Content

1. Background
2. The Development of mass media research
3. Different kinds of theory
3.1 cultivqation theory
3.2Dependency theory
3.3. Media effect Research and Theory
3.4. Uses and Gratification Theory
3.5. Media Society Theory

i. Mass society theory

ii. Critical Political Economy theory

iii. Functionalism

iv. Social Constructionis

v. Communication Technology Determinism

vi. The Information Society

4. Special characteristics of Television

5. Conclusion

6. References
 1. Background
Television has the greatest potential for transmitting information to enormous numbers
of people. Television broadcasting began in the 1930s where as it had arrived on a
mass scale in the latter half of the 1940s. Because of this potential strength almost all
countries in all continents have radio and TV stations owned and operated by their
respective government.
Nepal was still far from using the fully modern system of communication till 1980s.
The year after 1980s brought about a communication explosion in Nepal. At a time
when radio set used to be considered as a symbol of luxury, the status of the families
with TV sets were regarded as a prestigious.
It was during the sixth plan period ( 1980-85) that the feasibility study on TV
broadcasting in Nepal was conducted. The first steps were initiated in 1983 towards
establishing a TV channel in Nepal in accordance with the concept of
“Communications for Development”.

2. The development of Mass Media Research

Television as the broadcast media and also the part of mass media, the development of
mass media research can be discussed under the development of Television research.
According to Wimmer and Dominick, the development of Mass Media research can be
studied within four phases-

Phase 1

The medium itself

Phase 4 Phase 2

How the medium can be Uses and users of the

improved medium

Phase 3

Effects of the medium

Phase 1. First phase involves the study of medium itself. It study on what is a
medium, how does it work? What technology does it involve, how it is similar or
different from already exist medium? What is its services and about its cost.

Phase 2. Once the medium is developed the second phase of research begins. It study
about, how do people use the medium in their life? What is their motive to use the
medium, who use it and what new medium doe it can be replaced.
 Phase 3. In the third phase, it involves the study of effect of medium. It includes
investigations of the social, psychological and physical effects created by the medium.
It study about the time spent by the people with the medium and the changes on
peoples perspectives about the content. It also study about the expectation of the
audience. It tries to find the negative as well as positive effects of the medium.

Phase 4. After having the three phases of research, here comes 4 th phase. It is
conducted to find out the solution to the problem created by the medium. It study
about how the medium can be improved in the forms of its function, technology
appearance and content.

3. Different types of theory.

Theories are the explanations of how or why things happen the way they do and
understanding of the subjectmatter. Commuication theories reflect the cultural and
social evolution in the society. The trend in mass communication research reveals that
the theories eveloped from’ powerful effects’ to limited effects to limited- powerful
effects. Theories are very important for understanding the trend and developments of
different types of media from past to the present.

3.1 Cultivation theory

George Gerbner develop this theory in 1976.Gerbner’s cultivation theory says that
television has become the main source of storytelling in today's society. Those who
watch four or more hours a day are labeled heavy television viewers and those who
view less then four hours per day, according to Gerbner are light viewers. Heavy
viewers are exposed to more violence and therefore are effected by the Mean World
Syndrome, an idea that the world is worse then it actually is. According to Gerbner,
the overuse of television is creating a homogeneous and fearful effect.
Cultivation theory gives special emphasis on the power of television to cultivate
stereotype images. It gives us the picture of crime, police or teachers, mother, father
over and overagain. Thus frequent viewers of television, according to the theory
develop images of the world that are more consistent with what is present on
television than what exist in the real world outside (Becker- 1987)

3.2 Dependency Theory.

Dependency theory emerged in latin America in late 1960s and 70s. Melvin l. De
Fleur and Sandra Ball- Rokeach postulated this theory. Though this theory is
grounded in the neo- maxist political economy approach, dependency theorists
aimed to provide an alternative framework to analyze international communication.
Central to dependency theory was the view that transnational communication
 (TNCS) more based in the North, exercise control with the support of their
respective governments over the developing countries by setting the terms for the
global trade- dominating on both hardware and software.
The idea of cultural imperialism is most clearly identified with the work of Herbert
Schiller. He argued that decling European colonial empires were being replace by a
new emergent of American empire based on US economic, military and
information power. Dependence in Us communications technology and investment
increases large scale imports of US media products especially TV programs.
Since media exports are ultimately dependent on sponsors for advertising they not
only advertise western goods and services but also promote a capitalist ‘American
way of life’. The result was an ‘electronic invasion’, especially in the global south,
which threated to undermine traditional cultures.
3.3 Media Effects Research and Theory.

