Oop Notees

C++ Tutorial
C++ language is a direct descendant of C programming language with additional features such as
type checking, object oriented programming, exception handling etc.
Features / advantages of object oriented programming/c++

1) Better memory management – you can dynamically allocate memory during runtime using
new and delete operator in C++ to have better memory management.
2) Object oriented – C++ supports object oriented programming features, which means we can
use the popular OOPs concepts such as Abstraction, Inheritance, Encapsulation and Inheritance
in C++ programs, these features make writing code in C++ a lot easier. We will cover them in
detail in this tutorial series.
3) Portable – Most of C++ compilers supports ANSI standards that makes C++ portable because
the code you write on one operating system can be run on other Operating system without
making any change. We cannot say C++ a fully platform independent language as certain things
in C++ are not portable, such as drawing graphics on a screen, since standard C++ has no
graphics or GUI API.
4) Structured programming language – We have functions in C++, which makes easier to

break a problem into small blocks of code and structure the program in such a way so that it
improves readability and reusability.
5) Exception handling: Just like Java we can do exception handling in C++ which makes it
easier to identify and handle the exceptions.
6) Simple – Last but not least, just like C, it is easier to write a program in C++. Once you get
familiar with the syntax of C++ programming language, it becomes a lot easier to code in C++.
Hello World – First C++ Program
Example 1:
Write a program that prints hello world. Include comments within the code
Solution
/*
* Multiple line
* comment
*/
#include<iostream>
//Single line comment
Compiled by Mr. Mike Mmena

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using namespace std;
//This is where the execution of program begins

int main()
{
// displays Hello World! on screen
cout<<"Hello World!";
return 0;
}
Output:
Hello World!
Discussion
1. Comments – You can see two types of comments in the above program
// This is a single line comment

/* This is a multiple line comment
* suitable for long comments
*/
Comments as the names suggests are just a text written by programmer during code
development. Comment doesn’t affect your program logic in any way, you can write whatever
you want in comments but it should be related to the code and have some meaning so that when
someone else look into your code, the person should understand what you did in the code by just
reading your comment.
For example:
/* This function adds two integer numbers

* and returns the result as an integer value
*/
int sum(int num1, int num2) {
return num1+num2;
}
Now if someone reads my comment he or she can understand what I did there just by reading my
comment. This improves readability of your code and when you are working on a project with
your team mates, this becomes essential aspect.
2. #include<iostream> – This statements tells the compiler to include iostream file. This file
contains pre defined input/output functions that we can use in our program.
3. using namespace std; – A namespace is like a region, where we have functions, variables etc
and their scope is limited to that particular region. Here std is a namespace name, this tells the

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compiler to look into that particular region for all the variables, functions, etc. I will not discuss
this in detail here as it may confuse you. I have covered this topic in a separate tutorial with
examples. Just follow the tutorial in the given sequence and you would be fine.
4. int main() – As the name suggests this is the main function of our program and the execution
of program begins with this function, the int here is the return type which indicates to the
compiler that this function will return a integer value. That is the main reason we have a return 0
statement at the end of main function.
5. cout << “Hello World!”; – The cout object belongs to the iostream file and the purpose of this
object is to display the content between double quotes as it is on the screen. This object can also
display the value of variables on screen(don’t worry, we will see that in the coming tutorials).
6. return 0; – This statement returns value 0 from the main() function which indicates that the
execution of main function is successful. The value 1 represents failed execution.
Variables in C++
A variable is a name which is associated with a value that can be changed. For example when I
write int num=20; here variable name is num which is associated with value 20, int is a data type
that represents that this variable can hold integer values.
Syntax of declaring a variable in C++

data_type variable1_name = value1, variable2_name = value2;
For example:
int num1=20, num2=100;
We can also write it like this:
int num1,num2;
num1=20;
num2=100;
Types of variables
Variables can be categorised based on their data type. For example, in the above example we
have seen integer types variables. Following are the types of variables available in C++.
int: These type of of variables holds integer value.
char: holds character value like ‘c’, ‘F’, ‘B’, ‘p’, ‘q’ etc.
bool: holds boolean value true or false.

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double: double-precision floating point value.
float: Single-precision floating point value.
Types of variables based on their scope
Before going further lets discuss what is scope first. When we discussed the Hello World
Program, we have seen the curly braces in the program like this:
int main {
//Some code
Any variable declared inside these curly braces have scope limited within these curly braces, if
you declare a variable in main() function and try to use that variable outside main() function then
you will get compilation error.
Now that we have understood what is scope. Lets move on to the types of variables based on the
scope.
1. Global variable
2. Local variable
Global Variable
A variable declared outside of any function (including main as well) is called global variable.
Global variables have their scope throughout the program, they can be accessed anywhere in the
program, in the main, in the user defined function, anywhere.
Lets take an example to understand it:
Global variable example
Here we have a global variable myVar, that is declared outside of main. We have accessed the
variable twice in the main() function without any issues.
#include <iostream>
// This is a global variable
char myVar = 'A';
int main()
{
cout <<"Value of myVar: "<< myVar<<endl;
myVar='Z';
cout <<"Value of myVar: "<< myVar;
return 0;

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}
Output:
Value of myVar: A
Value of myVar: Z
Local variable
Local variables are declared inside the braces of any user defined function, main function, loops
or any control statements(if, if-else etc) and have their scope limited inside those braces.
Local variable example

#include <iostream>
char myFuncn() {
// This is a local variable
char myVar = 'A';
}
int main()
{
myVar='Z';
cout <<"Value of myVar: "<< myVar;
return 0;
}
Output:
Compile time error, because we are trying to access the variable myVar outside of its scope. The
scope of myVar is limited to the body of function myFuncn(), inside those braces.
Can global and local variable have same name in C++?
Lets see an example having same name global and local variable.
#include <iostream>
// This is a global variable
char myVar = 'A';
char myFuncn() {
// This is a local variable
char myVar = 'B';
return myVar;
}
int main()
{
cout <<"Funcn call: "<< myFuncn()<<endl;
myVar='Z';
cout <<"Funcn call: "<< myFuncn()<<endl;

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return 0;
}
Output:
Funcn call: B
Value of myVar: A
Funcn call: B
Value of myVar: Z
As you can see that when I changed the value of myVar in the main function, it only changed the
value of global variable myVar because local variable myVar scope is limited to the function
myFuncn().
Data Types in C++
Data types define the type of data a variable can hold, for example an integer variable can hold
integer data, a character type variable can hold character data etc.
Data types in C++ are categorised in three groups: Built-in, user-defined and Derived.

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Built in data types
char: For characters. Size 1 byte.
char ch = 'A';
int: For integers. Size 2 bytes.
int num = 100;
float: For single precision floating point. Size 4 bytes.
float num = 123.78987;
double: For double precision floating point. Size 8 bytes.
double num = 10098.98899;
bool: For booleans, true or false.
bool b = true;
wchar_t: Wide Character. This should be avoided because its size is implementation defined and
not reliable.
User-defined data types
We have three types of user-defined data types in C++

1. struct
2. union
3. enum
Derived data types in C++

We have three types of derived-defined data types in C++
1. Array
2. Function
Operators in C++
Operator represents an action. For example + is an operator that represents addition. An operator
works on two or more operands and produce an output. For example 3+4+5 here + operator
works on three operands and produce 12 as output.
Types of Operators in C++

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1) Basic Arithmetic Operators
2) Assignment Operators
3) Auto-increment and Auto-decrement Operators
4) Logical Operators
5) Comparison (relational) operators
6) Bitwise Operators
7) Ternary Operator
1) Basic Arithmetic Operators

Basic arithmetic operators are: +, -, *, /, %
+ is for addition.
– is for subtraction.
* is for multiplication.
/ is for division.
% is for modulo.
Note: Modulo operator returns remainder, for example 20 % 5 would return 0
Example of Arithmetic Operators

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num1 = 240;
int num2 = 40;
cout<<"num1 + num2: "<<(num1 + num2)<<endl;
cout<<"num1 - num2: "<<(num1 - num2)<<endl;
cout<<"num1 * num2: "<<(num1 * num2)<<endl;
cout<<"num1 / num2: "<<(num1 / num2)<<endl;
cout<<"num1 % num2: "<<(num1 % num2)<<endl;

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return 0;
}
Output:
num1 + num2: 280

num1 - num2: 200
num1 * num2: 9600
num1 / num2: 6
num1 % num2: 0
2) Assignment Operators
Assignments operators in C++ are: =, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=
num2 = num1 would assign value of variable num1 to the variable.
num2+=num1 is equal to num2 = num2+num1
num2-=num1 is equal to num2 = num2-num1
num2*=num1 is equal to num2 = num2*num1
num2/=num1 is equal to num2 = num2/num1
num2%=num1 is equal to num2 = num2%num1
Example of Assignment Operators

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num1 = 240;
int num2 = 40;
num2 = num1;
cout<<"= Output: "<<num2<<endl;
num2 += num1;
cout<<"+= Output: "<<num2<<endl;
num2 -= num1;
cout<<"-= Output: "<<num2<<endl;
num2 *= num1;
cout<<"*= Output: "<<num2<<endl;
num2 /= num1;
cout<<"/= Output: "<<num2<<endl;
num2 %= num1;
cout<<"%= Output: "<<num2<<endl;
return 0;
}
Output:

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= Output: 240
+= Output: 480
-= Output: 240
*= Output: 57600
/= Output: 240
%= Output: 0
3) Auto-increment and Auto-decrement Operators

++ and —
num++ is equivalent to num=num+1;
num–- is equivalent to num=num-1;
Example of Auto-increment and Auto-decrement Operators

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num1 = 240;
int num2 = 40;
num1++; num2--;
cout<<"num1++ is: "<<num1<<endl;
cout<<"num2-- is: "<<num2;
return 0;
}
Output:
num1++ is: 241

num2-- is: 39
4) Logical Operators
Logical Operators are used with binary variables. They are mainly used in conditional statements
and loops for evaluating a condition.
Logical operators in C++ are: &&, ||, !
Let’s say we have two boolean variables b1 and b2.
b1&&b2 will return true if both b1 and b2 are true else it would return false.
b1||b2 will return false if both b1 and b2 are false else it would return true.
!b1 would return the opposite of b1, that means it would be true if b1 is false and it would return
false if b1 is true.

