ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

• Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that cause harm or
discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or that damage the environment, which
can come in the form of chemical substances, or energy such as noise, heat or light.
Pollutants can be naturally occurring substances or energies, but are considered
contaminants when in excess of natural levels.
• Environmental pollution takes place when the environment cannot process and neutralize
harmful by-products of human activities (poisonous gas emissions) in due course without
any structural or functional damage to its system.
• Pollution occurs, on the one hand, because the natural environment does not know how to
decompose the unnaturally generated elements (i.e., anthropogenic pollutants), and, on the
other, there is a lack of knowledge on the part of humans on how to decompose these
pollutants artificially. It may last many years during which the nature will attempt to
decompose the pollutants; in one of the worst cases – that of radioactive pollutants – it
may take as long as thousands of years for the decomposition of such pollutants to be
completed.
• Pollutants: Any substance which causes pollution.

AIR POLLUTION
• Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical,
physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere.
• Household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities and forest fires are
common sources of air pollution. Pollutants of major public health concern include
particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide.
• Outdoor and indoor air pollution cause respiratory and other diseases and is an important
source of morbidity and mortality.
• 4.2 million deaths every year occur as a result of exposure to ambient (outdoor) air
pollution.
• 3.8 million deaths every year as a result of household exposure to smoke from dirty
cookstoves and fuels.
• 9 out of 10 people worldwide live in places where air quality exceeds WHO guideline
limits.

Types of Air Pollutants:

1. Primary Pollutants: injected into the atmosphere directly such as:
i. carbon monoxide (CO): odourless, colourless, poisonous gas created by
incomplete combustion (especially bad with older cars) generates headaches,
drowsiness, fatigue, can result in death
ii. oxides of nitrogen (NOx, NO), NO - nitric oxide emitted directly by autos,
industry
iii. sulphur oxides (SOx), SO2 - sulphur dioxide produced largely through coal
burning responsible for acid rain problem
iv. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) highly reactive organic compounds release
through incomplete combustion and industrial sources
 v. particulate matter (dust, ash, salt particles): bad for your lungs
2. Secondary Pollutants: form in the atmosphere through chemical and photochemical
reactions from the primary pollutants.
i. Ozone (O3): colourless gas, has a sweet smell, is an oxidizing agent - lung tissue
to rubber products, irritates the eyes.
ii. Photochemical smog
iii. Acid Rain (Sulphuric acid, nitric acid)
iv. Peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs)

Natural sources:
• Naturally occurring particulate matter (PM) includes dust from the earth’s surface (crustal
material), sea salt in coastal areas and biological material, in the form of pollen, spores or
plant and animal debris.
• Volcanic eruptions can introduce very important quantities of gases and particles into the
atmosphere. For example, the Etna volcano emits 3,000 tons of sulphur dioxide (SO2) on
an average day and up to 10,000 tons during periods of great activity. During the
cataclysmic eruptions of the Tambora in 1815 in Indonesia, 100 billion tons of volcanic
products were ejected into the atmosphere, 300 million tons of which reached the
stratosphere, which resulted in a mean temperature fall of ~0.7°C over the whole Earth.
• In some rural areas, periodic forest fires produce large amounts of PM.
• Other natural sources of air pollution include:
i. thunderbolts, which produce significant quantities of oxides of nitrogen (NOx);
ii. algae on the surface of the oceans, which give out hydrogen sulphide (H2S);
iii. wind erosion, which introduces particles into the atmosphere; and
iv. humid zones, such as swamps, peat-bogs or little deep lakes, which produce
methane (CH4).
v. Low concentrations of O3 occur naturally at ground level, formed in the presence
of sunlight by reactions between NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Anthropogenic sources:
• Industrial chimney wastes: Petroleum refineries (SO2, NOx). Mathura based petroleum
refinery is posing threat to Taj Mahal in Agra and other monuments in Fatehpur Sikri
complex.
• Cement factory, stone crushers- suspended particulate matter (SPM).
• Fertilizer industry: particulate matter, gaseous NH3, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur and carbon
dioxide.
• Thermal power stations fly ash, SO2, hydrocarbons, NOx, CO, SPM
• Automobiles: CO (70%), SPM, SO2, NOx
Carbon compounds (CO)
• CO is released when something is burned.
• The greatest sources of CO to outdoor air are cars, trucks and other vehicles or machinery
that burn fossil fuels.
• Other sources include: unvented kerosene and gas space heaters, leaking chimneys and
furnaces, back-drafting from furnaces, gas water heaters, wood stoves and fireplaces, gas
 stoves, generators and other gasoline powered equipment, automobile exhaust from
attached garages, tobacco smoke, auto, truck, or bus exhaust from attached garages, nearby
roads, or parking areas, incomplete oxidation during combustion in gas ranges, and
unvented gas or kerosene heaters, worn or poorly adjusted and maintained combustion
devices (e.g., boilers, furnaces), if the flue is improperly sized, blocked or disconnected, if
the flue is leaking.
Health Effects Associated with Carbon Monoxide
i. At low concentrations: fatigue in healthy people, chest pain in people with heart disease
ii. At moderate concentrations: angina, impaired vision, reduced brain function
iii. At higher concentrations: impaired vision and coordination, headaches, dizziness,
confusion, nausea, flu-like symptoms that clear up after leaving home, fatal at very high
concentrations
iv. Acute effects are due to the formation of carboxyhaemoglobin in the blood, which
inhibits oxygen intake.
Levels in Homes
Average levels in homes without gas stoves vary from 0.5 to 5 parts per million (ppm). Levels
near properly adjusted gas stoves are often 5 to 15 ppm and those near poorly adjusted stoves
may be 30 ppm or higher.
Sulphur Compounds
• The largest source of SO2 in the atmosphere is the burning of fossil fuels by power plants
and other industrial facilities.
• Smaller sources of SO2 emissions include: industrial processes such as extracting metal
from ore; ships and other vehicles and heavy equipment that burn fuel with a high sulphur
content.
• Hydrogen sulphide (H2S): decaying vegetation, animal matter, especially in aquatic
habitat, industrial emissions.
Harmful effects
i. Short-term exposures to SO2 can harm the human respiratory system and make breathing
difficult.
ii. People with asthma, particularly children, are sensitive to these effects of SO2.
iii. SO2 emissions that lead to high concentrations of SO2 in the air generally also lead to the
formation of other sulphur oxides (SOx).
iv. SOx can react with other compounds in the atmosphere to form small particles. These
particles contribute to particulate matter (PM) pollution.
v. Small particles may penetrate deeply into the lungs and in sufficient quantity can
contribute to health problems.
vi. At high concentrations, gaseous SOx can harm trees and plants by damaging foliage and
decreasing growth.
 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) is one of a group of highly reactive gases known as oxides of
nitrogen or nitrogen oxides (NOx).
• Other nitrogen oxides include nitrous acid and nitric acid. NO2 is used as the indicator for
the larger group of nitrogen oxides.
• NO2 primarily gets in the air from the burning of fuel. NO2 forms from emissions from
cars, trucks and buses, power plants, and off-road equipment.
Effects of NO2
Health effects
i. Breathing air with a high concentration of NO2 can irritate airways in the human
respiratory system. Such exposures over short periods can aggravate respiratory diseases,
particularly asthma, leading to respiratory symptoms (such as coughing, wheezing or
difficulty breathing), hospital admissions and visits to emergency rooms.
ii. Longer exposures to elevated concentrations of NO2 may contribute to the development
of asthma and potentially increase susceptibility to respiratory infections.
iii. People with asthma, as well as children and the elderly are generally at greater risk for
the health effects of NO2.
iv. NO2 along with other NOx reacts with other chemicals in the air to form both particulate
matter and ozone. Both of these are also harmful when inhaled due to effects on the
respiratory system.
Environmental effects
• NO2 and other NOx interact with water, oxygen and other chemicals in the atmosphere
to form acid rain. Acid rain harms sensitive ecosystems such as lakes and forests.
• The nitrate particles that result from NOx make the air hazy and difficult to see though.
This affects the many national parks that we visit for the view.
• NOx in the atmosphere contributes to nutrient pollution in coastal waters.
Particulate Matter (PM)
PM stands for particulate matter (also called particle pollution): the term for a mixture of solid
particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke,
are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye. Others are so small they can only be
detected using an electron microscope.
Particle pollution includes:
PM10: inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 10 micrometres and smaller; and
PM2.5: fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometres and smaller.
Sources of PM
• These particles come in many sizes and shapes and can be made up of hundreds of
different chemicals.
• Some are emitted directly from a source, such as construction sites, unpaved roads, fields,
smokestacks or fires.
 • Most particles form in the atmosphere as a result of complex reactions of chemicals such
as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which are pollutants emitted from power plants,
industries and automobiles.
Harmful Effects of PM
• Particulate matter contains microscopic solids or liquid droplets that are so small that
they can be inhaled and cause serious health problems.
• Some particles less than 10 micrometres in diameter can get deep into your lungs and
some may even get into your bloodstream.
• Of these, particles less than 2.5 micrometres in diameter, also known as fine particles or
PM2.5, pose the greatest risk to health.
• Fine particles are also the main cause of reduced visibility (haze) in parts of the United
States, including many of our treasured national parks and wilderness areas.
Lead Air Pollution
• Sources of lead emissions vary from one area to another.
• At the national level, major sources of lead in the air are ore and metals processing and
piston-engine aircraft operating on leaded aviation fuel.
• Other sources are waste incinerators, utilities, and lead-acid battery manufacturers. The
highest air concentrations of lead are usually found near lead smelters.
Effects of lead on human health
• Once taken into the body, lead distributes throughout the body in the blood and is
accumulated in the bones.
• Depending on the level of exposure, lead can adversely affect the nervous system, kidney
function, immune system, reproductive and developmental systems and the
cardiovascular system.
• Lead exposure also affects the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.
• The lead effects most likely to be encountered in current populations are neurological
effects in children.
• Infants and young children are especially sensitive to lead exposures, which may
contribute to behavioural problems, learning deficits and lowered IQ.
Effects of lead on ecosystems
• Lead is persistent in the environment and can be added to soils and sediments through
deposition from sources of lead air pollution.
• Other sources of lead to ecosystems include direct discharge of waste streams to water
bodies and mining.
• Elevated lead in the environment can result in decreased growth and reproduction in
plants and animals, and neurological effects in vertebrates.
Hydrocarbons
• The term 'hydrocarbons' is often used when discussing traffic pollution. This refers to a
group of chemicals of which volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a subgroup.
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) comprise of a range of chemical compounds all of
which contribute, to varying degrees, to the formation of ground level ozone. In addition,
certain VOCs are known to cause cancer.
• Current attention is focused on 1,3 butadiene, primarily from vehicle exhausts, and
benzene.
• Benzene in the atmosphere either comes from the combustion or evaporation of petrol.
• Levels are therefore highest close to busy roads or in the vicinity of petrol filling stations.
Health effects
Long-term exposure to high levels of benzene and 1,3 butadiene has been linked to leukaemia
and cancer.
Aerosols
• There is more than just air in the sky. There are also billions of tiny floating particles called
aerosols or particulates. In each cubic centimetre of air, there can be hundreds or thousands
of aerosols!
• Some aerosols are so small that they are made of only a few molecules and can only be
seen through an electron microscope. Some aerosols are large enough to be seen with the
eye, but are still small enough to be suspended in the air. In general, the smaller and lighter
a particle is, the longer it will stay in the atmosphere. Larger particles tend to settle to the
ground in a matter of hours, whereas the smallest particles (less than 1 micrometre) can
stay in the atmosphere for weeks and are mainly carried back to the Earth's surface through
precipitation.
• Some aerosols are a natural part of the atmosphere - coming from erupting volcanoes, sea
salt, and wildfires. However, humans add lots of aerosols to the atmosphere by burning
fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas. Aerosols are a part of air pollution and are dangerous
to human health. When we breathe in these tiny particles, they can damage lung tissue and
lead to lung diseases. Aerosols can also limit visibility, causing haze in many parts of the
world.
• Aerosols in the atmosphere can change the amount of solar energy reflected away from
Earth. Not all aerosols react the same when hit with sunlight. Sea salt particles reflect
sunlight back out into space. Black carbon particles from burning wood or fossil fuels
absorb most of the sunlight that hits them.