The development of thinking about media effects may be said to have ‘ natural history’,
in the sense of its being strongly shaped by the circumstances of time and place.
According to the book’ Advances in theory and research’ 3 rd edition edited by Jennigs
Bryant and Mary beth oliver.There is four phases in the history of media effect Research
and Theory-

a) Phase 1- All powerful media

In the first phase extends from the turn of the century until the 1930, the new media of
press, film and radio were credited with considerable power to shape opinion and
belief, to change habits of audience and mould behavior according to the will of their
controllers.(Bauer 1960). For example the use of media by advertisers, by First World
War propagandists, by dictatorial states etc were based on this belief.

b) Phase 2- Theory of powerful media put to the test

Its beginning is well exemplified in the research literature by the series in the United
States in the early 1930s.(Blumer 1933, Blumer and Hauser 1933, Peterson and
Thurstone 1933). These studies were primarily concerned with the influence of films
on children and young people. The result confirmed many ideas about the effects on
the emotions, attitudes and behavior of young people. This era of research into media
effects continued until early 1963 with particular reference to the effects of television
when it arrived in the post war years. After post war era, research into media effects
opened much more focusing on age, education, sex, social and psychological factors.

c) Phase 3- powerful media rediscovered

As it is mentioned in two publication Katz and Lazarfeld’s ‘Personal Influence’ (1955)
and Klapper’s ‘ The effects of Mass Communication’ (1960), that that media has
minimal effects. It creats short term effects on individual instead of an broader social
and institutional effects. The reason for accepting a ‘minimal effects’ conclusion was
 the arrival of television in 1950s and 1960s as new medium with even more power of
attraction with major implications for social life. The renewal of effects research was
marked by a shift of attention towards long term change, towards what people learn
from the media or indirectly directly on attitudes and opinions.

d) Phase 4- Negotiated media influence

It views that media have most significant effects that is constructing meanings. The media
tends to offer ready made meaning systematically to their audience. But, it is up to the
audience to decide whether or not to adopt the views offered, although they are often the
only material available for forming an opinion on distant matters. Thus there is no
automatic or direct transfer of meaning but a negotiation between what is offered and
what is receiver accept.

This thought have some similarities with early ‘Powerful Media’ theory including
“Theory of ideology and false consciousness”, Gerbner’s ‘Cultivation theory’, Noelle-
Neumann ‘Spiral of silence Theory’.

The media content have both the positive as well as negative effects. Some of the theories
that deals with different forms of media effects are discussed below-

a) Narcotising dysfunction theory

The term narcotising dysfunction was first identified in the article Mass
Communication, Popular Taste and Organized Social Action, by Paul F. Lazarsfeld,
and Robert K. Merton..
The theory suggests that mediated information have temporal effects, especially those
from the entertainment channels. Here the content can distracts audiences from actual
problems and demobilize them.

b) Catharsis effects theory

In ancient times, Aristotle floated the Cathersis ideas. Seymour Feshbach, one of the
prominent scholars of this theory, argued that the media releases them from unfulfilled
desires of ill feelings. The catharsis theory posits that watching media violence relieves
the aggressive urges of those viewers in the audience.

c) Stimulation theory

The stimulation theory is actually based in philosophy of mind, especially the work of
Alvin Goldman and Robert Gordon.The stimulation theory posits that watching media
violence stimulates aggressive acts in real life by viewers in the audience.This theory
suggest that viewing violence ridden scenes stimulates the viewer to become aggressive
or violent.
3.4 Uses and gratification Theory

A version of individualist functional theory and research that seeks to explain the uses
of media and the satisfaction derived from them in terms of the motives and self-
perceived needs of audience members. Ths is also one version of ‘active audience’
theory and has been applied in the study of media effects.

Functionalist sociology viewed the media as serving the various needs of the society
as for cultural continuity, social control and a large circulation of public information
of all kinds. This, in turn, presupposes that individuals also use media for related
purposes, such aspersonal guidance, relaxation, adjustment, information and identity
formation.

The first such research begins form early 1940s. Lazarsfed and Stanton, 1944 and
1949 had done their research focused on popular appal of different radio programmes
especially ‘Soap operas’ and quizzes and also looked at daily newspaper reading. This
approach was rediscovered and elaboratd after 20 years later in the 1960s and 70s.

Commenting on this fresh approach in 1970, James Halloran said it let study move
away from thinking in terms of what media do to people and substituted the ideas of
what peple do wiht the media.

