PROFED 3

NOTES

MODULE 1: METACOGNITION • requires learners’ motivation

AND THE LEARNER-CENTERED and cognitive engagement:
PRINCIPLES learner must put considerable
mental effort and persistence. One
BEYOND THE COMFORT ZONE must think beyond the box.

• Comfort Zone: Here is where we WHAT IS METACOGNITION?

feel safe and in control.
• “Thinking about thinking” and
• Fear Zone: It’s a challenging and “learning how to learn”.
unfamiliar zone. There are two
options: retreat or move forward. • John Flavell: metacognition
consisting of both metacognitive
• Learning Zone: This is where we knowledge and metacognitive
acquire new skills and learn to experiences or regulation.
handle new challenges. We
discover our potential for change • The higher level of thinking which
and redefine ourselves. involves awareness and control of
one self’s thinking process.
• Growth Zone: This is the zone
where we achieve and surpass our • The acquired knowledge about
goals. cognitive process.

1.0 INTRODUCTION: 3 CATEGORIES OF

METACOGNITION LEARNING METACOGNITION

• is active: Learners build 1. KNOWLEDGE OF PERSON

knowledge as they explore the VARIABLES
world by observation,
engagement, and creating ideas • Refers to knowing one’s views of
from their own understanding. himself as a learner and thinker.

• builds on prior knowledge: • Involves knowing one self’s

enhancing and challenging personal preference or variables in
previous knowledge to evolve learning.
one’s learning.
• Example: Knowing that you
• occurs in a complex social personally learn best when there is
environment: should not be music playing in the background
limited in the individual level as than eerie silence or having a
learning is multifaceted. preferred time to study helps you
with your focus and concentration
• is situated in an authentic more.
context: provides concepts on a
need-to-know or want-to-know
basis.
PROFED 3
NOTES

2. KNOWLEDGE OF TASK • Metacognition could be knowing

VARIABLES oneself and what works for you to
learn and achieve your desired
• Refers to knowing ones’ views of outcomes.
the nature of task to be done and
the steps needed to accomplish • Huitt believes that metacognition
the task. includes the ability to ask and
answer the following questions:
• It is about knowing what needs to
be accomplished, difficulty of the o What do I know about this?
tasks, the effort needed to do the o Do I know what I need to
task. know?
o Do I know where I can get the
• Example: Knowing yourself that information I need?
creating an artwork would take you
more time and effort than to write o What are the strategies that
a reflection paper. work best for me?
o Did I understand what I
3. KNOWLEDGE OF STRATEGY read/saw/heard?
VARIABLES
o How do I revise my approach if
one of the identified strategies
• Refers to knowing of one’s doesn’t work?
awareness of the strategy he/she
is using to learn and evaluate
whether it is effective. 1.1 METACOGNITIVE
STRATEGIES TO FACILITATE
• Terms like meta-attention and LEARNING
meta-memory are related
strategy variables The challenge to future teachers is
teaching future students to:
o Meta-attention: awareness of
specific strategies so that you • Build their capacity to reflect on
can keep your attention their own characteristics as
focused on the task at hand. learners.

o Meta-memory: awareness of • The strategies that they can use to

the memory strategies that is learn.
suitable to you.
STRATEGIES TO TEACH
METACOGNITION: STUDENTS
APPLICATION TO SELF
1. Monitor own learning and thinking
• Knowledge is said to be 2. Teach student learning strategies
metacognitive if it is keenly used in
a purposeful manner to ensure
that one’s tasks and goals are met.
PROFED 3
NOTES

A. TQLR: metacognitive strategy for understand concepts that

younger students before listening may be unclear to you.
to a presentation.
o Reflect (R): think about what
o Tune-In (T): Important for you read. Did you understand
the learner to know that clearly what you have read?
he/she is paying attention What are the main points that
and ready to learn. you learned? How is this
relevant and useful to you?
o Question (Q): The learner is
given questions or thinks of 3. Make predictions about
questions about the things information to be presented next
he/she will soon learn. based on what they have read.
o Listen (L): learner to
intentionally exert effort to 4. Relate ideas to existing knowledge
listen. structures.
5. Develop and ask questions.
o Remember (R): The learner
uses ways to strategies to 6. Know when to ask for help.
remember what was learned. 7. Show how to transfer knowledge,
attitudes, values, skills to other
B. PR4R: metacognitive strategy for situations.
older students used to study a unit
or chapter.
1.2 FOURTEEN (14) LEARNER-
o Preview (P): scan the whole CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL
document and look for PRINCIPLES
outlines to give you an idea
about the important topics. • Focus on psychological factors
that are primarily internal to and
o Question (Q): read the guide under the control of the learner.
questions and think of
possible questions that may • The principles are intended to deal
be related to the topic. holistically with learners in the
context of real-world learning
o Read (R): Read and situations thus they must be
understand the content. It is viewed as an organized set of
important to research on the principles.
words that may be unfamiliar
to you. A. COGNITIVE AND
METACOGNITIVE FACTORS
o Recite (R): work on
answering the questions you 1. NATURE OF LEARNING
had earlier. PROCESS

