0 + ξ1 H + ξ2 Ḣ
H
+H which is proportional to the velocity and acceleration of
f(Q) gravity the expanding universe. Two sets of limiting conditions on the bulk viscous parameters ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2
Bulk viscosity and model parameter α arose here out of which one condition favors the present scenario of cosmic
Hubble data
acceleration with a phase transition and corresponds to the universe with a Big Bang origin. Moreover,
Pantheon data
we have discussed the cosmological behavior of some geometrical parameters. Then, we have obtained
BAO data
Equation of state the best fitting values of the model parameters ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 and α by constraining our model with updated
Statefinder parameter Hubble datasets consisting of 57 data points and recently released Pantheon datasets consisting of 1048
data points which show that our obtained model has good compatibility with observations. Further, we
have also included the Baryon Acoustic Oscillation (BAO) datasets of six data points with the Hubble
& Pantheon datasets and obtained slightly different values of the model parameters. Finally, we have
analyzed our model with the statefinder diagnostic analysis and found some interesting results and
are discussed in details.
© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction are two approaches to interpret this recent acceleration of the

universe. The first approach is the assumption of the existence
In the year 1915, Albert Einstein proposed the General Theory of mysterious force with high negative pressure so-called dark
of Relativity (GR). In the Solar System tests, GR is extremely energy (DE) as responsible for the current acceleration of the uni-
successful as yet, but GR does not give the final word to all verse. The simplest candidate for dark energy is the cosmological
gravity occurrences so far. Over the last two decades, a con- constant Λ (or vacuum energy) i.e. the fluid responsible for such
vergence of several cosmological observations indicate that our an effective negative pressure with constant energy density. This
Universe is going through a period of accelerated expansion. model is characterized by the constant equation of state (EoS)
The observational data on type Ia Supernovae have shown that parameter ωΛ = −1 and known as ΛCDM model [10,11]. Even
the current universe is accelerating [1,2]. The observational evi- though this model agrees considerably well with observational
dence such as Baryon Acoustic Oscillations (BAO) [3,4], large scale data, it is faced with some strong problems. Of these, the two
structure [5,6], galaxy redshift survey [7] and Cosmic Microwave major drawbacks are the cosmic coincidence problem and the
Background Radiations (CMBR) [8,9] strongly support this ac- fine-tuning problem [12]. In today’s universe, the density of dark
celerating expansion. The observed late-time acceleration of the energy and the density of non-relativistic matter happen to be
Universe is one of the premier mysteries of theoretical physics the same order of magnitude, even though their evolution is
and the responsible mechanism for this accelerating expansion is different. This observed coincidence between the densities re-
still an open question. Plenty of models have been proposed in ferred to as cosmic coincidence problem, while the fine tuning
the literature to describe this recent acceleration. Basically, there problem refers to the inconsistency between the observed value
and theoretically predicted value of the cosmological constant.
∗ Corresponding author. To overcome these problems time-varying dark energy models
have been proposed in the literature like quintessence [13,14],
E-mail addresses: rajasolanki8268@gmail.com (R. Solanki),
shibesh.math@gmail.com (S.K.J. Pacif), abhishekparida22@gmail.com (A. Parida), k-essence [15,16] and perfect fluid models (like the Chaplygin
pksahoo@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in (P.K. Sahoo). gas model) [17,18]. The second approach to explain the current

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dark.2021.100820
2212-6864/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
R. Solanki, S.K.J. Pacif, A. Parida et al. Physics of the Dark Universe 32 (2021) 100820