The assuption within model is that indviduals are active participants in the mass
communication process. People are seen to be able to select and reject aspects of
media according to individual needs.

3.5 Media Society Theory

The mass media instituion is a part of structure of society. Mass media and society are
continually interacting and influencing each other. As mention in Mc Quail’s Mass
Communication Theory book there are further six theories under the media society
theory, which are discussed below-

1) The mass society theory

The Mass Society Theory

 Society is organized centrally on a large scale

 The public becomes automized
 Media are centralized, with one way transmission
 People come to depend on media for their identity
 Media are used for manipulation and control

Mass society theory gives a idea that the media offer view of the world, which is a means
of manipulaton of people but also an aid to their psychic survivl under different condition.
C.Wright Mills’ in his word says’ “ Between consciousness and existence stand
communications, which influence such consciousness as men have their existence.”
2) Critical Political Economy theory
Critical Political economy theory is bsed on Karl Marx Marxist analysis of the media.
Karl Marx emphasized the fact that, media are the instruments of control by and for a
rulling class.
In marx’s German Ideology, he satates that – the class that has the means of material
production has control at the same time over the
means of mental producton, thereby, generally speaing the ideas of those who lack the
means of mental production are subject to it ( cited in Murdock nd Golding 1977).
This theory point a direct link between economic owenership and dissemination of
message. Media is always under the hold of economically powerful owners.
Critical Political –Economic Theory

 Economic control and logic are determinant

 Media structure always tends towards monopoly
 Global intregation of media ownership develops
 Contents and audiences are commodiffied
 Real diversity decresses
 Opposition and alternative voices are marginalized
 Public interest in communication is subordinated to provide private interests
 Access to the benefits of communication are unequally distributed

3) Functionalism
The main function of communication in society, according to Lasswell(1948), were
survillance of the environment, correlation of the prts of the society in responding to
its environment, and the transmission of the cultural heritage. Media plays very
important functioning role in the society. Some of the major functions of the media are
to provide information, entertainment, correlation, continuity, mobilization etc.
Functionalist theory of media
 Media are an instituton of society
 They perform the necessary task of order, control and cohesion
 They are also necessary for adaptaton and change
 Functions are recognizable in the effects of the media
 Management of tension
 There are also unintended harmful effects which can be classified as disfunction
 4) Social constructionism
The term social constructionism came in a light in social science by the publication of
Berger and Luckman’s book ‘ The Social Construction of Reality’ ( 1967). According
to this theory society is a construct rather than a fixed reality. Media helps to create the
reality, there constructed reality cannot be always ture.

Social Constructionism
 Society is a construct rather than a fixed reality
 Media provide the materials for reality construction
 Meanings are offered by media, but can be negotiated or rejected by
audience
 Media selectively reproduce certain meanings for agenda seting
 Media cannot give an objective account of social reality

5) Communication Technology Determinism

Placing high emphasis on technology, McLuhan announced that the medium is the
message, asserting that technology is the key determinant in conveying and creating a
impact on society. In Marshall McLuhan’s words-“ If the movie was the mechanization
of movement and gesture, TV was the electronificaton of the same.” He further says "
The medium is the message,no matter what the contents of the programmes, he argued
that the audiences will watch television " it commands their attention as no other medium
has. Development of each types of tecnology had their dominant role in the process of
communication during their time period.

McLuhan adressing to television says shape and structure of human society re determined
by tecnology. From politics to business we can observe the guidence from media. Here
McLuhan had adress to TV only because at that time computer and uses of internet has
not been established as the medium of communication.

This theory has been criticized much. As technology doesnot make effect but social
conditions or social consequences also determine the effects of the message. Stephenson
says- “ Medium is not absolutely message but it cnditions the message considerably.”
Medium could make the message more atractive of cannot change the meaning. Medium
does not affiliate the message but presentation can affect.
Communication tecnology Determinism
 Communication technology is fundamental to society
 Each technology has a bias to particular communication forms, conents and uses
 The sequence of invention and application of communication tecnology influences the
direction and pace of social change
 Communication revolution leads to social revolution
 End of the traditional culture
6) The information Society
Spectacular innovations in information and communicaton technologies especially
computing and their rapid global expansion have led to claims that this is the age of
informaton society.
The term ‘Information Society’ is originated in Japan in 20 th century but it was the US
where the concept received its most ordent intellectual support.
In hugely influential book, ‘The Coming of Post Industrial Society’ published in 1973,
Bell argued that US Society had moved from an industrial to post industrial one, a
society characterized by the domination of information and information related
industries.
The term ‘communication revolution’, along with the term ‘Information Society’, has
now almost came to be accepted as an objective discription of new time and new types
of society emerged.it is belived that one who have more access to the information will
be powerful.