Photochemical Smog
Smoke+ Fog= Smog
• Photochemical smog is a type of smog produced when ultraviolet light from the sun reacts
with nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere.
• It is visible as a brown haze, and is most prominent during the morning and afternoon,
especially in densely populated, warm cities.
• Cities that experience this smog daily include Los Angeles, Sydney, Mexico City, Beijing,
and many more.
• Primary pollutants: The two major primary pollutants, nitrogen oxides and VOCs,
combine to change in sunlight in a series of chemical reactions, outlined below, to create
what are known as secondary pollutants.
• Secondary pollutants: The secondary pollutant that causes the most concern is the ozone
that forms at ground level. While ozone is produced naturally in the upper atmosphere
(stratosphere); it is a dangerous substance when found at ground level. Many other
hazardous substances are also formed, such as peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
Major sources of Photochemical smog:
• While nitrogen oxides and VOCs are produced biogenically (in nature), there are also
major anthropogenic (man-made) emissions of both. Natural emissions tend to be spread
over large areas, reducing their effects, but man-made emissions tend to be concentrated
close to their source, such as a city.
• Biogenic sources: In nature, bushfires, lightning and the microbial processes that occur in
soil generate nitrogen oxides. VOCs are produced from the evaporation of naturally-
occurring compounds, such as terpenes, which are the hydrocarbons in oils that make them
burn. Eucalypts have also been found to release significant amounts of these compounds.
• Anthropogenic sources: Nitrogen oxides are produced mainly from the combustion of
fossil fuels, particularly in power stations and motor vehicles. VOCs are formed from the
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, from the evaporation of solvents and fuels, and from
burning plant matter—such as backyard burning and wood-burning stoves.
Formation:
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) can be broken down by sunlight to form nitric oxide (NO) and an
oxygen radical (O):
1) NO2 + sunlight → NO + O
Oxygen radicals can then react with atmospheric oxygen (O2) to form ozone (O3):
2) O + O2 → O3
Ozone is consumed by nitric oxide to produce nitrogen dioxide and oxygen:
3) O3 + NO → NO2 + O2
Harmful products, such as PAN, are produced by reactions of nitrogen dioxide with various
hydrocarbons (R), which are compounds made from carbon, hydrogen and other substances:
4) NO2 + R → products such as PAN
The main source of these hydrocarbons is the VOCs. Similarly, oxygenated organic and
inorganic compounds (ROx) react with nitric oxide to produce more nitrogen oxides:
5) NO + ROx → NO2 + other products
The significance of the presence of the VOCs in these last two reactions is paramount. Ozone
is normally consumed by nitric oxide, as in reaction 3. However, when VOCs are present, nitric
oxide and nitrogen dioxide are consumed as in reactions 4 and 5, allowing the build-up of
ground level ozone.
Effects of Photochemical smog:
Photochemical smog can have an effect on the environment, on people’s health and even on
various materials. The main visible effect is the brown haze that can be seen above many cities.
The brown tinge is caused by very small liquid and solid particles scattering the light.
Plants
Chemicals such as nitrogen oxides, ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) can have harmful
effects on plants. These substances can reduce or even stop growth in plants by reducing
photosynthesis. Ozone, even in small quantities, can achieve this, but PAN is even more toxic
to plants than ozone.
Health
The biggest concern about photochemical smog is the effect it has on people’s health.
Pollutant Effects
Nitrogen oxides • can contribute to problems with heart and lungs
• links to decreased resistance to infection
Volatile organic • eye irritation
compounds • respiratory problems
(VOCs) • some compounds are carcinogens
Ozone • coughing and wheezing
• eye irritation
• respiratory problems (particularly for conditions such as asthma)
Peroxyacetyl nitrate • eye irritation
(PAN) • respiratory problems

Materials
Ozone can damage various compounds. It can cause the cracking of rubber, the reduction in
tensile strength of textiles, fading of dyed fibres and cracking of paint. Ozone’s potential to
damage artworks and books is of cultural importance, and some museums and libraries have
taken steps to minimise this effect.
 ACID RAIN
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic
components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet
or dry forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic. Pure water has
a pH of 7, and, generally, rainfall is somewhat on the acidic side (a bit less than 6). But, acid
rain can have a pH of about 5.0-5.5, and can even be in the 4 range in the north-eastern United
States, where there are a lot of industries and cars.

Causes of Acid Rain:

i. Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into
the atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react with
water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with
water and other materials before falling to the ground.
ii. While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources
such as volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The major sources
of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
• Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth
of NOX in the atmosphere come from electric power generators.
• Vehicles and heavy equipment.
• Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
iii. Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain
a problem for everyone and not just those who live close to these sources.

Forms of Acid Deposition

1. Wet Deposition
Wet deposition is what we most commonly think of as acid rain. The sulfuric and nitric
acids formed in the atmosphere fall to the ground mixed with rain, snow, fog, or hail.
2. Dry Deposition
Acidic particles and gases can also deposit from the atmosphere in the absence of moisture
as dry deposition. The acidic particles and gases may deposit to surfaces (water bodies,
vegetation, buildings) quickly or may react during atmospheric transport to form larger
particles that can be harmful to human health. When the accumulated acids are washed off
a surface by the next rain, this acidic water flows over and through the ground, and can
harm plants and wildlife, such as insects and fish.
• The amount of acidity in the atmosphere that deposits to earth through dry deposition
depends on the amount of rainfall an area receives. For example, in desert areas the ratio
of dry to wet deposition is higher than an area that receives several inches of rain each
year.
The Effects of Acid Rain
• Acid rain can be carried great distances in the atmosphere, not just between countries but
also from continent to continent.
 • The acid can also take the form of snow, mists and dry dusts.
• The rain sometimes falls many miles from the source of pollution but wherever it falls it
can have a serious effect on soil, trees, buildings and water.
• Forests all over the world are dying, fish are dying. In Scandinavia there are dead lakes,
which are crystal clear and contain no living creatures or plant life. Many of Britain's
freshwater fish are threatened, there have been reports of deformed fish being hatched.
This leads to fish-eating birds and animals being affected also.
Forests
Acid rain can affect trees in several different ways, it may:
• dissolve and wash away the nutrients and minerals in the soil which help the trees to grow.
• cause the release of harmful substances such as aluminium into the soil.
• wear away the waxy protective coating of leaves, damaging them and preventing them from
being able to photosynthesise properly.
A combination of these effects weakens the trees which means that they can be more easily
attacked by diseases and insects or injured by bad weather. It is not just trees that are affected
by acid rain, other plants may also suffer.
Lakes and Rivers
• It is in aquatic habitats that the effects of acid rain are most obvious. Acid rain runs off the
land and ends up in streams, lakes and marshes - the rain also falls directly on these areas.
• As the acidity of a lake increases, the water becomes clearer and the numbers of fish and
other aquatic organisms decline.
• Some species of plant and animal are better able to survive in acidic water than others.
Freshwater shrimps, snails, mussels are the most quickly affected by acidification followed
by fish such as minnows, salmon and roach. The roe and fry (eggs and young) of the fish
are the worst affected, the acidity of the water can cause deformity in young fish and can
prevent eggs from hatching properly.
• The acidity of the water does not just affect species directly, it also causes toxic substances
like aluminium to be released into the water from the soil, harming fish and other aquatic
animals.
• Lakes, rivers and marshes each have their own fragile ecosystem with many different
species of plants and animals all depending on one another to survive. If a species of fish
disappears, the animals which feed on it will gradually disappear too. If the extinct fish
used to feed on a particular species of large insect, that insect population will start to grow,
this in turn will affect the smaller insects or plankton on which the larger insect feeds.
Buildings
Every type of material will become eroded sooner or later by the effects of the climate. Water,
wind, ice and snow all help in the erosion process but unfortunately, acid rain can help to make
this natural process even quicker. Statues, buildings, vehicles, pipes and cables can all suffer.
The worst affected are things made from limestone or sandstone as these types of rock are
particularly susceptible and can be affected by air pollution in gaseous form as well as by acid
rain.
 Measurement of Air Quality
1. Measurement of Emission
This is called stack sampling when a stationary source is analysed.
2. Meteorological measurement
It is necessary to know how and why the pollutants travel from the source to the recipient.
3. Measurement of particles
Dust-fall: are the simplest means of evaluating air quality. The dust is collected either in
open buckets or on sticky tape wrapped around jars. The sampling period is generally 30
days.
High volume sampler: it operates like a vacuum cleaner. Sampling time is generally 24hrs.
Tape sampler: Here sampling time is 10 mins. The particulates are caught on a paper tape.
4. Measurement of Gases
Adsorption: is a surface phenomenon and activated carbon is usually the adsorbent.
Absorption: is the dissolving chemically trapping the gases.
Grab sampling of a gas are often taken for future analysis in the laboratory.
Stack sampling involves the sampling of gases from smokestack.

Prevention and Control of Air Pollution

Some of the effective methods to Control Air Pollution are as follows: (I) Source Correction
Methods (II) Pollution Control equipment (III) Diffusion of pollutant in air (IV) Vegetation
(V) Zoning.

(I) Source Correction Methods:

Industries make a major contribution towards causing air pollution. Formation of pollutants
can be prevented and their emission can be minimised at the source itself.
By carefully investigating the early stages of design and development in industrial processes
e.g., those methods which have minimum air pollution po-tential can be selected to accomplish
air-pollution control at source itself.
These source correction methods are:
(i) Substitution of raw materials:
If the use of a particular raw material results in air pollution, then it should be substituted by
another purer grade raw material which reduces the formation of pollutants. Thus,
(a) Low sulphur fuel which has less pollution potential can be used as an alter-native to
high Sulphur fuels, and
(b) Comparatively more refined liquid petroleum gas (LPG) or liquefied natu-ral gas
(LNG) can be used instead of traditional high contaminant fuels such as coal.
(ii) Process Modification:
The existing process may be changed by using modified techniques to control emission at
source. For example,
(a) If coal is washed before pulverization, then fly-ash emissions are consider-ably reduced.
(b) If air intake of boiler furnace is adjusted, then excess Fly-ash emissions at power plants can
be reduced.
(iii) Modification of Existing Equipment:
Air pollution can be considerably minimised by making suitable modifications in the existing
equipment:
(a) For example, smoke, carbon-monoxide and fumes can be reduced if open hearth furnaces
are replaced with controlled basic oxygen furnaces or elec-tric furnaces.
(b) In petroleum refineries, loss of hydrocarbon vapours from storage tanks due to evaporation,
temperature changes or displacement during filling etc. can be reduced by designing the storage
tanks with floating roof covers.
(c) Pressurising the storage tanks in the above case can also give similar re-sults.
(iv) Maintenance of Equipment:
An appreciable amount of pollution is caused due to poor maintenance of the equipment which
includes the leakage around ducts, pipes, valves and pumps etc. Emission of pollutants due to
negligence can be minimised by a routine check-up of the seals and gaskets.