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Example of Logical Operators
#include <iostream>
int main(){
bool b1 = true;
bool b2 = false;
cout<<"b1 && b2: "<<(b1&&b2)<<endl;
cout<<"b1 || b2: "<<(b1||b2)<<endl;
cout<<"!(b1 && b2): "<<!(b1&&b2);
return 0;
}
Output:
b1 && b2: 0
b1 || b2: 1
!(b1 && b2): 1
5) Relational operators
We have six relational operators in C++: ==, !=, >, <, >=, <=
== returns true if both the left side and right side are equal
!= returns true if left side is not equal to the right side of operator.
> returns true if left side is greater than right.
< returns true if left side is less than right side.
>= returns true if left side is greater than or equal to right side.
<= returns true if left side is less than or equal to right side.
Example of Relational operators

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num1 = 240;
int num2 =40;
if (num1==num2) {
cout<<"num1 and num2 are equal"<<endl;
}
else{
cout<<"num1 and num2 are not equal"<<endl;
}
if( num1 != num2 ){
cout<<"num1 and num2 are not equal"<<endl;
}
else{

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cout<<"num1 and num2 are equal"<<endl;
}
if( num1 > num2 ){
cout<<"num1 is greater than num2"<<endl;
}
else{
cout<<"num1 is not greater than num2"<<endl;
}
if( num1 >= num2 ){
cout<<"num1 is greater than or equal to num2"<<endl;
}
else{
cout<<"num1 is less than num2"<<endl;
}
if( num1 < num2 ){
cout<<"num1 is less than num2"<<endl;
}
else{
cout<<"num1 is not less than num2"<<endl;
}
if( num1 <= num2){
cout<<"num1 is less than or equal to num2"<<endl;
}
else{
cout<<"num1 is greater than num2"<<endl;
}
return 0;
}
Output:
num1 and num2 are not equal

num1 and num2 are not equal
num1 is greater than num2
num1 is greater than or equal to num2
num1 is not less than num2
num1 is greater than num2
6) Bitwise Operators
There are six bitwise Operators: &, |, ^, ~, <<, >>
num1 = 11; /* equal to 00001011*/

num2 = 22; /* equal to 00010110 */
Bitwise operator performs bit by bit processing.

num1 & num2 compares corresponding bits of num1 and num2 and generates 1 if both bits are
equal, else it returns 0. In our case it would return: 2 which is 00000010 because in the binary
form of num1 and num2 only second last bits are matching.
num1 | num2 compares corresponding bits of num1 and num2 and generates 1 if either bit is 1,
else it returns 0. In our case it would return 31 which is 00011111

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num1 ^ num2 compares corresponding bits of num1 and num2 and generates 1 if they are not
equal, else it returns 0. In our example it would return 29 which is equivalent to 00011101
~num1 is a complement operator that just changes the bit from 0 to 1 and 1 to 0. In our example
it would return -12 which is signed 8 bit equivalent to 11110100
num1 << 2 is left shift operator that moves the bits to the left, discards the far left bit, and
assigns the rightmost bit a value of 0. In our case output is 44 which is equivalent to 00101100
Note: In the example below we are providing 2 at the right side of this shift operator that is the
reason bits are moving two places to the left side. We can change this number and bits would be
moved by the number of bits specified on the right side of the operator. Same applies to the right
side operator.
num1 >> 2 is right shift operator that moves the bits to the right, discards the far right bit, and
assigns the leftmost bit a value of 0. In our case output is 2 which is equivalent to 00000010
Example of Bitwise Operators

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num1 = 11; /* 11 = 00001011 */
int num2 = 22; /* 22 = 00010110 */
int result = 0;
result = num1 & num2;
cout<<"num1 & num2: "<<result<<endl;
result = num1 | num2;
cout<<"num1 | num2: "<<result<<endl;
result = num1 ^ num2;
cout<<"num1 ^ num2: "<<result<<endl;
result = ~num1;
cout<<"~num1: "<<result<<endl;
result = num1 << 2;
cout<<"num1 << 2: "<<result<<endl;
result = num1 >> 2;
cout<<"num1 >> 2: "<<result;
return 0;
}
Output:
num1 & num2: 2

num1 | num2: 31
num1 ^ num2: 29
~num1: -12
num1 << 2: 44 num1 >> 2: 2
7) Ternary Operator

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This operator evaluates a boolean expression and assign the value based on the result.
Syntax:
variable num1 = (expression) ? value if true : value if false
If the expression results true then the first value before the colon (:) is assigned to the variable
num1 else the second value is assigned to the num1.
Example of Ternary Operator

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num1, num2; num1 = 99;
/* num1 is not equal to 10 that's why
* the second value after colon is assigned
* to the variable num2
*/
num2 = (num1 == 10) ? 100: 200;
cout<<"num2: "<<num2<<endl;
/* num1 is equal to 99 that's why
* the first value is assigned
* to the variable num2
*/
num2 = (num1 == 99) ? 100: 200;
cout<<"num2: "<<num2;
return 0;
}
Output:
num2: 200
num2: 100
Miscellaneous Operators
There are few other operators in C++ such as Comma operator and sizeof operator. We will
cover them in detail in a separate tutorial.
Operator Precedence in C++
This determines which operator needs to be evaluated first if an expression has more than one
operator. Operator with higher precedence at the top and lower precedence at the bottom.
Unary Operators
++ – – ! ~
Multiplicative
*/%

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Additive
+–
Shift
<< >> >>>
Relational
> >= < <=
Equality
== !=
Bitwise AND
&
Bitwise XOR
^
Bitwise OR
|
Logical AND
&&
Logical OR
||
Ternary
?:
Assignment
= += -= *= /= %= > >= < <= &= ^= |=
If else Statement in C++
Sometimes we need to execute a block of statements only when a particular condition is met or
not met. This is called decision making, as we are executing a certain code after making a
decision in the program logic. For decision making in C++, we have four types of control
statements (or control structures), which are as follows:
a) if statement
b) nested if statement
c) if-else statement
d) if-else-if statement
If statement in C++

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If statement consists a condition, followed by statement or a set of statements as shown below:
if(condition){
Statement(s);
}
The statements inside if parenthesis (usually referred as if body) gets executed only when the
given condition is true. If the condition is false then the statements inside if body are completely
ignored.
Flow diagram of If statement
Example of if statement
#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num=70;
if( num < 100 ){
/* This cout statement will only execute,
* if the above condition is true
*/
cout<<"number is less than 100";
}
if(num > 100){

/* This cout statement will only execute,
* if the above condition is true

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*/
cout<<"number is greater than 100";
}
return 0;
}
Output:
number is less than 100
Nested if statement in C++
When there is an if statement inside another if statement then it is called the nested if statement.
The structure of nested if looks like this:
if(condition_1) {
Statement1(s);
if(condition_2) {
Statement2(s);
}
}
Statement1 would execute if the condition_1 is true. Statement2 would only execute if both the
conditions( condition_1 and condition_2) are true.
Example of Nested if statement

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num=90;
/* Nested if statement. An if statement
* inside another if body
*/
if( num < 100 ){
cout<<"number is less than 100"<<endl;
if(num > 50){
cout<<"number is greater than 50";
}
}
return 0;
}
Output:
number is less than 100

number is greater than 50
If else statement in C++

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Sometimes you have a condition and you want to execute a block of code if condition is true and
execute another piece of code if the same condition is false. This can be achieved in C++ using
if-else statement.
This is how an if-else statement looks:
if(condition) {
Statement(s);
}
else {
Statement(s);
}
The statements inside “if” would execute if the condition is true, and the statements inside “else”
would execute if the condition is false.
Flow diagram of if-else
Example of if-else statement

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num=66;
if( num < 50 ){
//This would run if above condition is true
cout<<"num is less than 50";
}

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else {
//This would run if above condition is false
cout<<"num is greater than or equal 50";
}
return 0;
}
Output:
num is greater than or equal 50
if-else-if Statement in C++
if-else-if statement is used when we need to check multiple conditions. In this control structure
we have only one “if” and one “else”, however we can have multiple “else if” blocks. This is
how it looks:
if(condition_1) {
/*if condition_1 is true execute this*/
statement(s);
}
else if(condition_2) {
/* execute this if condition_1 is not met and
* condition_2 is met
*/
statement(s);
}
else if(condition_3) {
/* execute this if condition_1 & condition_2 are
* not met and condition_3 is met
*/
statement(s);
}
.
.
.
else {
/* if none of the condition is true
* then these statements gets executed
*/
statement(s);
}
Note: The most important point to note here is that in if-else-if, as soon as the condition is met,
the corresponding set of statements get executed, rest gets ignored. If none of the condition is
met then the statements inside “else” gets executed.
Example of if-else-if
#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num;

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cout<<"Enter an integer number between 1 & 99999: ";
cin>>num;
if(num <100 && num>=1) {
cout<<"Its a two digit number";
}
else if(num <1000 && num>=100) {
cout<<"Its a three digit number";
}
else if(num <10000 && num>=1000) {
cout<<"Its a four digit number";
}
else if(num <100000 && num>=10000) {
cout<<"Its a five digit number";
}
else {
cout<<"number is not between 1 & 99999";
}
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter an integer number between 1 & 99999: 8976

Its a four digit number
Switch Case statement in C++ with example
Switch case statement is used when we have multiple conditions and we need to perform
different action based on the condition. When we have multiple conditions and we need to
execute a block of statements when a particular condition is satisfied. In such case either we can
use lengthy if..else-if statement or switch case. The problem with lengthy if..else-if is that it
becomes complex when we have several conditions. The switch case is a clean and efficient
method of handling such scenarios.
The syntax of Switch case statement:
switch (variable or an integer expression)

{
case constant:
//C++ code
;
case constant:
//C++ code
;
default:
//C++ code
;
}

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Switch Case statement is mostly used with break statement even though the break statement is
optional. We will first see an example without break statement and then we will discuss switch
case with break
Example of Switch Case

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num=5;
switch(num+2) {
case 1:
cout<<"Case1: Value is: "<<num<<endl;
case 2:
case 3:
default:
cout<<"Default: Value is: "<<num<<endl;
}
return 0;
}
Output:
Default: Value is: 5
Explanation: In switch I gave an expression, you can give variable as well. I gave the expression
num+2, where num value is 5 and after addition the expression resulted 7. Since there is no case
defined with value 4 the default case got executed.
Switch Case Flow Diagram

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It evaluates the value of expression or variable (based on whatever is given inside switch braces),
then based on the outcome it executes the corresponding case.
Break statement in Switch Case
Before we discuss about break statement, Let’s see what happens when we don’t use break
statement in switch case. See the example below:
#include <iostream>
int main(){
int i=2;
switch(i) {
case 1: cout<<"Case1 "<<endl;
default: cout<<"Default "<<endl;
}
return 0;
}
Output:
Case2
Case3
Case4

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Default
In the above program, we have the variable i inside switch braces, which means whatever the
value of variable i is, the corresponding case block gets executed. We have passed integer value
2 to the switch, so the control switched to the case 2, however we don’t have break statement
after the case 2 that caused the flow to continue to the subsequent cases till the end. However this
is not what we wanted, we wanted to execute the right case block and ignore rest blocks. The
solution to this issue is to use the break statement in after every case block.
Break statements are used when you want your program-flow to come out of the switch body.
Whenever a break statement is encountered in the switch body, the execution flow would
directly come out of the switch, ignoring rest of the cases. This is why you must end each case
block with the break statement.
Let’s take the same example but this time with break statement.
#include <iostream>
int main(){
int i=2;
switch(i) {
case 1:
cout<<"Case1 "<<endl;
break;
case 2:
break;
case 3:
break;
case 4:
break;
default:
cout<<"Default "<<endl;
}
return 0;
}
Output:
Case2
Now you can see that only case 2 got executed, rest of the subsequent cases were ignored.
Why didn’t I use break statement after default?