Informaton Society Theory

 Informaton work replaces industrial work
 Production and flow of information accelerates
 Society is characterized by increasing interconnectivity
 Disparate activitis converge and integrate
 There is increasing dependency on complex systems
 Information theory is a ideology more than a theory

4. Special Characteristics of Television

Television is consider to be the main source of news and information for most people and as
the main channel of communication between politicians and citizen. It is a widersperead
mass media in terms of reach and popularity. McQuail summarizes some of the
characteristics of Television which are discussed below-

a) Large output range or reach

There are huge number of audience for Television medium. Different programs are targeted o
heterogeneous audience. Television audience may not be limited within the broader.
b) Complex technology and organization
television is run with complex technologies. So the technological knowledge is very much
necessary. Television station have their organizational structure. Broad members are
appointed for making plan and policies. Staffs are reqited for the media work.
c) High operating cost
Television use complex technology, which is very expensive. Different workers are
appointed, so the organization has to pay salary to them. Thus, it has high operating cost.
d) Direct public paricipaton
 Public can directly participate in the television program. They can send feedback according
to the program and content.
e) Fastest medium
Live telecasting is possible in television. Immidiate inccident can be captured and broadcast
througn television.
f) Close intimate, personally attached nature
Heterogeneous audience watching same program may feel intimate relation with the
character of television. They feel as if the character is the part of their own life.
g) Diverse content and format
Television programs are designed to fulfill the demand of the audience. Different audience
have different choice. So televion program carry diverse content and format to attract the
audiences.
h) More influensive
Television creats direct effect to the audiences. Audiences believes much on television. It has
more influensive power.
i) Strong distacting factors
Televion audience needs much attension while watching television. Outer force may distract
the audience from the particular program.
j) Extensive regulation
Television institution is the social organization. They have to follow laws, rules and
regulation of the society and nation. They have made their own ethical guidence. Their major
concerns is the resposibilities towards the society.
5. Conclusion

Science and technology has enhance the development of different new types of medium. Old
and traditonal medias are replaced by new and advanced types of media. Because of their
special characteristics they have special position in the field of mass communication. People
use television for different purposes, where as it is able to fulfill some how demand of
audiences. We cannto imagine the world without means of communication. As television can
creat great influence in th society, now a days it has becomes the part of our society.

While studying the theories for television we cannot leave behind the other mass
communcation theories. The functions, specialist and criteria of television cannot be
sufficently discussed within above mention research phases and theories. There are other
mass communication theories which can help for th study of Televsion. The four normative
theories of press propunded by Siebert, Peterson and Schramm in 1956 also have studied
about the types of media organization authority. Again theories can be studied under five
types such as Social Scientific, Cultural theory, Normative theory, Operational theory and
Day to Day or Every day theory.
TV in the contemporary era of satellite communication
Introduction
Television, in recent days, is the most influential and compulsory media. Due to its distinct
character, TV has created significant role in the society. It brings to mind a medium that
helps us to keep abreast with current affairs and entertainment.

Television was the first audio-visual aid that opened the door towards the realm of recreation
and mass communication. Unlike radio, it made it possible to watch live events sitting in
one's living room. It were the fifties that started influencing the lives of the common man.

History of Television
The word 'television' is derived from the Greek word 'tele' which translates as 'far sight' and
the latin word 'visio', which means 'sight'. Television takes to commercial markets in the late
1930s. It has taken the efforts of many engineers, over many decades, to progress along
different overlapping designs, to employ commonly accepted mechanical and electronic
principal. In 1926, John Logie Baird was able to demonstrate televised moving images, the
technology was combined with the image dissector designed by Philo Farnsworth, in
1927.The first development of sound backed pictures came in 1911, when Boris Rosing and
Vladimir Kozmich Zworykin used the mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit sound
through a Braun or cathode ray tube.

Charles Francis Jenkins gave the world the first demonstration of a working television
system on 26th January, 1926. The vertically scanned images were a result of an application
that derived functionality from a scanning disk and double spiral of lenses.
(Source: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/history-of-television.html)

After the horrible effect of the Second World War, the post-war economy was booming
around the world. According to surveys, approximately 3.1 million people had TV sets in
America in the fifties.

Facts about Television in the 1950s

The decade of 1950s is known as "the Golden Age of Television". Every family member
tried their best to get hold of a set of TV, as it was one of the sources of cheaper, simpler
entertaining media. Programs such as I love Lucy, Father knows Best, Our Miss Brooks and
Burns & Allen were some popular shows in the fifties.