o Review (R): Identify topics • the learning of complex subject

you need to re-read to better matter is most effective when it is
PROFED 3
NOTES

an intentional process of • The successful learner can create

constructing meaning from and use a repertoire of thinking
information and experience. and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
• successful learners are active,
goal directed, self-regulating and • Can be enhanced with assistance
assume personal responsibility for from educators in developing and
contributing to own learning. applying their strategic learning
skills.
2. GOALS OF THE LEARNING
PROCESS 5. THINKING ABOUT THINKING

• To acquire the thinking and • Higher order strategies for

learning strategies necessary for selecting and monitoring mental
continued learning success across operations facilitate creative and
the life span. critical thinking.

• Students must be able to have • Successful learners can reflect on

long term goals through time. how they think and learn, set
reasonable learning or
• Successful learner, over time and performance goals, select
with guidance can create potentially appropriate learning
meaningful, coherent strategies.
representations of knowledge.
• They can generate alternative
3. CONSTRUCTION OF methods to reach their goal when
KNOWLEDGE a problem occurs.

• Acquiring new knowledge and 6. CONTEXT OF LEARNING

integrating it to previous
knowledge to deepen and broaden • Learning is influenced by
one’s knowledge base and environmental factors, including
eventually using this new culture, technology and
knowledge effectively in instructional practices.
performing tasks.
• Teachers, groups and other
• The successful learner can link relevant variables can affect one’s
new information with existing learning.
knowledge in meaningful ways.
• Teaching practice must be
4. STRATEGIC THINKING appropriate for the level of the
learner’s prior knowledge,
• Use of strategic thinking to cognitive abilities and their
learning, reasoning, problem learning strategies.
solving and concept learning.
PROFED 3
NOTES

B. MOTIVATIONAL AND motivation is unlikely without

AFFECTIVE FACTORS coercion.

7. MOTIVATIONAL AND C. DEVELOPMENTAL AND

EMOTIONAL INFLUENCES ON SOCIAL FACTORS
LEARNING
10. DEVELOPMENTAL
• Positive emotions such as INFLUENCES ON LEARNING
curiosity can enhance motivation
to learn while negative emotions • Learning is effective when
such as anxiety, fear, insecurity differential development within
can detract motivation and and across physical, intellectual,
interfere with learning. emotional and social domains is
taken into account.
• Student’s view of themselves can
affect their motivation to learn. • Early parental involvement in
schooling would be beneficial in
8. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION TO creating a 2-way communication.
LEARN
• Facilitate optimal learning contexts
• Curiosity, flexible, insightful by being aware and understanding
thinking and creativity are the the developmental differences.
indicators of learner’s intrinsic or
natural/ innate motivation. 11. SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON
LEARNING
• Intrinsic motivation can be
associated with the tasks that • Learning is influenced by social
learners perceive as interesting interactions, interpersonal
and personally relevant and relations and communications with
meaningful (choice and control). others.

• Encourage natural curiosity of • Learning by interacting and

learners by attending to individual collaborating on a given task
differences. encourages flexible thinking and
social competence.
9. EFFECT OF MOTIVATION ON
EFFORT • Provides an opportunity for
perspective taking and reflective
• Effort as another important factor thinking.
in the learner’s motivation;
investment of energy and effort • Positive climate for learning is
along with persistence over time. achieved when there is a sense of
belongingness, self-respect and
• Educators need to boost learner self-acceptance brought about by
motivation for deep quality personal relationships.
understanding, as effort without
PROFED 3
NOTES

D. INDIVIDUAL AND DIFFERENCE • Self- assessments also improve

FACTORS the learner’s appraisal skills and
enhance motivation and self-
12. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN directed learning.
LEARNING
SUMMARY OF THE 14
• Learners have different PRINCIPLES
approaches.
1. KNOWLEDGE BASE
• Educators should align teaching
with student preferences and • One’s existing knowledge serves
backgrounds, respecting as foundation of all future
individual differences. learnings.