(II) Pollution Control Equipment:

Sometimes pollution control at source is not possible by preventing the emis-sion of pollutants.
Then it becomes necessary to install pollution control equip-ment to remove the gaseous
pollutants from the main gas stream.
The pollutants are present in high concentration at the source and as their distance from the
source increases, they become diluted by diffusing with envi-ronmental air.
Pollution control equipment’s are generally classified into two types:
(a) Control devices for particulate contaminants.
(b) Control devices for gaseous contaminants.
Control Devices for Particulate Contaminants:
(1) Gravitational Settling Chamber:
For removal of particles exceeding 50 µm in size from polluted gas streams, gravitational
settling chambers are put to use.
(2) Cyclone Separators (Reverse flow Cyclone):
Instead of gravitational force, centrifugal force is utilized by cyclone separators, to separate the
particulate matter from the polluted gas. Centrifugal force, several times greater than
gravitational force, can be generated by a spinning gas stream and this qual-ity makes cyclone
separators more effective in removing much smaller parti-culates than can possibly be removed
by gravitational settling chambers.
(3) Fabric Filters (Baghouse Filters):
In a fabric filter system, a stream of the polluted gas is made to pass through a fabric that filters
out the particulate pollutant and allows the clear gas to pass through. The particulate matter is
left in the form of a thin dust mat on the insides of the bag. This dust mat acts as a filtering
medium for further removal of particulates increasing the efficiency of the filter bag to sieve
more sub-micron particles (0.5 µm).
(4) Electrostatic Precipitators:
The electrostatic precipitator works on the principle of electrostatic precipitation i.e.,
electrically charged particulates present in the polluted gas are separated from the gas stream
under the influence of the electrical field.
As the electrostatic precipitation has 99% efficiency and can be oper-ated at high temperatures
(600°C) and pressure at less power requirement, therefore, it is economical and simple to
operate compared to other devices.
(5) Wet Collectors (Scrubbers):
In wet collectors or scrubbers, the particulate contaminants are removed from the polluted gas
stream by incorporating the particulates into liquid droplets.
Common wet scrubbers are:
(i) Spray Tower: Water is introduced into a spray tower by means of a spray nozzle (i.e. there
is downward flow of water). As the polluted gas flows upwards, the particulates (size exceeding
10 µm) present collide with the water droplets be-ing sprayed downward from the spray
nozzles. Under the influence of gravita-tional force, the liquid droplets containing the
particulates settle to the bottom of the spray tower.
(ii) Venturi Scrubber: Submicron particulates (size 0.5 to 5 µn) associated with smoke and
fumes.
(iii) Cyclone Scrubber: The high-pressure spray nozzles generate a fine spray that intercepts
the small particles in the polluted gas. The centrifugal force throws these particles to-wards the
wall from where they are drained downwards to the bottom of the scrubber.

(III) Diffusion of Pollutants in Air:

Dilution of the contaminants in the atmosphere is another approach to the con-trol of air
pollution. If the pollution source releases only a small quantity of the contaminants, then
pollution is not noticeable as these pollutants easily diffuse into the atmos-phere but if the
quantity of air contaminants is beyond the limited capacity of the environment to absorb the
contaminants, then pollution is caused.
However, dilution of the contaminants in the atmosphere can be accomplished through the use
of tall stacks which penetrate the upper atmospheric layers and disperse the contaminants so
that the ground level pollution is greatly re-duced. The height of the stacks is usually kept 2 to
21/2 times the height of nearby structures.
Dilution of pollutants in air depend on atmospheric temperature, speed and direction of the
wind. The disadvantage of the method is that it is a short-term contact measure which in reality
brings about highly undesirable long-range effects.
This is so because dilution only dilutes the contaminants to levels at which their harmful effects
are less noticeable near their original source whereas at a considerable distance from the source
these very contaminants eventually come down in some form or another.

(IV) Vegetation:
Plants contribute towards controlling air-pollution by utilizing carbon dioxide and releasing
oxygen in the process of photosynthesis. This purifies the air (removal of gaseous pollutants
like CO2) for the respiration of men and animals.
Gas-eous pollutants like carbon monoxide are fixed by some plants, namely, Coleus, Ficus and
Phascolus. Species of Pinus, Quercus, Pyrus, Juniperus and Vitis depollute the air by
metabolising nitrogen oxides. Plenty of trees should be planted especially around those areas
which are de-clared as high-risk areas of pollution.

(V) Zoning:
This method of controlling air pollution can be adopted at the planning stages of the city.
Zoning advocates setting aside of separate areas for industries so that they are far removed
from the residential areas. The heavy industries should not be located too close to each other.
New industries, as far as possible, should be established away from larger cities and the
locational decisions of large industries should be guided by regional planning. The industrial
estate of Bangalore is divided into three zones namely light, medium and large industries. In
Bangalore and Delhi very, large industries are not permitted.
About National Air Quality Index
1. Air Quality Index is a tool for effective communication of air quality status to people in
terms, which are easy to understand. It transforms complex air quality data of various pollutants
into a single number (index value), nomenclature and colour.
2. There are six AQI categories, namely Good, moderate, unhealthy for sensitive group,
unhealthy, very unhealthy and hazardous. Each of these categories is decided based on ambient
concentration values of air pollutants and their likely health impacts (known as health
breakpoints). AQ sub-index and health breakpoints are evolved for eight pollutants (PM10,
PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb) for which short-term (up to 24-hours) National
Ambient Air Quality Standards are prescribed.
3. “Action days” are called when the AQI is in the unhealthy range.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards were published by Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) in 1994.
Central Pollution Control Board is executing a nation-wide programme of ambient air quality
monitoring known as National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP). The network
consists of 804 operating stations covering 344 cities/towns in 28 states and 6 Union Territories
of the country.
A continuous ambient air quality monitoring system is a specialized system. The real time data
generated through this system is transferred to central data server and also for digital display
board for public viewing. These data are being used for generating the daily National Air
Quality Index of the cities.
To regulate vehicular pollution, the Central Motor Vehicle Act of 1936 was amended in 1989.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy

Bhopal disaster, chemical leak in 1984 in the city of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh state, India. At
the time, it was called the worst industrial accident in history.
On December 3, 1984, about 45 tons of the dangerous gas methyl isocyanate escaped from an
insecticide plant that was owned by the Indian subsidiary of the American firm Union Carbide
Corporation. The gas drifted over the densely populated neighbourhoods around the plant,
killing thousands of people immediately and creating a panic as tens of thousands of others
attempted to flee Bhopal. The final death toll was estimated to be between 15,000 and 20,000.
Some half a million survivors suffered respiratory problems, eye irritation or blindness, and
other maladies resulting from exposure to the toxic gas; many were awarded compensation of
a few hundred dollars. Investigations later established that substandard operating and safety
procedures at the understaffed plant had led to the catastrophe. In 1998 the former factory site
was turned over to the state of Madhya Pradesh.

Greenhouse Effects and Global Warming

• The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature that the Earth experiences because
certain gases in the atmosphere (water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, ozone,
methane, for example) trap energy that comes from the sun. These gases are usually
called greenhouse gases since they behave much like the glass panes in a greenhouse.
 • The glass panels of the greenhouse let in the light but keep heat from escaping and this
is similar to the effect these gasses have on earth.
• Sunlight enters the Earth's atmosphere, passing through the greenhouse gases. As it
reaches the Earth's surface, land, water, and biosphere absorb the sunlight's energy.
Once absorbed, this energy is sent back into the atmosphere.
• Some of the energy passes back into space, but much of it remains trapped in the
atmosphere by the greenhouse gases. This is the completely natural process and without
these gases all the heat would escape back into space and Earth's average temperature
would be about 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit) colder.
• The greenhouse effect is very important process, because without the greenhouse effect,
the Earth would not be warm enough for humans to live. But if the greenhouse effect
becomes stronger, it could make the Earth warmer than usual. Even a little extra
warming may cause problems for humans, plants, and animals.
The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
• Some human activities also produce greenhouse gases and these gases keep increasing
in the atmosphere. The change in the balance of the greenhouse gases has significant
effects on the entire planet.
• Burning fossil fuels - coal, oil and natural gas - releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. Cutting down and burning trees also produces a lot of carbon dioxide. A
group of greenhouse gases called the chlorofluorocarbons have been used in aerosols,
such as hairspray cans, fridges and in making foam plastics.
• Since there are more and more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, more heat is
trapped, which makes the Earth warmer. This is known as global warming. A lot of
scientists agree that man's activities are making the natural greenhouse effect stronger.
• Today, the increase in the Earth's temperature is increasing with unprecedented speed.
• To understand just how quickly global warming is accelerating, consider that during
the entire 20th century, the average global temperature increased by about 0.6 degrees
Celsius (slightly more than 1 degree Fahrenheit).
• Using computer climate models, scientists estimate that by the year 2100 the average
global temperature will increase by 1.4 degrees to 5.8 degrees Celsius (approximately
2.5 degrees to 10.5 degrees Fahrenheit).
Greenhouse Gases
Many greenhouse gases occur naturally in the environment, such as water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Others such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are created and emitted solely through
human activities. Human activities also add significantly to the level of naturally occurring
greenhouse gases. The principal greenhouse gases that enter the atmosphere because of human
activities are:
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through the burning of fossil
fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of
other chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement). Carbon dioxide is also removed from
the atmosphere (or "sequestered") when it is absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon
cycle.
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during various agricultural and industrial
activities, as well as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.
• Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas,
and oil. Methane is also emitted when organic waste decomposes, whether in landfills or in
connection with livestock farming.
• Fluorinated Gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride are
synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes.
Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes for ozone-depleting substances (i.e., CFCs,
HCFCs, and halons). These gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities, but because they
are potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential
gases ("High GWP gases").
Greenhouse gases vary in their ability to absorb and hold heat in the atmosphere. HFCs and
PFCs are the most heat-absorbent, but there are also wide differences between naturally
occurring gases. For example, nitrous oxide absorbs 270 times more heat per molecule than
carbon dioxide, and methane absorbs 21 times more heat per molecule than carbon dioxide.
However, carbon dioxide contributes the most, since its level in the atmosphere is the highest.
Estimates of future emissions and removals depend in part on assumptions about changes in
underlying human activities. For example, the demand for fossil fuels such as gasoline and coal
are expected to increase greatly with the predicted growth of the U.S. and global economies.
Many, but not all, human sources of greenhouse gas emissions are expected to rise in the future.
This growth may be reduced by ongoing efforts to increase the use of newer, cleaner
technologies and other measures.
Additionally, our everyday choices about such things as commuting, housing, electricity use,
and recycling can influence the amount of greenhouse gases being emitted.
The Effects of Global Warming
The Weather
The effects will vary in different parts of the world: some places will become drier and others
will become wetter. Although most areas will be warmer, some areas will become cooler. There
may be many storms, floods and drought, but we do not know which areas of the world will be
affected. All over the world, these weather changes will affect the kinds of crop that can be
grown. Plants, animals, and even people may find it difficult to survive in different conditions.
Sea Levels
Higher temperatures will make the water of the seas and oceans expand. Ice melting in the
Antarctic and Greenland will flow into the sea. All over the world, sea levels may rise, perhaps
by as much as 20 to 40 cm, by the beginning of the next century. Higher sea levels will threaten
the low-lying coastal areas of the world, such as the Netherlands and Bangladesh. Throughout
the world, millions of people and areas of land will be at danger from flooding. Many people
will have to leave their homes and large areas of farmland will be ruined because of floods.
Farming
The changes in the weather will affect the types of crops grown in different parts of the world.
Some crops, such as wheat and rice, grow better in higher temperatures, but other plants, such
as maize and sugarcane, do not. Changes in the amount of rainfall will also affect how many
plants grow. The effect of a change in the weather on plant growth may lead to some countries
not having enough food. Brazil, parts of Africa, south-east Asia, and China will be affected the
most and many people could suffer from hunger.
Plants & Animals
It has taken millions of years for life to become used to the conditions on Earth. As weather
and temperature changes, the homes of plants and animals will be affected all over the world.
For example, polar bears and seals will have to find new land for hunting and living if the ice
in the Arctic melts. Many animals and plants may not be able to cope with these changes and
could die. This could cause the loss of some animal and plant species in certain or all areas of
the world.
People
The changes in climate will affect everyone, but some populations will be at greater risk. For
example, countries whose coastal regions have a large population, such as Egypt and China,
may see whole populations move inland to avoid flood risk areas. The effect on people will
depend on how well we can adapt to the changes and how much we can do to reduce climate
change in the world.
Relationship Between Climate Change and Global Public Health
The more direct health effects of climate change can include injuries and illnesses from severe
weather, floods, and heat exposure; increases in disease caused by allergies, respiratory
problems, and illnesses carried by insects or in water; and threats to the safety and availability
of our food and water supplies. Less direct effects can include worry, depression, and the
negative impacts of mass migration and regional conflicts.
To a large extent, public health depends on safe drinking water, sufficient food, secure shelter,
and good social conditions. A changing climate is likely to affect all of these conditions.
Warming climate as a result of the greenhouse effect is likely to bring some localized benefits,
such as decreased winter deaths in temperate climates, and increases in food production in
some regions.
However, the health effects of a rapidly changing climate are likely to be overwhelmingly
negative, particularly in the poorest communities, which have contributed least to greenhouse
gas emissions. Some of the health effects include increase in frequencies of heatwaves,
shortages in supplies of freshwater, rise in temperatures followed by variable precipitation,
which are likely to decrease the production of staple foods in many of the poorest regions,
rising sea levels, and prolongation of seasons for transmission of important vector-borne
disease, as well as the alteration of their geographical range. All these events may lead to
increased risks of: water-borne disease, malnutrition, coastal flooding, huge population
displacement, and new diseases moving into the regions which lack either population immunity
or a strong public health infrastructure.
 WATER POLLUTION
Water is one of the renewable resources essential for sustaining all forms of life, food
production, economic development, and for general wellbeing. It is impossible to substitute for
most of its uses, difficult to de pollute, expensive to transport, and it is truly a unique gift to
mankind from nature. Water is also one of the most manageable natural resources as it is
capable of diversion, transport, storage, and recycling. All these properties impart to water its
great utility for human beings. The surface water and groundwater resources of the country
play a major role in agriculture, hydropower generation, livestock production, industrial
activities, forestry, fisheries, navigation, recreational activities etc.