Towards the mid-fifties, live performances of reality TV shows were broadcast for the first
time that created a different form of television entertainment. These programs of reality
television like Candid Camera broke the monotony of scripted drama.
News Programs

In 1952-1953, while NBC faced financial crisis and reduced its news programming, CBS
expanded its news operations. 1951 onwards, television networks started telecasting news
item such as See It Now. This was hosted by veteran news presenter Edward R Murrow. It
was a documentary series on public affairs that was telecast in sequences. Hence, television
in the '50s played a great role in making the people aware of their rights by telecasting news,
information as well as the election coverage.

Television Advertising

Television became the much sought-after medium of telecasting advertisements in the 1950s.
Various companies started looking at the television as the best medium to advertise for better
sale and popularity of their products. These companies began to sponsor popular shows and
programs, as advertising on them brought them a wide publicity. Thus, the businessmen
found a medium through which they can get a market for their products.

Television was first used as a medium for advertising the presidential campaign in the year
1952, by Dwight Eisenhower. Later on, all future presidential candidates started to rely on it
for advertising as a part of their strategy.

In America, black and white TV were extremely popular at the beginning of the 50s.
Gradually, by the mid-fifties, there came electronic colour television, which was followed by
launching of remote control and transistorized television sets towards 1959.

Thus, we can conclude that television in the 1950s brought an element of reality, news and
fun for the people and also helped create a sense of awareness against all the social ills. The
availability of movies and movie-related shows, reality shows, daily soaps and of course the
news programs have made it the prime media of entertainment in every household.
(Source: Ajanta Bhattacharya, 9/26/2011)

HISTORY OF TELEVISION IN NEPAL

The history of visual electronic media has no long history. Nepal has only the history of 27
years in television. Television in Nepal started with the establishment of Government Owned
‘Nepal Television’ in January 1985. It was launched as a project under the sixth development
plan (1980-1985) with the slogan "Communication for Development". Nepal Television was
set up with a broad mission statement, "Produce and telecast programs on educational,
religious and cultural conservation to promote national unity, conserve heritage and promote
national interest". Today, Nepal has twelve television broadcasters including the government
run- Nepal Television and NTV Plus. The private broadcasters are: Kantipur Television
owned by Kantipur Publication which is located at Tinkune, Kathmandu. Image Channel
owned by Image Groups of Companies is situated at Lazimpat, Kathmandu. Avenues
Television, a news and current affairs channel located at Tripureswor, Kathmandu, owned by
Avenues Ad. Sagarmatha Television, situated at Singhadurbar, Kathmandu. Channel Nepal
is in Shantinagar, Kathmandu which is also the first Nepali language satellite channel. TV
Filmy is owened by the Gopi Krishna Group that is situated at Chabel, Kathmandu.
Mountain Television, initially known as NBEX TV is situated at Kupondole, Lalitpur.
Himalayan Television broadcasts from Mid-Baneshwor, Kathmandu. Likewise, Terai
Television from Minbhawan, Kathmandu, was initially broadcasted from Birgunj. Likewise,
Nepal 1 is from India.

Furthermore, Makalu Television in Itahari, Himshikhar Television in Jhapa, Araniko

Television in Banepa, Crystal, Namaste and Abhiyan Television from Chitwan also giving
news and entertainment contents to their audiences.

