APPLICATION NOTE App.

Note Code: 3RF-E

Line of Sight Obstruction

6/16

C o p y r i g h t © 2 0 1 6
C a m p b e l l S c i e n t i f i c , I n c .
Table of Contents
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1. Introduction ................................................................ 1

2. Fresnel Zones ............................................................. 4

3. Fresnel Zone Clearance ............................................. 6

4. Effective Earth Radius ............................................... 7

5. Signal Loss Due to Diffraction .................................. 9

6. Conclusion ............................................................... 10

Figures
1-1. Wavefronts with 180° Phase Shift ....................................................... 2
1-2. Multipath Reception ............................................................................. 2
1-3. Totally Obstructed LOS ....................................................................... 3
1-4. Knife-Edge Type Obstruction .............................................................. 4
2-1. Fresnel Zones ....................................................................................... 5
3-1. Effective Ellipsoid Shape ..................................................................... 6
3-2. Path Profile Traversing Uneven Terrain with Knife-Edge
Obstruction ....................................................................................... 7
5-1. Diffraction Parameter ........................................................................... 9

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Line of Sight Obstruction
1. Introduction
One of the Golden Rules of RF link design is to ensure an unobstructed line of
sight (LOS) between transmitting and receiving antennas. This may seem
intuitively obvious, but what exactly is LOS and what is meant by an
unobstructed LOS?

Electromagnetic (EM) energy will radiate from an antenna and propagate

through space as a sequence of ever-expanding, spherical wavefronts.
Depending on the particular type of antenna, energy may be radiated equally in
all directions or may be preferentially concentrated or “directed” into a chosen
direction. The classic analogy is the light from a candle, illuminating in all
directions, versus the focused beam of a flashlight. Radio signals and light
waves are each manifestations of EM radiation, differing chiefly in frequency.
In either case, the expanding wavefront will illuminate an angular area that
increases with the distance from the source.

Some portion of the EM wavefront will follow the shortest direct path between
transmitting and receiving antennas, and this direct path is often referred to as
the line-of-sight path of propagation. From the perspective of the receiving
antenna, this direct path contains the bulk of the received signal, but an
obstacle need not block the direct path of propagation to have some effect on
the level of the received signal. Therefore, to be considered as being
unobstructed, the LOS path, as well as some minimum volume of space normal
to this path, must be free of obstructions. It is precisely this condition that
defines line-of-sight propagation. The required keep-out area adjacent to the
LOS path is defined via the concept of Fresnel zones (pronounced, fray-nel)
and will be discussed subsequently.

Physical elements along the path of propagation, such as buildings, metallic

structures, or even the surface of the intervening terrain (particularly, bodies of
water), can cause some portion of the propagating wavefront to be reflected.
Should the reflected wavefront arrive at the receiving antenna coincident with
the LOS wavefront, the effect could be an increase or a decrease in the received
signal level. The signal level resulting from the combination of the two
wavefronts will be equal to the vector sum (phase and amplitude) of the
electric fields. If the wavefronts are equal in amplitude but phase shifted by
180° (or some multiple of one-half wavelength) as shown in FIGURE 1-1 , the
wavefronts will sum to zero and no signal will be received. Conversely, if the
wavefronts arrive inphase (a zero phase shift or some multiple of a whole
wavelength), there will be an increase in the received signal level relative to the
signal derived from the LOS path alone.

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Line of Sight Obstruction

FIGURE 1-1. Wavefronts with 180° Phase Shift

This phenomenon is referred to as multipath reception and is illustrated

schematically in FIGURE 1-2. From this, it is clear that the reflected wavefront
travels a longer distance to reach the receiving antenna than the LOS
wavefront. The difference in the direct path length and the reflected path length
is referred to as the excessive path length. The total phase difference between
direct and reflective wavefronts is equal to the phase shift due to the excessive
path length plus any phase shift induced in the reflected wavefront at the point
of reflection. The signals will sum at the receiving antenna constructively or
destructively depending on the total phase difference.

RX LOS TX

FIGURE 1-2. Multipath Reception

The reflection mechanism for propagating EM wavefronts is very complex and

the resultant changes to the amplitude and phase of the reflected wavefront are
dependent on a number of variables. The primary factors include the frequency
of the propagation wavefront, the angle of incidence, the conductivity of the
reflecting surface, and the polarization (vertical or horizontal) of the incident
wavefront.