acceleration of the universe is to modify spacetime’s geometry. of bulk viscosity coefficient to describe the expansion of the
We can do this by modifying the left-hand side of the Einstein universe. The accelerated expansion scenario of the universe (the
equation. Modified theories of gravity are the geometrical gener- mean stage of low redshift) can be justified by the geometrical
alizations of Einstein’s general theory of relativity in which the modification in Einstein’s equation. Also, without any require-
cosmic acceleration can be achieved by modifying the Einstein– ment of cosmological constant bulk viscosity can generate an
Hilbert action of GR. Recently, modified theories of gravity have acceleration. It contributes to the pressure term and applies ad-
attracted the interest of cosmologists for understanding the role ditional pressure to drive the acceleration [58]. C. P. Singh and
of dark energy. In modified gravity, the origin of dark energy is Pankaj Kumar has investigated the role of bulk viscosity in mod-
recognized as a modification of gravity. A lot of research reveals ified f (R, T ) theories of gravity [59]. S. Davood has investigated
that the modified theories of gravity can explain both early and the effect of bulk viscous matter in modified f (T ) theories of
late time acceleration of the universe. Hence, there are plenty of gravity [60].
motivations to discover theories beyond the standard formulation In this work, we have focused on studying the cosmic accel-
of GR. There are several modified theories have been proposed eration of the universe in f (Q ) gravity with the presence of bulk
in the literature like f (R) theory [19–21], f (T ) theory [22–24], viscous fluid. The motivation of working in the non-metricity f (Q )
f (T , B) theory [25], f (R, T ) theory [26,27], f (Q , T ) theory [28,29], gravity is that in this framework, the motion equations are in
f (G) theory [30], f (R, G) theory [31,32], etc. Nowadays, f (Q ) the- the second-order, which is easy to solve. In f(R) gravity, an extra
ories of gravity have been extremely investigated. The symmetric scalar mode appears because the model is the higher derivative
teleparallel gravity or f (Q ) gravity was introduce by J.B. Jiménez theory as the Ricci scalar includes the second-order derivatives
et al. [33]. The f (Q ) theory is also an alternative theory for GR like of the metric tensor. This scalar mode generates additional force,
teleparallel gravity. In symmetric teleparallel gravity gravitational and it is often inconsistent with the Newton law observations and
interactions are described by the non-metricity Q . Recently, there also for a density of a canonical scalar field φ ; the non-minimal
are several studies done in f (Q ) gravity. T. Harko studied the coupling between geometry and the matter Lagrangian produces
extension of symmetric teleparallel gravity [34]. S. Mandal stud- an additional kinetic term which is not an agreement with the
ied energy conditions in f (Q ) gravity and also did a comparative stable Horndeski class [61]. Nevertheless, the non-metricity for-
study between f (Q ) gravity and ΛCDM [35]. Moreover, they used malism overcomes the above problems, which are induced by the
the cosmographic idea to constrain the Lagrangian function f (Q ) higher-order theory.
using the latest pantheon data [36]. An interesting investigation In this article, we analyze the matter-dominated FLRW model
on f (Q ) gravity was done by Noemi, where he explored the in the framework of modified f (Q ) theories of gravity and study
signatures of non-metricity gravity in its’ fundamental level [37]. the role of bulk viscosity in explaining the late-time acceleration
Earlier, to study inflationary epoch in the early universe bulk of the universe. The outline of the present article is as follows.
viscosity has been proposed in the literature without any re- In Section 2 we present the field equation formalism in f (Q )
quirement of dark energy [38,39]. Hence, it is very natural to gravity. In Section 3 we describe the FLRW universe dominated
expect that the bulk viscosity can be responsible for the current with bulk viscous matter and also we derive the expression for
accelerated expansion of the universe. Nowadays, several au- the Hubble parameter. In Section 4 we derive the scale factor and
thors are attempted to explain the late-time acceleration via bulk found two sets of limiting conditions on the coefficients of bulk
viscosity without any dark energy constituent or cosmological viscosity which corresponds to the universe which begins with a
constant [40–45]. Theoretically, deviations that occur from the Big Bang and then making a transition from deceleration phase
local thermodynamic stability can originate the bulk viscosity but to the acceleration phase. In Section 5 we show the evolution
a detailed mechanism for the formation of bulk viscosity is still of deceleration parameter q. In Section 6 we have constrained
not achievable [46]. In cosmology, when the matter content of the the model parameters by using Hubble data and Pantheon data
universe expands or contract too fast as a cosmological fluid then sets. In Section 7 we adopt the statefinder diagnostic pair to
the effective pressure is generated to bring back the system to its differentiate present bulk viscous model with other models of
thermal stability. The bulk viscosity is the manifestation of such dark energy. Finally, in the last section Section 8 we briefly
an effective pressure [47,48]. discuss our conclusions.
In cosmology, there is two main formalism for the description
of bulk viscosity. The first one is the non-casual theory, where 2. Motion equations in f (Q ) gravity
the deviation of only first-order is considered and one can find
that the heat flow and viscosity propagate with infinite speed The action in a universe governed by f (Q ) gravity reads
while in the second one i.e. the casual theory it propagates with
∫ ∫
1 √ 4
√
finite speed. In the year 1940, Eckart proposed the non-casual S= f (Q ) −gd x + Lm −gd4 x, (1)
2
theory [49]. Later, Lifshitz and Landau gave a similar theory [50].
The casual theory was developed by Israel, Hiscock and Stew- where f (Q ) is an arbitrary function of the nonmetricity Q , g is the
art. In this theory, second-order deviation from equilibrium is determinant of the metric gµν and Lm is the matter Lagrangian
considered [51–55]. Moreover, Eckart theory can be acquired density.
from it as a first-order approximation. Hence, Eckart’s theory The nonmetricity tensor is defined as
is a good approximation to the Israel theory in the limit of Qλµν = ∇λ gµν (2)
vanishing relaxation time. To analyze the late acceleration of
the universe, the casual theory of bulk viscosity has been used. and its two traces are given below
Cataldo et al. have investigated the late time acceleration using
Qα = Qαµ µ and Q̃α = Qαµ
µ
. (3)
the casual theory [56]. Basically, they used an ansatz for the
Hubble parameter (inspired by the Eckart theory) and they have Moreover, the superpotential tensor is given by
shown the transition of the universe from the big rip singularity λ λ µ
to the phantom behavior.
4Pµν = −Qµν + 2Q(µλ ν ) + (Q λ − Q̃ λ )gµν − δ Q . (4)
(λ ν )
The expansion process of an accelerating universe is a collec-
Hence, the trace of nonmetricity tensor can be obtained as
tion of states that lose their thermal stability in a small fragment
of time [57]. Hence, it is quite natural to consider the existence Q = −Qλµν P λµν . (5)
2
R. Solanki, S.K.J. Pacif, A. Parida et al. Physics of the Dark Universe 32 (2021) 100820

Now, the definition of the energy–momentum tensor for the and

matter is
√ p̄ = 2α Ḣ + 3α H 2 . (17)
−2 δ ( −gLm )
Tµν = √ . (6) As we are concerned with late-time acceleration, we have con-
−g δ g µν
sidered the non-relativistic matter dominates the universe. From
df
For notational simplicity, we define fQ = dQ . the Friedmann equation (17) and Eq. (14), we have first-order
Varying the action (1) with respect to the metric, the gravita- differential equation for the Hubble parameter by replacing dtd
d
tional field equation obtained is given below with dln(a) via dtd = H dln(a)
d