History of Satellite
The Merriam-Webster dictionary Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines a satellite as a
celestial body orbiting another of larger size or a manufactured object or vehicle intended to
orbit the earth, the moon, or another celestial body.
Electronic communications devices like cell phones and computers on the internet utilize
satellite communications (SATCOM). Today's satellite communications can trace origins all
the way back to the moon. A project named Communication Moon Relay, was a
telecommunication project carried out by the United States Navy. Its objective was to
develop a secure and reliable method of wireless communication by using the Moon as a
natural communications satellite.
The first artificial satellite used solely to further advances in global communications was a
balloon named Echo 1. Echo 1 was world's first artificial communications satellite capable of
relaying signals to other points on Earth. It soared 1,000 miles (1,609 km) above the planet
after its Aug. 12, 1960 launch, yet relied on humanity's oldest flight technology —
ballooning. Launched by NASA, Echo 1 was a giant metallic balloon 100 feet (30 meters)
across. The world's first inflatable satellite — or "satelloon," as they were informally known
— helped lay the foundation of today's satellite communications. The idea behind a
communications satellite is simple: Send data up into space and beam it back down to
another spot on the globe. Echo 1 accomplished this by essentially serving as an enormous
mirror 10 stories tall that could be used to bounce communications signals off of. The first
American satellite to relay communications was Project SCORE in 1958, which used a tape
recorder to store and forward voice messages. It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the
world from U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhoer. NASA launched the Echo satellite in 1960;
the 100-foot (30 m) aluminized PET film balloon served as a passive reflector for radio
communications. Courier 1B, built by Philco, also launched in 1960, was the world's first
active repeater satellite.
It is commonly believed that the first "Satellite" was Sputnik 1. Put into orbit by the Soviet
Union, Sputnik 1, launched on October 4, 1957 and was equipped with an onboard radio-
transmitter that worked on two frequencies: 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Sputnik 1 had been
launched as step in the exploration of space and rocket development. While incredibly
important it was not placed in orbit for the purpose of sending data from one point on earth
to another. Hence, it was not the first "communications" satellite but it is the first artificial
satellite in the steps leading to today's satellite communications.
Telstar was the first active, direct relay communications satellite. Belonging to AT&T as part
of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the
British General Post Office, and the French National PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite
communications, it was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on July 10, 1962, the first
privately sponsored space launch.Relay 1 was launched on December 13, 1962, and became
the first satellite to broadcast across the Pacific on November 22, 1963.
An immediate antecedent of the geostationary satellites was Hughes' Syncom 2, launched on
July 26, 1963. Syncom 2 revolved around the earth once per day at constant speed, but
because it still had north-south motion, special equipment was needed to track it.
To an observer on the earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed
position in the sky. This is because it revolves around the earth at the earth's own angular
position, i.e 360 degrees every 24 hours.
A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at
the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion. This is relatively inexpensive.
In applications that require a large number of ground antennas, such asDirectTV distribution,
the savings in ground equipment can more than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing
a satellite into orbit.
The concept of the geostationary communications satellite was first proposed by Arthur C.
Clarke, building on work by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and on the 1929 work by Herman
Potočnik (writing as Herman Noordung) Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums — der
Raketen-motor. In October 1945 Clarke published an article titled "Extra-terrestrial Relays"
in the British magazine Wireless World. The article described the fundamentals behind the
deployment of artificial satellites in geostationary orbits for the purpose of relaying radio
signals. Thus, Arthur C. Clarke is often quoted as being the inventor of the communications
satellite.
The first geostationary satellite was Syncom 3, launched on August 19, 1964, and used for
communication across the Pacific starting with television coverage of the 1964 Summer
Olympics. Shortly after Syncom 3, Early Bird, was launched on April 6, 1965 and placed in
orbit at 28° west longitude. It was the first geostationary satellite for telecommunications
over the Atlantic Ocean.
On November 9, 1972, Canada's first geostationary satellite serving the continent, Anik A1,
was launched by Telesat Canada, with the United States following suit with the launch
of Westar 1 by Western Union on April 13, 1974.
On May 30, 1974, the first geostationary communications satellite in the world to be three-
axis stabilized was launched: the experimental satellite ATS-6 built for NASA.
After the launches of the Telstar through Westar 1 satellites, RCA Americom (later GE
Americom, now SES Americom launchedSatcom 1 in 1975. It was Satcom 1 that was
instrumental in helping early cable TV channels such as WTBS (now TBS
Superstation),HBO, CBN (now ABC Family), and The Weather Channel become successful,
because these channels distributed their programming to all of the local cable
TV headends using the satellite. Additionally, it was the first satellite used by broadcast
television networks in the United States, like ABC, NBC, and CBS, to distribute
programming to their local affiliate stations. Satcom 1 was widely used because it had twice
the communications capacity of the competing Westar 1 in America, resulting in lower
transponder-usage costs. Satellites in later decades tended to have even higher transponder
numbers. Communications Satellites are usually composed of the following subsystems:

 Communication Payload, normally composed of transponders, antenna, and switching

systems
 Engines used to bring the satellite to its desired orbit
 Station Keeping Tracking and stabilization subsystem used to keep the satellite in the
right orbit, with its antennas pointed in the right direction, and its power system pointed
towards the sun
 Power subsystem, used to power the Satellite systems, normally composed of solar
cells, and batteries that maintain power during solar eclipse
 Command and Control subsystem, which maintains communications with ground
control stations. The ground control earth stations monitor the satellite performance and
control its functionality during various phases of its life-cycle.