The control would itself come out of the switch after default so I didn’t use break statement after
it, however if you want you can use it, there is no harm in doing that.
Important Notes

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1) Case doesn’t always need to have order 1, 2, 3 and so on. It can have any integer value after
case keyword. Also, case doesn’t need to be in an ascending order always, you can specify them
in any order based on the requirement.
2) You can also use characters in switch case. for example –
#include <iostream>
int main(){
char ch='b';
switch(ch) {
case 'd': cout<<"Case1 ";
break;
case 'b': cout<<"Case2 ";
break;
case 'x': cout<<"Case3 ";
break;
case 'y': cout<<"Case4 ";
break;
default: cout<<"Default ";
}
return 0;
}
3) Nesting of switch statements are allowed, which means you can have switch statements inside
another switch. However nested switch statements should be avoided as it makes program more
complex and less readable.
For loop in C++ with example

Learn C++
A loop is used for executing a block of statements repeatedly until a particular condition is
satisfied. For example, when you are displaying number from 1 to 100 you may want set the
value of a variable to 1 and display it 100 times, increasing its value by 1 on each loop iteration.
In C++ we have three types of basic loops: for, while and do-while. In this tutorial we will learn
how to use “for loop” in C++.
Syntax of for loop

for(initialization; condition ; increment/decrement)
{
C++ statement(s);
}
Flow of Execution of the for Loop

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As a program executes, the interpreter always keeps track of which statement is about to be
executed. We call this the control flow, or the flow of execution of the program.
First step: In for loop, initialization happens first and only once, which means that the
initialization part of for loop only executes once.
Second step: Condition in for loop is evaluated on each loop iteration, if the condition is true
then the statements inside for for loop body gets executed. Once the condition returns false, the
statements in for loop does not execute and the control gets transferred to the next statement in
the program after for loop.
Third step: After every execution of for loop’s body, the increment/decrement part of for loop
executes that updates the loop counter.
Fourth step: After third step, the control jumps to second step and condition is re-evaluated.
The steps from second to fourth repeats until the loop condition returns false.
Example of a Simple For loop in C++

Here in the loop initialization part I have set the value of variable i to 1, condition is i<=6 and on
each loop iteration the value of i increments by 1.
#include <iostream>

25
int main(){
for(int i=1; i<=6; i++){
/* This statement would be executed
* repeatedly until the condition
* i<=6 returns false.
*/
cout<<"Value of variable i is: "<<i<<endl;
}
return 0;
}
Output:
Value of variable i is: 1

Infinite for loop in C++
A loop is said to be infinite when it executes repeatedly and never stops. This usually happens by
mistake. When you set the condition in for loop in such a way that it never return false, it
becomes infinite loop.
For example:
#include <iostream>
int main(){
for(int i=1; i>=1; i++){
cout<<"Value of variable i is: "<<i<<endl;
}
return 0;
}
This is an infinite loop as we are incrementing the value of i so it would always satisfy the
condition i>=1, the condition would never return false.
Here is another example of infinite for loop:
// infinite loop
for ( ; ; ) {
// statement(s)
}
Example: display elements of array using for loop

#include <iostream>

26
int main(){
int arr[]={21,9,56,99, 202};
/* We have set the value of variable i
* to 0 as the array index starts with 0
* which means the first element of array
* starts with zero index.
*/
for(int i=0; i<5; i++){
cout<<arr[i]<<endl;
}
return 0;
}
Output:
21
9
56
99
202
While loop in C++ with example
In the last tutorial we discussed for loop. In this tutorial we will discuss while loop. As discussed
earlier, loops are used for executing a block of program statements repeatedly until the given
loop condition returns false.
Syntax of while loop

while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}
How while Loop works?
In while loop, condition is evaluated first and if it returns true then the statements inside while
loop execute, this happens repeatedly until the condition returns false. When condition returns
false, the control comes out of loop and jumps to the next statement in the program after while
loop.
Note: The important point to note when using while loop is that we need to use increment or
decrement statement inside while loop so that the loop variable gets changed on each iteration,
and at some point condition returns false. This way we can end the execution of while loop
otherwise the loop would execute indefinitely.

27
Flow Diagram of While loop
While Loop example in C++

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int i=1;
/* The loop would continue to print
* the value of i until the given condition
* i<=6 returns false.
*/
while(i<=6){
cout<<"Value of variable i is: "<<i<<endl; i++;
}
}
Output:


28
Infinite While loop
A while loop that never stops is said to be the infinite while loop, when we give the condition in
such a way so that it never returns false, then the loops becomes infinite and repeats itself
indefinitely.
An example of infinite while loop:
This loop would never end as I’m decrementing the value of i which is 1 so the condition i<=6
would never return false.
#include <iostream>
int main(){
int i=1; while(i<=6) {
cout<<"Value of variable i is: "<<i<<endl; i--;
}
}
Example: Displaying the elements of array using while loop

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int arr[]={21,87,15,99, -12};
/* The array index starts with 0, the
* first element of array has 0 index
* and represented as arr[0]
*/
int i=0;
while(i<5){
cout<<arr[i]<<endl;
i++;
}
}
Output:
21
87
15
99
-12
do-while loop in C++ with example
As discussed in the last tutorial about while loop, a loop is used for repeating a block of
statements until the given loop condition returns false. In this tutorial we will see do-while loop.
do-while loop is similar to while loop, however there is a difference between them: In while
loop, condition is evaluated first and then the statements inside loop body gets executed, on the

29
other hand in do-while loop, statements inside do-while gets executed first and then the condition
is evaluated.
Syntax of do-while loop

do
{
statement(s);
} while(condition);
How do-while loop works?
First, the statements inside loop execute and then the condition gets evaluated, if the condition
returns true then the control jumps to the “do” for further repeated execution of it, this happens
repeatedly until the condition returns false. Once condition returns false control jumps to the next
statement in the program after do-while.
do-while loop example in C++

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num=1;
do{
cout<<"Value of num: "<<num<<endl;
num++;
}while(num<=6);

30
return 0;
}
Output:
Value of num: 1
Value of num: 2
Value of num: 3
Value of num: 4
Value of num: 5
Value of num: 6
Example: Displaying array elements using do-while loop
Here we have an integer array which has four elements. We are displaying the elements of it
using do-while loop.
#include <iostream>
int main(){
int arr[]={21,99,15,109};
/* Array index starts with 0, which
* means the first element of array
* is at index 0, arr[0]
*/
int i=0;
do{
cout<<arr[i]<<endl;
i++;
}while(i<4);
return 0;
}
Output:
21
99
15
109

31
Continue Statement in C++ with example
Continue statement is used inside loops. Whenever a continue statement is encountered inside a
loop, control directly jumps to the beginning of the loop for next iteration, skipping the execution
of statements inside loop’s body for the current iteration.
Syntax of continue statement

continue;
Example: continue statement inside for loop
As you can see that the output is missing the value 3, however the for loop iterate though the
num value 0 to 6. This is because we have set a condition inside loop in such a way, that the
continue statement is encountered when the num value is equal to 3. So for this iteration the loop
skipped the cout statement and started the next iteration of loop.
#include <iostream>
int main(){
for (int num=0; num<=6; num++) {
/* This means that when the value of
* num is equal to 3 this continue statement
* would be encountered, which would make the
* control to jump to the beginning of loop for
* next iteration, skipping the current iteration
*/
if (num==3) {
continue;
}
cout<<num<<" ";
}
return 0;
}
Output:
012456
Flow Diagram of Continue Statement

32
Example: Use of continue in While loop
#include <iostream>
int main(){
int j=6;
while (j >=0) {
if (j==4) {
j--;
continue;
}
cout<<"Value of j: "<<j<<endl;
j--;
}
return 0;
}
Output:
Value of j: 6
Value of j: 5
Value of j: 3
Value of j: 2
Value of j: 1
Value of j: 0
Example of continue in do-While loop

33
#include <iostream>
int main(){
int j=4;
do {
if (j==7) {
j++;
continue;
}
cout<<"j is: "<<j<<endl;
j++;
}while(j<10);
return 0;
}
Output:
j is: 4
j is: 5
j is: 6
j is: 8
j is: 9
Break statement in C++ with example
The break statement is used in following two scenarios:
a) Use break statement to come out of the loop instantly. Whenever a break statement is
encountered inside a loop, the control directly comes out of loop terminating it. It is used along
with if statement, whenever used inside loop(see the example below) so that it occurs only for a
particular condition.
b) It is used in switch case control structure after the case blocks. Generally all cases in switch
case are followed by a break statement to avoid the subsequent cases (see the example below)
execution. Whenever it is encountered in switch-case block, the control comes out of the switch-
case body.
Syntax of break statement

break;
break statement flow diagram

34
Example – Use of break statement in a while loop
In the example below, we have a while loop running from 10 to 200 but since we have a break
statement that gets encountered when the loop counter variable value reaches 12, the loop gets
terminated and the control jumps to the next statement in program after the loop body.
#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num =10;
while(num<=200) {
cout<<"Value of num is: "<<num<<endl;
if (num==12) {
break;
}
num++;
}
cout<<"Hey, I'm out of the loop";
return 0;
}
Output:
Value of num is: 10

Value of num is: 11
Value of num is: 12

35
Hey, I'm out of the loop
Example: break statement in for loop

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int var;
for (var =200; var>=10; var --) {
cout<<"var: "<<var<<endl;
if (var==197) {
break;
}
}
cout<<"Hey, I'm out of the loop";
return 0;
}
Output:
var: 200
var: 199
var: 198
var: 197
Hey, I'm out of the loop
Example: break statement in Switch Case

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num=2;
switch (num) {
case 1: cout<<"Case 1 "<<endl;
break;
break;
break;
default: cout<<"Default "<<endl;
}
cout<<"Hey, I'm out of the switch case";
return 0;
}
Output:
Case 2
Hey, I'm out of the switch case

36
In this example, we have break statement after each Case block, this is because if we don’t have
it then the subsequent case block would also execute. The output of the same program without
break would be:
Case 2
Case 3
Default
Hey, I'm out of the switch case
goto statement in C++ with example
The goto statement is used for transferring the control of a program to a given label. The syntax
of goto statement looks like this:
goto label_name;
Program structure:
label1:
...
...
goto label2;
...
..
label2:
...
In a program we have any number of goto and label statements, the goto statement is followed by
a label name, whenever goto statement is encountered, the control of the program jumps to the
label specified in the goto statement.
goto statements are almost never used in any development as they are complex and makes your
program much less readable and more error prone. In place of goto, you can use continue and
break statement.
Example of goto statement in C++

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int num; cout<<"Enter a number: "; cin>>num;
if (num % 2==0){
goto print;
}
else {
cout<<"Odd Number";
}
print:

37
cout<<"Even Number";
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter a number: 42
Even Number
Functions in C++
A function is block of code which is used to perform a particular task, for example let’s say you
are writing a large C++ program and in that program you want to do a particular task several
number of times, like displaying value from 1 to 10, in order to do that you have to write few
lines of code and you need to repeat these lines every time you display values. Another way of
doing this is that you write these lines inside a function and call that function every time you
want to display values. This would make you code simple, readable and reusable.
Syntax of Function
return_type function_name (parameter_list)
{
//C++ Statements
}
Let’s take a simple example to understand this concept.
A simple function example