• Educators must determine how 2. STRATEGIC PROCESSING AND

much to adapt instructional CONTROL
methods to accommodate
individual differences in • Learners can skills to reflect and
capabilities, recognizing both regulate their thoughts and
innate and developed abilities. behaviors in order to learn more
effectively.
13. LEARNING AND DIVERSITY
3. MOTIVATION AND AFFECT
• language, ethnicity, race, beliefs
and socio-economic factors all • Intrinsic motivation all have a
influence learning. crucial role in the learning process.

• When these factors are respected 4. DEVELOPMENT AND

and valued, learners’ motivation INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
and achievement are enhanced.
• Learning is a unique to each and
14. STANDARD AND ASSESSMENT everyone

• Establishing high standards and 5. SITUATION OR CONTEXT

evaluating both learners and the
learning process, including • Learning happens in the context of
assessment methods, is essential. a society as well as within an
individual.
• Effective learning takes place
when learners feel challenged to
work towards appropriate
standards.

• Standardized assessments help in

assess the achievement levels
across and within learners.
PROFED 3
NOTES

MODULE 2: STUDENT DIVERSITY III. HOW STUDENT DIVERSITY

ENRICHES THE LEARNING
I. OVERVIEW ON STUDENT ENVIRONMENT
DIVERSITY
1. Student’s self-awareness is
• Diversity is the sum of the ways enhanced by diversity:
that people are both alike and Awareness of personal and
different. interpersonal diversity provides
students with reference points,
• These diversities bring about the enhancing their self-assessment
richness and the challenges within of values, attitudes, and behaviors.
a classroom.
2. Student diversity contributes
• It brings about opportunities for cognitive development:
growth for everyone in the learning Classroom diversity offers
environment. learners access to peers with
different perspectives, enriching
II. FACTORS THAT BRING the depth and breadth of learning.
ABOUT STUDENT DIVERISTY Varied backgrounds and
viewpoints foster critical thinking
• Socioeconomic Status: it is a and cognitive development.
reflection of a social status/
standing of an individual or group 3. Student diversity prepares
and is often measured as a learners for their role as
combination of: responsible members of the
society: Early awakening to
o Education diversity enables learners to
o Income approach real-world problems
o Occupation from multiple perspectives,
fostering inclusivity and
• Thinking / learning Style: It adaptability. With students’
enhances the way and the pace diversity in the classroom, it
they learn. creates a market place/ public
place where community can be
• Exceptionalities: learner’s practiced.
personal difficulties in learning are
important factors that bring about 4. Student diversity can promote
student diversity in the classroom. harmony: Integrated diversity in
the classroom fosters a
o Example: students who have harmonious environment where
migrated into another place differences are embraced.
where the language spoken is Student-centered teaching
one that they are not familiar encourages collaboration,
with. promoting unity while leveraging
diverse backgrounds.
PROFED 3
NOTES

IV. TEACHING TIPS ON STUDENT o Scheduling instructor-student

DIVERSITY conference outside of
classroom.
1. Encourage learners to share
their personal history and o Learn the names of your
experience. students to easily build
rapport and encourage them
2. Integrate learning experiences to participate.
and activities which promotes
students’ multicultural and 5. Use varied instructional
cross-cultural awareness methods to accommodate
student diversity in learning
o Example: World Cultural Day styles.
or United Nations Day
o Student centered (group
3. Aside from highlighting work) or teacher centered
diversity, identify patterns of (lecture)
unity that transcend group
differences. o Structured (step-by-step) or
unstructured (trial and error)
o Grouping students into
homogenous groups and o Independent learning
have them share experiences (individual activities) or
interdependent learning
o Grouping students who are (collaborative activities)
different in terms of
demographic characteristics 6. Vary the examples you use to
but similar with respect to illustrate concepts in order to
another trait provide multiple contexts that
are relevant to students from
o After self-assessment diverse background.
activities, have students line
up according to their results or o Ask students to share
profile. examples from their personal
experiences.

