Lots of Calculations in GR – Black Holes – Chapter 12 20 August 2019

Susan Larsen

12 Black Holes............................................................................................................................................. 1
12.1 The Path of a Radially Infalling Particle - or what Happens to the Poor Astronaut as He Approaches
a Black Hole? ................................................................................................................................................. 1
12.2 Examples ............................................................................................................................................ 4
12.2.1 What about the astronaut’s point of view. ............................................................................... 4
12.2.2 An example: How much time elapses if the astronaut falls radially from 𝟔𝑴 to 𝟐𝑴. ............. 5
12.2.3 How much time elapses if the astronaut falls radially from 10𝑴 till it hits the singularity. ..... 5
12.2.4 Can we see the astronaut as he approaches a black hole ......................................................... 6
12.2.5 Can the astronaut escape the black hole? ................................................................................ 7
12.2.6 Escaping a Black Hole II............................................................................................................. 7
12.2.7 Inside a Black Hole ..................................................................................................................... 9
12.3 Collapsing Sphere of Dust ................................................................................................................ 10
12.3.1 The Speed of the Collapsing Surface ....................................................................................... 11
12.4 Eddington-Finkelstein Coordinates ................................................................................................. 11
12.4.1 The Line-element ..................................................................................................................... 11
12.4.2 The Radial Null Geodesics........................................................................................................ 11
12.5 The Schwarzschild metric in Kruskal Coordinates. ......................................................................... 12
12.6 The Kerr metric ................................................................................................................................ 15
12.6.1 The Kerr-Newman geometry ................................................................................................... 15
Bibliography ..................................................................................................................................................... 16

12 Black Holes
The surfaces defining black holes are null surfaces with (this) one-way property: you can fall through one
but you can never get back out.

(Hartle, 2003, s. 163)

It will collapse to a point of infinite or near-infinite density from which neither light nor anything else can
escape. Only its gravitational aura will remain.

(Wheeler, 1998, p. 294)

12.1 aThe Path of a Radially Infalling Particle - or what Happens to the Poor Astronaut as He
Approaches a Black Hole?
To investigate what happens to a particle (or an astronaut) as it approaches a black hole, we can use the
Schwarzschild metric.
2𝑚 2𝑚 −1 2
𝑑𝑠 2 = (1 − ) 𝑑𝑡 2 − (1 − ) 𝑑𝑟 − 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 2 − 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 2
𝑟 𝑟
The Schwarzschild metric describes the empty space (vacuum) outside a non-rotating spherical symmetric
massive body. Now using 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑐𝑑𝜏 and 𝑐 = 1, the particle orbits in the Schwarzschild space time can be
described by

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Lots of Calculations in GR – Black Holes – Chapter 12 20 August 2019
Susan Larsen

2𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 2𝑚 −1 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜙 2
1 = (1 − ) ( ) − (1 − 2
) ( ) − 𝑟 ( ) − 𝑟 sin 𝜃 ( ) 2 2
𝑟 𝑑𝜏 𝑟 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏
1
where 𝜏 is the local particle time (proper time) and t can be described as a distant observers (our) time.
2𝑚 is the Schwarzschild radius (or event horizon)2. For paths along radial lines (described by 𝑟, which is a
global coordinate) we can set 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝜙 = 0, and rearrange the Schwarzschild metric:
2𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 2𝑚 −1 𝑑𝑟 2
1 = (1 − ) ( ) − (1 − ) ( )
𝑟 𝑑𝜏 𝑟 𝑑𝜏
2𝑚 2 2 2
2𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟
⇔ 1− = (1 − ) ( ) −( ) (i)
𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏
b 2𝑚
Now, because 𝑔𝑡𝑡 = (1 − 𝑟 ) is independent of 𝑡, the vector 𝜉 = (1,0,0,0) is a Killing vector. Remem-
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
bering that 𝒖 is the particle four velocity 𝒖 = (𝑑𝜏 , 𝑑𝜏 , 𝑑𝜏 , 𝑑𝜏 ) we can calculate the conserved quantity: 𝝃 ⋅
2𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 𝑑𝑡
𝒖 = 𝜉 𝑎 𝑢𝑎 = 𝜉 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑏 𝑢𝑏 = 𝑔𝑡𝑡 𝜉 𝑡 𝑢𝑡 = (1 − ) ,
𝑟 𝑑𝜏
which means that (1 − )
𝑟 𝑑𝜏
is a conserved quantity.
𝑑𝑡
Notice that for 𝑟 → ∞: 𝑑𝜏 = 1, and the particle proper time, 𝜏, and the time of the distant observer, 𝑡, are
2𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 𝑑𝑡
equal. Since (1 − 𝑟 ) 𝑑𝜏 → 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 → ∞, (1 − 𝑟 ) 𝑑𝜏 must have the overall value 1:
2𝑚 𝑑𝑡
1 = (1 − )( ) (ii)
𝑟 𝑑𝜏
2𝑚 2 𝑑𝑡 2
⇒ 1 = (1 − ) ( )
𝑟 𝑑𝜏
and by inserting this in equation (i) above we can conclude
2𝑚 𝑑𝑟 2
=( )
𝑟 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑟 2𝑚
⇒ = ±√ (iii)
𝑑𝜏 𝑟
𝑑𝑟
Notice that for 𝑟 → ∞: 𝑑𝑡 = 0, which means the velocity of the particle is zero in this limit. Also notice that
𝑑𝑟
has to be negative because 𝑑𝑟 decreases as the particle moves inwards3. Next we use the chain rule and
𝑑𝜏
rearrange the two equations (ii) and (iii) into a differential equation:
𝑑𝑡 = c 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜏 = − 1 √𝑟
(iv)
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝑟 √2𝑚 (1 − 2𝑚)
𝑟
We can solve this by integration from 𝑟0 (far out) to 𝑟 (in the vicinity of 2𝑚), and find the 𝑡(𝑟) which
describes the particle path from our distant point of view, or more popular: what happens to the poor
astronaut as he approaches the black hole event horizon viewed from our distant position.
𝑟0
1 √𝑟
⇒ 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = ∫ 𝑑𝑟
√2𝑚 𝑟 (1 − 2𝑚)
𝑟
𝑟0
1 𝑟 3/2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑟
√2𝑚 𝑟 (𝑟 − 2𝑚)
𝑟0 (𝑥
1 + 2𝑚)3/2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑟 − 2𝑚
√2𝑚 𝑟 𝑥

1
And this is exactly why we can use 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑐𝑑𝜏. 𝑑𝜏 is the particle local time in the particle co-moving frame (i.e. no space
coordinates).
2 2𝑚𝐺 2∗1.989∗1030𝑘𝑔∗6.67∗10−11𝑁∗𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2
In SI-units the Schwarzschild radius is 𝑟 = , e.g. 𝑟𝑠𝑢𝑛 = ≈ 3𝑘𝑚
𝑐2 2.998∗108 𝑚2 /𝑠 2

3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 2𝑚 −1 2𝑚
Summarizing: 𝒖 = ( , , , ) = ((1 − ) , −√ , 0,0)
𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑟 𝑟