2 √ 1 3α + 3ξ1 + 3ξ2 3ξ0

( ) ( )
λ dH
√ ∇λ ( −gfQ Pµν ) + gµν f + fQ (Pµλβ Qνλβ − 2Qλβµ Pνλβ ) = −Tµν + H+ = 0. (18)
−g 2 dln(a) 2α + 3ξ2 2α + 3ξ2
(7) Now, we set
Furthermore, by varying the action (1) with respect to the 3ξ0 = ξ¯0 H0 , 3ξ1 = ξ¯1 , 3ξ2 = ξ¯2 and ξ̄12 = ξ¯1 + ξ¯2 , (19)
connection, one can find the following result
√ µν where H0 is present value of the Hubble parameter and ξ̄0 , ξ̄1 ,
∇µ ∇ν ( −gfQ Pλ ) = 0. (8) ξ̄2 are the dimensionless bulk viscous parameters, then by using
above equation (18) becomes
3. FLRW universe dominated with bulk viscous matter
3α + ξ̄12 ξ¯0
( ) ( )
dH
+ H+ H0 = 0. (20)
We consider that the universe is described by the spatially flat dln(a) 2α + ξ¯2 2α + ξ¯2
Friedmann–Lemaitre–Robertson–Walker(FLRW) line element
After integrating above equation we obtain the Hubble param-
ds2 = −dt 2 + a2 (t)[dx2 + dy2 + dz 2 ]. (9) eter as
[ ( ) ]
3α+ξ̄12
ξ¯0 ξ¯0
( )
Here, a(t) is the scale factor of the universe dominated with bulk − ¯ 2α+ξ2
viscous matter. The trace of nonmetricity tensor with respect to H(a) = H0 a 1+ − . (21)
3α + ξ̄12 3α + ξ̄12
line element given by (9) is
Q = 6H 2 . (10) At ξ̄0 = ξ̄1 = ξ̄2 = 0, Eq. (21) becomes
3
For a bulk viscous fluid, described by its effective pressure p̄ and H = H0 a− 2 . (22)
the energy density ρ , the energy–momentum tensor takes the The Eq. (22) gives the value of the Hubble parameter in case of
form ordinary matter-dominated universe i.e. when all the bulk viscous
Tµν = (ρ + p̄)uµ uν + p̄hµν , (11) parameters are 0.
Now, by using the relation between redshift and scale factor
where hµν = gµν + uµ uν and p̄ = p − 3ξ H. Here ξ is the 1
i.e a(t) = 1+ , in terms of redshift the Hubble parameter is given
z
coefficient of bulk viscosity which can be a function of Hubble as
parameter and its derivative and the components of four-velocity [ ( ) ]
3α+ξ̄12
uµ are uµ = (1, 0) and p is the normal pressure which is 0 for ξ¯0 ξ¯0
( )
2α+ξ¯2
H(z) = H0 (1 + z) 1+ − . (23)
non-relativistic matter. 3α + ξ̄12 3α + ξ̄12
The Friedmann equations describing the universe dominated
with bulk viscous matter are 4. Scale factor
( )
2 1 f
3H = −ρ + (12)
2fQ 2 Now, using the definition of Hubble parameter, Eq. (21) be-
comes
and [ ( ) ]
3α+ξ̄12
ξ¯0 ξ¯0
( )
f˙Q 1
(
f
) 1 da −
2α+ξ¯2
Ḣ + 3H 2 + H= p̄ + . (13) = H0 a 1+ − . (24)
fQ 2fQ 2 a dt 3α + ξ̄12 3α + ξ̄12

In an accelerated expanding universe, the coefficient of viscosity On integrating the above equation we get the scale factor
should depend on velocity and acceleration. In this paper, we
consider a time dependent bulk viscosity of the form [62] [ ] 2α+ξ̄2
ξ̄0 3α+ξ̄12
3α + ξ̄12 + ξ̄0 3α + ξ̄12
( )
−H0 (t −t0 )
2α+ξ̄2
( )
ȧ
( )
ä
(
Ḣ
) a(t) = − e ,
ξ = ξ0 + ξ1 + ξ2 = ξ0 + ξ1 H + ξ2 +H . (14) ξ̄0 ξ̄0
a ȧ H
(25)
It is a linear combination of three terms, first one is a constant,
second one is proportional to the Hubble parameter, which indi- where t0 is the present cosmic time.
cates the dependence of the viscosity on speed, and the third one Now, let y = H0 (t − t0 ), then the second order derivative of
is proportional to the äȧ , indicating the dependence of the bulk a(t) with respect to y is
viscosity on acceleration. −ξ̄0 y ( )
−ξ̄0 y
In this paper, we consider the following functional form of d2 a e 2α+ξ̄2
f (Q ) = −(ξ̄0 + ξ̄12 + 3α ) + (2α + ξ̄2 )e 2α+ξ̄2
dy2 2α + ξ̄2
f (Q ) = α Q , α ̸= 0. (15) ⎡ ⎤ −2(2α+ξ̄1 )−ξ̄2
−ξ̄0 y 3α+ξ̄12
Then, for this particular choice of the function, the field equation ⎢ ξ̄0 + ξ̄12 + 3α − (3α + ξ̄12 )e 2α+ξ̄2
×⎣ . (26)
⎥
becomes
ξ̄0
⎦
ρ = −3α H 2
(16)
3
R. Solanki, S.K.J. Pacif, A. Parida et al. Physics of the Dark Universe 32 (2021) 100820