The bandwidth available from a satellite depends upon the number of transponders provided
by the satellite. Each service (TV, Voice, Internet, radio) requires a different amount of
bandwidth for transmission. This is typically known as link budgeting and a network
simulator can be used to arrive at the exact value.
As television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous delivery of relatively
few signals of large bandwidth to many receivers being a more precise match for the
capabilities of geosynchronous comsats. Two satellite types are used for North American
television and radio: Direct broadcast satellite (DBS), and Fixed Service Satellite (FSS)
The definitions of FSS and DBS satellites outside of North America, especially in Europe,
are a bit more ambiguous. Most satellites used for direct-to-home television in Europe have
the same high power output as DBS-class satellites in North America, but use the same
linear polarization as FSS-class satellites. Examples of these are the Astra, Eutelsat,
and Hotbird spacecraft in orbit over the European continent. Because of this, the terms FSS
and DBS are more so used throughout the North American continent, and are uncommon in
Europe.
Fixed Service Satellites use the C band, and the lower portions of the K u bands. They are
normally used for broadcast feeds to and from television networks and local affiliate stations
(such as program feeds for network and syndicated programming, live shots, and backhauls,
as well as being used for distance learning by schools and universities, business
television (BTV), Videoconferencing, and general commercial telecommunications. FSS
satellites are also used to distribute national cable channels to cable television headends.
Free-to-air satellite TV channels are also usually distributed on FSS satellites in the K u band.
The Intelsat Americas 5, Galaxy 10R andAMC 3 satellites over North America provide a
quite large amount of FTA channels on their Ku band transponders
The American Dish Network DBS service has also recently utilized FSS technology as well
for their programming packages requiring their SuperDish antenna, due to Dish Network
needing more capacity to carry local television stations per the FCC's "must-carry"
regulations, and for more bandwidth to carry HDTV channels.
A direct broadcast satellite is a communications satellite that transmits to small DBS satellite
dishes (usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in diameter). Direct broadcast satellites
generally operate in the upper portion of the microwave Ku band. DBS technology is used for
DTH-oriented (Direct-To-Home) satellite TV services, such as DirecTV and DISH Network
in the United States, Bell TV andShaw Direct in Canada, Freesat and Sky Digital in the UK,
the Republic of Ireland, and New Zealand and DSTV in South Africa.
In Nepal Channel Nepal was the first nepal channel broadcasted via Satellite in 2058 B.S,
After that Nepal television linked with Satellite. Now, almost all television broadcasted from
Kathmandu are linked with Satellite.
Investment and Expenditure in Nepali Television
More than3 0,000 television has linked to satellite in the World. In South Asian countries ,
India has more number of Television. India itself has more than 3000 televisions link to
Satellite. As we have discussed earlier, number of Nepali television has more than 16
stations.

Television Industry of Nepal has the investment of 15 billion rupees. This amount of
investment is excluded from community and government based television. (Arthik Abhiyan
Daily, January1, 2011). In an interview with Arthik Abhiyan Daily, Vice-President of
FNCCI, Bhaskar Raj Rajkarnikar had expressed that everyone, now a days, tend to television
as people are attracted towards television. According to Advertising Association of Nepal
(AAN), the advertising market of Nepal has 3.5 billion rupees yearly. Among this budget,
more than 900 million rupees are gathered by Nepal Television in Advertisement. The
Advertising market of Nepal is tiny, R.K Manandhar of Image Channel shared. He also said
that, television utmost should gathered around 4.5 to 5 million rupees in a month to run in
Profit. It is said that many television stations has been bearing loss.

The expenditure of television is varied. The Nepal Television has the expenditure budget of
20.5 million rupees in a month. Similarly, News 24 Television has the expenses of 4 to 4.5
million rupees. According to Shuva Shankar Kandel, executive Director of ABC Television,
ABC television expenses 4 to 5 million in a month. Likewise Tarai television also has the
same expenditure budget in a month. Likewise, about 8 lakhs is included to their budget to
link with the satellite monthly. According to the television enterprisers their expenditure will
be reduced doubled in the MPEG-4 satellite.

There are around 1500 people are employed in Television in Nepal.

To broadcast the Television in Satellite, a television should invest minimum 50 million

rupees, Manandhar said. Nowadays, most of the television has broadcasted through satellite.
Only four televisions in a valley broadcast their program through Terrestrial and Satellite
Media. These stations are Nepal Television, NTV Plus, Image Channel and Kantipur
Television. Similarly, Kantipur Television has extended its coverage to America, Malaysia
and UAE. Television should pay 2 percent royalty and 10 percent renewal charge every year.
Most of the television entrepreneurs have been urging against this charges.