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Lots of Calculations in GR – Black Holes – Chapter 12 20 August 2019
Susan Larsen

𝑟
2(𝑥 + 2𝑚)3/2 0
1 𝑟0 √(𝑥
+ 2𝑚)
= 4([ ] + 2𝑚 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 )
√2𝑚 3 𝑟 𝑟 𝑥
3 𝑟0
𝑟0
1
2(𝑥 + 2𝑚)2 𝑑𝑥
= ([ + 2𝑚2√(𝑥 + 2𝑚)] + (2𝑚)2 ∫ )
√2𝑚 3 𝑟 𝑥 √𝑥 + 2𝑚
𝑟
𝑟0
2(𝑥 + 2𝑚)3/2
1 4𝑚2 √𝑥 + 2𝑚 − √2𝑚
=5 [ + 4𝑚√(𝑥 + 2𝑚) + ln ]
√2𝑚 3 √2𝑚 √𝑥 + 2𝑚 + √2𝑚 𝑟
𝑟0
2𝑟 3/2 1 √𝑟 − √2𝑚
= [ + 4𝑚√𝑟 + (2𝑚)3/2 ln ] 𝑟 = 𝑥 + 2𝑚
√2𝑚 3 √𝑟 + √2𝑚 𝑟
𝑟0 𝑟0
2 3 √𝑟 − √2𝑚
= [𝑟 2 + 6𝑚√𝑟] + [2𝑚 ln ]
3√2𝑚 𝑟 √𝑟 + √2𝑚 𝑟
2 √𝑟0 − √2𝑚 √𝑟 + √2𝑚
=d (𝑟0 3/2 − 𝑟 3/2 + 6𝑚√𝑟0 − 6𝑚√𝑟) + 2𝑚 ln (v)
3√2𝑚 √𝑟0 + √2𝑚 √𝑟 − √2𝑚
We can see that if the particle/astronaut begins its voyage infinitely far away 𝑟0 → ∞ the voyage endures
an infinitely amount of time. However, what is even more interesting is to investigate what happens when
the particle moves a very short distance from 𝑟0 to 𝑟 in the vicinity of the Schwarzschild radius i.e. 𝑟0 →
𝑟 → 2𝑚.
√𝑟0 −√2𝑚
⇒ 𝑡 − 𝑡0 → 2𝑚 ln → ∞ as 𝑟0 → 𝑟 → 2𝑚
√𝑟−√2𝑚
This can be interpreted in the following manner: as the particle (or astronaut) approaches the Schwarz-
schild radius (𝑟 → 2𝑚), the time, from our distant point of view, passes to infinity (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) → ∞, and the
astronaut will never pass the Schwarzschild surface, as seen from our distant point of view.
𝑟
Another way to come around this is to look at the limit where 𝜀 = 1 − 2𝑚 → 0 and insert this in the dif-
ferential equation (iv) and solve it.
𝑑𝑡 = − 1 √𝑟
(iv)
𝑑𝑟 √2𝑚 (1 − 2𝑚)
𝑟
𝑟 1
= −√
2𝑚 (1 − 2𝑚)
𝑟
1
→ −√1 − 𝜀
1
1 − (1 + 𝜀 )
1
→ −√1 − 𝜀
1 − (1 − 𝜀)
1
= √1 − 𝜀
𝜀
1 1
→ (1 − 𝜀)
2 𝜀
1
→ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜀 → 0
𝜀

4 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛/2 2(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛/2 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)(𝑛−2)/2

∫ 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑏∫ 𝑑𝑥 (14.102) (Spiegel, 1990)
𝑥 𝑛 𝑥
5 𝑑𝑥 1 √𝑎𝑥+𝑏−√𝑏
∫ 𝑥√𝑎𝑥+𝑏 = √𝑏 ln √𝑎𝑥+𝑏+√𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑏 > 0 (14.87) (Spiegel, 1990)

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Susan Larsen

𝑑𝑡 = 1
⇒ 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 1 − 2𝑚
𝑟0
1
⇒ 𝑡0 − 𝑡 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 1−
2𝑚
1−2𝑚𝑥0
1
= 6 − 2𝑚 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1−2𝑚𝑥 𝑥
1−2𝑚𝑥
= −2𝑚[ln 𝑥]1−2𝑚𝑥0
𝑟 𝑟0
= −2𝑚 [ln (1 − )]
2𝑚 𝑟
𝑟0 𝑟
= −2𝑚 (ln (1 − ) − ln (1 − ))
2𝑚 2𝑚
𝑟0
(1 − 2𝑚 )
= −2𝑚 ln 𝑟
(1 − 2𝑚)
(𝑟0 − 2𝑚)
= −2𝑚 ln
(𝑟 − 2𝑚)
𝑡−𝑡
⇒ 𝑟 − 2𝑚 = (𝑟0 − 2𝑚)𝑒 − 2𝑚0
Again: as the particle (or astronaut) approaches the Schwarzschild radius (𝑟 → 2𝑚), the time, from our
distant point of view, passes to infinity (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) → ∞, and the astronaut will never pass the Schwarzschild
surface, as seen from our distant point of view.

12.2 Examples
12.2.1 What about the astronaut’s point of view.
Well, the astronaut is falling freely, and he does not even know that he is close to a black hole. His clock is
ticking, he does not feel the gravitational field, actually, he does not know that he is moving at all, and
from his point of view, he could be floating in empty space. Mathematically speaking the astronaut is falling
freely along a geodesic in the spacetime created by the black hole, and he does not feel gravity until he
reaches the surface of the black hole, wherever and whatever that might be7.
To see why the astronaut does not see or feel the event horizon at 𝑟 = 2𝑚, we must solve equation (iii),
where 𝜏 is the astronaut proper time.
𝑑𝑟 2𝑚
= −√ (iii)
𝑑𝜏 𝑟

1 𝑟 2 3 3
⇒ 𝜏 − 𝜏0 = −√ ∫ √𝑟𝑑𝑟 = − [𝑟 2 − 𝑟0 2 ] (vi)
2𝑚 𝑟0 3√2𝑚
This equation describes the astronauts proper time as he moves from far out (𝜏0 , 𝑟0 ) and approaches the
black hole at some distance (𝜏, 𝑟). We see that this equation has no singularity in 𝑟 = 2𝑚, and therefore
the astronaut does not feel anything particular as he passes the black holes event horizon8.

6
𝑥 = 1 − 𝑟/2𝑚
7
You might have read elsewhere how the astronaut stretches out like spaghetti as he approaches the event horizon of
the black hole. This is due to tidal effects, where the gravitational forces on his feet are bigger than on his head (if he
plunges in with his feet first).
8
Notice that in the limit where 𝑟 and 𝑟0 are much larger than the Schwarzschild radius 2𝑚, i.e. far from the black hole,
eq. (v) and (vi) are approximately the same, and the proper time measured by the astronaut 𝜏 − 𝜏0 is the same as our
time 𝑡 − 𝑡0 , which we should expect.