From the above expression it is clear that we have two limiting

conditions based on the values of ξ̄0 , ξ̄1 and ξ̄2 . By Eq. (16) and
the fact that density of ordinary matter in the universe is always
positive, so we must have α < 0. Assuming, α = −ᾱ where
ᾱ > 0, these two limiting conditions are
ξ̄0 > 0, ξ̄12 < 3ᾱ, ξ̄2 < 2ᾱ, ξ̄0 + ξ̄12 < 3ᾱ (27)
and
ξ̄0 < 0, ξ̄12 > 3ᾱ, ξ̄2 > 2ᾱ, ξ̄0 + ξ̄12 > 3ᾱ . (28)
These two limiting condition implies that the universe experi-
enced a deceleration phase at early times and then making a
transition into the accelerated phase in the latter times. If we
place ξ̄0 + ξ̄12 > 3ᾱ and ξ̄0 + ξ̄12 < 3ᾱ in the first and second
limiting condition respectively, then the universe will experience
an everlasting accelerated expansion. Fig. 1. Variation of the deceleration parameter with redshift z for the first
limiting conditions ξ̄0 > 0, ξ̄12 < 3, ξ̄2 < 2, ξ̄0 + ξ̄12 < 3. Here, we took α = −1
5. Deceleration parameter i.e., ᾱ = 1. q enters the negative region in the recent past if ξ̄0 +ξ̄1 > 1, at present
if ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 = 1 and in the future if ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 < 1. For Red, Blue and Green plots the
value of (ξ̄0 , ξ̄1 , ξ̄2 ) are (0.9, 0.01, 1), (0.45, 0.65, 1), (0.65, 0.35, 1) respectively.
The deceleration parameter is defined as
(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
aä ä 1 referred to the web version of this article.)
q=− =− . (29)
ȧ2 a H2
From the Friedmann equation (17) one can obtain
[ ( ( ))]
ä 1 Ḣ
=− α H + 3H ξ0 + ξ1 H + ξ2
2
+H . (30)
a 2α H
Using Eq. (19) the deceleration parameter becomes
[ ]
1 H0 Ḣ
ξ̄0 + ξ̄12 + α + ξ̄2
( )
q= . (31)
2α H H2
Now, using the value of Hubble parameter given by Eqs. (21) and
Eqs. (17)–(20), Eq. (31) becomes
⎡ ⎤
1
⎢ξ̄1 + α +
⎢ ξ̄0 ⎥
q(a) = ⎥.
2α + ξ̄2 ⎣
( )
3α+ξ̄12 ⎦
− [
ξ̄0
]
ξ̄0
2α+ξ̄2
a 1+ 3α+ξ̄12
− 3α+ξ̄12
Fig. 2. Variation of the deceleration parameter with redshift z for the second
(32) limiting conditions ξ̄0 < 0, ξ̄12 > 3, ξ̄2 > 2, ξ̄0 + ξ̄12 > 3. Here, we took α = −1
i.e., ᾱ = 1. q enters the negative region in the recent past if ξ̄0 +ξ̄1 < 1, at present
Now, by using relation between redshift and scale factor i.e., a(t) if ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 = 1 and in the future if ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 > 1. For Red, Blue and Green plots
1
= 1+z
, in terms of redshift deceleration parameter is given as the value of (ξ̄0 , ξ̄1 , ξ̄2 ) are (−0.5, 1.45, 2.1), (−0.5, 2.5, 3), (−0.5, 1.5, 2.17) re-
spectively. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend,
⎡ ⎤
the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
1
⎢ξ̄1 + α +
⎢ ξ̄0 ⎥
q(z) = ⎥
2α + ξ̄2 ⎣
( )
3α+ξ̄12 [ ] ⎦
ξ̄0 ξ̄0
(1 + z) 2α+ξ̄2
1+ 3α+ξ̄12
− 3α+ξ̄12
with ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 = 1 and ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 < 1, which can be inferred from the
following plots of Hubble parameter H(z) ∼ z as shown in Figs. 3
(33) and 4.
The present value of deceleration parameter i.e., the value of q at With a discussion of the geometrical behavior of our obtained
z = 0 or a = 1 is, model, we shall now try to find out suitable numerical values of
the model parameters consistent with the present observations.
α + ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 We only consider the first limiting condition for our further
q0 = . (34)
2α + ξ̄2 analysis.
If the value of all bulk viscous parameters are 0, then the decel-
eration parameter becomes q = 12 which correspond to a matter
6. Best fit values of model parameters from observation
dominated decelerating universe with null bulk viscosity. For the
two sets of limiting conditions based on the dimensionless bulk
viscous parameter, the variation of deceleration parameter with We have found an exact solution of the Einstein field equations
respect to redshift z can be plotted as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. with the bulk viscous matter in f (Q ) gravity having four model
From the above figures of q(z) ∼ z, we can see that, only first parameters α , ξ0 , ξ1 and ξ2 . We must discuss the approximate
limiting condition with ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 > 1 (blue line in Fig. 1 shows a values of these model parameters describing well the present
phase transition from early deceleration to present acceleration universe through some observational datasets. To obtain the best
and second limiting condition is not be suitable to discuss the fit values of these model parameters, we have used mainly two
present observational scenario. Also the first limiting condition datasets namely, the Hubble datasets containing 57 data points
4
R. Solanki, S.K.J. Pacif, A. Parida et al. Physics of the Dark Universe 32 (2021) 100820