4. Communicate high o At the first day of class, ask

expectations to students from students to create profile
all subgroups: sheets and use information
provided in creating examples
o Assigning the role of reporter during discussions.

o Engage in paired discussions o Situational analysis relevant

wherein they take turns to their lives.
PROFED 3
NOTES

7. Adapt to the students’ diverse A. SENSORY PREFERENCES

backgrounds and learning
styles by allowing them • Individuals tend to gravitate toward
personal choice and decision- one or two types of sensory input
making opportunities and maintain dominance in one of
concerning what they will learn the following types:
and how they will learn it.
1. VISUAL LEARNERS
o Give the learner more
decision-making opportunity • students learn more when they
with respect to learning task see their teacher’s actions and
as it promotes positive expressions and learn best from
attitude, interaction, visual aid like diagrams, illustrated
independence and lessened text books, flipcharts etc.
anxiety or stress while
performing tasks. o Visual-iconic: learners prefer
visual imagery such as film,
8. Diversify your methods of graphic displays or pictures in
assessing and evaluating order to solidify learning and
student learning. they usually have a good
picture memory. They would
o Traditional pen and paper like to read a map better than
exam and assignment = to read a book.
visual presentation, oral
reports, and exhibit. o Visual-symbolic: learners
prefer this form of input feel
9. Purposely form small group comfortable with abstract
discussion group of students symbolism such as
from diverse backgrounds. You mathematical formulae or the
can form groups of students written word. They tend to be
with different learning styles, abstract thinkers who prefer
different cultural backgrounds reading a book than a map
etc. and would like to read about
things than to hear about
o Instructor is removed from them.
the center stage thereby
reducing the perceived role of 2. AUDITORY LEARNERS
as absolute authority.
• they learn best from verbal
V. LEARNING/THINKING STYLES lectures, discussions and listening
to what others have to say.
• This refers to the preferred way an
individual processes information. • They interpret the underlying
meanings of speech through
• They describe a person’s typical listening to the tone of voice, pitch,
mode of remembering or problem speed and other nuances.
solving.
PROFED 3
NOTES

• They also benefit from reading text • This makes them see finite
aloud and can attend to details. elements of patterns rather than
the whole.
o Listener: The more common
type between the two. They
remember the things said to 2. GLOBAL THINKERS (RIGHT
them and make the BRAIN)
information their own.
• “Forest seers”: who like to be
o Talker: The ones who prefer given the bigger picture.
to talk and discuss. They tend
to whisper comments to • Tend to learn better by
themselves. They are not approaching new Concepts, skills
trying to be disruptive as they and knowledge from a much larger
sometimes don’t realize that viewpoint.
they need to talk.
• This kind of learner gets bored and
3. TACTILE/KINESTHETIC frustrated with details and long-
LEARNERS winded explanation.

• this kind of learner benefit from

hands-on approach and actively
exploring the world around them.

• Those preferring this type of input

are more on the active,
sensorimotor learning.

• They tend to prefer “learning by

doing” thus they tend to have good
motor memory and motor
coordination.

B. GLOBAL-ANALYTIC VI. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

CONTINUUM
• Developed by psychologist
1. ANALYTIC THINKERS (LEFT Howard Gardner in the late 1970s
BRAIN) and early 1980s.

• “Tree seers”: they learn more o Intelligence: an ability or set

with details and hierarchies of of abilities that allows a
information. person to solve a problem.

• Tends to learn more by the linear o He believes that the different

and step-by-step process of intelligences may be
learning. independent abilities. (One
PROFED 3
NOTES

may be low in one domain but 6. INTRAPERSONAL

high in another and that all of
us possess the intelligences • An ability to recognize and
but in varying degrees of understand one’s own moods,
strength.) desires, motivations and
intentions.
1. SPATIAL
7. INTERPERSONAL
• An ability to recognize and
manipulate large scale and fine- • An ability to recognize and
grained spatial image and to see understand one’s others moods,
things in one’s mind in planning to desires, motivations and
create a product or solve a intentions.
problem.
8. NATURALISTIC
2. LINGUISTIC
• An ability to identify and
distinguish among different types
• An ability to analyze information
of plants, animals, and weather
and create products involving oral formations that are found in the
and written language such as natural world.
speeches, books and memos.
• It picks up on subtle differences in
3. LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL meaning and not simply the study
of nature; it can also be all areas of
• An ability to develop equations and study.
proofs, make calculations, and
solve abstract problem. 9. EXISTENTIAL