Loss in the reflected wavefront is attributable to a portion of the incident

energy being transmitted into (refracted) or absorbed by the reflecting material.
The electrical properties of the reflecting material (permittivity, permeability,

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 Line of Sight Obstruction

and conductance) and, to a lesser degree, the frequency of the wavefront are the
primary factors determining the change in amplitude of the reflected wavefront.

Phase shift in the reflected wavefront is primarily a function of the electric-

field polarization of the incident wavefront and the angle of incidence. In
summary, horizontally polarized wavefronts will always exhibit at least 180° of
phase shift at the point of reflection, while vertically polarized wavefronts are
phase shifted only for an angle of incidence that is less than 30°.

When the direct LOS path is totally obstructed, as shown in FIGURE 1-3,
diffraction becomes the dominant propagation mechanism for wavefronts
reaching the receiving antenna and the loss, relative to an unobstructed LOS,
will be significant.

FIGURE 1-3. Totally Obstructed LOS

The diffraction or bending of EM wavefronts around an obstacle is explained

by the Huygens-Fresnel Principle, which states, in essence, that every point on
the plane of an EM wavefront acts as a point source of secondary wavelets
radiating in the direction of propagation. If a knife-edge type obstruction is
located adjacent to a wavelet source, a portion of the wavefront will propagate
into the shadow region behind the obstruction. This is graphically illustrated in
FIGURE 1-4. The field strength at a point located in the shadow region is equal
to the vector sum of the electric fields arriving from all of the secondary
sources. A receiver located in the shadow region may still be presented with a
viable signal, albeit greatly attenuated. As will be shown, the signal level will
depend largely on the path geometry.

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Line of Sight Obstruction

FIGURE 1-4. Knife-Edge Type Obstruction

2. Fresnel Zones
The vertical line in FIGURE 2-1 represents the leading edge of a propagating
EM plane wave at a point in time. The rays represent paths passing through
potential points of reflection or diffraction on the wavefront and converging on
the receiving antenna. The points are chosen such that the excess path length of
the associated ray is equal to a multiple of one-half wavelength (λ/2). The
center ray represents the direct LOS path. If we let the vertical distance of each
point from the LOS path represent the radius of a circle whose circumference is
tangent to that point, we have described a number of concentric, but mutually
exclusive, areas about the LOS path called Fresnel zones.

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 Line of Sight Obstruction

FIGURE 2-1. Fresnel Zones

In theory, there are an infinite number of Fresnel zones about a given point, but
it is the first (inner-most) Fresnel zone that defines the critical keep-out area for
an unobstructed LOS.

For obstacles that intrude into the first Fresnel zone but do not block the LOS
path, it is the constructive or destructive interference from the reflected
wavefront that is of concern. Bear in mind that a Fresnel zone constitutes a
three-dimensional area, so obstructions can intrude from above, below, or from
the sides of the LOS path. An obstruction at the outer boundary of the first
Fresnel zone will give rise to a relative phase shift of 180° due to the excess
path length of one-half wavelength. With an additional 180° shift induced at
the point of reflection, the total relative phase shift will be a whole wavelength
and the wavefronts will sum constructively; with as much as a 6 dB gain in
received signal level. As the obstruction moves further into the Fresnel zone,
the phase shift will decrease in proportion to the decreasing excess path length
and the obstacle-induced phase shift will be become the dominant factor. An
intrusion into the inner most area of the first Fresnel zone will result in a
decrease or fading of the received signal level. At the point where the
obstruction becomes tangent to the LOS path, signal losses will be as much as
6 dB or more. Best practice is to maintain at least 60% of the first Fresnel zone
radius free of obstructions to avoid fading of the received signal.

When an obstacle in the path of propagation blocks the direct LOS path, the
results can be catastrophic. Any signal reaching a receiving antenna located in
an obstacle’s shadow depends heavily on the shape of the obstacle. For smooth,
rounded surfaces, such as the top of a grassy hill, the signal could be totally
obliterated. On the other hand, if the obstacle exhibits a sharp, knife-edge type
profile, some portion of the wavefront could be diffracted around or over the
obstacle; such is the case with some forested or rocky mountain tops. As has
been said, the level of diffracted signal reaching the receiving antenna depends
on the path geometry; the relative height of the obstacle above the direct LOS
path, and the location of the obstacle along the path of propagation.