Table 1
57 points of H(z) datasets.
31 points from DA method
z H(z) σH Ref. z H(z) σH Ref.
0.070 69 19.6 [63] 0.4783 80 99 [67]
0.90 69 12 [64] 0.480 97 62 [63]
0.120 68.6 26.2 [63] 0.593 104 13 [65]
0.170 83 8 [64] 0.6797 92 8 [65]
0.1791 75 4 [65] 0.7812 105 12 [65]
0.1993 75 5 [65] 0.8754 125 17 [65]
0.200 72.9 29.6 [66] 0.880 90 40 [63]
0.270 77 14 [64] 0.900 117 23 [64]
0.280 88.8 36.6 [66] 1.037 154 20 [65]
0.3519 83 14 [65] 1.300 168 17 [64]
0.3802 83 13.5 [67] 1.363 160 33.6 [69]
0.400 95 17 [64] 1.430 177 18 [64]
0.4004 77 10.2 [67] 1.530 140 14 [64]
0.4247 87.1 11.2 [67] 1.750 202 40 [64]
Fig. 3. Variation of the Hubble parameter with redshift z for the first limiting 0.4497 92.8 12.9 [67] 1.965 186.5 50.4 [69]
conditions ξ̄0 > 0, ξ̄12 < 3, ξ̄2 < 2, ξ̄0 + ξ̄12 < 3. Here we took α = 0.470 89 34 [68]
−1 i.e., ᾱ = 1. For Red, Blue and Green plots the value of (ξ̄0 , ξ̄1 , ξ̄2 ) are 26 points from BAO & other method
(0.9, 0.01, 1), (0.45, 0.65, 1), (0.65, 0.35, 1) respectively. (For interpretation of
z H(z) σH Ref. z H(z) σH Ref.
the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.) 0.24 79.69 2.99 [70] 0.52 94.35 2.64 [72]
0.30 81.7 6.22 [71] 0.56 93.34 2.3 [72]
0.31 78.18 4.74 [72] 0.57 87.6 7.8 [76]
0.34 83.8 3.66 [70] 0.57 96.8 3.4 [77]
0.35 82.7 9.1 [73] 0.59 98.48 3.18 [72]
0.36 79.94 3.38 [72] 0.60 87.9 6.1 [75]
0.38 81.5 1.9 [74] 0.61 97.3 2.1 [74]
0.40 82.04 2.03 [72] 0.64 98.82 2.98 [72]
0.43 86.45 3.97 [70] 0.73 97.3 7.0 [75]
0.44 82.6 7.8 [75] 2.30 224 8.6 [78]
0.44 84.81 1.83 [72] 2.33 224 8 [79]
0.48 87.79 2.03 [72] 2.34 222 8.5 [80]
0.51 90.4 1.9 [74] 2.36 226 9.3 [81]

several times and have been supported by many cosmological

observations. In the study of observational cosmology, the ex-
pansion scenario of the universe be directly investigated by the
Hubble parameter i.e. H = aȧ where ȧ represents derivative of
Fig. 4. Variation of the Hubble parameter with redshift z for the second cosmic scale factor a with respect to cosmic time t. The Hubble
limiting conditions ξ̄0 < 0, ξ̄12 > 3, ξ̄2 > 2, ξ̄0 + ξ̄12 > 3. Here we took parameter as a function of redshift can be expressed as H(z) =
α = −1 i.e., ᾱ = 1. For Red, Blue and Green plots the value of (ξ̄0 , ξ̄1 , ξ̄2 ) − 1+1 z dz , where dz is acquired from the spectroscopic surveys and
dt
are (−0.5, 1.45, 2.1), (−0.5, 2.5, 3), (−0.5, 1.5, 2.17) respectively. (For interpre-
therefore a measurement of dt furnishes the model independent
tation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to
the web version of this article.) value of the Hubble parameter. In general, there are two well
known methods that are used to measure the value of the Hubble
parameter values H(z) at some definite redshift. The first one is
the extraction of H(z) from line-of-sight BAO data and another
and the Pantheon datasets containing 1048 datasets. Further-
one is the differential age method [63–81]. In this manuscript,
more, we have discussed our results together with the Baryon
we have taken an updated set of 57 data points. In this set of
Acoustic oscillations (BAO) datasets. To constrain the model pa-
57 Hubble data points, 31 points measured via the method of
rameters with the above discussed datasets, we have used the
differential age (DA) and remaining 26 points through BAO and
Python’s Scipy optimization technique. First, we have estimated
other methods in the range of redshift given as 0.07 ⩽ z ⩽
the global minima for the Hubble function in Eq. (23). For the
2.42 [82]. Furthermore, we have taken H0 = 69 Km/s/Mpc for
numerical analysis, we employ the Python’s emcee library and
our analysis. To find out the mean values of the model parameters
consider a Gaussian prior with above estimates as means and a
α , ξ0 , ξ1 and ξ2 (which is equivalent to the maximum likelihood
fixed σ = 1.0 as dispersion. The idea behind the analysis is to
analysis), we have taken the chi-square function as,
check the parameter space in the neighborhood of the local min-
ima. More about the Hubble datasets, Pantheon datasets and BAO 57
∑ [Hth (zi , α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 ) − Hobs (zi )]2
datasets and methodology are discussed below in some detail and χH2 (α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 ) = , (35)
finally, the results are discussed as 2-dimensional contour plots i=1
σH(z
2
i)
with 1 − σ &2 − σ errors.
where the theoretical value of Hubble parameter is represented
by Hth and the observed value by Hobs and σH(zi ) represents the
6.1. H(z) datasets standard error in the observed value of H. The 57 points of
Hubble parameter values H(z) with errors σH from differential age
We are familiar with the well known cosmological principle (31 points) method and BAO and other (26 points) methods are
which assumes that on the large scale, our universe is homo- tabulated in Table 1 with references.
geneous and isotropic. This principle is the backbone of modern Using the above datasets, we have estimated the best fit values
cosmology. In the last few decades this principle had been tested of the model parameters α , ξ0 , ξ1 and ξ2 as and is shown in
5
R. Solanki, S.K.J. Pacif, A. Parida et al. Physics of the Dark Universe 32 (2021) 100820

Fig. 5. The plot shows the 2-d contour plots of the model parameters with 1 − σ and 2 − σ errors and also shows the best fit values of the model parameters α ,
ξ0 , ξ1 and ξ2 obtained from the 57 points of Hubble datasets.