4. KINESTHETIC • An ability to see the big picture, the

role in the world and seeks to
• An ability to use one’s own body to connect to real world
create products or solve problems. understanding and application of
It promotes understanding through new learning.
concrete experience.
VII. TEACHING STRATEGIES
5. MUSICAL GUIDED BY THINKING/LEARNING
STYLES AND MULTIPLE
• An ability to produce, remember INTELLIGENCE
and make meaning of different
patterns of sound; learning 1. Provide general overview of the
through patterns, rhythms and material to be learned.
music.
2. Use various questions to draw out
responses from learners and
PROFED 3
NOTES

stimulate various level of thinking DEFINITION OF RELATED TERMS

from recalling factual information.
• Disability: measurable
3. Allow sufficient time for information impairment or limitation that
to be processed. interferes with a person’s ability
(e.g to walk, to hear, learn etc.)
4. Set objectives and learning
outcomes. • Handicap: a disadvantage that
occurs as a result of a disability
5. Warm up before lesson before the impairment.
lesson by brainstorming or any
mind exercises. o The degree of disadvantage is
often dependent on the
6. Use multisensory means for both adjustment made by both the
processing and retrieving person and the environment.
information.
o two persons may have the
7. Use variety of review and same disability but not the
reflection strategies to bring same degree of being
closure to learning (write up of handicapped.
summaries and reflection papers)

8. Use descriptive feedback rather o Example: Two persons who

than simply praising. move around in a wheelchair,
the one studying in a campus
VIII. LEARNERS WITH with wheelchair accessibility
EXCEPTIONALITIES in all areas would be less
handicapped than one in a
• One of the significant factors that school without wheel chair
highlight individual differences and accessibility.
diversity in learning is the
presence of exceptionalities.
CATEGORIES OF
• A person is considered to be EXCEPTIONALITIES (OMROD’S
exceptional when the child EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY,
requires either the modification of 2020)
school practices or special
educational services to develop A. SPECIAL COGNITIVE OR
their unique capabilities. ACEDEMIC DIFFICULTIES

• Those with physical needs related 1. LEARNING DISABILITIES

to cognitive abilities, behavior,
social functioning, physical and • perception language, memory or
sensory impairments, emotional metacognition that are not due to
disturbances, and giftedness. other disabilities like mental
retardation, emotional or
PROFED 3
NOTES

behavioral disorders or sensory 2. MENTAL RETARDATION

impairments.
• refers to significant sub-average
o Examples: dyslexia, intelligence and deficits in adaptive
dyscalculia, and dysgraphia. behavior.
2. ATTENTION-DEFICIT
HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER • There is difficulty in managing
activities of daily living and in
• Difficulty in focusing and conducting themselves
maintaining attention. appropriately in social situations.

• Recurrent hyper active and 3. EMOTIONAL/CONDUCT

impulsive behavior DISORDERS

3. SPEECH AND • involves presence of emotional

COMMUNICATION DISORDER states like depression and
aggression over a considerable
• difficulty in spoken language amount of time that they notably
including voice disorders, inability disturb learning and performance
to produce the sounds correctly, in school.
stuttering, difficulty in
comprehension that can C. PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND
significantly affect performance in HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS
a learning environment.
• Involves physical or medical
B. SOCIAL/EMOTIONAL AND conditions including one or more of
BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES the following:

1. AUTISM o Limited energy and strength

o Reduced mental alertness
• condition manifested by different o Little muscle control
levels of impaired social
interaction and communication, D. SEVERE AND MULTIPLE
repetitive behaviors and limited DISABILITIES
interests.
• Presence of two or more different
• They usually have intense need for types of disability.
routine and predictable
environment. • The combination of disabilities
makes it necessary to make
specific adaptation and more
specialized educational programs.
PROFED 3
NOTES

E. SENSORY IMPAIRMENTS 3. Avoiding euphemisms such as

physically challenged,
• Visual Impairments inconvenienced and differently
• Hearing impairments abled.

F. GIFTEDNESS 4. Avoiding negative words implying

illness, suffering, unfortunate,
• Involves high level of cognitive prisoner or victim.
development.
5. Recognize that people with
• Gifted people have an unusually disabilities are ordinary people.
high ability or aptitude in one or
more aspects like intellectual 6. Never equate a person with
ability, aptitude in academic disability. These labels are
subject, creativity, visual, medical diagnosis that tells what a
performing arts or even person HAS, not what a person IS.
leadership.
7. Recognize that disability is not a
IX. PEOPLE-FIRST LANGUANGE challenge and don’t say people
succeed in spite of disability.
• The disability community has Ordinary things and
developed preferred terminology accomplishments do not become
which is now called People First extraordinary just because they
Language. are done by a person with a
disability.
• More than a fad or political
correctness, People First 8. Promote, understanding, respect,
Language is an objective way of dignity and positive outlook.
acknowledging, communication
and reporting on disabilities.

• Through the use of people first

language, stereotypes and
assumptions are eliminated by
focusing on the person rather than
the disability.

FEW GUIDELINES ON
APPROPRIATE LANGAUGE

1. Avoid generic labels

2. Emphasize abilities not limitations