#include <iostream>
/* This function adds two integer values
* and returns the result
*/int
sum(int num1, int num2){
int num3 = num1+num2; return num3;
}
int main(){
//Calling the function
cout<<sum(1,99);
return 0;
}
Output:
100

38
The same program can be written like this: Well, I am writing this program to let you
understand an important term regarding functions, which is function declaration. Lets see the
program first and then at the end of it we will discuss function declaration, definition and calling
of function.
#include <iostream>
//Function declaration
int sum(int,int);
//Main function
int main(){
//Calling the function
cout<<sum(1,99);
return 0;
}
/* Function is defined after the main method
*/
int sum(int num1, int num2){
int num3 = num1+num2;
return num3;
}
Function Declaration: You have seen that I have written the same program in two ways, in the
first program I didn’t have any function declaration and in the second program I have function
declaration at the beginning of the program. The thing is that when you define the function
before the main() function in your program then you don’t need to do function declaration but if
you are writing your function after the main() function like we did in the second program then
you need to declare the function first, else you will get compilation error.
syntax of function declaration:
return_type function_name(parameter_list);
Note: While providing parameter_list you can avoid the parameter names, just like I did in the
above example. I have given int sum(int,int); instead of int sum(int num1,int num2);.
Function definition: Writing the full body of function is known as defining a function.
syntax of function definition:
return_type function_name(parameter_list) {
//Statements inside function
}
Calling function: We can call the function like this:
function_name(parameters);
Now that we understood the working of function, lets see the types of function in C++

39
Types of function
We have two types of function in C++:
1) Built-in functions
2) User-defined functions
1) Build-it functions
Built-in functions are also known as library functions. We need not to declare and define these
functions as they are already written in the C++ libraries such as iostream, cmath etc. We can
directly call them when we need.
Example: C++ built-in function example
Here we are using built-in function pow(x,y) which is x to the power y. This function is declared
in cmath header file so we have included the file in our program using #include directive.
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
int main(){
/* Calling the built-in function
* pow(x, y) which is x to the power y
* We are directly calling this function
*/
cout<<pow(2,5);
return 0;
}
Output:
32

40
2) User-defined functions
We have already seen user-defined functions, the example we have given at the beginning of this
tutorial is an example of user-defined function. The functions that we declare and write in our
programs are user-defined functions. Lets see another example of user-defined functions.
User-defined functions
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
//Declaring the function sum
int sum(int,int);
int main(){
int x, y;
cout<<"enter first number: ";
cin>> x;
cout<<"enter second number: ";

cin>>y;
cout<<"Sum of these two :"<<sum(x,y);

return 0;
}
//Defining the function sum
int sum(int a, int b) {
int c = a+b;
return c;
}
Output:
enter first number: 22

enter second number: 19

41
Sum of these two :41
Default Arguments in C++ Functions
The default arguments are used when you provide no arguments or only few arguments while
calling a function. The default arguments are used during compilation of program. For example,
lets say you have a user-defined function sum declared like this: int sum(int a=10, int b=20), now
while calling this function you do not provide any arguments, simply called sum(); then in this
case the result would be 30, compiler used the default values 10 and 20 declared in function
signature. If you pass only one argument like this: sum(80) then the result would be 100, using
the passed argument 80 as first value and 20 taken from the default argument.
Example: Default arguments in C++

#include <iostream>
int sum(int a, int b=10, int c=20);
int main(){
/* In this case a value is passed as
* 1 and b and c values are taken from
* default arguments.
*/
cout<<sum(1)<<endl;
/* In this case a value is passed as

* 1 and b value as 2, value of c values is
* taken from default arguments.
*/
cout<<sum(1, 2)<<endl;
/* In this case all the three values are

* passed during function call, hence no
* default arguments have been used.
*/
cout<<sum(1, 2, 3)<<endl;
return 0;
}
int sum(int a, int b, int c){
int z;
z = a+b+c;
return z;
}
Output:
31
23
6

42
Rules of default arguments
As you have seen in the above example that I have assigned the default values for only two
arguments b and c during function declaration. It is up to you to assign default values to all
arguments or only selected arguments but remember the following rule while assigning default
values to only some of the arguments:
If you assign default value to an argument, the subsequent arguments must have default
values assigned to them, else you will get compilation error.
For example: Lets see some valid and invalid cases.

Valid: Following function declarations are valid –
int sum(int a=10, int b=20, int c=30);

int sum(int a, int b=20, int c=30);
int sum(int a, int b, int c=30);
Invalid: Following function declarations are invalid –
/* Since a has default value assigned, all the

* arguments after a (in this case b and c) must have
* default values assigned
*/
int sum(int a=10, int b, int c=30);
/* Since b has default value assigned, all the

* arguments after b (in this case c) must have
* default values assigned
*/
int sum(int a, int b=20, int c);
/* Since a has default value assigned, all the

* arguments after a (in this case b and c) must have
* default values assigned, b has default value but
* c doesn't have, thats why this is also invalid
*/
int sum(int a=10, int b=20, int c);
C++ Recursion with example
The process in which a function calls itself is known as recursion and the corresponding function
is called the recursive function. The popular example to understand the recursion is factorial
function.
Factorial function: f(n) = n*f(n-1), base condition: if n<=1 then f(n) = 1. Don’t worry we wil
discuss what is base condition and why it is important.

43
In the following diagram. I have shown that how the factorial function is calling itself until the
function reaches to the base condition.
Lets solve the problem using C++ program.
C++ recursion example: Factorial

#include <iostream>
//Factorial function
int f(int n){
/* This is called the base condition, it is
* very important to specify the base condition
* in recursion, otherwise your program will throw
* stack overflow error.
*/
if (n <= 1)
return 1;
else
return n*f(n-1);
}
int main(){
int num;
cout<<"Enter a number: ";
cin>>num;
cout<<"Factorial of entered number: "<<f(num);
return 0;

44
}
Output:
Enter a number: 5
Factorial of entered number: 120
Base condition
In the above program, you can see that I have provided a base condition in the recursive
function. The condition is:
if (n <= 1)
return 1;
The purpose of recursion is to divide the problem into smaller problems till the base condition is
reached. For example in the above factorial program I am solving the factorial function f(n) by
calling a smaller factorial function f(n-1), this happens repeatedly until the n value reaches base
condition(f(1)=1). If you do not define the base condition in the recursive function then you will
get stack overflow error.
Direct recursion vs indirect recursion
Direct recursion: When function calls itself, it is called direct recursion, the example we have
seen above is a direct recursion example.
Indirect recursion: When function calls another function and that function calls the calling
function, then this is called indirect recursion. For example: function A calls function B and
Function B calls function A.
Indirect Recursion Example in C++

#include <iostream>
int fa(int);
int fb(int);
int fa(int n){
if(n<=1)
return 1;
else
return n*fb(n-1);
}
int fb(int n){
if(n<=1)
return 1;
else
return n*fa(n-1);
}
int main(){
int num=5;
cout<<fa(num);

45
return 0;
}
Output:
120
Arrays in C++
An array is a collection of similar items stored in contiguous memory locations. In programming,

sometimes a simple variable is not enough to hold all the data. For example, lets say we want to
store the marks of 500 students, having 500 different variables for this task is not feasible, we
can define an array with size 500 that can hold the marks of all students.
Declaring an array in C++

There are couple of ways to declare an array.
Method 1:
int arr[5];
arr[0] = 10;
arr[1] = 20;
arr[2] = 30;
arr[3] = 40;
arr[4] = 50;
Method 2:
int arr[] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

46
Method 3:
int arr[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
Accessing Array Elements
Array index starts with 0, which means the first array element is at index 0, second is at index 1
and so on. We can use this information to display the array elements. See the code below:
#include <iostream>
int main(){
int arr[] = {11, 22, 33, 44, 55};
cout<<arr[0]<<endl;
cout<<arr[1]<<endl;
cout<<arr[2]<<endl;
cout<<arr[3]<<endl;
cout<<arr[4]<<endl;
return 0;
}
Output:
11
22
33
44
55
Although this code worked fine, displaying all the elements of array like this is not
recommended. When you want to access a particular array element then this is fine but if you
want to display all the elements then you should use a loop like this:
#include <iostream>
int main(){
int arr[] = {11, 22, 33, 44, 55};
int n=0;
while(n<=4){
cout<<arr[n]<<endl;
n++;
}
return 0;
}
Multidimensional Arrays in C++

47
Multidimensional arrays are also known as array of arrays. The data in multidimensional array
is stored in a tabular form as shown in the diagram below:
A two dimensional array:
int arr[2][3];
This array has total 2*3 = 6 elements.
A three dimensional array:
int arr[2][2][2];
This array has total 2*2*2 = 8 elements.
Two dimensional array
Lets see how to declare, initialize and access Two Dimensional Array elements.
How to declare a two dimensional array?
int myarray[2][3];
Initialization:
We can initialize the array in many ways:
Method 1:
int arr[2][3] = {10, 11 ,12 ,20 ,21 , 22};
Method 2:
This way of initializing is preferred as you can visualize the rows and columns here.
int arr[2][3] = {{10, 11 ,12} , {20 ,21 , 22}};

48
Accessing array elements:
arr[0][0] – first element
arr[0][1] – second element
arr[0][2] – third element
arr[1][0] – fourth element
arr[1][1] – fifth element
arr[1][2] – sixth element
Example: Two dimensional array in C++

#include <iostream>
int main(){
int arr[2][3] = {{11, 22, 33}, {44, 55, 66}};
for(int i=0; i<2;i++){
for(int j=0; j<3; j++){
cout<<"arr["<<i<<"]["<<j<<"]: "<<arr[i][j]<<endl;
}
}
return 0;
}
Output:
arr[0][0]: 11
arr[0][1]: 22
arr[0][2]: 33
arr[1][0]: 44
arr[1][1]: 55
arr[1][2]: 66
Three dimensional array
Lets see how to declare, initialize and access Three Dimensional Array elements.
Declaring a three dimensional array:
int myarray[2][3][2];
Initialization:
We can initialize the array in many ways:
Method 1:
int arr[2][3][2] = {1, -1 ,2 ,-2 , 3 , -3, 4, -4, 5, -5, 6, -6};
Method 2:
This way of initializing is preferred as you can visualize the rows and columns here.
int arr[2][3][2] = {
{ {1,-1}, {2, -2}, {3, -3}},

49
{ {4, -4}, {5, -5}, {6, -6}}
}
Three dimensional array example
#include <iostream>
int main(){
// initializing the array
int arr[2][3][2] = {
{ {1,-1}, {2,-2}, {3,-3} },
{ {4,-4}, {5,-5}, {6,-6} }
};
// displaying array values
for (int x = 0; x < 2; x++) {
for (int y = 0; y < 3; y++) {
for (int z = 0; z < 2; z++) {
cout<<arr[x][y][z]<<" ";
}
}
}
return 0;
}
Output:
1 -1 2 -2 3 -3 4 -4 5 -5 6 -6
Passing Array to Function in C++
You can pass array as an argument to a function just like you pass variables as arguments. In
order to pass array to the function you just need to mention the array name during function
call like this:
function_name(array_name);
Example: Passing arrays to a function
In this example, we are passing two arrays a & b to the function sum(). This function adds the
corresponding elements of both the arrays and display them.
#include <iostream>
/* This function adds the corresponding
* elements of both the arrays and
* displays it.
*/
void sum(int arr1[], int arr2[]){
int temp[5];