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Line of Sight Obstruction

3. Fresnel Zone Clearance

FIGURE 3-1 illustrates the effective ellipsoid shape—the radius will be
maximum at the midpoint of the path—traced by the first Fresnel zone radius
at successive points along the path of propagation.

FIGURE 3-1. Effective Ellipsoid Shape

For a point at a given distance along the path of propagation, the radius of the
first Fresnel zone, RFFZ, can be determined from the equation:

𝜆𝜆𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑2
𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = � (3-1)
𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑑𝑑2

Where:
λ is wavelength of the propagating signal in meters.
d1 is the distance in kilometers (km) of the point from one end of the path.
d2 is the distance in kilometers (km) of the point from the opposite end of
the path.

Wavelength is related to the frequency of the propagating signal by:

𝑐𝑐
𝜆𝜆 = (3-2)
𝑓𝑓

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 Line of Sight Obstruction

Where:
f is the frequency in megahertz (MHz).
c is the speed of light in meters per second (299.792 • 106 m/s).

To determine whether or not the first Fresnel zone radius at some point along
the path of propagation is free of obstructions, one must construct a path profile
that accurately depicts the location and elevation of potential obstructions.
FIGURE 3-2 shows the path profile of an RF link traversing uneven terrain
containing a knife-edge type obstruction.

FIGURE 3-2. Path Profile Traversing Uneven Terrain with Knife-Edge

Obstruction

Where:
LOS is the direct LOS path of propagation between the link’s antennas.
RFFZ is the radius of the first Fresnel zone at the location point.
CLOS is the LOS clearance relative to the obstruction.
h1 is the antenna height in meters associated with distance, d1.
h2 is the antenna height in meters associated with distance, d2.
hO is the height in meters of the obstruction.
d is the total path distance (d1 + d2) in kilometers.
hER is the height in meters of surface curvature at the location point as a
result of the effective earth radius.

NOTE All heights are relative to mean sea level.

4. Effective Earth Radius

It could be reasonably assumed that the direct LOS path of propagation follows
a straight line; such as shown in our path profile. The reality is that the
refractive properties of the earth’s atmosphere can cause the path to bend

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Line of Sight Obstruction

slightly toward or away from the earth's surface. This curved path makes the
determination of adequate obstacle clearance problematic—prior to
computerized propagation models, path profiles were drawn by hand on paper.
To allow for a straight-line path of propagation, a correction factor, k, is
applied to the earth’s radius; in effect, increasing or decreasing the surface
curvature to compensate for the refracted path. This corrected radius is called
the effective earth radius.

The k-factor used to derive the effective earth radius is a function of the
atmosphere's refractive index. For a non-refractive atmosphere, in which the
path of propagation is a straight line, k = 1. For the more realistic atmosphere
where the path of propagation is refracted towards the surface, k > 1. In the rare
case where the path of propagation is refracted away from the surface,
generally associated with a coastal sea adjacent to a large desert, k < 1. Values
of k will vary by geographical region, time of year, and local weather
conditions. In lieu of specific data, propagation models utilize a standard
atmosphere where the k-factor is defined as: k = 1.33.

The height of surface curvature at a given point along the path of propagation
as a result of the effective earth radius is given by:

𝑑𝑑1 ∙ 𝑑𝑑2
ℎ𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = (4-1)
12.74 ∙ 𝑘𝑘

The LOS clearance relative to the obstruction, CLOS, can be calculated as

follows:

ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = ℎ1 + ∙ 𝑑𝑑1 − ℎ𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − ℎ𝑂𝑂 (4-2)
𝑑𝑑

Where positive values indicate that the obstruction is below the LOS; while
negative values indicate that the obstruction is above the LOS.

The relative clearance between 60% of the first Fresnel zone radius and the
obstruction can now be calculated:

𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 0.6 ∙ 𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (4-3)

Where negative values indicate an intrusion into the first Fresnel zone that will
result in an attenuation of the signal at the receiving antenna.