Water Resources on Earth

Most (about 97%) of the water on earth is present in the seas and oceans. It is too salty to be of
any use for drinking, agriculture and industrial purposes. The remaining 3% is fresh water;
75% of which is locked up in the polar ice caps and in glaciers and quite deep under the earth’s
surface as underground water. The fresh water, which we can use, comes to us from two
sources:
i) Surface water
ii) Groundwater
(i) Surface Water: Rain and snow are good natural resources of fresh water. It is estimated
that of all the precipitation (rain water and snow) that falls on the earth, about one-third is
absorbed by the plants and another one-third seeps down into the soil and the remaining one
third runs off the surface into streams and rivers. This part of precipitation, which runs off
to form streams, rivers and lakes, is called the surface water. Precipitation (rain or snow)
that runs-off into stream, rivers and lakes is called surface water.
(ii) Ground Water: The part of precipitation that seeps into the ground as a result of gravity
and fills the pores between soil particles and rocks under it is called groundwater. The water
bearing layers of soil and rocks are called aquifers. Ground water is very important for
agricultural and industrial purposes. Ground water in the form of wells and springs is often the
only source of water supply especially in villages and small towns.

In spite of a good number of water resources, we have shortage of usable water. This is due to
increasing population, urbanisation and industrialisation. There is a need to optimise use of
water and also conserve surface run off of water by means of rainwater harvesting, groundwater
conservation, making use of recycling methods etc.

Water Pollution – Parameters

A large amount of water is discharged back after domestic and industrial usage. This is
contaminated with domestic waste and industrial effluents. When this contamination reaches
beyond certain allowed concentrations, it is called pollution and the contaminants are called
the pollutants. Water pollution may be defined as the contamination of streams, lakes, seas,
underground water or oceans by substances, which are harmful for living beings. If the
concentration of substances naturally present in water increases then also the water is said to
be polluted.
Water pollution may be defined as the contamination of streams, lakes, seas, underground
water or oceans by substances, which are harmful for living beings. Industrialisation and
population explosion are two important factors for water pollution.

Water may be called polluted when the following parameters stated below reach beyond a
specified concentration in water.

i) Physical parameters. Colour, odour, turbidity, taste, temperature and electrical conductivity
constitute the physical parameters and are good indicators of contamination. For instance,
colour and turbidity are visible evidences of polluted water while an offensive odour or a bitter
and difference than normal taste also makes water unfit for drinking.

ii) Chemical parameters: These include the amount of carbonates, sulphates, chlorides,
fluorides, nitrates, and heavy metal ions. These chemicals form the total dissolved solids,
present in water.

iii) Biological parameters: The biological parameters include matter like algae, fungi, viruses,
protozoa and bacteria. The life forms present in water are affected to a good extent by the
presence of pollutants. The pollutants in water may cause a reduction in the population of both
lower and higher plant and animal lives. Thus, the biological parameters give an indirect
indication of the amount of pollution in water.

Sources of Water Pollution

Water pollutants refer to the substances which are capable of making any physical, chemical
or biological change in the water body. These have undesirable effect on living organisms. As
mentioned earlier, the water used for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes is
discharged with some undesirable impurities in it. This contamination leads to the pollution of
water, which is generally called the fresh water pollution. Fresh water pollution may be
classified into two types: surface water pollution and ground water pollution.

Surface Water Pollution

When pollutants enter a stream, river or lake these gives rise to surface water pollution. The
surface water pollution has a number of sources. These can categorise as:

• Point and Non-point Sources

• Natural and Anthropogenic Sources

(i) Point and Non-point Sources

The well-defined sources that emit pollutants or effluents directly into different water bodies
of fresh water are called point sources. Domestic and industrial waste are examples of this type.
The point sources of pollution can be effectively checked. On the other hand, the non-point
sources of water pollution are scattered or spread over large areas. This type of sources delivers
pollutants indirectly through environmental changes and account for majority of the
contaminants in streams and lakes. For example, the contaminated water that runs off from
agriculture farms, construction sites, abandoned mines, enters streams and lakes. It is quite
difficult to control non-point sources.
(ii) Natural and Anthropogenic Sources

An increase in the concentration of naturally occurring substances is also termed pollution. The
sources of such an increase are called natural sources. Siltation (which includes soil, sand and
mineral particles) is one such natural source. It is a common natural phenomenon, which occurs
in most water bodies. Indiscriminate deforestation makes soil loose and flood waters bring silt
from mountains into streams, rivers and lakes.

On the other hand, the human activities that result into the pollution of water are called
anthropogenic or man-made sources of water pollution. For example, domestic (sewage and
waste water), industrial and agricultural wastes that goes into the rivers, lakes, streams and seas
are anthropogenic sources. Certain materials that are leached from the land by run-off water
and enter the various water bodies also belong to this category.

Ground Water Pollution

When the polluted water seeps into the ground and enters an aquifer it results into ground water
pollution. The most of our villages and many townships, ground water is the only source of
drinking water. Therefore, pollution of groundwater is a matter of serious concern.
Groundwater gets polluted in a number of ways. The dumping of raw sewage on soil, seepage
pits and septic tanks cause pollution of groundwater. The porous layers of soil hold back solid
particles while the liquid is allowed to pass through. The soluble pollutants are able to mix with
the groundwater. In addition to these, the excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers and
unchecked release of toxic wastes and even carcinogenic substances by industrial units may
result in slow trickling down through the earth’s surface and mixing with the groundwater. This
problem is very serious especially in areas where water table is high (i.e., where water is
available near surface of earth).

The ground water can move over large distances by virtue of the large empty space available
below the earth’s surface. This way if some impurities seep into the ground water at one point,
they may be observed at a different point far removed from the point of source. In such a case
it is difficult to estimate the source of water pollution. However, suspended impurities and
bacterial contaminants are removed in the process of seepage by the soil acting as an absorbent
and filter, and water acting as a solvent.

Since the movement of groundwater through the porous rock is very slow, pollutants which get
mixed with the groundwater are not readily diluted. Furthermore, groundwater does not have
access to air (in contrast to surface water) therefore, oxidation of pollutants into harmless
products in groundwater does not occur.

Water Pollutants
These can be broadly put under the following types:

(i) Sewage Pollutants (Domestic and Municipal Waste)

(ii) Industrial Pollutants

(iii) Agricultural Pollutants

(iv) Radioactive and Thermal Pollutants

(i) Domestic and Municipal Pollutants: The sewage contains garbage, soaps,
detergents, waste food and human excreta and is the single largest sources of water
pollution. Pathogenic (disease causing) microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
algae) enter the water system through sewage making it infected. Typhoid, cholera,
gastroenteritis and dysentery are commonly caused by drinking infected water.
Water polluted by sewage may carry certain other bacteria and viruses cannot grow
by themselves, but reproduce in the cells of host organisms. They cause a number
of diseases, such as, polio, viral hepatitis and may be cancer which are resistant to
like the organic matter are oxygen demanding substances. They are responsible for
deoxygenation of water-bodies which is harmful for aquatic life. Other ingredients
which enter the various water bodies are the plant nutrients, i.e., nitrates and
phosphates. They support growth of algae, commonly called algal bloom (blue-
green species). This process is called eutrophication.
(ii) Industrial Pollutants: Many industries are located near rivers or fresh water
streams. These are responsible for discharging their untreated effluents into rivers
like highly toxic heavy metals such as chromium, arsenic, lead, mercury, etc. along
with hazardous organic and inorganic wastes (e.g., acids, alkalis, cyanides,
chlorides, etc.). River Ganges receives wastes from textile, sugar, paper and pulp
mills, tanneries, rubber and pesticide industries. Most of these pollutants are
resistant to breakdown by microorganisms (called nonbiodegradable), therefore
damage the growth of crops and the polluted water is unsafe for drinking purposes.
Factories manufacturing plastic, caustic soda and some fungicides and pesticides
release mercury (a heavy metal) along with other effluents in nearby water body.
Mercury enters the food chain through bacteria, algae, fish and finally into the
human body. The toxicity of mercury became evident by the Minamata Bay tragedy
in Japan during the period 1953-60 due to Minamata disease. Fish died due to
mercury consumption and those who ate fish were affected by mercury poisoning
and quite a few died. The milder symptoms of mercury poisoning are depression
and irritability but acute toxic effects can cause paralysis, blindness, insanity, birth
defects and even death. The high concentration of mercury in water and in fish
tissues results from formation of soluble mono-methyl-mercury ion, (CH3, Hg+) and
volatile di-methyl-mercury [(CH3)2 Hg] by anaerobic bacteria in sediments.
(iii) Agricultural Waste: Manure, fertilizers, pesticides, wastes form farms,
slaughterhouse, poultry farms, salts and silt are drained as run-off from agricultural
lands. The water body receiving large quantities of fertilizers (phosphates and
nitrates or manures becomes rich in nutrients which leads to eutrophication and
consequent depletion of dissolved oxygen. Consumption of water rich in nitrates is
bad for human health especially for small children. Pesticides (DDT, dieldrin,
aldrin, malathion, carbaryl etc.) are used to kill insect and rodent pests. Toxic
pesticide residues enter the human body through drinking water or through food
chain (biomagnification). These compounds have low solubility in water but are
highly soluble in fats. For example, the concentration of DDT in river water may
be very low but some fish over a period of time accumulate so much of DDT that
they become unfit for human consumption. The use of pesticides in our country is
increasing very rapidly. Some of these chemicals which are highly toxic become
metabolised by animals that graze on fields. Therefore, these poisonous chemicals
have been often observed in the human food chain. The presence of these chemicals
in humans even in minute amounts can cause hormonal imbalance and may lead to
cancer.
 (iv) Physical Pollutants: Physical pollutants can be of different types. Some of them
are discussed below:
(a) Radioactive Wastes: Radionuclides found in water are radium and potassium-
40. These isotopes originate from natural sources due to leaching from minerals.
Water bodies are also polluted by accidental leakage of waste material from
uranium and thorium mines, nuclear power plants and industries, research
laboratories and hospitals which use radioisotopes. Radioactive materials enter
human body through water and food, and may be accumulated in blood and certain
vital organs. They cause tumours and cancer.
(b) Thermal Sources: Various industries, nuclear power plants and thermal plants
require water for cooling and the resultant hot water is often discharged into rivers
or lakes. This results in thermal pollution and leads to the imbalance in the ecology
of the water body. Higher temperature lowers the dissolved oxygen level (which is
very essential for marine life) by decreasing the solubility of oxygen in water. Fish
and other aquatic organism can get affected by a sudden change in water
temperatures.
(c) Sediments: Soil particles carried to streams, lakes or oceans form the sediments.
The sediment become polluting due to their large amount. Soil erosion defined as
the soil carried by flood water from crop land, is responsible for sedimentation. The
sediments may damage the water body by introducing a large amount of nutrient
matter.
(v) Petroleum Products: Petroleum products are widely used for fuel, lubrication,
plastics manufacturing, etc. and happen to be poisonous in nature. Crude oil and
other related products generally get into water by accidental spillage from ships,
tankers, pipelines etc. Besides these accidental spills, oil refineries, oil exploration
sites and automobile service centres pollute different water bodies. Oil slick which
floats on the water surface causes death of marine life and severely affects the
ecosystem of the ocean.