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Lots of Calculations in GR – Black Holes – Chapter 12 20 August 2019
Susan Larsen

12.2.2 eAn example: How much time elapses if the astronaut falls radially from 𝟔𝑴 to 𝟐𝑴.
The astronaut falls radially inward, starting with zero velocity at infinity. We can use equation (vi)
2 3 3
𝜏 − 𝜏0 = 9 − [𝑟 2 − 𝑟0 2 ] (iii)
3√2𝑚
2 3 3
⇒ 𝜏2𝑀 − 𝜏6𝑀 = − [(2𝑀)2 − (6𝑀)2 ]
3√2𝑀
2 3 3
=− (1 − (3)2 ) (2𝑀)2
3√2𝑀
4 3
= − (1 − (3)2 ) 𝑀
3
≈ 105,6𝑀
In proper physical units
5,6𝑁𝑀𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐺
⇒ 𝜏2𝑀 − 𝜏6𝑀 ≈ = 111,4 ∗ 10−4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑐3
So we can conclude that the duration of the trip is approximately 10−4 sec per solar mass from the astro-
nauts point of view.

12.2.2.1 The Local Speed

The local speed
𝑟 − 𝑟0 4𝑚
𝑣 = = ≈ 0,7𝑐
𝜏 − 𝜏0 5,6𝑚

12.2.3 fHow much time elapses if the astronaut falls radially from 10𝑴 till it hits the singularity.
How much time elapses on the observers own clock before hitting the singularity in 𝑟 = 0, if the astronaut
starts from rest relative to a stationary12 spaceship at 𝑅 = 10𝑀
We have to modify the equation (iii) so that it matches the requirement that the astronaut is at rest in 𝑟0 =
𝑑𝑟
10𝑀. We begin by making the general requirement that 𝑑𝜏 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 = 𝑟0 and modify equation (iii) accord-
ingly.
𝑑𝑟 2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑟0 − 𝑟
= −√ − = −√ √ 𝑟0 > 𝑟
𝑑𝜏 𝑟 𝑟0 𝑟0 𝑟
𝑟0 0 𝑟
⇒ 𝜏𝑟=0 − 𝜏𝑟0 = −√ ∫ √ 𝑑𝑟
2𝑀 𝑟0 𝑟0 − 𝑟

𝑟0 𝜃=0 𝑟 sin2 𝜃
= 13 − √ ∫ √ 0 2𝑟 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝑀 𝜃=𝜋 𝑟0 − 𝑟0 sin2 𝜃 0
2
𝑟0 𝜃=0 2
= −2𝑟0 √ ∫ sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝑀 𝜃=𝜋
2
𝑟0 1
= −2𝑟0 √ [𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃]𝜃=0𝜋
2𝑀 2 𝜃=
2

9 𝑑𝑟
Notice that for 𝑟 → ∞: = 0, which means the velocity of the particle is zero in this limit.
𝑑𝑡
10
𝑁 is defined as 𝑀 = 𝑁𝑀𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟
11 𝑀𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐺 1,9891∗1030 𝑘𝑔∗6,67408∗10−11 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔−1 𝑠 −2
= = 2,46 ∗ 10−5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑐3 (2,99792458∗108 𝑚𝑠 −1 )3
12
If the astronaut falls radially inward, starting with zero velocity at infinity we can use (vi):
2 3 3 2√2 3
𝜏2𝑀 − 𝜏10𝑀 = − [(2𝑀)2 − (10𝑀)2 ] = − (1 − (5)2 ) 𝑀 ≈ 9,6𝑀
3√2𝑀 3
13
We make the substitution: 𝑟 = 𝑟0 sin2 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝑟0 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

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Susan Larsen

𝑟0
= −𝑟0 √ [𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃]𝜃=0𝜋
2𝑀 𝜃=
2
𝐼𝑓 𝑟0 = 10𝑀 = −10𝑀√5[𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃]𝜃=0𝜃=
𝜋
2
𝜋
= 10𝑀√5
2
≈ 11,2𝑀
In proper physical units
11,2𝑁𝑀𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐺
𝜏𝑟=0 − 𝜏10𝑀 ≈ = 142,7 ∗ 10−4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ∗ 𝑁
𝑐3
Which corresponds approximately 10−4 sec per solar mass from the astronauts point of view.

12.2.3.1 The Local Speed

The local speed
𝑟 − 𝑟0 8𝑚
𝑣 = ≈ ≈ 0,24𝑐
𝜏 − 𝜏0 33,7𝑚

12.2.4 Can we see the astronaut as he approaches a black hole

Now, the phrase “seen from a distant point of view” is a bit odd, because we don’t know if we actually can
see the astronaut. Let’s check it
The line element of a radially in moving light ray is
2𝑚 2𝑚 −1 2
𝑑𝑠 2 = (1 − ) 𝑑𝑡 2 − (1 − ) 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
Remembering that 𝑑𝑠 2 = 0 (the radial null geodesic) for a light ray we can rearrange the equation:
𝑑𝑟 2 2𝑚 2
( ) = (1 − )
𝑑𝑡 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 2𝑚
⇒ = ± (1 − )
𝑑𝑡 𝑟
This we can solve, but we have to choose the negative value because, the light ray moves inwards from 𝑟0
to 𝑟
𝑟0
𝑡0 𝑑𝑟
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫
𝑟 (1 −
2𝑚
𝑡 𝑟 )
𝑟0
𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑟0 − 2𝑚
⇒ 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = ∫ = 15[𝑟 + 2𝑚 ln(𝑟 − 2𝑚)]𝑟0 = 𝑟0 − 𝑟 + 2𝑚 ln
𝑟 (𝑟 − 2𝑚) 𝑟 − 2𝑚
We can check the same limit as before 𝑟0 → 𝑟 → 2𝑚, where 𝑟0 > 𝑟 > 2𝑚
𝑟 − 2𝑚
⇒ 𝑡 − 𝑡0 → 2𝑚 ln 0 →∞
𝑟 − 2𝑚
Therefore, we see that the travel time for a light ray approaching the Schwarzschild radius is infinity. We
can neither send a light signal to the astronaut close to the event horizon, nor see an image of the astro-
naut close to the event horizon16. Also notice, that even though the time approaches infinity, the speed of
the light is constant. This can happen because the black hole distorts and curves spacetime around itself
in a manner that the trajectory of the light ray stretches out, meanwhile its velocity is constant.

14 𝑀𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐺 1,9891∗1030 𝑘𝑔∗6,67408∗10−11 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔−1 𝑠 −2

= = 2,46 ∗ 10−5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑐3 (2,99792458∗108 𝑚𝑠 −1 )3
15 𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑏
∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 = 𝑎 − 𝑎2 ln(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) (Spiegel, 1990) (14.60)
16
Notice: This is not to be confused with the gravitational red-shift, which we are looking at in another chapter. The
present calculation is about seeing an image of the astronaut. If the astronaut had a torch sending a signal at us we
would see the signal gravitational red-shifted and dobbler-shifted as well (not to forget the cosmological redshift).

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12.2.5 g17Can the astronaut escape the black hole?