the following plot 5 as 2-d contour sub-plots with 1 − σ &2 − σ and M ) apparent and absolute magnitudes and µ0 =
( represents
0.52
errors. The best fit values are obtained as α = −1.03+−0.55 , ξ0 = 5 log H0−1 /Mpc +25 is the marginalized nuisance parameter. The
+0.83 +0.49 +0.82
1.54−0.79 , ξ1 = 0.08−0.49 and ξ2 = 0.66−0.83 with the 57 points luminosity distance is taken to be,
of Hubble datasets as given in Table 1. Also, we have shown the ( ∫ z
)
error bar plot for the discussed Hubble datasets and is shown in c(1 + z) 1
Dl (z) = Sk ∗
,
H0 dz ∗
the following plot 6 together with our obtained model compared H 0 H(z )
⎧ 0 √
with the ΛCDM model (with Ωm0 = 0.3 and ΩΛ0 = 0.7). The plot ⎨ sinh(x Ωk )/Ωk , Ωk > 0
shows nice fit of our model to the observational Hubble datasets. where Sk (x) = x, Ωk = 0 .
⎩ sin x√|Ω |/|Ω | , Ω < 0
k k k
6.2. Pantheon datasets
Here, Ωk = 0 (flat space–time). We have calculated distance DL (z)
Initially, the observational studies on supernovae of the golden and corresponding chi square function that measures difference
sample of 50 points of type Ia suggested that our universe is in an between predictions of our model and the SN Ia observational
accelerating phase of expansion. After the result, the studies on data. The χSN
2
function for the Pantheon datasets is taken to be,
more and more samples of supernovae datasets increased during
the past two decades. Recently, the latest sample of supernovae 1048
∑ [µth (µ0 , zi , α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 ) − µobs (zi )]2
of type Ia datasets are released containing 1048 data points. In χSN
2
(µ0 , α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 ) = ,
this article, we have used this set of datasets known as Pantheon i=1
σµ2(zi )
datasets [83] with 1048 samples of spectroscopically confirmed
(36)
SNe Ia covering the range in the redshift range 0.01 < z <
2.26. In the redshift range 0 < zi ≤ 1.41, these data points
σµ2(zi ) is the standard error in the observed value. After marginal-
gives the estimation of the distance moduli µi = µobs i . Here, we izing µ0 , the chi square function is written as,
fit our model parameters of the obtained model, comparing the
theoretical µth i value and the observed µi
obs
value of the distance χSN
2
(α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 ) = A(α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 )
modulus. The distance moduli which are the logarithms given
as µth = µ(DL ) = m − M = 5 log10 (DL ) + µ0 , where m − [B(α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 )]2 /C (α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 )
i

6
R. Solanki, S.K.J. Pacif, A. Parida et al. Physics of the Dark Universe 32 (2021) 100820

Fig. 6. The plot shows the plot of Hubble function H(z) vs. redshift z for our model shown in red line which shows nice fit to the 57 points of the Hubble datasets
shown in dots with its error bars and also compared to the ΛCDM model shown in black solid line with Ωm0 = 0.3&ΩΛ0 = 0.7.

Table 2
Values of dA (z∗ )/DV (zBAO ) for distinct values of zBAO .
zBAO 0.106 0.2 0.35 0.44 0.6 0.73
30.95 ± 1.46 17.55 ± 0.60 10.11 ± 0.37 8.44 ± 0.67 6.69 ± 0.33 5.45 ± 0.31
dA (z∗ )
DV (zBAO )

where feature is denoted by △θ in the 2 point correlation function of

1048 the galaxy distribution on the sky and if the measured redshift
∑ [µth (µ0 = 0, zi , α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 ) − µobs (zi )]2
A(α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 ) = , separation of the BAO feature is denoted by △z in same the 2
i=1
σµ2(zi ) point correlation function along the line of sight ∫ z dz ′then we have
1048 the relation, △θ = d r(z) s
where dA (z) = 0 H(z ′ ) and △z =
∑ [µth (µ0 = 0, zi , α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 ) − µobs (zi )]2 A
H(z)rs . Here, in this work, a simple BAO datasets of six points for
B(α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 ) = ,
i=1
σµ2(zi ) dA (z∗ )/DV (zBAO ) is considered from the Refs. [84–89], where the
1048
photon decoupling redshift is taken as z∗ ≈ 1091 and dA (z) is the
∑ 1 co-moving angular diameter) distance together with the dilation
C (α, ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 ) = . 1/3
σ scale DV (z) = dA (z)2 z /H(z)
2
(
µ(zi ) . The following Table 2 shows the
i=1
six points of the BAO datasets,
Using the above Pantheon datasets, we have estimated the Also, the chi square function for BAO is given by [89] ,
best fit values of the model parameters α , ξ0 , ξ1 and ξ2 and
is shown in the following plot 7 as 2-d contour sub-plots with
1 − σ &2 − σ errors. The best fit values are obtained as α =
χBAO
2
= X T C −1 X , (37)
0.45 +0.21 +0.91 +0.91
−1.33+ −0.43 , ξ0 = 0.10−0.12 , ξ1 = 1.81−0.87 and ξ2 = 2.08−0.96
with 1048 points of Pantheon datasets. Also, we have shown the where
error bar plot for the discussed Pantheon datasets and is shown in dA (z⋆ )
− 30.95
⎛ ⎞
the following plot 8 together with our obtained model compared DV (0.106)
with the Λ CDM model (with Ωm0 = 0.3 and ΩΛ0 = 0.7). The dA (z⋆ )
− 17.55 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
DV (0.2)
⎜
plot shows nice fit of our model to the observational Pantheon ⎜ ⎟
datasets.
dA (z⋆ )
− 10.11 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ DV (0.35) ⎟,
X =⎜
6.3. BAO datasets
⎜
⎜
dA (z⋆ )
DV (0.44)
− 8.44 ⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ dA (z⋆ )
DV (0.6)
− 6.69 ⎟
In the study of the Early Universe baryons, photons and dark
⎝ ⎠
matter come into picture and act as a single fluid coupled tightly
dA (z⋆ )
DV (0.73)
− 5.45
through the Thompson scattering) but do not collapse under grav-
ity and oscillate due to the large pressure of photons. Baryonic and the inverse covariance matrix C −1 is defined in [89], see C −1
acoustic oscillations is an analysis that discusses these oscillations in Box I.
in the early Universe. The characteristic scale of BAO is governed Including these six data points of the BAO datasets with the
by the sound horizon rs at the photon decoupling epoch z∗ and is Hubble datasets and combine the above results of Hubble con-
given by the following relation, strained values, we obtain the values of the model parameters
+0.34 +0.37 +1.1
∫ 1 as, α = −1.06− 0.82 , ξ0 = 2.25−1.7 , ξ1 = −0.08−0.96 and
c 1+z∗ da +1.1
rs (z∗ ) = √ , ξ2 = 0.7−1.1 . Similarly, including these six data points of the
1 + (3Ω0b /4Ω0γ )a
√
3 0 a2 H(a) BAO datasets with the Pantheon datasets and combine the above
where Ω0b and Ω0γ are respectively referred to baryon density results of Panteon constrained values, we obtain the values of
0.85 +0.29
and photon density at present time. the model parameters as, α = −1.65+ −0.25 , ξ0 = 0.86−1.1 , ξ1 =
+0.97 +1.2
The angular diameter distance DA and the Hubble expansion −1.90−0.99 and ξ2 = 1.93−0.91 . The combined results are shown
rate H as a function of z are derived using the BAO sound as 2-d contour sub-plots with 1 − σ &2 − σ errors in the following
horizon scale. If the measured angular separation of the BAO plots 9 and 10.
7
R. Solanki, S.K.J. Pacif, A. Parida et al. Physics of the Dark Universe 32 (2021) 100820