Water Pollution and Some Biological Effects

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is a process by which a water body slowly becomes rich in plant nutrients such
as nitrates and phosphates due to soil erosion and run off from the surrounding land. A water
system like a lake or any reservoir may get a large inflow of organic matter from domestic
wastes and run off from the surrounding land. Increasing human population, intensive
agriculture and rapid industrial growth have led to an increasing release of domestic waste,
agricultural residues, industrial wastes and land run-off into various water bodies. Nutrients are
released from organic waste by aerobic (oxygen requiring) bacteria which start decomposing
it. Dissolved oxygen is consumed in this process. As more and more organic matter enters a
water body, more is the deoxygenation of the water body and larger is the production of
nutrients. These nutrients fertilize an abnormal growth of algae and other large water plants
such as duckweed. As more plants grow, some of them die also due to larger oxygen demand
and therefore oxygen deficiency in the water body (i.e., deoxygenation of the water body).
Such a water body is said to be eutrophied and the process is called eutrophication. The word
eutrophication is derived from the Greek word which means well-nourished as (eu: true,
trophos: feeding). Eutrophication of a water body results due to the release of large amount of
nutrients by the action of aerobic bacteria on organic wastes entering a water body naturally or
by human activity. This leads to a concept called biological oxygen demand (BOD).
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The quality of oxygen used up by microorganisms at 27ºC and in darkness during 3 days in
breaking down organic wastes in a water body is called its biological oxygen demand (BOD).

There are many organic compounds or waste present in a water body. The microorganisms
present in the system act upon this waste for their own consumption and growth. In the process
the metabolic activity requires oxygen which is met by the dissolved oxygen present in water.
It is this amount of oxygen which is defined as biological oxygen demand (BOD). The BOD
value of an aquatic system depends upon:

• the type and amount of organic waste

• the organisms acting on it
• temperature and pH

The greater the amount of organic waste in the water body, the greater is the amount of oxygen
required to break it down biologically and therefore higher is the BOD value of water. This
value is a good measure in evaluating the degree of pollution in a water body. The less polluted
water shows comparatively low value of BOD. Its value is used as a criterion for managing
water pollution of a water body. An evaluation is made by determining oxygen concentration
in water before and after incubation at 20ºC in dark for 5 days.

Biomagnification

A variety of toxic chemicals move through food chains. Toxic pesticides may be sprayed for
controlling insect pests, fungi, herbs, but they concentrate in the food chain and harm to other
organisms. For example, DDT was sprayed in the U.S. to control mosquitoes at a concentration
expected to be harmless to non-target organisms like fish and birds. DDT accumulated in the
marshes and planktons. Planktons were eaten by fish and the fish had a higher concentration
of DDT in its body. Further, when birds ate the fish, they accumulated still higher
concentration. This increase in concentration of accumulated toxic chemicals as one goes
higher in the food chain is termed biomagnification. Biomagnification has at times threatened
the reproduction and survival of carnivores (secondary consumers) who occupy the highest
level of the food chain.

Water Pollution Control Measures

Waste water generated by household activity, industries or garbage landfills is called sewage
which is classified as the municipal water pollution. Sewage contains solid matters in the form
of suspended colloidal and dissolved organic matter, detergent, mineral matter, nutrients and
gases. Sewage is one of the major causes of water borne diseases and therefore the treatment
of sewage is one of the important tasks. For a long time, treatment of municipal waste in the
form of sewage involved mainly of the removal of suspended solids, oxygen demanding
materials and harmful bacteria. Now the disposal of the solid residue from sewage has been
improved by applying municipal treatment processes.

The treatment of this waste water is carried out in the following three stages:

(i) Primary treatment

(ii) Secondary treatment, and

(iii) Tertiary treatment

Primary Treatment: When the waste water is to be dumped off into a river or flowing steam,
the treatment is carried out by sedimentation, coagulation and filtration. This is known as
primary treatment. If the water is required for drinking purposes, it has to undergo further
treatment called secondary and tertiary treatments. The following steps are performed to do
primary treatment of water:

(i) Sedimentation: This step is carried out in large tanks specially built for this purpose in
sewage treatment plant. The polluted water is allowed to settle so that silt, clay and other matter
settle to be bottom and water is slowly allowed to move out. Fine particles do not settle and are
thus required to be removed in the next step.

(ii) Coagulation: Fine particles and colloidal suspension are combined into large particles by
a process called coagulation. This step is carried out by the addition of special chemicals called
coagulants (flocculants) such as potash alum. The large particles either settle to the bottom or
are moved in the next step.

(iii) Filtration: Suspended particles, flocculants, bacteria and other organisms are filtered by
passing the water through a bed of sand or finely divided coal or through some fibrous
materials. The total impurities collected in these steps are called sludge. It is used as a valuable
fertilizer. On composting (i.e., the action of anaerobic bacteria), it releases sludge gas. It
consists mainly of methane gas which is used for cooking purposes.

Secondary or Biological Treatment: The water after primary treatment is not fit for drinking
purposes and has to undergo further treatment. This is done through secondary or biological
treatment. A commonly used method is to allow polluted water to spread over a large bed of
stones and gravel so that the growth of different microorganisms needing nutrients and oxygen
is encouraged. Over a period of time a fast-moving food chain is set up. For example, bacteria
consume organic matter from the polluted water; protozoa live on bacteria. Every form of life
including algae and fungi help in the cleaning up process. This is called secondary treatment
of water. It involves the following processes

(i) Softening: By this treatment undesirable cations of calcium and magnesium are removed
from hard waters. Either water is treated with lime and soda ash to precipitate Ca2+ ions as
carbonates or it is passed through cation exchangers. This makes water soft.

(ii) Aeration: In this process, soft water is exposed to air by forcing air through it to add oxygen
to water. This encourages bacterial decomposition of organic matter into harmless products
such as carbon dioxide and water. The addition of oxygen reduces carbon dioxide, sulphide
etc. The water is as yet not fit for drinking purposes. The pathogenic and other microorganisms
need to be killed. This is done in the next treatment. The supply of oxygen stimulates the
multiplication of bacteria and thus promotes the formation of activated sludge. This process of
biological wastewater treatment is therefore also referred to as the activated sludge process.

The wastewater with the activated sludge is discharged into the secondary wastewater
treatment tank. The flow velocity of the wastewater stream is reduced again here.
Sedimentation takes place: The activated sludge settles at the bottom of the purified water,
where it can be separated from the clear water by mechanical clearing devices at the bottom.
Part of it is transferred to the digestion tower as additional biomass. The other part of the sludge,
also known as "return sludge" is returned to the aeration tank to ensure that there are enough
microorganisms in the aeration tank to break down the dirt. After biological treatment,
approximately 90% of the wastewater is cleaned of biodegradable substances. As oxygen is
supplied by compressors, the biological cleaning stage is the most energetic phase in the entire
cleaning process. Once the water has reached the legally prescribed quality, it can be returned
to the water cycle – for example, to a river.

In many other cases, biological cleaning is not sufficient. In these cases, further wastewater
treatment processes are necessary – for example, preparation in the form of a chemical
treatment. Here, chemical additives are also used.

Chemical Wastewater Treatment

In this stage of wastewater treatment, chemical processes are used for wastewater treatment.
To this end, chemical compounds are used to achieve legally prescribed water standard values.
Chemical treatment in wastewater treatment plants includes neutralisation, disinfection,
phosphate precipitation, nitrogen elimination, deferrization and manganese removal.

Tertiary Treatment:

This method is actually disinfecting water. Chlorine is the most commonly used disinfectant
used for killing bacteria. However, chlorine also reacts with traces of organic matter present in
water and forms undesirable chlorinated hydrocarbons (toxic and potentially carcinogenic). It
is therefore desirable to reduce the organic matter in water before passing chlorine gas.

Nanofiltration works in very similar way. In contrast to normal filtration, however, the water
is passed under pressure through a membrane that retains even the smallest dissolved particles,
such as molecules or heavy metal ions. The same happens with reverse osmosis (RO), and ion
exchange processes in which even higher working pressures and finer membranes are used.

Legislative Measures for Preventing Water Pollution

It is important to utilise a good quality and unpolluted water. The quality criteria may vary
depending on the use. Individual efforts do pay in this regard, however, a common policy in
the form of legislation is always more effective. The enactment of ‘Prevention and Control of
Water Pollution Act’ in 1974 has helped in the prevention of water pollution.

The standards have been prescribed for water pollution under Environment (Protection) Act
1986. These are given as follows.

• General standards for water pollutants for discharge of effluents in water bodies on land
(inland surface water, public sewers, irrigated land and coastal areas)
• Standards specific for each type of industry.
• Standards defined for the amount of waste water to be discharged for different
industries.
• Standards limiting the amount of a particular pollutant on the basis of production
capacity of an industrial unit.

The state pollution control boards have also been empowered to grant/renew consent to
new/existing water polluting industries under water ‘Prevention and Control of Pollution Act-
1974.’ They have been empowered to shut down any industrial unit which fails to meet the
prescribed standards under this Act. The state governments have also been authorized to take
punitive measures against defaulting industries. It becomes imperative to act upon the above-
mentioned rules and regulations and also follow measures at individual end to improve the
quality of water used for various purposes.

Status of Indian Rivers

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in 2018 identified 351 polluted rivers out of 400
rivers stretches in India. The assessment of water quality for identification of polluted river
stretches found that 31 states and Union territories (UT) had rivers and streams that did not
meet the water quality criteria. These states / UTs have to submit their action plans for the
same.

Maharashtra has the highest number of polluted river stretches (53), followed by Assam (44),
Madhya Pradesh (22), Kerala (21), Gujarat (20), Odisha (19), and West Bengal and Karnataka
(17).

Rivers in the country are polluted mainly due to discharge of untreated or partially treated
sewage from cities / towns and industrial effluents in their respective catchments, problems in
operation and maintenance of sewage / effluent treatment plants, lack of dilution, dumping of
solid waste on river banks and other non-point sources of pollution.

Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation have compounded the problem. According to the
report published by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in March, 2021, sewage
generation from urban areas in the country is estimated at 72,368 million litres per day (MLD),
against which sewage treatment capacity of 31,841 MLD was available. This gap between
sewage generation and treatment remains a major point source for increase in pollution of
rivers, stated the minister.

CPCB, in association with Pollution Control Boards / committees in different states / Union
territories, have been monitoring the water quality of rivers and other water bodies across the
country through a network of monitoring stations under the National Water Quality Monitoring
Programme.