Imagine the astronaut wants to go home. He has brought some kind of energy device and wants to know
the escape velocity needed in order to reach his home far away, slowly decelerating arriving with zero
velocity. The astronaut, mass 𝑚, is at rest in the distance 𝑅 from the center of the black hole, mass M.
We treat the problem as an observer problem. The route back home is a radial geodesic as we found above
𝑑𝑡 1
where 𝑑𝜏 = 2𝑀 and hthe energy the astronaut needs to escape and fly home is 𝐸𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚𝛾 =
1−
𝑟
1
𝑚 which corresponds to the observed energy, 𝐸𝑜𝑏𝑠 .
2
√1−𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒

The observer equation:

𝑝0̂ = 𝐸𝑜𝑏𝑠
= −𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 ⋅ 𝑒𝑡̂
= −(𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 )𝛼 ⋅ (𝑒𝑡̂ )𝛼
= −𝑔𝛼𝛽 (𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 )𝛽 ⋅ (𝑒𝑡̂ )𝛼
1
𝑡
2𝑀 −2
= − 𝑔𝑡𝑡 (𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 ) (1 −
18 )
𝑟
1
𝑑𝑡 2𝑀 −2
= 19 − 𝑔𝑡𝑡 𝑚 (1 − )
𝑑𝜏 𝑟
1
2𝑀 1 2𝑀 −2
= 20 (1 − )𝑚( ) (1 − )
𝑟 2𝑀 𝑟
1− 𝑟
1
2𝑀 −2
= 𝑚 (1 − )
𝑟
1 1
𝑚 2𝑀 −2
⇒ 2 = 𝑚 (1 − )
√1 − 𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑟
2𝑀
⇒ =√ 𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒
𝑅
We see that if the astronaut is outside the Schwarzschild radius he can escape with a velocity less than he
velocity of light. However from the Schwarzschild radius and inwards 𝑅 ≤ 2𝑚 there is no escape.

12.2.6 i Escaping a Black Hole II

A spaceship is hovering outside a spherical black hole at radius 𝑅. It is possible to escape the black hole if
the crew ejects a part of the spaceships rest mass. The largest fraction of the rest mass that can escape to
𝑚
infinity (𝐹𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 < 1) can be found if we use the four velocity of the hovering spaceship and
ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
compare it with radial velocity of the escaping spaceship.
The four velocity of a hovering spaceship:
⃗)
𝑢 = (𝑢𝑡 , 𝑢𝑟 , 𝑢𝜃 , 𝑢𝜙 ) = (𝑢𝑡 , 0

17
I have presented this example in another chapter (chapter 3) too because I think it is a good example concerning the
observer problem too, as well as a BH problem.
1
2𝑀 −2
18
Recall: (𝑒𝑡̂ )𝛼 = ((1 − ) , 0, 0,0)
𝑟
𝑑𝑡
19
Recall: 𝑝𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝜏
20 2𝑀
Recall: 𝑔𝑡𝑡 = − (1 − )
𝑟

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The normalization of the four velocity21

2𝑚𝑏ℎ
𝑢⋅𝑢 = 𝑢𝑎 𝑢𝑎 = 𝑔𝑎𝑏 𝑢𝑏 𝑢𝑎 = 𝑔𝑡𝑡 (𝑢𝑡 )2 = − (1 − ) (𝑢𝑡 )2 = −1
𝑟
1
𝑡 =
⇒ 𝑢
√1 − 2𝑚𝑏ℎ
𝑟
2𝑚𝑏ℎ
𝑟 1−
2𝑚𝑏ℎ
𝑡
⇒ 𝑢𝑡,ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑔𝑡𝑡 𝑢 = − = −√1 −
𝑟
√1 − 2𝑚𝑏ℎ
𝑟
The radial of the escaping spaceship22:
𝑑𝑡 1
𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 = 𝑑𝜏 = 2𝑚𝑏ℎ
1− 𝑟
We define
2𝑚𝑏ℎ 1 1
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡,ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 = −√1 − =−
𝑟 1 − 2𝑚𝑏ℎ
𝑟 √1 − 2𝑚𝑏ℎ
𝑟
Conservation of the four impulse:
𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
2 2
⇒ (𝑝𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ) = (𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 )
2 2
= (𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 ) + (𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 ) − 2𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒
2 2
= −(𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 ) − (𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 ) − 2𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑥
2 2
(𝑝𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ) 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒
⇒ = −1 − ( ) −2 𝑥
(𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 )
2 𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
= −1 − 𝐹 2 − 2𝐹𝑥
2
2
(𝑝𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 )
⇒ 0 = 𝐹 + 2𝐹𝑥 + 1 + 2
(𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 )
2
The maximum fraction 𝐹 can be found if (𝑝𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ) = 0 meaning the ejected material is light-like.
⇒ 0 = 𝐹 2 + 2𝐹𝑥 + 1
1
⇒ 𝐹𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 = (−2𝑥 ± √(2𝑥)2 )
2
= −𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 − 1
1
= 𝑥 (−1 ± √1 − )
𝑥2

1 2𝑚𝑏ℎ
= 23 (1 − √1 − (1 − ))
𝑟
√1 − 2𝑚𝑏ℎ
𝑟

21 2𝑚
Negative time signature: 𝑔𝑡𝑡 = − (1 − ), 𝑢 ⋅ 𝑢 = −1
𝑟
22
We can use the results from the chapter: “The Path of a Radially Infalling Particle”
23
Because 𝐹 < 1 we have to chose the negative squareroot

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2𝑚𝑏ℎ
𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 1−√
𝑟
⇒ 𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 24
√1 − 2𝑚𝑏ℎ
𝑟
𝑟 𝑚
The result is illustrated in a graph where 𝑥 = 𝑚 and 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒
𝑏ℎ ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

We can conclude
𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 → 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 → 𝑚𝑏ℎ
={
𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 → 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 → ∞
So, the closer you are to the black hole, the smaller fraction can escape.

12.2.7 jInside a Black Hole

We can make an estimate how much time in astronaut can spend inside a black hole before he disappears
in the singularity.
We need the line element and the Killing vectors:
2𝑚 2𝑚 −1 2
𝑑𝜏 2 = (1 − 2
) 𝑑𝑡 − (1 − ) 𝑑𝑟 − 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜙 2
𝑟 𝑟
2𝑚 𝑑𝑡
𝑒 = (1 − )
𝑟 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝜙
𝑙 = 𝑟2
𝑑𝜏
2𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 2𝑚 −1 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝜙 2
⇒ 1 = (1 − ) ( ) − (1 − ) ( ) − 𝑟2 ( )
𝑟 𝑑𝜏 𝑟 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏
2𝑚 𝑒2 2𝑚 −1 𝑑𝑟 2 2
𝑙2
= (1 − ) − (1 − ) ( ) − 𝑟
𝑟 2𝑚 2 𝑟 𝑑𝜏 𝑟4
(1 − 𝑟 )
2𝑚 −1 2 2𝑚 −1 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑙 2
= (1 − ) 𝑒 − (1 − ) ( ) − 2
𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝜏 𝑟
2
𝑑𝑟 2 2
2𝑚 𝑙
⇒ ( ) = 𝑒 − (1 − 𝑟 ) (𝑟 2 − 1)
𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑟
Now 𝑟(𝜏) becomes minimal (hence 𝜏 maximal) if 𝑑𝜏 → 0 and we have to solve:
𝑑𝑟 2𝑚 𝑙 2
= √𝑒 2 − (1 − ) ( 2 − 1) = 0
𝑑𝜏 𝑟 𝑟