Fig. 7. The plot shows the best fit values of the model parameters α , ξ0 , ξ1 and ξ2 obtained w.r.t to the 1048 points of Pantheon datasets at 1 − σ and 2 − σ
confidence level.

Fig. 8. The plot shows the plot of distance modulus µ(z) vs. redshift z for our model shown in red line which shows nice fit to the 1048 points of the Pantheon
datasets shown in dots with its error bars.

7. Statefinder diagnostic observational data both motivate us to go beyond these two

parameters. In this direction, a new pair of geometrical quantities
It is well-known that the deceleration parameter q and the have been proposed by V. Sahni et al. [90] called statefinder di-
Hubble parameter H are the oldest geometric variable. During agnostic parameters (r , s). The state finder parameters investigate
the last few decades, plenty of DE (Dark Energy) models have the expansion dynamics through second and third derivatives of
been proposed and the remarkable growth in the precision of the cosmic scale factor which is a natural succeeding step beyond

8
R. Solanki, S.K.J. Pacif, A. Parida et al. Physics of the Dark Universe 32 (2021) 100820

0.48435 −0.101383 −0.164945 −0.0305703 −0.097874 −0.106738

⎛ ⎞
⎜ −0.101383 3.2882 −2.45497 −0.0787898 −0.252254 −0.2751 ⎟
−0.164945 −2.454987 9.55916 −0.128187 −0.410404 −0.447574
⎜ ⎟
C −1
=⎜ ⎟.
⎜ ⎟
⎜ −0.0305703 −0.0787898 −0.128187 2.78728 −2.75632 1.16437 ⎟
⎝ −0.097874 −0.252254 −0.410404 −2.75632 14.9245 −7.32441 ⎠
−0.106738 −0.2751 −0.447574 1.16437 −7.32441 14.5022

Box I.

Fig. 9. The plot shows the 2-d contour plots of the model parameters with 1 − σ and 2 − σ errors and also shows the best fit values of the model parameters α ,
ξ0 , ξ1 and ξ2 obtained from the 57 points of Hubble datasets together with six points of BAO datasets.

the parameters H and q. These parameters are defined as follows the Pantheon datasets, the present values of (s, r) parameter are
(0.159, 0.568) and (0.065, 0.748) respectively. Furthermore, we
...
a have also plotted the s − r and q − r diagrams for the other set
r = (38) of values of the model parameters α , ξ0 , ξ1 and ξ2 as obtained
aH 3
by the combined results of BAO datasets with the Hubble and
and the Pantheon datasets and are shown in the following plots 13 &
r −1 14. Corresponding to the combined results of BAO datasets with
s= . (39)
3(q − 21 ) Hubble and the Pantheon datasets, the present values of (s, r)
parameter are (0.030, 0.872) and (0.096, 0.621) respectively.
The fixed point (s, r) = (0, 1) in the s − r diagram 11 shows The statefinder diagnostic can differentiate the variety of dark
the spatially flat ΛCDM model and (q, r) = (−1, 1) shows the energy models like quintessence, the Chaplygin gas, braneworld
de Sitter point in Fig. 12. We plot the s − r and q − r diagram models, etc. See the Refs. [91–93]. The departure of our bulk
for the values of α , ξ0 , ξ1 and ξ2 constrained by the Hubble viscous model from this fixed point establishes the distance of
and the Pantheon data sets. Corresponding to the Hubble and
9
R. Solanki, S.K.J. Pacif, A. Parida et al. Physics of the Dark Universe 32 (2021) 100820

Fig. 10. The plot shows the best fit values of the model parameters α , ξ0 , ξ1 and ξ2 obtained w.r.t to the 1048 points of Pantheon datasets together with six points
of BAO datasets at 1 − σ and 2 − σ confidence level.