Yamuna’s Pollution Load

CPCB divides the Yamuna into 5 segments (total length: 1376 km):

i. The Himalayan Segment: 172 km stretch from the rivers’ source in Yamunotri
glacier to the Tajewala barrage in Haryana.
ii. The Upper stretch: 224 km stretch from Tajewala barrage to wazirabad barrage,
flowing through Yamuna Nagar, Panipat and Sonipat.
iii. The Delhi stretch: 22 km (most Polluted)
iv. The Eutrophicated stretch: 490 km route, from Okhla to Etawah and then
meeting Chambal River
v. The Diluted segment: 428 km stretch from Chambal to Ganga in Allahabad,
Triveni Sangam

There are 6 big drains of Delhi discharging sewage and other effluents in Yamuna.
Yamuna Action Plan (YAP)
The Government of India launched YAP in April 1993 to tackle the pollution of the river.

• Build sewage treatment plants (STPs)to treat domestic sewage.

• Build common effluent treatment plants (CETP) to treat industrial effluents.
• Repair sewage system like drains, pumps, pipes etc.
• Build sewage systems and low-cost toilets to connect the waste of slums and poor
settlements.
• Build electric crematoria.

The YAP is a bilateral project between the Govt. of India and Japan. Japanese Govt. has
provided financial grant of 17.7 billion yen to carry out the project, under the Japanese Bank
for International Cooperation (JBIC). The project is being executed by the Ministry of
Environment and Forest (MoEF), National River Conservation Directorate and Govt. of India.

Phases of YAP

Phase I: Under the first phase of YAP from 1993 to 2003, 29 sewage treatment plants ere
constructed in UP, Haryana and Delhi. 58 pumping stations and 179 seers were proposed. In
another scheme the installation of non-sewerage facilities such as 1282 public toilet complexes,
96 crematorium, river front development, plantation and public awareness and participation
were proposed. Also included construction of 5 mini sewage treatment plants and 10 micro
sewage treatment plants for some of the community toilet complexes (CTCs).

Phase-II: Commenced in 2003 to 2011, new sewage treatment was constructed, existing seage
treatment plant was refurbished.

Phase-III: from 2011 to 2018.

Success Rate: 73% of STPs built are underutilised, 7% lying defunct. Only 1470 MLD of
sewage is actually treated in 17 STPs, less than 40% of wastewater flows into the river. There
is no sewage where there is an STP, as drains to channelise the sewage do not function. Where
there is sewage, there is no STP, because location of STP in decided upon the availability of
land and not pollution or even sewage management.

Ganga River Pollution

The ice-cave of Gaumukh at the snout of the Gangotri glacier, 4100 meters above sea level, is
recognized as the traditional source of River Ganga (2525 km). The Ganga basin accounts for
a little more than one-fourth (26.3%) of the country’s total geographical area and is the biggest
river basin in India, covering the entire states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh (UP), Bihar, Delhi,
and parts of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and West
Bengal.

Pollutants and their source:

1. Biological: Urban liquid and solid wastes, dead bodies of animals and humans and
wallowing of cattle.
Urban wastes mostly in the form of sheer faecal matter. Mass bathing at Rishikesh,
Haridwar, Allahabad cause water borne diseases.
 Cremation at Manikarnika Ghat (Varanasi):
No. of dead bodies: 32000/year
Ash released: 300 tonnes/year
Half burn flesh: 200 tonnes/year
Floating dead bodies: 3150/ year
Animals: 6270/ year
2. Chemical Pollution: 132 medium and large industries, 59 tanneries industries in U.P,
Bihar and West Bengal. Only 12 units have effluent treatment plants in operation.
3. Microplastic Pollution: Microplastics are plastics that are less than 5 millimetres in
size but are a major source of marine pollution. The Ganga is heavily polluted with
microplastics at Varanasi, Haridwar and Kanpur. They are non-degradable plastics that
often entered the Ganga through industrial waste or packaging of religious offerings,
its research found. The density of population in the three cities also added to the
problem because a large chunk of pollutants got directly discharged into the river by
people living on the banks.

Ganga Action Plan (GAP)

The Ganga action plan was, launched by Shri Rajeev Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India
on 14 Jan. 1986 with the main objective of pollution abatement, to improve the water quality
by Interception, Diversion and treatment of domestic sewage and present toxic and industrial
chemical wastes from identified grossly polluting units entering in to the river. The other
objectives of the Ganga Action Plan are as under.

• Control of non-point pollution from agricultural run-off, human defecation, cattle

wallowing and throwing of unburnt and half burnt bodies into the river.
• Research and Development to conserve the biotic, diversity of the river to augment its
productivity.
• New technology of sewage treatment like Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)
and sewage treatment through afforestation has been successfully developed.
• Rehabilitation of soft-shelled turtles for pollution abatement of river have been
demonstrated and found useful.
• Resource recovery options like production of methane for energy generation and use of
aquaculture for revenue generation have been demonstrated.
• To act as trend setter for taking up similar action plans in other grossly polluted
stretches in other rivers.
• The ultimate objective of the GAP is to have an approach of integrated river basin
management considering the various dynamic inter-actions between abiotic and biotic
eco-system.

Notwithstanding some delay in the completion of the first phase of GAP it has generated
considerable interest and set the scene for evolving a national approach towards replicating this
program for the other polluted rivers of the country. The Government of India proposed to
extend this model with suitable modifications to the national level through a National River
Action Plan (NRAP). The NRAP mainly draws upon the lessons learnt and the experience
gained from the GAP besides seeking the views of the State Governments and the other
concerned Departments/Agencies.

GAP was launched in phases namely, Phase I, Phase II and Namami Gange (referred to as
Phase III).
Phase-1 of GAP was started in January 1986 and ended in March 2000. This phase was 100%
Centrally funded scheme which aimed at preventing the pollution of river Ganga. The total cost
of completion of the Ganga Action Plan Phase-1 was Rs.452 crores. This plan was formulated
based on a survey by the CPCB in the year 1984. According to the CPCB survey, the total
sewage generated from 25 Class 1 towns in 1985 was estimated at around 1340 million litres
per day (MLD). Due to resource crunch, pollution abatement works corresponding to 882 MLD
only (65% at that point of time) were included under GAP Phase-1. To accomplish this task, a
total of 261 projects of pollution abatement covering 25 towns in three States, namely Uttar
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, were sanctioned at a cost of Rs. 462 crores. The GAP-1 was
declared closed on 31st March, 2000. Under this plan, a sewage treatment capacity of 865
MLD had been created.

Achievements of GAP Phase-1: improvement over the pre-GAP period water quality

Failures of GAP Phase-1:

Although, phase-1 was successful to some extent but it wasn’t completely successful.
Corruption can be termed as one of the major causes of failure but other factors had also
affected such as:

• Inappropriate Environmental outlining.

• Less cooperation between Central, State, and Local Governmental bodies.
• Lack of public awareness and cooperation.
• Limited expertise in the implementation of the policy.
• Lack of high standard resources and manpower planning.

Phase-2 of Ganga Action Plan (GAP) (1993-2014)

Since the Ganga Action Plan Phase-1 didn’t cover the full pollution load of Ganga, GAP Phase-
2, which included plans for the Yamuna, Damodar, and Gomti besides Ganga, was approved
in stages between 1993 and 1996. The program was extended to other major rivers of India
under two separate schemes of the Ganga Action Plan Phase – II and the National River
Conservation Plan (NRCP) with, National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) as its parent body
(from the year 2014). Yamuna and Gomti Action Plans were approved in April 1993 under
GAP Phase – II. Afterward the programs for other major rivers were approved in 1995 under
NRCP. Subsequently after launching of NRCP in 1995, it was decided to merge the Ganga
Action Plan-2 with NRCP. A Total of six states were covered under phase-2 of NMCG namely,
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Delhi, Haryana. After April 1997,
Central Government took full responsibility for this project and sanctioned the total cost of
Rs.2285.48 crore under the Ganga Action Plan for the same.

Achievements of GAP Phase-2:

• 131 projects out of 254 were sanctioned for the creation of 3076 MLD new sewage
treatment plants (STPs), rehabilitation of 887 MLD of existing STPs, and rehabilitation
of 4942 km sewer network for abatement of pollution in river Ganga and Yamuna.
• Out of 764 schemes sanctioned 652 were completed by the year 2014.
• 35 STPs were planned across 5 states.
Failures of GAP Phase-2:

• Under NMCG Sewage treatment capacity was created of just over 259 MLD out of
2,311mld the which is just about 11% of what programme seeks to achieve.
• Over 1,300 million litres per day of sewage continues to flow into the main stem of the
river Ganga.
• The total sewage generated from major towns or cities in the Yamuna is about 5,236
MLD, whereas the treatment capacity developed is 3,805 MLD only.

Namami Gange (Phase III: 2014 to till today)

‘Namami Gange Programme’, is an Integrated Conservation Mission, approved as ‘Flagship

Programme’ by the Union Government in June 2014 with budget outlay of Rs.20,000 Crore to
accomplish the twin objectives of effective abatement of pollution, conservation and
rejuvenation of National River Ganga.

Main pillars of the Namami Gange Programme are:

i. Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure

ii. River-Front Development
iii. River-Surface Cleaning
iv. Bio-Diversity
v. Afforestation
vi. Public Awareness
vii. Industrial Effluent Monitoring
viii. Ganga Gram

Its implementation has been divided into Entry-Level Activities (for immediate visible impact),
Medium-Term Activities (to be implemented within 5 years of time frame) and Long-Term
Activities (to be implemented within 10 years).

The key achievements under Namami Gange programme are:

1. Creating Sewerage Treatment Capacity: 69 sewage management projects are under

implementation and 68 sewage projects have been completed in the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
18 sewage projects are under tendering and 3 new sewage projects launched in these states.
Work is under construction for creating a sewerage capacity of 4949.05 (MLD).

2. Creating River-Front Development: 58 Ghats/Crematoria projects for construction,

modernization, and renovation of 254 Ghats/Crematoria and Kunds/Ponds have been initiated.

3. River Surface Cleaning: River Surface cleaning for collection of floating solid waste from
the surface of the Ghats and River and its disposal are afoot and pushed into service at 11
locations.

4. Bio-Diversity Conservation: One of NMCG’s long-term visions for Ganga rejuvenation is

to restore viable populations of all endemic and endangered biodiversity of the river, so that
they occupy their full historical range and fulfil their role in maintaining the integrity of the
Ganga River ecosystems. To address this, Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun, Central
Inland Fisheries Research Institute (CIFRI), Kolkata & Uttar Pradesh State Forest Department
has been awarded projects to develop science - based aquatic species restoration plan for Ganga
River by involving multiple stakeholders along with conservation & restoration of aquatic
biodiversity.

As per the field research conducted by WII, high biodiversity areas have been identified in
river Ganga for focused conservation action, rescue & rehabilitation centres have been
established for the rescued aquatic biodiversity, cadre of volunteers (Ganga Praharis) have been
developed and trained to support conservation actions in the field, floating interpretation centre
“Ganga Tarini” and interpretation centre “Ganga Darpan” have been established for developing
awareness on biodiversity conservation and Ganga rejuvenation, key ecosystem services of
Ganga river have been identified and an assessment framework developed to strengthen the
environmental services in the river basin.

CIFRI has carried out the assessment of fish and fisheries in the basin to record the available
fish species and has mapped it in GIS platform to understand the status and distribution of
fishes in Ganga. Tagging procedures has also been initiated to see the migration pattern of
identified fish like Hilsa. CIFRI is also conducting ranching and awareness programmes at
various locations in the river basin for conservation and restoration of Indian Major Carps
(IMC) & Mahseer in Ganga.