Given the parameters:

f = 900 MHz
d1 = 8 km
d2 = 12 km
h1 = 110 meters
h2 = 150 meters
hO = 120 meters
d = d1 + d2
k = 1.33

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 Line of Sight Obstruction

Equation (3-2) gives: λ = 0.333 meters.

Equation (3-1) gives: RFFZ = 39.986 meters.

Equation (4-1) gives: hER = 5.666 meters.

Equation (4-2) gives: CLOS = 0.334 meters.

Equation (4-3) gives: CFFZ = –23.657 meters.

From the preceding, one can see that over 99% of the first Fresnel zone radius
is obstructed and that the obstacle protrudes 23.7 meters into the critical 0.6R
area. Clearly, there will be a significant loss of signal at the receiving antenna.
The amount of loss is approximated in the next section.

5. Signal Loss Due to Diffraction

The signal attenuation due to diffraction caused by a knife-edge type
obstruction can be calculated using the Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter,
v, and the complex Fresnel integral shown below.

∞
1 + 𝑗𝑗 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑡𝑡 2
𝑓𝑓(𝑣𝑣) = � � � 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �� �� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (5-1)
2 2
𝑣𝑣

The value of the diffraction parameter, v, is related to the height, h, of the

obstructing knife-edge above the LOS, such that v and h are positive when the
obstacle is above the LOS and negative when below.

FIGURE 5-1. Diffraction Parameter

The height of the obstruction relative to the LOS is given by a rearrangement

of equation (4-2):

ℎ2 − ℎ1
ℎ = ℎ𝑂𝑂 + ℎ𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − ℎ1 − ∙ 𝑑𝑑1 (5-2)
𝑑𝑑

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Line of Sight Obstruction

The Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter can now be calculated as follows:

2(𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑑𝑑2 )
𝑣𝑣 = ℎ ∙ � (5-3)
𝜆𝜆 ∙ 𝑑𝑑1 ∙ 𝑑𝑑2

Equation (5-2) gives: h = –0.334 meters.

Equation (5-3) gives: v = –0.012.

Given the diffraction parameter, the signal loss, in positive values of dB, due to
diffraction can be calculated. Below, is a more user friendly approximation of
the Fresnel integral shown in equation (5-1) that is reasonably accurate for
values of v ≥ −0.7.

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 (𝑣𝑣) = 6.9 + 20 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ��(𝑣𝑣 − 0.1)2 + 1 + 𝑣𝑣 − 0.1� (5-4)

Given all of the preceding parameters, equation (5-4) gives: LossDiff (v) = 5.93
dB.

In summary, the following points can be derived from this analysis:

• For a path of propagation where the first Fresnel zone is clear of
obstructions (v ≤–1), signal loss due to reflections or diffraction will
be negligible.
• For a path of propagation where more than 60% of the first Fresnel
zone radius is obstructed by a single knife-edge type obstruction, but
the direct LOS is not obstructed (–1 ≤ v ≤–0), signal loss due to
reflections can be up to 6 dB.
• For a path of propagation where a single knife-edge type obstruction
occludes the direct LOS plus more than 60% of the first Fresnel zone
radius above the LOS (0 ≤ v ≤ 1), signal loss due to diffraction can be
up to 14 dB.
• For a path of propagation where a single knife-edge type obstruction
occludes the direct LOS plus the complete First Fresnel zone
(1 ≤ v ≤ 2.4), signal loss due to diffraction can be greater than 20 dB.

It should be noted that the above analysis applies to a single knife-edge type
obstruction in the path of propagation. For a path with multiple such
obstructions, a popular approach is to segment the path into individual profiles
and to simply sum the losses calculated for each segment.

6. Conclusion
The point of this discussion has been to instill some understanding of the real-
world effects that must be factored into designing a reliable telemetry link.
Free space propagation losses are the norm for calculating link budgets, but,
since most telemetry links exist on the earth’s surface and not in outer space,
such calculations by themselves are insufficient. Indeed, there are numerous
other factors to be considered such as ground-wave reflections and atmospheric
losses due to scattering, absorption and ducting, but we will leave those
subjects for future discussions.

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