24
Gnuplot: plot [2:100] (1-sqrt(2/x))/sqrt(1-2/x)

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𝑑𝜏
a third-grade equation, which is difficult to solve. But because 𝑟 < 2𝑚, 𝑑𝑟 becomes minimal if 𝑒 = 𝑙 = 0
and we have to solve
𝑑𝑟 2𝑚
= √1 −
𝑑𝜏 𝑟
⇒ 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏2𝑀 − 𝜏𝑟0 →0
−1
2𝑚
2𝑚
=∫ (√1 − ) 𝑑𝑟
𝑟0 𝑟
2𝑚
𝑟
=∫ √ 𝑑𝑟
𝑟0 𝑟 − 2𝑚
𝜋
2 2𝑚 sin2 𝜃
= 25 ∫ √ 2 ⋅ 2𝑚 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 2𝑚 sin2 𝜃 − 2𝑚
𝜋
2
= 4𝑚 ∫ sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
1
= 4𝑚 ⋅ [𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃]02
2
=𝜋⋅𝑚
In proper physical units
𝑁𝑀𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐺
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜋 = 260,77 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑐3

12.3 kCollapsing Sphere of Dust

We can make a very simple model of a star collapsing into a black hole. Assuming the star is a sphere of
pressureless dust, we can look at one dust particle at the surface of the sphere moving inwards as the
sphere collapses. The idea is that the Schwarzschild metric can describe the movements of the particle on
the surface because it is always outside the sphere. We can therefore use the equations from the chapter
describing the astronaut trajectory.
If we use the time coordinate seen from our point of view
2 √𝑟0 − √2𝑚 √𝑟 + √2𝑚
𝑡 − 𝑡∗ = (𝑟0 3/2 − 𝑟 3/2 + 6𝑚√𝑟0 − 6𝑚√𝑟) + 2𝑚 ln (v)
3√2𝑚 √𝑟0 + √2𝑚 √𝑟 − √2𝑚
we get into trouble as soon as we cross the Schwarzschild radius because of the singularity in 𝑟 = 2𝑚
If we instead use the equation describing the proper time of an observer on the surface (dust particle)
2 3 3
𝜏 − 𝜏0 = − [𝑟 2 − 𝑟0 2 ] (vi)
3√2𝑚
we can find the surface collapsing time from any distance. In particular we can find the proper time when
the sphere is collapsing from the Schwarzschild radius (𝑟0 = 2𝑚) to the singularity (𝑟 = 0).
3
𝜏 − 𝜏0 2 3 4
3 2(2𝑚)2
=− [(0)2 − (2𝑚)2 ]
= 𝑚 =
3√2𝑚 3√2𝑚 3
This is of course a very academic example, but still, it shows how you can make some simple assumptions
4 4𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐺
and actually get a result you can interpret. For a solar mass 3 𝑚 = 3𝑐 3 ≈ 10−5 𝑠𝑒𝑐

25
We make the substitution: 𝑟 = 2𝑚 sin2 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑟 = 2 ⋅ 2𝑚 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
26 𝑀𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐺 1,9891∗1030 𝑘𝑔∗6,67408∗10−11 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔−1 𝑠 −2
= = 2,46 ∗ 10−5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑐3 (2,99792458∗108 𝑚𝑠 −1 )3

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12.3.1 The Speed of the Collapsing Surface

The local speed
𝑟 − 𝑟0 2𝑚 3
𝑣 = 𝜏 − 𝜏0 = 4 = 2 𝑐
3𝑚
is larger than 𝑐. But that is not a problem because this velocity is the radial velocity of the geometrical
surface and the velocity of the dust particle can be different because it also have an angular movement.

12.4 lEddington-Finkelstein Coordinates

In order to avoid problems in the 𝑟 = 2𝑚 singularity in the Schwarzschild space-time we can use a trans-
formation of coordinates: The Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates, which introduces a new coordinate
𝑣(𝑡, 𝑟) defined by
𝑟
𝑡 = 𝑣 − 𝑟 − 2𝑚 ln | − 1|
2𝑚
Where the numerical value ensures that the transformation is valid both outside and inside the horizon
𝑟 = 2𝑚. Also notice that 𝑡 → ∞ when 𝑟 → 2𝑚 which we saw in the Schwarzschild solution.
m
12.4.1 The Line-element
𝑟
𝑡 = 𝑣 − 𝑟 − 2𝑚 ln | − 1|
2𝑚
𝑟 1 1
⇒ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑣 − 𝑑𝑟 − 𝑑 (2𝑚 ln |2𝑚 − 1|) = 𝑑𝑣 − 𝑑𝑟 − 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑣 −
2𝑚
𝑑𝑟
2𝑚 − 1 1 −
𝑟
2 2
1 1 1
⇒ 𝑑𝑡 2 = (𝑑𝑣 − 𝑑𝑟) = 𝑑𝑣 2 + ( ) 𝑑𝑟 2 − 2 𝑑𝑣𝑑𝑟
2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚
1− 𝑟 1− 𝑟 1− 𝑟
Substituting this into the Schwarzschild line-element
2𝑚 2𝑚 −1 2
𝑑𝑠 2 = − (1 − ) 𝑑𝑡 2 + (1 − ) 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 2 )
𝑟 𝑟
2𝑚
= 27 28 − (1 − ) 𝑑𝑣 2 + 2𝑑𝑣𝑑𝑟 + 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 2 )
𝑟
12.4.2 nThe Radial Null Geodesics
The radial null geodesics implies that 𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝜙 = 0
2𝑚 2𝑚
⇒ 0 = − (1 − ) 𝑑𝑣 2 + 2𝑑𝑣𝑑𝑟 = (− (1 − ) 𝑑𝑣 + 2𝑑𝑟) 𝑑𝑣
𝑟 𝑟
𝑑𝑣 = 0:
This solution leads to the familiar ingoing null rays in the Schwarzschild solution
2
1
𝑑𝑡 2 =( ) 𝑑𝑟 2
2𝑚
1−
𝑟
𝑟 = 2𝑚:
𝑑𝑣
⇒ =0
𝑑𝑟
which are light rays that are neither ingoing nor outgoing.
Next we solve the differential equation:

2
2𝑚 2 1 1 2𝑚 −1
27
= − (1 − ) (𝑑𝑣 + ( 2𝑚 ) 𝑑𝑟 2 − 2 2𝑚 𝑑𝑣𝑑𝑟) + (1 − ) 𝑑𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 2 ) =
𝑟 1− 1− 𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
28
Notice: For 𝑟 → ∞ the Eddington-Finkelstein space-time approaches the flat space-time: 𝑑𝑠 2 = −𝑑𝑣 2 + 2𝑑𝑣𝑑𝑟 +
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 2 + 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 which is the same as flat Minkowsky space-time.
2