50
for(int i=0; i<5; i++){
temp[i] = arr1[i]+arr2[i];
cout<<temp[i]<<endl;
}
}
int main(){
int a[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40 ,50};
int b[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
//Passing arrays to function
sum(a, b);
return 0;
}
Output:
11
22
33
44
55
Example 2: Passing multidimensional array to function
In this example we are passing a multidimensional array to the function square which displays the
square of each element.
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
/* This method prints the square of each
* of the elements of multidimensional array
*/
void square(int arr[2][3]){
int temp;
for(int i=0; i<2; i++){
for(int j=0; j<3; j++){
temp = arr[i][j];
cout<<pow(temp, 2)<<endl;
}
}
}
int main(){
int arr[2][3] = {
{1, 2, 3},
{4, 5, 6}
};
square(arr);
return 0;
}
Output:

51
4
9
16
25
36
Strings in C++
Strings are words that are made up of characters, hence they are known as sequence of
characters. In C++ we have two ways to create and use strings: 1) By creating char arrays and
treat them as string 2) By creating string object
Lets discuss these two ways of creating string first and then we will see which method is better
and why.
1) Array of Characters – Also known as C Strings

Example 1:
A simple example where we have initialized the char array during declaration.
#include <iostream>
int main(){
char book[50] = "A Song of Ice and Fire";
cout<<book;
return 0;
}
Output:
A Song of Ice and Fire
Example 2: Getting user input as string

This can be considered as inefficient method of reading user input, why? Because when we read
the user input string using cin then only the first word of the string is stored in char array and rest
get ignored. The cin function considers the space in the string as delimiter and ignore the part
after it.
#include <iostream>
int main(){
char book[50];
cout<<"Enter your favorite book name:";
//reading user input
cin>>book;
cout<<"You entered: "<<book;
return 0;
}

52
Output:
Enter your favorite book name:The Murder of Roger Ackroyd

You entered: The
You can see that only the “The” got captured in the book and remaining part after space got
ignored. How to deal with this then? Well, for this we can use cin.get function, which reads the
complete line entered by user.
Example 3: Correct way of capturing user input string using cin.get
#include <iostream>
int main(){
char book[50];
cout<<"Enter your favorite book name:";
//reading user input

cin.get(book, 50);
cout<<"You entered: "<<book;
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter your favorite book name:The Murder of Roger Ackroyd

You entered: The Murder of Roger Ackroyd
Drawback of this method
1) Size of the char array is fixed, which means the size of the string created through it is fixed in
size, more memory cannot be allocated to it during runtime. For example, lets say you have
created an array of character with the size 10 and user enters the string of size 15 then the last
five characters would be truncated from the string.
On the other hand if you create a larger array to accommodate user input then the memory is
wasted if the user input is small and array is much larger then what is needed.
2) In this method, you can only use the in-built functions created for array which don’t help
much in string manipulation.
What is the solution of these problems?

We can create string using string object. Lets see how we can do it.
String object in C++

Till now we have seen how to handle strings in C++ using char arrays. Lets see another and
better way of handling strings in C++ – string objects.
#include<iostream>

53
int main(){
// This is how we create string object
string str;
cout<<"Enter a String:";
/* This is used to get the user input
* and store it into str
*/
getline(cin,str);
cout<<"You entered: ";
cout<<str<<endl;
/* This function adds a character at

* the end of the string
*/ str.push_back('A');
cout<<"The string after push_back: "<<str<<endl;
/* This function deletes a character from
* the end of the string
*/
str.pop_back();
cout << "The string after pop_back: "<<str<<endl;
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter a String:XYZ
You entered: XYZ
The string after push_back: XYZA
The string after pop_back: XYZ
The advantage of using this method is that you need not to declare the size of the string, the size
is determined at run time, so this is better memory management method. The memory is
allocated dynamically at runtime so no memory is wasted.
Pointers in C++
Pointer is a variable in C++ that holds the address of another variable. They have data type just
like variables, for example an integer type pointer can hold the address of an integer variable and
an character type pointer can hold the address of char variable.
Syntax of pointer
data_type *pointer_name;
How to declare a pointer?
/* This pointer p can hold the address of an integer

* variable, here p is a pointer and var is just a
* simple integer variable

54
*/
int *p, var
Assignment
As I mentioned above, an integer type pointer can hold the address of another int variable. Here
we have an integer variable var and pointer p holds the address of var. To assign the address of
variable to pointer we use ampersand symbol (&).
/* This is how you assign the address of another variable

* to the pointer
*/
p = &var;
How to use it?
// This will print the address of variable var

cout<<&var;
/* This will also print the address of variable

* var because the pointer p holds the address of var
*/
cout<<p;
/* This will print the value of var, This is

* important, this is how we access the value of
* variable through pointer
*/
cout<<*p;
Example of Pointer
Lets take a simple example to understand what we discussed above.
#include <iostream>
int main(){
//Pointer declaration
int *p, var=101;
//Assignment
p = &var;
cout<<"Address of var: "<<&var<<endl;

cout<<"Address of var: "<<p<<endl;
cout<<"Address of p: "<<&p<<endl;
cout<<"Value of var: "<<*p;
return 0;
}
Output:
Address of var: 0x7fff5dfffc0c

55
Address of var: 0x7fff5dfffc0c
Address of p: 0x7fff5dfffc10
Value of var: 101
Pointer and arrays
While handling arrays with pointers you need to take care few things. First and very important
point to note regarding arrays is that the array name alone represents the base address of array so
while assigning the address of array to pointer don’t use ampersand sign(&). Do it like this:
Correct: Because arr represent the address of array.
p = arr;
Incorrect:
p = &arr;
Example: Traversing the array using Pointers

#include <iostream>
int main(){
//Pointer declaration
int *p;
//Array declaration
int arr[]={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
//Assignment
p = arr;
for(int i=0; i<6;i++){
cout<<*p<<endl;
//++ moves the pointer to next int position
p++;
}
return 0;
}
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
How to increment pointer address and pointer’s value?
When we are accessing the value of a variable through pointer, sometimes we just need to
increment or decrement the value of variable though it or we may need to move the pointer to
next int position(just like we did above while working with arrays). The ++ operator is used for
this purpose. One of the example of ++ operator we have seen above where we traversed the

56
array using pointer by incrementing the pointer value using ++ operator. Lets see few more
cases.
// Pointer moves to the next int position (as if it was an array)

p++;
// Pointer moves to the next int position (as if it was an array)
++p;
/* All the following three cases are same they increment the value
* of variable that the pointer p points.
*/
++*p;
++(*p);
++*(p);
C++ ‘this’ Pointer

The this pointer holds the address of current object, in simple words you can say that this pointer
points to the current object of the class. Let’s take an example to understand this concept.
C++ Example: this pointer

Here you can see that we have two data members num and ch. In member function
setMyValues() we have two local variables having same name as data members name. In such
case if you want to assign the local variable value to the data members then you won’t be able to
do until unless you use this pointer, because the compiler won’t know that you are referring to
object’s data members unless you use this pointer. This is one of the example where you must
use this pointer.
#include <iostream>
class Demo {
private:
int num;
char ch;
public:
void setMyValues(int num, char ch){
this->num =num;
this->ch=ch;
}
void displayMyValues(){
cout<<num<<endl;
cout<<ch;
}
};
int main(){
Demo obj;
obj.setMyValues(100, 'A');
obj.displayMyValues();

57
return 0;
}
Output:
100
A
Example 2: function chaining calls using this pointer
Another example of using this pointer is to return the reference of current object so that you can
chain function calls, this way you can call all the functions for the current object in one go.
Another important point to note in this program is that I have incremented the value of object’s
num in the second function and you can see in the output that it actually incremented the value
that we have set in the first function call. This shows that the chaining is sequential and the
changes made to the object’s data members retains for further chaining calls.
#include <iostream>
class Demo {
private:
int num;
char ch;
public:
Demo &setNum(int num){
this->num =num;
return *this;
}
Demo &setCh(char ch){
this->num++;
this->ch =ch;
return *this;
}
void displayMyValues(){
cout<<num<<endl;
cout<<ch;
}
};
int main(){
Demo obj;
//Chaining calls
obj.setNum(100).setCh('A');
obj.displayMyValues();
return 0;
}
Output:
101
A

58
OOPs Concepts in C++
Object oriented programming is a way of solving complex problems by breaking them into
smaller problems using objects. Before Object Oriented Programming (commonly referred as
OOP), programs were written in procedural language, they were nothing but a long list of
instructions. On the other hand, the OOP is all about creating objects that can interact with each
other, this makes it easier to develop programs in OOP as we can understand the relationship
between them.
Object Oriented Programming(OOP)
In Object oriented programming we write programs using classes and objects utilising features of
OOPs such as abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance and polymorphism
Class and Objects
A class is like a blueprint of data member and functions and object is an instance of class. For
example, lets say we have a class Car which has data members (variables) such as speed,
weight, price and functions such as gearChange(), slowDown(), brake() etc. Now lets say I create
a object of this class named FordFigo which uses these data members and functions and give
them its own values. Similarly we can create as many objects as we want using the
blueprint(class).
//Class name is Car

class Car
{
//Data members
char name[20];
int speed;
int weight;
public:
//Functions
void brake(){
}
void slowDown(){
}
};
int main()
{
//ford is an object
Car ford;
}
Abstraction
Abstraction is a process of hiding irrelevant details from user. For example, When you send an
sms you just type the message, select the contact and click send, the phone shows you that the

59
message has been sent, what actually happens in background when you click send is hidden from
you as it is not relevant to you.
Encapsulation
Encapsulation is a process of combining data and function into a single unit like capsule. This is
to avoid the access of private data members from outside the class. To achieve encapsulation, we
make all data members of class private and create public functions, using them we can get the
values from these data members or set the value to these data members.
Inheritance
Inheritance is a feature using which an object of child class acquires the properties of parent
class.
#include <iostream>
class ParentClass {
//data member
public:
int var1 =100;
};
class ChildClass: public ParentClass {
public:
int var2 = 500;
};
int main(void) {
ChildClass obj;
}
Now this object obj can use the properties (such as variable var1) of ParentClass.
Polymorphism
Function overloading and Operator overloading are examples of polymorphism. Polymorphism

is a feature using which an object behaves differently in different situation.
In function overloading we can have more than one function with same name but different
numbers, type or sequence of arguments.
Polymorphism Example
#include <iostream>
class Sum {
public:
int add(int num1,int num2){
return num1 + num2;
}
int add(int num1, int num2, int num3){
return num1 + num2 + num3;
}