In a bid to install the satellite, Nepal has formed a 5 member committee about buying the slot
in the universe. As being a member of International Telecom Union (ITU), Nepal has to buy
a slot to fix the satellite within 2015 A.D. It is said that Nepal has to pay 2 billion rupees to
different satellite operator from Telecom, DTH, television operation and other satellite users.
If Nepal has not made any process to install the satellite, the other country could buy it.
(Karobar Daily, April 18, 2013)

Effect and Affect of Satellite Television

According to a study published in 2008, conducted by John Robinson and Steven Martin
from the University of Maryland, people who are not satisfied with their lives spend 30%
more time watching TV than satisfied people do. The research was conducted with 30,000
people during the period between 1975 and 2006. This contrasted with a previous study,
which indicated that watching TV was the happiest time of the day for some people. Based
on his study, Robinson commented that the pleasurable effects of television may be likened
to an addictive activity, producing "momentary pleasure but long-term misery and regret.

Television has also been credited with changing the norms of social propriety, although the
direction and value of this change are disputed.

Globalization and Cultural Imperialism

Globalization has allowed for the spread of customs, language and products. Globalization
has allowed for people to be able to attain goods and services not previously available. You
can find Coca-Cola, McDonalds and KFC in most major cities throughout the world.
Globalization has allowed people to become familiar with the culture of other countries
allowing for a greater understanding. While globalization opens doors it also leads to
blending of cultures and the deterioration of unique cultural differences. The negatives of
globalization include gap between rich and poor, reduction in individual sovereignty of a
nation, environmental pollution and susceptibility of all parts of the world suffering with
recession in other countries.

Michael B. Salwen, in his book Critical Studies in Mass Communication (1991), claims that
cross-consideration and integration of empirical findings on cultural imperialist influences is
very critical in terms of understanding mass media in the international sphere. He recognizes
both of contradictory contexts on cultural imperialist impacts. The first context is where
cultural imperialism imposes socio-political disruptions on developing nations. Western
media can distort images of foreign cultures and provoke personal and social conflicts to
developing nations in some cases. Another context is that peoples in developing nations
resist to foreign media and preserve their cultural attitudes. Although he admits that outward
manifestations of Western culture may be adopted, but the fundamental values and
behaviours remain still. Furthermore, positive effects might occur when male-dominated
cultures adopt the “liberation” of women with exposure to Western media and it stimulates
ample exchange of cultural exchange.

Television programming has an especially important role in shaping such social meanings as
communication content dictates the way local or global mass media systems will affect
people's social experiences. Global characters of mass media create problems. Problems
arose from ideological struggles between the free-market West and communist East,
economic and social imbalance between the developed and the developed world, plus the
growth of global media concentration threatening freedom of communication. There is the
cultural and economic domination by the media of the developed world to developing world.

 Global media promote relations of dependency rather than economic growth.

 The imbalance in the flow of mass media content undermines cultural autonomy or
holds back its development.
 The unequal relationship in the flow of news increases the relative global power of
large and wealthy news-producing countries and hinders the growth of an appropriate
national identity and self-image.
 Global media flows give rise to a state of cultural homogenization or synchronization,
leading to a dominant form of cultural that has no specific connection with real
experiences for most people

Cultural effects of globalization

 Synchronization of culture
 Undermining national, regional and local cultures
 Commodification of cultural symbols
 Increased multiculturalism
 Hybridization and evolution of cultural forms
 Rise of global 'media culture'
 Deterritorializaiton of Culture

Conclusion
 After the development of satellite-made- communication, the content and media is
not limited to its boundary only. So, now every contents and broadcast is boundary
less. Now, it is necessary to understand the context and utilize the technology, is also
the great challenge to Nepalese Television broadcasters. To create the globalization of
Nepalese Channels, they should focus on these points.
The time zone of various countries and continent are different. There is day time in USA,
European sub continents while night in our country. So television in night time should
broadcast the contents focusing on international contents.
Television should focus on the various issues that help for the marketing of Tourism Industry
including mountains, nature, life, culture, religious, traditions and so on.
Nepalese living in outside the boundary are the audiences of Nepali channels. The content
should help to joining their views and making connections to them.
The advertisement of airlines, hotel, lodges, resorts, travel and trekking and other tourism
related agencies should be promoted.
The program should be made in English Language as Arirang of Korea, NHK of Japan.
More international audiences help to boost the Nepal and Nepalese in the international arena
as well as it also boost the number of advertisement.