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2𝑚
0 = − (1 − ) 𝑑𝑣 + 2𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑑𝑣 2𝑚 −1 2𝑟
⇒ = 2 (1 − ) =
𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 − 2𝑚
𝑑𝑣
Notice if 𝑟 > 2𝑚 then 𝑑𝑟 > 0 and the radial light rays are outgoing
𝑑𝑣
Notice if 𝑟 < 2𝑚 then 𝑑𝑟 < 0 and the radial light rays are ingoing
Solving
2𝑟
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 − 2𝑚
⇒ 𝑣 − 𝑣0 29= 2(𝑟 + 2𝑚 ln |𝑟 − 2𝑚|)
In summary: For 𝑟 > 2𝑚 we have both ingoing and outgoing radial light rays, the ingoing light rays can
either pass the event horizon or stop at the event horizon. The event horizon is so to speak a one way
membrane and no light can go out again. If 𝑟 < 2𝑚 all the light rays are ingoing.
As illustrated by the drawing belowo the radial null-geodesic points both outward and inward outside the
event horizon but only inward inside the event horizon. Also notice that for an astronaut his trajectory
always lies inside the light cone so the same rules applies for him.

pq
12.5 The Schwarzschild metric in Kruskal Coordinates.
The Kruskal coordinates 𝒓 > 2𝒎
𝑟 𝑟 𝑡
𝑢 = 𝑒 4𝑚 √ − 1 cosh
2𝑚 4𝑚
𝑟 𝑟 𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑒 4𝑚 √ − 1 sinh
2𝑚 4𝑚
where
𝑟 𝑟
𝑢2 − 𝑣 2 = 𝑒 2𝑚 ( − 1)
2𝑚
We calculate
𝜕𝑢 1 𝑟 𝑟 𝑡 𝑣
= 𝑒 4𝑚 √ − 1 sinh =
𝜕𝑡 4𝑚 2𝑚 4𝑚 4𝑚
𝜕𝑣 1 𝑟 𝑟 𝑡 𝑢
= 𝑒 4𝑚 √ − 1 cosh =
𝜕𝑡 4𝑚 2𝑚 4𝑚 4𝑚

29 𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑏
(Spiegel, 1990) (14.60) ∫ = − ln(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑎 𝑎2

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𝜕𝑢 1 𝑟 𝑟 𝑡 𝑟 1 1 𝑡 𝑢 1
= 𝑒 4𝑚 √ − 1 cosh + 𝑒 4𝑚 cosh = ( )
𝜕𝑟 4𝑚 2𝑚 4𝑚 2𝑚 𝑟 4𝑚 4𝑚 1 − 2𝑚
2√ −1 𝑟
2𝑚

𝜕𝑣 = 1 𝑒 4𝑚 √ 𝑟 − 1 sinh 𝑡 + 𝑒 4𝑚 1 1 𝑡 𝑣 1
𝑟 𝑟
sinh = ( )
𝜕𝑟 4𝑚 2𝑚 4𝑚 2𝑚 𝑟 4𝑚 4𝑚 1 − 2𝑚
2√2𝑚 − 1 𝑟
Now we can use the chain rule
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟
Written as a matrix
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑡
{ } = { 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 } { }
𝑑𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟
With the inverse
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 −1
𝑑𝑡
{ } = 30 { 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 } {𝑑𝑢}
𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
1 −
= { 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 } {𝑑𝑢}
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑣
−
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡 − 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑣 1 𝑢 1
1 ( ) − ( )
4𝑚 1 − 2𝑚 4𝑚 1 − 2𝑚 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑟 𝑟 { }
𝑑𝑣
𝑣 2 1 𝑢 2 1 𝑢 𝑣
(4𝑚) ( 2𝑚) − (4𝑚) ( 2𝑚) { − }
1− 1− 4𝑚 4𝑚
𝑟 𝑟
𝑣 −𝑢
4𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 } {𝑑𝑢}
= 2 {
𝑣 − 𝑢2 −𝑢 (1 − 𝑟 ) 𝑣 (1 − 𝑟 ) 𝑑𝑣
4𝑚
⇒ 𝑑𝑡 = 2 (𝑣𝑑𝑢 − 𝑢𝑑𝑣)
𝑣 − 𝑢2
2
16𝑚
⇒ 𝑑𝑡 2 = 2 (𝑣 2 𝑑𝑢2 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑣 2 − 2𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑣)
(𝑣 − 𝑢2 )2
4𝑚 2𝑚
⇒ 𝑑𝑟 = 2 2
(1 − ) (−𝑢𝑑𝑢 + 𝑣𝑑𝑣)
𝑣 −𝑢 𝑟
16𝑚2 2𝑚 2 2 2
⇒ 𝑑𝑟 2 = 2 (1 − ) (𝑢 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 2 − 2𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑣)
(𝑣 − 𝑢2 )2 𝑟
Next we find
2𝑚 2𝑚 16𝑚2
(1 − ) 𝑑𝑡 2 = (1 − ) 2 (𝑣 2 𝑑𝑢2 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑣 2 − 2𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑣 )
𝑟 𝑟 (𝑣 − 𝑢2 )2

30 𝑎 𝑏 −1 1 𝑑 −𝑏
{ } = { }
𝑐 𝑑 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐 −𝑐 𝑎

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2𝑚 −1 2 2𝑚 16𝑚2
(1 − ) 𝑑𝑟 = (1 − ) 2 (𝑢2 𝑑𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 2 − 2𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑣)
𝑟 𝑟 (𝑣 − 𝑢2 )2
Substituting into the Schwarzschild line element
2𝑚 2𝑚 −1 2
𝑑𝑠 2 = (1 − ) 𝑑𝑡 2 − (1 − ) 𝑑𝑟 − 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙)
𝑟 𝑟
2𝑚 16𝑚2
= (1 − ) 2 (𝑣 2 𝑑𝑢2 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑣 2 − (𝑢2 𝑑𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 2 )) − 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙)
𝑟 (𝑣 − 𝑢2 )2
2𝑚 16𝑚2
= (1 − ) 2 (𝑑𝑣 2 − 𝑑𝑟 2 ) − 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙)
𝑟 (𝑢 − 𝑣 2 )
2𝑚 − 𝑟 𝑟 −1
= 16𝑚2 (1 − ) 𝑒 2𝑚 ( − 1) (𝑑𝑢2 − 𝑑𝑣 2 ) − 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙)
𝑟 2𝑚
32𝑚3 − 𝑟
= 𝑒 2𝑚 (𝑑𝑣 2 − 𝑑𝑢2 ) − 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙)
𝑟
The Kruskal coordinates 𝒓 < 2𝒎: We use the same method as before
𝑟 𝑟 𝑡
𝑢 = 𝑒 4𝑚 √1 − sinh
2𝑚 4𝑚
𝑟 𝑟 𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑒 4𝑚 √1 − cosh
2𝑚 4𝑚
2
𝑟
2 = 𝑒 2𝑚 (
𝑟
𝑢 −𝑣 − 1)
2𝑚
𝜕𝑢 1 𝑟 𝑟 𝑡 𝑣
= 𝑒 4𝑚 √1 − cosh =
𝜕𝑡 4𝑚 2𝑚 4𝑚 4𝑚
𝜕𝑣 1 𝑟 𝑟 𝑡 𝑢
= 𝑒 4𝑚 √1 − sinh =
𝜕𝑡 4𝑚 2𝑚 4𝑚 4𝑚