60
};
int main(void) {
//Object of class Sum
Sum obj;
//This will call the second add function

cout<<obj.add(10, 20, 30)<<endl;
//This will call the first add function

cout<<obj.add(11, 22);
return 0;
}
Output:
60
33
Constructors in C++
Constructor is a special member function of a class that initializes the object of the class.
Constructor name is same as class name and it doesn’t have a return type. Lets take a simple
example to understand the working of constructor.
Simple Example: How to use constructor in C++
Read the comments in the following program to understand each part of the program.
#include <iostream>
class constructorDemo{
public:
int num;
char ch;
/* This is a default constructor of the
* class, do note that it's name is same as
* class name and it doesn't have return type.
*/
constructorDemo() {
num = 100; ch = 'A';
}
};
int main(){
/* This is how we create the object of class,
* I have given the object name as obj, you can
* give any name, just remember the syntax:
* class_name object_name;
*/
constructorDemo obj;
/* This is how we access data members using object

61
* we are just checking that the value we have
* initialized in constructor are reflecting or not.
*/
cout<<"num: "<<obj.num<<endl;
cout<<"ch: "<<obj.ch;
return 0;
}
Output:
num: 100
ch: A
Constructor vs Member function
Now that we know what is constructor, lets discuss how a constructor is different from member
function of the class.
1) Constructor doesn’t have a return type. Member function has a return type.
2) Constructor is automatically called when we create the object of the class. Member function
needs to be called explicitly using object of class.
3) When we do not create any constructor in our class, C++ compiler generates a default
constructor and insert it into our code. The same does not apply to member functions.
This is how a compiler generated default constructor looks:
class XYZ
{
....
XYZ()
{
//Empty no code
}
};
Types of Constructor in C++
There are two types of constructor in C++. 1) Default constructor 2) Parameterized constructor
1) Default Constructor
A default constructor doesn’t have any arguments (or parameters)
#include <iostream>
class Website{
public:
//Default constructor
Website() {
cout<<"Welcome to BeginnersBook"<<endl;
}
};

62
int main(void){
/*creating two objects of class Website.
* This means that the default constructor
* should have been invoked twice.
*/
Website obj1;
Website obj2;
return 0;
}
Output:
Welcome to BeginnersBook
Welcome to BeginnersBook
When you don’t specify any constructor in the class, a default constructor with no code (empty
body) would be inserted into your code by compiler.
2) Parameterized Constructor
Constructors with parameters are known as Parameterized constructors. These type of

constructor allows us to pass arguments while object creation. Lets see how they look:
Lets say class name is XYZ

Default constructor:
XYZ() {
}
....
XYZ obj;
....
Parameterized Constructor:
XYZ(int a, int b) {
}
...
XYZ obj(10, 20);
Example:
#include <iostream>
class Add{
public:
//Parameterized constructor
Add(int num1, int num2) {
cout<<(num1+num2)<<endl;
}
};
int main(void){

63
/* One way of creating object. Also
* known as implicit call to the
* constructor
*/
Add obj1(10, 20);
/* Another way of creating object. This
* is known as explicit calling the
* constructor.
*/
Add obj2 = Add(50, 60);
return 0;
}
Output:
30
110
Destructors in C++
A destructor is a special member function that works just opposite to constructor, unlike
constructors that are used for initializing an object, destructors destroy (or delete) the object.
Syntax of Destructor
~class_name()
{
//Some code
}
Similar to constructor, the destructor name should exactly match with the class name. A
destructor declaration should always begin with the tilde(~) symbol as shown in the syntax
above.
When does the destructor get called?
A destructor is automatically called when:

1) The program finished execution.
2) When a scope (the { } parenthesis) containing local variable ends.
3) When you call the delete operator.
Destructor Example
#include <iostream>
class HelloWorld{
public:
//Constructor
HelloWorld(){

64
cout<<"Constructor is called"<<endl;
}
//Destructor
~HelloWorld(){
cout<<"Destructor is called"<<endl;
}
//Member function
void display(){
cout<<"Hello World!"<<endl;
}
};
int main(){
//Object created
HelloWorld obj;
//Member function called
obj.display();
return 0;
}
Output:
Constructor is called
Hello World!
Destructor is called
Destructor rules
1) Name should begin with tilde sign(~) and must match class name.
2) There cannot be more than one destructor in a class.
3) Unlike constructors that can have parameters, destructors do not allow any parameter.
4) They do not have any return type, just like constructors.
5) When you do not specify any destructor in a class, compiler generates a default destructor and
inserts it into your code.
Structures in C++
Structure is a compound data type that contains different variables of different types. For
example, you want to store Student details like student name, student roll num, student age. You
have two ways to do it, one way is to create different variables for each data, but the downfall of
this approach is that if you want to store the details of multiple students, in that case it is not
feasible to create separate set of variables for each student.
The second and best way of doing it by creating a structure like this:
struct Student
{
char stuName[30];
int stuRollNo;
int stuAge;
};

65
Now these three members combined will act like a separate variable and you can create structure
variable like this:
structure_name variable_name
So if you want to hold the information of two students using this structure then you can do it like
this:
Student s1, s2;
Then I can access the members of Student structure like this:
//Assigning name to first student

s1.stuName = "Ajeet";
//Assigning age to the second student
s2.stuAddr = 22;
Similarly I can set and get the values of other data members of the structure for every student.
Lets see a complete example to put this up all together:
Structure Example in C++

#include <iostream>
struct Student{
char stuName[30];
int stuRollNo;
int stuAge;
};
int main(){
Student s;
cout<<"Enter Student Name: ";
cin.getline(s.stuName, 30);
cout<<"ENter Student Roll No: ";
cin>>s.stuRollNo;
cout<<"Enter Student Age: ";
cin>>s.stuAge;
cout<<"Student Record:"<<endl;
cout<<"Name: "<<s.stuName<<endl;
cout<<"Roll No: "<<s.stuRollNo<<endl;
cout<<"Age: "<<s.stuAge;
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter Student Name: Negan

ENter Student Roll No: 4101003
Enter Student Age: 22
Student Record:
Name: Negan
Roll No: 4101003

66
Age: 22
Structure and Function in C++
In this previous tutorial we learnt about structures, the compound data type that groups different
types of variables. In this tutorial, we will learn how to pass structures as an argument to the
function and how to return the structure from the function.
How to pass structure as an argument to function
Here we have a function printStudentInfo() which takes structure Student as an argument and prints
the details of student using structure varaible. The important point to note here is that you should
always declare the structure before function declarations, otherwise you will get compilation
error.
#include <iostream>
struct Student{
char stuName[30];
int stuRollNo;
int stuAge;
};
void printStudentInfo(Student);
int main(){
Student s;
cout<<"Enter Student Roll No: ";
cin>>s.stuRollNo;
cin>>s.stuAge;
printStudentInfo(s);
return 0;
}
void printStudentInfo(Student s){
}
Output:
Enter Student Name: Rick

Enter Student Roll No: 666123
Student Record:
Name: Rick
Roll No: 666123
Age: 19

67
How to return the Structure from a Function
In this example we have two functions one gets the values from user, assign them to structure
members and returns the structure and the other function takes that structure as argument and
print the details.
#include <iostream>
struct Student{
char stuName[30];
int stuRollNo;
int stuAge;
};
Student getStudentInfo();
void printStudentInfo(Student);
int main(){
Student s;
s = getStudentInfo();
printStudentInfo(s);
return 0;
}
/* This function prompt the user to input student
* details, stores them in structure members
* and returns the structure
*/
Student getStudentInfo(){
Student s;
cout<<"Enter Student Roll No: ";
cin>>s.stuRollNo;
cin>>s.stuAge;
return s;
}
void printStudentInfo(Student s){
}
Output:
Enter Student Name: Tyrion lannister

Enter Student Roll No: 333901
Student Record:
Name: Tyrion lannister
Roll No: 333901
Age: 39

68
Enumeration in C++
Enum is a user defined data type where we specify a set of values for a variable and the variable
can only take one out of a small set of possible values. We use enum keyword to define a
Enumeration.
enum direction {East, West, North, South}dir;
Here Enumeration name is direction which can only take one of the four specified values, the dir
at the end of the declaration is an enum variable.
Lets take a simple example to understand this:

Here I have assigned the value West to the enum variable dir and when I displayed the value of
dir it shows 1. This is because by default the values are in increasing order starting from 0, which
means East is 0, West is 1, North is 2 and South is 3.
Simple enum Example

#include<iostream>
enum direction {East, West, North, South}dir;
int main()
{
dir = West;
cout<<dir;
return 0;
}
Another way to declare enum variable
As we have seen in the above example that I have declared the enum variable dir during enum
declaration, there is another way to declare an enum variable.
#include <iostream>
enum direction {East, West, North, South};
int main(){
direction dir;
dir = South;
cout<<dir;
return 0;
}
Output:
Why use enum in C++

69
Now that we understand what is enum and how to use them in program, lets discuss why we use
them:
Enums are used only when we expect the variable to have one of the possible set of values, for
example, we have a dir variable that holds the direction. Since we have four directions, this
variable can take any one of the four values, if we try to assign a another random value to this
variable, it will throw a compilation error. This increases compile-time checking and avoid errors
that occurs by passing in invalid constants.
Another important place where they are used frequently are switch case statements, where all the
values that case blocks expect can be defined in an enum. This way we can ensure that the enum
variable that we pass in switch parenthesis is not taking any random value that it shouldn’t
accept.
How to change default values of Enum

#include <iostream>
enum direction {East=11, West=22, North=33, South=44};
int main(){
direction dir;
dir = South;
cout<<dir;
return 0;
}
Output:
44
Inheritance in C++
Inheritance is one of the feature of Object Oriented Programming System(OOPs), it allows the
child class to acquire the properties (the data members) and functionality (the member functions)
of parent class.
What is child class?

A class that inherits another class is known as child class, it is also known as derived class or
subclass.
What is parent class?
The class that is being inherited by other class is known as parent class, super class or base class.
Syntax of Inheritance
class parent_class
{
//Body of parent class
};
class child_class : access_modifier parent_class
{

70
//Body of child class
};
What are the advantages of using inheritance in C++ Programming
The main advantages of inheritance are code reusability and readability. When child class
inherits the properties and functionality of parent class, we need not to write the same code again
in child class. This makes it easier to reuse the code, makes us write the less code and the code
becomes much more readable.
Lets take a real life example to understand this: Lets assume that Human is a class that has
properties such as height, weight, colour etc and functionality such as eating(), sleeping(),
dreaming(), working() etc.
Now we want to create Male and Female class, these classes are different but since both Male and
Female are humans they share some common properties and behaviours (functionality) so they
can inherit those properties and functionality from Human class and rest can be written in their
class separately.
This approach makes us write less code as both the classes inherited several properties and
functions from base class thus we didn’t need to re-write them. Also, this makes it easier to read
the code.
Inheritance Example
Before we discuss the types of inheritance, lets take an example:

Here we have two classes Teacher and MathTeacher, the MathTeacher class inherits the Teacher
class which means Teacher is a parent class and MathTeacher is a child class. The child class can
use the property collegeName of parent class.
Another important point to note is that when we create the object of child class it calls the
constructor of child class and child class constructor automatically calls the constructor of base
class.
#include <iostream>
class Teacher {
public:
Teacher(){
cout<<"Hey Guys, I am a teacher"<<endl;
}
string collegeName = "Beginnersbook";
};
//This class inherits Teacher class
class MathTeacher: public Teacher {
public:
MathTeacher(){
cout<<"I am a Math Teacher"<<endl;
}
string mainSub = "Math";
string name = "Negan";

71
};
int main() {
MathTeacher obj;
cout<<"Name: "<<obj.name<<endl;
cout<<"College Name: "<<obj.collegeName<<endl;
cout<<"Main Subject: "<<obj.mainSub<<endl;
return 0;
}
Output:
Hey Guys, I am a teacher

I am a Math Teacher
Name: Negan
College Name: Beginnersbook
Main Subject: Math
Types of Inheritance in C++
1) Single inheritance
2) Multilevel inheritance
3) Multiple inheritance
4) Hierarchical inheritance
5) Hybrid inheritance
Single inheritance
In Single inheritance one class inherits one class exactly.