Further, the Uttar Pradesh State Forest Department is implementing the ‘Expansion of
conservation breeding program of freshwater turtles and Gharial at Kukrail Gharial
Rehabilitation Centre, Lucknow’ which will help in revival and restoration of Gharials and
turtles in the Ganga basin.

5. Afforestation: One of the major components of Ganga rejuvenation is ‘forestry

interventions’ to enhance the productivity and diversity of the forests in head water areas and
all along the river and its tributaries. Accordingly, Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun
prepared a Detailed Project Report (DPR) for afforestation in an area of 1,34,106 hectares in
the Ganga River bank states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal
at an estimated cost of Rs. 2293.73 Crores. The FRI DPR provides for taking up works under
four major heads viz. Natural landscape, Agriculture landscape, Urban landscape and
Conservation interventions.

The main purpose of the proposed forestry interventions is to contribute towards holistic
conservation of river Ganga, including improving the flow in the river (Aviralta) by adopting
a multi-pronged approach throughout the pre-defined Ganga riverscape. The project of
“Forestry Interventions for Ganga” is being implemented by State Forest Departments of
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal as per the FRI DPR since year
2016-17, for which NMCG is providing financial support to the respective State Forest
Departments.

6. Public Awareness: A series of activities such as events, workshops, seminars and

conferences and numerous IEC activities were organized to make a strong pitch for public
outreach and community participation in the programme. Various awareness activities through
rallies, campaigns, exhibitions, shram daan, cleanliness drives, competitions, plantation drives
and development and distribution of resource materials were organized and for wider publicity
the mass mediums such as TV/Radio, print media advertisements, advertorials, featured articles
and advertorials were published. Gange Theme song was released widely and played on digital
media to enhance the visibility of the programme. NMCG ensured presence at Social Media
platforms like Facebook, Twitter, You Tube etc.
7. Industrial Effluent Monitoring: The number of Grossly Polluting Industries (GPIs) in
April, 2019 are 1072. Regulation and enforcement through regular and surprise inspections of
GPIs is carried out for compliance verification against stipulated environmental norms. The
GPIs are also inspected on annual basis for compliance verification of the pollution norms and
process modification, wherever required through third party technical institutes. First round of
inspection of GPIs by the third-party technical institutes has been carried out in 2017. Second
round of inspection of GPIs has been completed in 2018. Out of 961 GPIs inspected in 2018,
636 are complying, 110 are non-complying and 215 are self-closed. Action has been taken
against 110 non-complying GPIs and are issued closure directions under Section 5 of the E(P)
Act. Online Continuous Effluent Monitoring Stations (OCEMS) connectivity established to
CPCB server in 885 out of 1072 GPIs.

8. Ganga Gram: Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MoDWS) identified 1674 Gram
Panchayats situated on the bank of River Ganga in 5 State (Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, West Bengal). Rs. 578 Crores has been released to Ministry of Drinking Water and
Sanitation (MoDWS) for construction of toilets in 1674 Gram Panchayats of 5 Ganga Basin
States. Out of the targeted 15, 27,105 units, MoDWS has completed construction of 8, 53,397
toilets. Consortium of 7 IITs has been engaged in the preparation of Ganga River basin Plan
and 65 villages has been adopted by 13 IITs to develop as model villages. UNDP has been
engaged as the executing agency for rural sanitation programme and to develop Jharkhand as
a model State at an estimated cost of Rs. 127 Crore.

National Mission for Clean Ganga, endeavours to deploy best available knowledge and
resources across the world for Ganga rejuvenation. Clean Ganga has been a perennial attraction
for many international countries that have expertise in river rejuvenation. Countries such as
Australia, United Kingdom, Germany, Finland, Israel etc. have shown interest in collaborating
with India for Ganga rejuvenation. Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) were signed with
various Central Ministries viz.- Ministry of Human Resource Development, Ministry of Rural
Development, Ministry of Railways, Ministry of Shipping, Ministry of Tourism, Ministry of
Ayush, Ministry of Petroleum, Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, Ministry of Drinking
Water & Sanitation and Ministry of Agriculture for synergizing the Government schemes.

WETLAND CONSERVATION
Wetlands are “lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table
is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water”.

Wetland conservation is aimed at protecting and preserving areas where water exists at or near
the Earth's surface, such as swamps, marshes and bogs.

Ramsar Convention is a convention on wetlands that was signed in 1971 in the Iranian city of
Ramsar. The negotiations for the convention started in the 1960s by the different countries and
NGOs for the protection of wetlands and their resources. Finally, it came into force in 1975.
There are 46 Ramsar Sites in India listed under Ramsar Convention.

The Ramsar Convention's broad aims are to halt the worldwide loss of wetlands and to
conserve, through wise use and management, those that remain. This requires international
cooperation, policy making, capacity building and technology transfer.

• When a country accedes to the Convention, it must designate at least one wetland as a
Wetland of International Importance.
 • The inclusion of a “Ramsar Site” in the List embodies the government’s commitment
to take the steps necessary to ensure that its ecological character is maintained.
• There are over 2,400 Ramsar Sites covering 2.5 million sq km on the territories of 171
Ramsar Contracting Parties across the world.
• The world’s first Site was the Cobourg Peninsula in Australia, designated in 1974.
• The countries with the most Ramsar Sites are the United Kingdom with 175 and Mexico
with 142.
• Bolivia has the largest area under Ramsar protection.
• Largest Ramsar site in India: Sundarbans wetland (4220 sq. km) of West Bengal.

SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution is defined as, “contamination of soil by human and natural activities which may
cause harmful effect on living organisms”. Composition of soil is listed below:

COMPONENT %

• Organic mineral matter 45

• Organic matter 05
• Soil water 25
• Soil air 25

TYPES, EFFECTS AND SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution mainly occurs due to the following:

1. Industrial wastes

2. Urban wastes

3. Agricultural practices

4. Radioactive pollutants

5. Biological agents

Industrial wastes: Disposal of Industrial wastes is the major problem for soil pollution

Sources: Industrial pollutants are mainly discharged from various origins such as pulp and
paper mills, chemical fertilizers, oil refineries, sugar factories, tanneries, textiles, steel,
distilleries, fertilizers, pesticides, coal and mineral mining industries, drugs, glass, cement,
petroleum and engineering industries etc.

Effect: These pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological properties of soil. As a
result, hazardous chemicals can enter into human food chain from the soil or water, disturb the
biochemical process and finally lead to serious effects on living organisms.

Urban wastes: Urban wastes comprise of both commercial and domestic wastes consisting of
dried sludge and sewage. All the urban solid wastes are commonly referred to as refuse.
Constituents of urban refuse: This refuse consists of garbage and rubbish materials like
plastics, glasses, metallic cans, fibres, paper, rubbers, street sweepings, fuel residues, leaves,
containers, abandoned vehicles and other discarded manufactured products. Urban domestic
wastes though disposed-off separately from industrial wastes, can still be dangerous. This
happens because they are not easily degraded.

Agricultural practices: Modern agricultural practices pollute the soil to a large extent. With
the advancing agro-technology, huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and
weedicides are added to increase the crop yield. Apart from these farm wastes, manure, slurry,
debris, soil erosion containing mostly inorganic chemicals are reported to cause soil pollution

Radioactive pollutants: Radioactive substances resulting from explosions of nuclear testing

laboratories and industries giving rise to nuclear dust radioactive wastes, penetrate the soil and
accumulate giving rise to land/soil pollution.

• Radio nuclides of Radium, Thorium, Uranium, isotopes of Potassium (K-40) and

Carbon (C-14) are commonly found in soil, rock, water and air.
• Explosion of hydrogen weapons and cosmic radiations include neutron, proton
reactions by which Nitrogen (N-15) produces C-14. This C-14 participates in Carbon
metabolism of plants which is then into animals and human beings.
• Radioactive waste contains several radio nuclides such as Strontium90, Iodine129,
Cesium-137 and isotopes of Iron which are most injurious. Strontium gets deposited
in bones and tissues instead of calcium.
• Nuclear reactors produce waste containing Ruthenium-106, Iodine-131, Barium140,
Cesium-144 and Lanthanum-140 along with primary nuclides Sr-90 with a half-life 28
years and Cs-137 with a half-life 30 years. Rain water carries Sr-90 and Cs-137 to be
deposited on the soil where they are held firmly with the soil particles by electrostatic
forces. All the radio nuclides deposited on the soil emit gamma radiations.

5. Biological agents: Soil gets a large amount of human, animal and bird excreta which
constitute a major source of land pollution by biological agents.

Ex: Heavy application of manures and digested sludge can cause serious damage to plants
within a few years

Emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), plastic
and synthetic polymers and E- wastes or electronics wastes.

Impact on Ecosystem:

• Replacement of sensitive species.

• Soil organisms reduces, effect biogeochemical cycles.
• Source of pollution of groundwater, freshwater and oceans.
• Biodiversity loss
• Degradation of soil properties
• Soil acidification
Control measures of soil pollution:
1. Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices.

Ex: Planting trees on barren slopes

Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting cultivation
Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken. Reducing deforestation and
substituting chemical manures by animal wastes also helps arrest soil erosion in the long term.

2. Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and animals pose a
disposal problem. Open dumping is the most commonly practiced technique. Nowadays,
controlled tipping is followed for solid waste disposal. The surface so obtained is used for
housing or sports field.

3. Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of toxic chemical

pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in place of synthesized chemical fertilizers. Ex:
Organic wastes in animal dung may be used to prepare compost manure instead of throwing
them wastefully and polluting the soil.

4. Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary habits. Ex:
Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal methods.

5. Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should be imparted to
educate people on health hazards by environmental education.

Ex: Mass media, educational institutions and voluntary agencies can achieve this.

6. Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper,
plastics, metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc should be
recycled and reused.

Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated waste treatment methods
should be adopted.

7. Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like DDT,
BHC, etc which are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of
radioactive wastes should be banned.

Solid Waste Management

Waste is solid substances generated as a result of human activities, and, being no longer of
value for the respective economic, physiological or technological process, are removed from
it. Solid waste in a broader sense is understood as any household, industrial and agricultural
materials that have been used up. Since such waste accumulates in the territories managed by
municipalities responsible for its removal and storage, it is termed ‘municipal solid waste’.

Biodegradable waste: food and kitchen waste, green waste, paper (can be recycled);

Recyclable material: paper, glass bottles, cans, metals, certain plastics, etc.;

Inert waste: construction and demolition waste, dirt, rocks, debris;

Composite wastes: waste closing, Tetra Packs, waste plastics such as toys;

Domestic hazardous waste (household hazardous waste) & toxic waste: medication, e-
waste, paints, chemicals, light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide and
containers, batteries, shoe polish materials.

The Functional Elements of Solid Waste

Waste generation - encompasses activities in which materials are ide encompasses activities
in which materials are identified as no longer being of value and are either thrown out or
gathered together for disposal.

Collection - The functional element of collection includes not the functional element of
collection includes not only the gathering of only the gathering of solid waste and recyclable
materials, but also the transport of these materials, after collection, to the location where the
collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be a materials processing facility, a transfer
station or a landfill disposal site.

Waste handling and separation, storage and processing at the source - involves activities
associated with waste management until the waste is placed in storage containers for collection.
Handling also encompasses the movement of loaded activities associated with waste
management until the waste is placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also
encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection. Separating different
types of waste components is an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at
the source.

Separation and processing and transformation of solid wastes - The types of means and
facilities that are now used for the recovery of waste materials that have been separated at the
source include have been separated at the source include curb side collection, drop off and buy
collection, drop off and buy back centres. The separation and processing of wastes have been
separated at been separated at the source and the separation of commingled wastes usually
occur at a materials recovery facility, transfer stations, combustion facilities and disposal sites.

Transfer and transport - This element involves two main steps. First, this element involves
two main steps. First, the waste is transferred from a smaller collection vehicle to larger
transport equipment. The waste is then transported, usually over long distances, to a processing
or disposal site.