𝜕𝑢 1 𝑟 𝑟 𝑡 𝑟 1 1 𝑡 𝑢 1
= 𝑒 4𝑚 √1 − sinh − 𝑒 4𝑚 sinh = ( )
4𝑚 2𝑚 4𝑚 2𝑚 𝑟 4𝑚 4𝑚 2𝑚
𝜕𝑟 2√1 − − 1
2𝑚 𝑟

𝜕𝑣 = 1 𝑒 4𝑚 √1 − 𝑟 cosh 𝑡 − 𝑒 4𝑚 1 1 𝑡 𝑣 1
𝑟 𝑟
cosh = ( )
𝜕𝑟 4𝑚 2𝑚 4𝑚 2𝑚 𝑟 4𝑚 4𝑚 2𝑚 − 1
2√1 − 2𝑚 𝑟
−1
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑡
{ } = { 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 } {𝑑𝑢}
𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
1 −
= { 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 } {𝑑𝑢}
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑣
−
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡 − 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑣 1 𝑢 1
1 ( ) − ( )
4𝑚 2𝑚 4𝑚 2𝑚 𝑑𝑢
= −1 −1 { }
𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝑣
𝑣 2 1 𝑢 2 1 𝑢 𝑣
(4𝑚) (2𝑚 ) − (4𝑚) (2𝑚 ){ − }
− 1 − 1 4𝑚 4𝑚
𝑟 𝑟
𝑣 −𝑢
4𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑑𝑢
= 2 { }{ }
𝑣 − 𝑢2 −𝑢 ( 𝑟 − 1) 𝑣 ( 𝑟 − 1) 𝑑𝑣
4𝑚
⇒ 𝑑𝑡 = 2 (𝑣𝑑𝑢 − 𝑢𝑑𝑣)
𝑣 − 𝑢2

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16𝑚2
⇒ = 2 𝑑𝑡 2 (𝑣 2 𝑑𝑢2 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑣 2 − 2𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑣)
(𝑣 − 𝑢2 )2
4𝑚 2𝑚
⇒ 𝑑𝑟 = 2 2
( − 1) (−𝑢𝑑𝑢 + 𝑣𝑑𝑣)
𝑣 −𝑢 𝑟
2
16𝑚2 2𝑚
⇒ 𝑑𝑟 2 = 2 ( − 1) (𝑢2 𝑑𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 2 − 2𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑣)
(𝑣 − 𝑢2 )2 𝑟
2𝑚 2𝑚 16𝑚2
(1 − ) 𝑑𝑡 2 = (1 − ) 2 (𝑣 2 𝑑𝑢2 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑣 2 − 2𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑣 )
𝑟 𝑟 (𝑣 − 𝑢2 )2
2𝑚 −1 2 2𝑚 16𝑚2
(1 − ) 𝑑𝑟 = (1 − ) 2 (𝑢2 𝑑𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 2 − 2𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑣)
𝑟 𝑟 (𝑣 − 𝑢2 )2
2𝑚 2𝑚 −1 2
⇒ 𝑑𝑠 2 = (1 − 2
) 𝑑𝑡 − (1 − ) 𝑑𝑟 − 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙)
𝑟 𝑟
32𝑚3 − 𝑟
= 𝑒 2𝑚 (𝑑𝑣 2 − 𝑑𝑢2 ) − 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙)
𝑟

12.6 The Kerr metric

12.6.1 rThe Kerr-Newman geometry
A more general metric is the Kerr-Newman geometry, corresponding to a simultaneously rotating and
electrically charged black hole of mass 𝑚, charge 𝑄 and angular momentum 𝑆.
Δ sin2 𝜃 2 Σ
𝑑𝑠 2 = 31 (𝑑𝑡 − 𝑎 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙)2 − ((𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )𝑑𝜙 − 𝑎𝑑𝑡) − 𝑑𝑟 2 − Σ𝑑𝜃 2
Σ Σ Δ
2𝑚𝑟 𝑄 2 4𝑎𝑚𝑟 sin2
𝜃 Σ 2𝑎2 𝑚𝑟 sin2 𝜃
= (1 − + ) 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝜙 − 𝑑𝑟 2 − Σ𝑑𝜃 2 − (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 + ) sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 2
Σ Σ Σ Δ Σ
Δ = 𝑟 2 − 2𝑚𝑟 + 𝑎2 + 𝑄 2
Σ = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 cos2 𝜃 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 = Δ − 𝑄 2 + 2𝑚𝑟 − 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃
𝑆
𝑎 =
𝑚
12.6.1.1 𝑸 = 𝟎
In the case of 𝑄 = 0 we see immediately that the Kerr-Newman geometry reduces to the Kerr geometry
describing a non-charged rotating black hole.
2
2𝑚𝑟 2
4𝑎𝑚𝑟 sin2 𝜃 Σ 2 2 2 2
2𝑎2 𝑚𝑟 sin2 𝜃
𝑑𝑠 = (1 − ) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝜙 − 𝑑𝑟 − Σ𝑑𝜃 − (𝑟 + 𝑎 + ) sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 2
Σ Σ Δ Σ
Δ = 𝑟 2 − 2𝑚𝑟 + 𝑎2
Σ = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 cos2 𝜃 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 = Δ + 2𝑚𝑟 − 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃

Δ sin2 𝜃 Σ
31
= [𝑑𝑡 2 + (𝑎 sin2 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜙 2 − 2𝑎 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝜙] − [𝑎2 𝑑𝑡 2 + (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )2 𝑑𝜙 2 − 2𝑎(𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )𝑑𝑡𝑑𝜙] − 𝑑𝑟 2 −
Σ Σ Δ
1 1 Σ 1
Σ𝑑𝜃 = [Δ − 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃]𝑑𝑡 2 + [−Δ2𝑎 sin2 𝜃 + 2 sin2 𝜃 𝑎(𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )]𝑑𝑡𝑑𝜙 − 𝑑𝑟 2 − Σ𝑑𝜃 2 + [Δ(𝑎 sin2 𝜃)2 −
2
Σ Σ Δ Σ
1 2𝑎 sin2 𝜃 Σ
sin2 𝜃 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )2 ]𝑑𝜙 2 = [Δ − 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃]𝑑𝑡 2 + [−Δ + (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )]𝑑𝑡𝑑𝜙 − 𝑑𝑟 2 − Σ𝑑𝜃 + 2
Σ Σ Δ
sin2 𝜃 1 2𝑎 sin2 𝜃
[Δ𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 − (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )2 ]𝑑𝜙 2 = [(Σ − 2𝑚𝑟 + 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 + 𝑄2 ) − 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃]𝑑𝑡 2 + [−(Σ − 2𝑚𝑟 +
Σ Σ Σ
Σ sin2 𝜃
𝑎 sin2 𝜃) + (Σ + 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃)]𝑑𝑡𝑑𝜙 − 𝑑𝑟 2 − Σ𝑑𝜃 2 +
2 [(Σ − 2𝑚𝑟 + 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃)𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 − (Σ +
Δ Σ
2𝑚𝑟 𝑄2 4𝑎𝑚𝑟 sin2 𝜃 Σ sin2 𝜃
𝑎2 sin2 𝜃)2 ]𝑑𝜙 2 = (1 − + 2
) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝜙 − 𝑑𝑟 2 − Σ𝑑𝜃 2 + [Σ𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 − 2𝑚𝑟𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 +
Σ Σ Σ Δ Σ
2𝑚𝑟 𝑄2 4𝑎𝑚𝑟 sin2 𝜃 Σ
(𝑎2 sin2 𝜃)2 − (Σ 2 + (𝑎2 sin2 𝜃) + 2Σ𝑎2 sin2 𝜃)]𝑑𝜙 2 = (1 −
2
+ ) 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝜙 − 𝑑𝑟 2 − Σ𝑑𝜃 2 +
Σ Σ Σ Δ
sin2 𝜃 2𝑚𝑟 𝑄2 4𝑎𝑚𝑟 sin2 𝜃 Σ
[−Σ𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 − 2𝑚𝑟𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 − Σ 2 ]𝑑𝜙 2 = (1 − + ) 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝜙 − 𝑑𝑟 2 − Σ𝑑𝜃 2 −
Σ Σ Σ Σ Δ
2𝑚𝑟𝑎2 sin2 𝜃
sin2 𝜃 [𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 + + Σ] 𝑑𝜙 2 =
Σ

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𝑆
𝑎 =
𝑚
12.6.1.2 𝑺 = 𝟎
In the case of 𝑆 = 0 we see immediately that the Kerr-Newman geometry reduces to the Reissner-
Nordstrøm geometry describing a charged non-rotating black hole.
2𝑚𝑟 𝑄 2 Σ
𝑑𝑠 2 = 32 (1 − + ) 𝑑𝑡 2 − 𝑑𝑟 2 − Σ𝑑𝜃 2 − 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 2
Σ Σ Δ
2𝑚 𝑄 2 1
= (1 − + 2 ) 𝑑𝑡 2 − 𝑑𝑟 2 − 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 2 − 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 2
𝑟 𝑟 2𝑚 𝑄 2
1− 𝑟 + 2
𝑟
2
Δ = 𝑟 − 2𝑚𝑟 + 𝑄 2

Σ = 𝑟2

12.6.1.3 𝑸 = 𝟎 and 𝑺 = 𝟎
In the case of 𝑄 = 0 and 𝑆 = 0 we see immediately that the Kerr-Newman geometry reduces to the
Schwarzschild geometry describing a non-charged non-rotating black hole.
2𝑚 2
1
𝑑𝑠 2 = (1 − 𝑟 ) 𝑑𝑡 −
33 𝑑𝑟 2 − 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 2 − 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 2
2𝑚
1− 𝑟
2
Δ = 𝑟 − 2𝑚𝑟
Σ = 𝑟2

Bibliography
C.W.Misner, K. a. (1973). Gravitation. New York: W.H.Freeman and Company.
Carroll, S. M. (2004). An Introduction to General Relativity, Spacetime and Geometry. San Fransisco, CA:
Addison Wesley.
Hartle, J. B. (2003). An Introduction to Einstein's General Relativity. San Francisco: Pearson Education.
McMahon, D. (2006). Relativity Demystified. McGraw-Hill.
Spiegel, M. R. (1990). SCHAUM'S OUTLINE SERIES: Mathematical Handbook of FORMULAS and TABLES.
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
Wheeler, J. A. (1998). Geons, Black Holes & Quantum Foam. W.W. Norton & Company.

a
(McMahon, 2006, s. 238), (Hartle, 2003, s. 197)
b
(McMahon, 2006, s. 220)
1
c 𝑑𝑡 1 √𝑟 2𝑚 −2 2𝑚 −1
Notice: =− 2𝑚 = −( ) (1 − ) which is equal to (9.39) (Hartle, 2003, p.199)
𝑑𝑟 √2𝑚 (1− ) 𝑟 𝑟
𝑟
3
2 √𝑟0 −√2𝑚 √𝑟+√2𝑚 2 𝑟 2
d
Notice:𝑡 = 𝑡0 + (𝑟0 3/2 − 𝑟 3/2 + 6𝑚√𝑟0 − 6𝑚√𝑟) + 2𝑚 ln = 𝑡∗ + 2𝑚 (− ( ) −
3√2𝑚 √𝑟 0 +√2𝑚 √𝑟−√2𝑚 3 2𝑚

1
1 𝑟
𝑟 2 (2𝑚)2 +1
2( ) + ln 1 ) which is equal to (9.40) (Hartle, 2003, p.199)
2𝑚 𝑟 2
( ) −1
2𝑚

2𝑚𝑟 𝑄2 4𝑎𝑚𝑟 sin2 𝜃 Σ 2𝑎2 𝑚𝑟 sin2 𝜃

32
= (1 − + ) 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝜙 − 𝑑𝑟 2 − Σ𝑑𝜃 2 − (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 + ) sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 2 =
Σ Σ Σ Δ Σ
2𝑚𝑟 2 4𝑎𝑚𝑟 sin2 𝜃 Σ 2𝑎2 𝑚𝑟 sin2 𝜃
33
= (1 − ) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝜙 − 𝑑𝑟 − Σ𝑑𝜃 2 − (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 +
2
) sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 2 =
Σ Σ Δ Σ

16
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Lots of Calculations in GR – Black Holes – Chapter 12 20 August 2019
Susan Larsen

e
(Hartle, 2003, s. 215)
f
(Hartle, 2003, s. 277)
g
(Hartle, 2003, s. 277)
h
The situation is equivalent to a particle with four-impulse 𝑝 = (𝑀, ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑜 ) passing a stationary observer with four veloc-
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
ity 𝑢𝑜 = ( , , , ) . The particle in this case has the energy 𝐸 = −𝑝 ⋅ 𝑢𝑜 . The escape energy has the opposite
𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏
sign. (Hartle, 2003, s. 98)
i
(Hartle, 2003, s. 278)
j
(Hartle, 2003, s. 278)
k
(Hartle, 2003, s. 262)
l
(McMahon, 2006, s. 239), (Hartle, 2003, s. 256), (Carroll, 2004, p. 221)
m
(Hartle, 2003, s. 277)
n
(Hartle, 2003, s. 259)
o
lhttps://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/57726/future-light-cones-inside-black-hole
p
(McMahon, 2006, s. 242)
q
(Hartle, 2003, s. 279)
r
(C.W.Misner, 1973) chapter 33

17
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