For example: Lets say we have class A and B
B inherits A
Example of Single inheritance:
#include <iostream>
class A {
public:
A(){
cout<<"Constructor of A class"<<endl;
}
};
class B: public A {
public:
B(){
cout<<"Constructor of B class";
}
};
int main() {
//Creating object of class B
B obj;

72
return 0;
}
Output:
Constructor of A class
Constructor of B class
2)Multilevel Inheritance
In this type of inheritance one class inherits another child class.
C inherits B and B inherits A
Example of Multilevel inheritance:
#include <iostream>
class A {
public:
A(){
}
};
class B: public A {
public:
B(){
cout<<"Constructor of B class"<<endl;
}
};
class C: public B {
public:
C(){
cout<<"Constructor of C class"<<endl;
}
};
int main() {
//Creating object of class C
C obj;
return 0;
}
Output:
Constructor of C class

73
Multiple Inheritance
In multiple inheritance, a class can inherit more than one class. This means that in this type of
inheritance a single child class can have multiple parent classes.
For example:
C inherits A and B both
Example of Multiple Inheritance:
#include <iostream>
class A {
public:
A(){
}
};
class B {
public:
B(){
}
};
class C: public A, public B {
public:
C(){
}
};
int main() {
C obj;
return 0;
}
4)Hierarchical Inheritance
In this type of inheritance, one parent class has more than one child class. For example:
Class B and C inherits class A
Example of Hierarchical inheritance:
#include <iostream>
class A {
public:
A(){

74
}
};
class B: public A {
public:
B(){
}
};
class C: public A{
public:
C(){
}
};
int main() {
C obj;
return 0;
}
Output:
5) Hybrid Inheritance
Hybrid inheritance is a combination of more than one type of inheritance. For example, A child
and parent class relationship that follows multiple and hierarchical inheritance both can be called
hybrid inheritance.
Polymorphism in C++
Polymorphism is a feature of OOPs that allows the object to behave differently in different
conditions. In C++ we have two types of polymorphism:
1) Compile time Polymorphism – This is also known as static (or early) binding.
2) Runtime Polymorphism – This is also known as dynamic (or late) binding.
1) Compile time Polymorphism

Function overloading and Operator overloading are perfect example of Compile time
polymorphism.
Compile time Polymorphism Example
In this example, we have two functions with same name but different number of arguments.
Based on how many parameters we pass during function call determines which function is to be
called, this is why it is considered as an example of polymorphism because in different

75
conditions the output is different. Since, the call is determined during compile time thats why it
is called compile time polymorphism.
#include <iostream>
class Add {
public:
int sum(int num1, int num2){
return num1+num2;
}
int sum(int num1, int num2, int num3){
return num1+num2+num3;
}
};
int main() {
Add obj;
//This will call the first function
cout<<"Output: "<<obj.sum(10, 20)<<endl;
//This will call the second function
cout<<"Output: "<<obj.sum(11, 22, 33);
return 0;
}
Output:
Output: 30
Output: 66
2) Runtime Polymorphism
Function overriding is an example of Runtime polymorphism.
Function Overriding: When child class declares a method, which is already present in the
parent class then this is called function overriding, here child class overrides the parent class.
In case of function overriding we have two definitions of the same function, one is parent class
and one in child class. The call to the function is determined at runtime to decide which
definition of the function is to be called, thats the reason it is called runtime polymorphism.
Example of Runtime Polymorphism

#include <iostream>
class A {
public:
void disp(){
cout<<"Super Class Function"<<endl;
}
};
class B: public A{
public:
void disp(){
cout<<"Sub Class Function";
}
};

76
int main() {
//Parent class object
A obj;
obj.disp();
//Child class object
B obj2;
obj2.disp();
return 0;
}
Output:
Super Class Function

Sub Class Function
Function overloading in C++
Function overloading is a C++ programming feature that allows us to have more than one
function having same name but different parameter list, when I say parameter list, it means the
data type and sequence of the parameters, for example the parameters list of a function
myfuncn(int a, float b) is (int, float) which is different from the function myfuncn(float a, int b) parameter
list (float, int). Function overloading is a compile-time polymorphism.
Now that we know what is parameter list lets see the rules of overloading: we can have following
functions in the same scope.
sum(int num1, int num2)

sum(int num1, int num2, int num3)
sum(int num1, double num2)
The easiest way to remember this rule is that the parameters should qualify any one or more of
the following conditions, they should have different type, number or sequence of parameters.
For example:
These two functions have different parameter type:

sum(double num1, double num2)
These two have different number of parameters:

sum(int num1, int num2, int num3)
These two have different sequence of parameters:
sum(int num1, double num2)

sum(double num1, int num2)

77
All of the above three cases are valid case of overloading. We can have any number of functions,
just remember that the parameter list should be different. For example:
int sum(int, int)

double sum(int, int)
This is not allowed as the parameter list is same. Even though they have different return types, its
not valid.
Function overloading Example
Lets take an example to understand function overloading in C++.
#include <iostream>
class Addition {
public:
int sum(int num1,int num2) {
return num1+num2;
}
int sum(int num1,int num2, int num3) {
return num1+num2+num3;
}
};
int main(void) {
Addition obj;
cout<<obj.sum(20, 15)<<endl;
cout<<obj.sum(81, 100, 10);
return 0;
}
Output:
35
191
Function overloading Example 2
As I mentioned in the beginning of this guide that functions having different return types and
same parameter list cannot be overloaded. However if the functions have different parameter list
then they can have same or different return types to be eligible for overloading. In short the
return type of a function
does not play any role in function overloading. All that matters is the parameter list of function.
#include <iostream>
class DemoClass {
public:
int demoFunction(int i) {
return i;
}

78
double demoFunction(double d) {
return d;
}
};
int main(void) {
DemoClass obj;
cout<<obj.demoFunction(100)<<endl;
cout<<obj.demoFunction(5005.516);
return 0;
}
Output:
100
5006.52
Advantages of Function overloading
The main advantage of function overloading is to the improve the code readability and allows
code reusability. In the example 1, we have seen how we were able to have more than one
function for the same task(addition) with different parameters, this allowed us to add two integer
numbers as well as three integer numbers, if we wanted we could have some more functions with
same name and four or five arguments.
Imagine if we didn’t have function overloading, we either have the limitation to add only two
integers or we had to write different name functions for the same task addition, this would reduce
the code readability and reusability.
Function Overriding in C++
Function overriding is a feature that allows us to have a same function in child class which is
already present in the parent class. A child class inherits the data members and member functions
of parent class, but when you want to override a functionality in the child class then you can use
function overriding. It is like creating a new version of an old function, in the child class.
Function Overriding Example
To override a function you must have the same signature in child class. By signature I mean the
data type and sequence of parameters. Here we don’t have any parameter in the parent function
so we didn’t use any parameter in the child function.
#include <iostream>
class BaseClass {
public:
void disp(){
cout<<"Function of Parent Class";
}

79
};
class DerivedClass: public BaseClass{
public:
void disp() {
cout<<"Function of Child Class";
}
};
int main() {
DerivedClass obj = DerivedClass();
obj.disp();
return 0;
}
Output:
Function of Child Class
Note: In function overriding, the function in parent class is called the overridden function and
function in child class is called overriding function.
How to call overridden function from the child class
As we have seen above that when we make the call to function (involved in overriding), the child
class function (overriding function) gets called. What if you want to call the overridden function
by using the object of child class. You can do that by creating the child class object in such a
way that the reference of parent class points to it. Lets take an example to understand it.
#include <iostream>
class BaseClass {
public:
void disp(){
cout<<"Function of Parent Class";
}
};
class DerivedClass: public BaseClass{
public:
void disp() {
cout<<"Function of Child Class";
}
};
int main() {
/* Reference of base class pointing to
* the object of child class.
*/
BaseClass obj = DerivedClass();
obj.disp();
return 0;
}
Output:

80
Function of Parent Class
If you want to call the Overridden function from overriding function then you can do it like this:
parent_class_name::function_name
To do this in the above example, we can write following statement in the disp() function of child
class:
BaseClass::disp();
Difference between Function Overloading and Function overriding in C++
Function overloading and Function overriding both are examples of polymorphism but they are
completely different. Before we discuss the difference between them, lets discuss a little bit
about them first.
Function Overloading
Function overloading is a feature that allows us to have same function more than once in a
program. Overloaded functions have same name but their signature must be different.
Example:
Here we have the same function sum declared four times with different signatures. Based on the
parameters we pass, while calling function sum, decides which method is to be called. This
happens during compilation, which is why it is also known as compile time polymorphism. If
you are wondering why I have suffixed each floating point value with “f” letter in the example
below, during function call then refer this: function overloading float issue.
#include <iostream>
// overloaded functions
float sum(int, int);
float sum(float, float);
float sum(int, float);
float sum(float, int);
int main(){
//This will call the second function
cout<<sum(15.7f, 12.7f)<<endl;
//This will call the first function

cout<<sum(200, 100)<<endl;
//This will call the third function

cout<<sum(100, 20.7f)<<endl;
//This will call the fourth function

cout<<sum(90.8f, 30)<<endl;
return 0;

81
}
float sum(int a, int b){
return a+b;
}
float sum(float a, float b){
return a+b;
}
float sum(int a, float b){
return a+b;
}
float sum(float a, int b){
return a+b;
}
Output:
28.4
300
120.7
120.8
Function Overriding
Function overriding is a feature of OOPs Programming that allows us to override a function of

parent class in child class.
Example:
#include<iostream>
//Parent class or super class or base class
class A{
public:
void disp() {
cout<<"Parent Class disp() function"<<endl;
}
void xyz() {
cout<<"xyz() function of parent class";
}
};
//child class or sub class or derived class
class B : public A{
public:
/* Overriding disp() function of parent class
* and giving a different definition to it.
*/
void disp() {
cout<<"Child class disp() function"<<endl;
}
};
int main(){
//Creating object of child class B
B obj;
obj.disp();

82
/* If you want to call the overridden function
* (the same function which is present in parent class)
* from the child class then assign the reference of
* parent class to the child class object.
*/
A obj2 = B();
obj2.disp();
}
Output:
Child class disp() function