Disposal - Today, the disposal of wastes by land filling or today, the disposal of wastes by land
filling or land spreading is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, whether they are residential
wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site, residual materials from material
recovery facilities, residue from the combustion of solid waste, compost, or other substances
from various solid waste processing facilities.

A modern sanitary landfill is not a dump; it is an engineered facility used for disposing of
solid wastes on land without creating nuisances or hazards to public health or safety, such as
the breeding of insects and the contamination of ground water.

Energy generation - Municipal solid waste can be used to generate municipal solid waste can
be used to generate energy. Several y. Several technologies have been developed that make the
processing for energy generation cleaner and more economical than ever before, including
landfill gas capture, combustion, combustion, pyrolysis, gasification.

Waste Management 3R Concept

The waste hierarchy refers to the 3 R’s of reduce, reuse, recycle, (recovery) which classify
waste management strategies according to their desirability.

• The R’s are meant to be a hierarchy, in order of importance. However, in Europe the
waste hierarchy has 5 steps: reduce, reuse, recycle, recovery, and disposal.
• The waste hierarchy has taken many forms over the past decade, but the basic concept
has remained the cornerstone of most waste minimisation strategies.

The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and
to generate the minimum amount of waste.

• Some waste management experts have recently incorporated a additional R: "Re

additional R: "Re-think", with the implied meaning think", with the implied meaning
that the that the present system may have fundamental flaws, and that a thoroughly
effective system of waste management may need an entirely new way of looking at
waste.
• Source reduction involves efforts to reduce hazardous waste and other materials by
modifying industrial production.
• Source reduction methods involve changes in manufacturing technology, raw material
inputs, and product formulation.
• At times, the term "pollution prevention" may refer to source reduction.

Biomedical Waste
Hospital waste refers to all waste, biological or non‐ biological that is discarded and not
intended for further use.

Bio‐medical waste means any waste, which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or
immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities pertaining thereto or in the
production or testing of biologicals etc.

Infectious waste: The wastes which contain pathogens in sufficient concentration or quantity
that could cause diseases. It is hazardous e.g., culture and stocks of infectious agents from
laboratories, waste from surgery, waste originating from infectious patients.

Sources of Biomedical Waste:

Hospitals, Nursing homes, Clinics, Medical laboratories, Blood banks, Mortuaries, Medical
research & training centres, Biotechnology institution/production units, Animal houses etc.

• Such a waste can also be generated at home if health care is being provided there to a patient
(e.g., injection, dressing material etc.).
Colour Coding:

Black Bags: Cytotoxic wastes, expiry date medicines, radioactive wastes

Red Bags: Infectious wastes (Plastics), blood bags, I.V. Sets

Blue Bags: Infectious sharp wastes like injection vials, glass bottles etc.

Green Bags: Recyclable wastes (Kitchen, Paper etc.)

Yellow Bags: Non-plastic (Infectious wastes) discarded drugs, equipment

Puncture Proof Can: used needles, syringes, blades, special knife etc.

Management through Law:

• The Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rule, 1998

• Municipal Solid waste (Management and Handling) Rule, 2000
• The Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rule, 2011
• E-Waste (Management and Handling) Rule, 2011

RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
Radiation is energy travelling through space. Energy can be transported either in form of
electromagnetic waves (radiations) or a stream of energetic particles, which can be electrically
charged or neutral. SI Unit: Becquerel, Curie

These radiations are of two types:

(1) Non-ionizing radiations

(2) Ionizing radiations

Non-ionizing radiations are the electromagnetic waves of longer wavelength from near
ultraviolet rays to radio waves. These waves have energies enough to excite the atoms and
molecules of the medium through which they are moving, causing them to vibrate faster. These
do not have enough energy to ionize them.

Ionizing radiations are the electromagnetic radiations having high energy, such as short
wavelength ultra violet radiations, x-rays and gamma rays. The energetic rays like (alpha, beta
and gamma etc.) produced in radioactive decay can cause ionization of atoms and molecules
of the medium through which they pass and convert them into charged ions.

For example, in water molecule, it can induce reaction that can break bonds in proteins, DNA
and or other important molecules.

Alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ) radiations are produced by the process called radioactive
decay. The unstable nuclei decay spontaneously and emit these radiations. These rays
(radiations) can affect some other non-radioactive atoms to become radioactive (unstable) and
give out radioactive radiations.
Radioactive Pollution and their Sources
Living organisms are continuously exposed to a variety of radiations called background
radiations. If the level of the radioactive radiations increases above a certain limit it causes
harmful effects to living beings. This harmful level of radiations emitted by radioactive
elements is called radioactive pollution. There are two sources of radiation pollution, namely
natural sources and anthropogenic sources.

Natural Sources of Radiation

(i) Atomic radioactive minerals are one of natural sources of radioactive pollution. During
mining of uranium, radon gas is constantly released into the air. Radium-226 is widely
distributed in rocks, sediments and soils along with isotopes of uranium. Radioactive radiations
from these natural sources are known as natural or background radiation.

(ii) Cosmic rays are high energy ionizing electromagnetic radiation. The cosmic rays originate
from the stars in our galaxy by virtue of nuclear reactions primarily in their cores. The cosmic
rays are constantly reaching the earth from outer space.

(iii) Naturally occurring radioisotopes such as radon-222 found in soil in small quantity is
another source of radioactive radiations.

(iv) Radioactive elements which like uranium, thorium, radium, isotopes of potassium (K-40)
and carbon (C-40) occur in the lithosphere. Potassium-40 contributes radioactivity to all
potassium containing systems in the soil. Crops grown on such soil contain radioactive
elements like carbon-14 and potassium-40. Water gets contaminated with various
radionuclides when it runs through soils and rocks containing radioactive minerals.

Anthropogenic Sources of Radiation

(i) Diagnostic medical applications: Radiations are employed for diagnostic and therapeutic
applications. X-rays are used in general radiology and CT scan. Gamma rays are used in
treatment of cancer. In all these procedures we are exposed to varying doses of radiations.

(ii) Nuclear Tests: Nuclear explosion tests especially when carried out in the atmosphere are
a major cause of radiation pollution. It is responsible for increasing the background level of
radiation throughout the world. During atmospheric nuclear explosion tests, a number of long-
lived radionuclides are released into the atmosphere.

This radioactive dust (also known as radioactive fallout) gets suspended in air at a height of
6 to 7 km above the earth’s surface and is dispersed over long distances by winds from the test
site. These radionuclides often settle down by rain and get mixed with soil and water. From
there they can easily enter the food chain and finally get deposited in the human body where
they cause serious health hazards. Some of the radioactive isotopes given off during nuclear
test affect the human body.

India exploded its nuclear device (equivalent to 12 kilotons of Tri Nitro Toluene) in an
underground tunnel at a depth of 107 meters in the Thar desert near Pokharan in 1974. No
radioactivity is said to have been released into the surroundings. Again, in May, 1998 India
conducted nuclear tests without any fall out of radioactivity into the surroundings.
(iii) Nuclear Reactors: Radiations may leak from nuclear reactors and other nuclear facilities
even when they are operating normally. It is often feared that even with the best design, proper
handling and techniques, some radioactivity is routinely released into the air and water.

However, dangers of radiation leakage are from possibility of accidents that could result in the
release of radioactive material which raises the level of radioactive (ionizing) radiations. Such
accidents took place at the ‘Chernobyl nuclear power plant’ in USSR in 1986 and at the ‘Three
Mile Island Power Plant’ in USA in 1979. The accidents of ‘Three Mile Island’ plant in
Middletown (U.S.A.) in 1979 and at Chernobyl nuclear power plant (U.S.S.R.) in 1986 were
the worst disasters in the history of nuclear power industry. In both incidents, a series of
mishaps and errors resulted in the overheating of the nuclear core. In both cases radiation was
released in the atmosphere. The leakage from the ‘Three Mile Island’ nuclear reactor has been
claimed to be very low with no immediate injuries to workers or people. But the leakage at
Chernobyl was very heavy causing death to many workers and radiation was spread over large
areas spread all over Europe.

(iv) Nuclear explosions: Nuclear explosions are a serious source of radiations hazard. The
effects of atomic explosions in Nagasaki and Hiroshima are still not forgotten.

(v) Nuclear material processing: Many radioactive minerals are processed to extract
Environmental Chemistry radioactive metals. Several compounds of radioactive elements are
also produced and processed, for various uses. All those who handle these materials are at a
greater risk of man-made radioactive pollution.

Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation on the Human Body

(i) genetic and

(ii) nongenetic or body damage.

In genetic damage, genes and chromosomes get altered. Its effect may become visible as
deformations in the offspring (children or grandchildren). Alterations or breaks in the genetic
material, that is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)- the molecule containing genetic information, is
called mutation. In nongenetic effects, the harm is visible immediately in the form of birth
defects, burns, some type of leukaemia, miscarriages, tumours, cancer of one or more organs
and fertility problems.

Preventive Measures from Nuclear Radiation

(i) Atomic explosions should not be carried out in the atmosphere.

(ii) In nuclear reactors, closed cycle coolant system may be employed, so that no radiation
leakage through coolant can take place.

(iii) Radioactive wastes generated by nuclear reactors or from nuclear weapons programme
must be disposed in a manner that they will do the least harm. First, the wastes may be stored
at some place temporarily to allow for the initial, very intense, radioactivity to die down by
natural decay. Nuclear wastes should always be sealed in double-walled tanks so that no leaks
may take place. In the second stage, some useful isotopes generated during fission in the
reactors may be recycled in reprocessing plants. Finally, a permanent storage space for the
wastes in geologically stable underground deep mines should be established It has been
suggested that these wastes may be stored till the wastes are reduced to the same radioactivity
level as that of a natural uranium mine.

(iv) Production and use of radioisotopes should be minimum and only for very essential use
because radioisotopes once produced cannot be destroyed by any means except by the passage
of time.

(v) The number of nuclear installations should be minimised so as to limit the emission of
radio-pollutants.

(vi) Fission reactions should be minimized.

(vii) In nuclear mines, wet drilling may be used and tailings properly sealed and protected for
radiation leakage.

(viii) Industrial wastes contaminated with radionuclides be disposed off carefully in specially
built tanks.

(ix) Working places where radioactive emissions are possible should have high chimneys and
good ventilation system.

(x) In areas where there is a risk of radon leakage from underground. radon concentrations be
monitored and protection measures be installed in buildings and homes.

(xi) Hand gloves, special footwear, protection of the eyes, goggles (Plexiglass of 2-5 mm thick,
thermoplastic transparent glass.

(xii) Respiratory organs are protected with the help of respirator, gas masks and helmet.

Disposal Methods of Radioactive Wastes:

• Dilute and disperse methods

• Declay and decay method for medium activity wastes, but badly deteriorate the soil.
• Concentration and contained method:
It involves locking of radioactive wastes in the crystalline structure of a special type of
rock that the Australian scientists have synthesized.
• Reclamation method: converted into useful products
• Converting radioactive waste into solid form, and can be stored in salt mines.
• Reprocessing methods
• Immobilization techniques like heating, calcination etc.
• Vitrification: Radioactive wastes are stored in underground stainless-steel tank.

Regulations Regarding Safety Measures

The executive agency for all activities related to atomic anergy is Department of Atomic
Energy (DAE) which was established in 1954. The sites for nuclear installations are chosen
with safety parameters in view. A number of physical barriers are designed which checks any
significant escape of radiation from the reactor. The radiation dosage received by workers are
monitored on a monthly basis. The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) has fixed the
dose limit to 30 millisievert (mSv) for workers. This is in agreement with the limit set up by
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).
The atomic Energy Regulatory Board, an autonomous body of Atomic Energy Commission,
carries out all regulatory and safety functions as envisaged under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962
covering all establishments of Department of Atomic Energy. It is also empowered to take
decision with regard to site selection, design, construction and commissioning, operation, etc.
of all nuclear installations.