the given model from ΛCDM model. In present epoch the given present observational scenario, so we have considered the first
model lie in Quintessence region (s > 0, r < 1). We can limiting condition for our analysis. Further, for constraining the
observe that the trajectories of s − r diagram will pass through the model and bulk viscous parameter we have used Hubble data and
ΛCDM fixed point in the future. Thus the statefinder diagnostic Pantheon data sets. Hence, from the Hubble datasets, we have
0.52
successfully shows that the given model is different from other the best fit ranges for the model parameters are α = −1.03+ −0.55 ,
+0.83 +0.49 +0.82
models of dark energy. ξ0 = 1.54−0.79 , ξ1 = 0.08−0.49 and ξ2 = 0.66−0.83 and from the
0.45 +0.21
Pantheon datasets, we have α = −1.33+ −0.43 , ξ0 = 0.10−0.12 , ξ1 =
+0.91 +0.91
8. Conclusions 1.81−0.87 and ξ2 = 2.08−0.96 . Furthermore, including the six data
points of the BAO datasets with the Hubble datasets and combine
In this article, we analyzed the evolution of FLRW universe the results of Hubble constrained values, we obtain the values
0.34 +0.37
dominated with non-relativistic bulk viscous matter, where the of the model parameters as, α = −1.06+ −0.82 , ξ0 = 2.25−1.7 ,
+1.1 +1.1
time-dependent
( ) bulk viscosity has the form ξ = ξ0 + ξ1 H + ξ1 = 0.08−0.96 and ξ2 = 0.7−1.1 . Similarly, including the six
ξ2 Ḣ
H
+ H . From the cosmic scale factor we found that in case data points of the BAO datasets with the Pantheon datasets and
combine the results of Pantheon constrained values, we obtain
of first limiting conditions the deceleration parameter shows 0.85
the values of the model parameters as, α = −1.65+ −0.25 , ξ0 =
the transition from deceleration to acceleration phase in past if +0.29 +0.97 +1.2
ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 > ᾱ , at present if ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 = ᾱ and in the future if 0.86−1.1 , ξ1 = 1.90−0.99 and ξ2 = 1.93−0.91 . For the above set
ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 < ᾱ . For second limiting conditions transition occur of values of the model parameters obtained are then used to plot
in the past if ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 < ᾱ , at present if ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 = ᾱ and the statefinder diagnostics. Finally, we conclude that the present
in the future if ξ̄0 + ξ̄1 > ᾱ . While in the absence of bulk bulk viscous model has been departed from ΛCDM point, in the
viscosity i.e. ξ0 = ξ1 = ξ2 = 0, the deceleration parameter present scenario it lie in quintessence region and it will again pass
becomes q = 21 . Hence, to describe the late-time acceleration through the ΛCDM fixed point and hence our model is different
of the expanding universe without invoking any dark energy from other models of the dark energy. We conclude that the
component, the cosmic fluid with bulk viscosity is the most bulk viscous theory can be considered as an alternate theory to
viable candidate. The second limiting condition is not suitable for describe the late time acceleration of the universe.

10
R. Solanki, S.K.J. Pacif, A. Parida et al. Physics of the Dark Universe 32 (2021) 100820

Fig. 13. The evolution trajectories of the given model in s − r plane correspond-
ing to the values of model parameters constrained by the Hubble and Pantheon
datasets together with BAO datasets.

Fig. 11. The evolution trajectories of the given model in s − r plane correspond-
ing to the values of model parameters constrained by the Hubble and Pantheon
datasets.

Fig. 14. The evolution trajectories of the given model in q − r plane correspond-
Fig. 12. The evolution trajectories of the given model in q − r plane correspond- ing to the values of model parameters constrained by the Hubble and Pantheon
ing to the values of model parameters constrained by the Hubble and Pantheon datasets together with BAO datasets.
datasets.

11
R. Solanki, S.K.J. Pacif, A. Parida et al. Physics of the Dark Universe 32 (2021) 100820

CRediT authorship contribution statement [32] K. Bamba, et al., Eur. Phys. J. C 67 (2010) 295–310.
[33] J.B. Jiménez, et al., Phys. Rev. D 98 (2018) 044048.
[34] T. Harko, et al., Phys. Rev. D 98 (2018) 084043.
Raja Solanki: Writing - original draft, Graph plotting. S.K.J.
[35] Sanjay Mandal, et al., Phys. Rev. D 102 (2020) 024057.
Pacif: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing, Data curation. [36] Sanjay Mandal, Deng Wang, P.K. Sahoo, Phys. Rev. D 102 (2020) 124029.
Abhishek Parida: Data curation, Formal analysis. P.K. Sahoo: [37] Noemi Frusciante, Phys. Rev. D 103 (2021) 044021.
Writing - review & editing, Validation, Project administartion. [38] T. Padmanabhan, S.M. Chitre, Phys. Lett. A 120 (1987) 443.
[39] I. Wega, et al., Phys. Rev. D 33 (1986) 1839.
Declaration of competing interest [40] Athira Sasidharan, Titus K. Mathew, Eur. Phys. J. C 75 (2015) 348.
[41] N.D. Jerin Mohan, et al., Eur. Phys. J. C 77 (2017) 849.
[42] Simran Arora, et al., Classical Quantum Gravity 37 (2020) 205022.
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal [43] G.C. Samanta, R. Myrzakulov, Chin. J. Phys. 55 (2017) 1044–1054.
relationships which may be considered as potential competing [44] J.C. Fabris, et al., Gen. Relativity Gravitation 38 (2006) 495.
interests: P. K. Sahoo (Corresponding author) on behalf of all the [45] A. Avelino, U. Nucamendi, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 04 (2009) 006.
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[47] J.R. Wilson, et al., Phys. Rev. D 75 (2007) 043521.
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[50] L.D. Landau, E.M. Lifshitz, Fluid Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, USA, 1959.
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