Parent Class disp() function
Difference between function overloading and function overriding
Now that we understand what is function overloading and overriding in C++ programming, lets
see the difference between them:
1) Function Overloading happens in the same class when we declare same functions with
different arguments in the same class. Function Overriding is happens in the child class when
child class overrides parent class function.
2) In function overloading function signature should be different for all the overloaded functions.
In function overriding the signature of both the functions (overriding function and overridden
function) should be same.
3) Overloading happens at the compile time thats why it is also known as compile time
polymorphism while overriding happens at run time which is why it is known as run time
polymorphism.
4) In function overloading we can have any number of overloaded functions. In function
overriding we can have only one overriding function in the child class.
Virtual functions in C++: Runtime Polymorphism
In this guide, we will see what are virtual functions and why we use them. When we declare a
function as virtual in a class, all the sub classes that override this function have their function
implementation as virtual by default (whether they mark them virtual or not). Why we declare a
function virtual? To let compiler know that the call to this function needs to be resolved at
runtime (also known as late binding and dynamic linking) so that the object type is determined
and the correct version of the function is called.
Lets take an example to understand what happens when we don’t mark a overridden function as
virtual.
Example 1: Overriding a non-virtual function

83
See the problem here. Even though we have the parent class pointer pointing to the instance
(object) of child class, the parent class version of the function is invoked.
You may be thinking why I have created the pointer, I could have simply created the object of
child class like this: Dog obj; and assigned the Dog instance to it. Well, in this example I have
only one child class but when we a big project having several child classes, creating the object of
child class separately is not recommended as it increases the complexity and the code become
error prone. More clarity to this after this example.
#include<iostream>
class Animal{
public:
void animalSound(){
cout<<"This is a generic Function";
}
};
class Dog : public Animal{
public:
void animalSound(){
cout<<"Woof";
}
};
int main(){
Animal *obj;
obj = new Dog();
obj->animalSound();
return 0;
}
Output:
This is a generic Function
Example 2: Using Virtual Function

See in this case the output is Woof, which is what we expect. What happens in this case? Since
we marked the function animalSound() as virtual, the call to the function is resolved at runtime,
compiler determines the type of the object at runtime and calls the appropriate function.
#include<iostream>
class Animal{
public:
virtual void animalSound(){
cout<<"This is a generic Function";
}
};

84
class Dog : public Animal{
public:
void animalSound(){
cout<<"Woof";
}
};
int main(){
Animal *obj;
obj = new Dog();
obj->animalSound();
return 0;
}
Output:
Woof
Encapsulation in C++ with example
Encapsulation is a process of combining data members and functions in a single unit called class.
This is to prevent the access to the data directly, the access to them is provided through the
functions of the class. It is one of the popular feature of Object Oriented Programming(OOPs)
that helps in data hiding.
How Encapsulation is achieved in a class
To do this:
1) Make all the data members private.
2) Create public setter and getter functions for each data member in such a way that the set
function set the value of data member and get function get the value of data member.
Let’s see this in an example Program:
Encapsulation Example in C++
Here we have two data members num and ch, we have declared them as private so that they are
not accessible outside the class, this way we are hiding the data. The only way to get and set the
values of these data members is through the public getter and setter functions.
#include<iostream>
class ExampleEncap{
private:
/* Since we have marked these data members private,
* any entity outside this class cannot access these
* data members directly, they have to use getter and
* setter functions.
*/

85
int num;
char ch;
public:
/* Getter functions to get the value of data members.
* Since these functions are public, they can be accessed
* outside the class, thus provide the access to data members
* through them
*/
int getNum() const {
return num;
}
char getCh() const {
return ch;
}
/* Setter functions, they are called for assigning the values
* to the private data members.
*/
void setNum(int num) {
this->num = num;
}
void setCh(char ch) {
this->ch = ch;
}
};
int main(){
ExampleEncap obj;
obj.setNum(100);
obj.setCh('A');
cout<<obj.getNum()<<endl;
cout<<obj.getCh()<<endl;
return 0;
}
Output:
100
A
Abstraction in C++ with example
Abstraction is one of the feature of Object Oriented Programming, where you show only relevant
details to the user and hide irrelevant details. For example, when you send an email to someone
you just click send and you get the success message, what actually happens when you click send,
how data is transmitted over network to the recipient is hidden from you (because it is irrelevant
to you).
Let’s see how this can be achieved in a C++ program using access specifiers:
Abstraction Example
#include <iostream>

86
class AbstractionExample{
private:
/* By making these data members private, I have
* hidden them from outside world.
* These data members are not accessible outside
* the class. The only way to set and get their
* values is through the public functions.
*/
int num;
char ch;
public:
void setMyValues(int n, char c) {
num = n; ch = c;
}
void getMyValues() {
cout<<"Numbers is: "<<num<< endl;
cout<<"Char is: "<<ch<<endl;
}
};
int main(){
AbstractionExample obj;
obj.setMyValues(100, 'X');
obj.getMyValues();
return 0;
}
Output:
Numbers is: 100

Char is: X
Advantage of data abstraction
The major advantage of using this feature is that when the code evolves and you need to make
some adjustments in the code then you only need to modify the high level class where you have
declared the members as private. Since none class is accessing these data members directly, you
do not need to change the low level(user level) class code.
Imagine if you had made these data members public, if at some point you want to change the
code, you would have to make the necessary adjustments to all the classes that are accessing the
members directly.
Other advantages of data abstraction are:

1) Makes the application secure by making data private and avoiding the user level error that
may corrupt the data.
2) This avoids code duplication and increases the code reusability.
Interfaces in C++: Abstract Class

87
In C++, we use terms abstract class and interface interchangeably. A class with pure virtual
function is known as abstract class. For example the following function is a pure virtual
function:
virtual void fun() = 0;
A pure virtual function is marked with a virtual keyword and has = 0 after its signature. You can
call this function an abstract function as it has no body. The derived class must give the
implementation to all the pure virtual functions of parent class else it will become abstract class
by default.
Why we need a abstract class?
Let’s understand this with the help of a real life example. Lets say we have a class Animal, animal
sleeps, animal make sound, etc. For now I am considering only these two behaviours and
creating a class Animal with two functions sound() and sleeping().
Now, we know that animal sounds are different cat says “meow”, dog says “woof”. So what
implementation do I give in Animal class for the function sound(), the only and correct way of
doing this would be making this function pure abstract so that I need not give implementation in
Animal class but all the classes that inherits Animal class must give implementation to this
function. This way I am ensuring that all the Animals have sound but they have their unique
sound.
The same example can be written in a C++ program like this:
Abstract class Example

#include<iostream>
class Animal{
public:
//Pure Virtual Function
virtual void sound() = 0;
//Normal member Function

void sleeping() {
cout<<"Sleeping";
}
};
class Dog: public Animal{
public:
void sound() {
cout<<"Woof"<<endl;
}
};
int main(){
Dog obj;
obj.sound();

88
obj.sleeping();
return 0;
}
Rules of Abstract Class
1) As we have seen that any class that has a pure virtual function is an abstract class.
2) We cannot create the instance of abstract class. For example: If I have written this line Animal
obj; in the above program, it would have caused compilation error.
3) We can create pointer and reference of base abstract class points to the instance of child class.
For example, this is valid:
Animal *obj = new Dog();

obj->sound();
4) Abstract class can have constructors.

5) If the derived class does not implement the pure virtual function of parent class then the
derived class becomes abstract.
Friend Class and Friend Functions in C++
As we know that a class cannot access the private members of other class. Similarly a class that
doesn’t inherit another class cannot access its protected members.
Friend Class:
A friend class is a class that can access the private and protected members of a class in which it
is declared as friend. This is needed when we want to allow a particular class to access the
private and protected members of a class.
Function Class Example
In this example we have two classes XYZ and ABC. The XYZ class has two private data members
ch and num, this class declares ABC as friend class. This means that ABC can access the private
members of XYZ, the same has been demonstrated in the example where the function disp() of
ABC class accesses the private members num and ch. In this example we are passing object as an
argument to the function.
#include <iostream>
class XYZ {
private:
char ch='A';
int num = 11;
public:
/* This statement would make class ABC
* a friend class of XYZ, this means that
* ABC can access the private and protected
* members of XYZ class.
*/

89
friend class ABC;
};
class ABC {
public:
void disp(XYZ obj){
cout<<obj.ch<<endl;
cout<<obj.num<<endl;
}
};
int main() {
ABC obj;
XYZ obj2;
obj.disp(obj2);
return 0;
}
Output:
A
11
Friend Function:
Similar to friend class, this function can access the private and protected members of another
class. A global function can also be declared as friend as shown in the example below:
Friend Function Example

#include <iostream>
class XYZ {
private:
int num=100;
char ch='Z';
public:
friend void disp(XYZ obj);
};
//Global Function
void disp(XYZ obj){
cout<<obj.num<<endl;
cout<<obj.ch<<endl;
}
int main() {
XYZ obj;
disp(obj);
return 0;
}
Output:
100
Z

90
91

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C++ Tutorial

Features / advantages of object oriented programming/c++

4) Structured programming language – We have functions in C++, which makes easier to

Hello World – First C++ Program

//Single line comment

Compiled by Mr. Mike Mmena

//This is where the execution of program begins

// This is a single line comment

/* This function adds two integer numbers

Compiled by Mr. Mike Mmena

Syntax of declaring a variable in C++

int num1=20, num2=100;

We can also write it like this:

int: These type of of variables holds integer value.

bool: holds boolean value true or false.

Compiled by Mr. Mike Mmena

float: Single-precision floating point value.

Types of variables based on their scope

Lets take an example to understand it:

Global variable example

Compiled by Mr. Mike Mmena

Local variable example

Can global and local variable have same name in C++?

Compiled by Mr. Mike Mmena

Data Types in C++

Compiled by Mr. Mike Mmena

char: For characters. Size 1 byte.

int: For integers. Size 2 bytes.

int num = 100;

float: For single precision floating point. Size 4 bytes.

float num = 123.78987;

double: For double precision floating point. Size 8 bytes.

double num = 10098.98899;

bool: For booleans, true or false.

User-defined data types

We have three types of user-defined data types in C++

Derived data types in C++

Types of Operators in C++

1) Basic Arithmetic Operators

Example of Arithmetic Operators

Compiled by Mr. Mike Mmena

num1 + num2: 280

num2 = num1 would assign value of variable num1 to the variable.

num2+=num1 is equal to num2 = num2+num1

num2-=num1 is equal to num2 = num2-num1

num2*=num1 is equal to num2 = num2*num1

num2/=num1 is equal to num2 = num2/num1

num2%=num1 is equal to num2 = num2%num1

Example of Assignment Operators

Compiled by Mr. Mike Mmena

3) Auto-increment and Auto-decrement Operators

num–- is equivalent to num=num-1;

Example of Auto-increment and Auto-decrement Operators

num1++ is: 241

Logical operators in C++ are: &&, ||, !

Let’s say we have two boolean variables b1 and b2.

Compiled by Mr. Mike Mmena

> returns true if left side is greater than right.

< returns true if left side is less than right side.

num2=num1 is equal to num2 = num2num1