Contemporary World of each state.

Other issues are equitable • Market economies and private

development among nations and enterprises that have replaced
Module 1: The Nature and Structure of countries around the world and how state-controlled economies and
Globalization humans will survive in the future which is services;
crucial in maintaining sustainability of • An abundance of planetary goods
Topic 1 (The Task of Defining Globalization) world’s resources like food security and and services that have arisen to
energy resources. fulfill consumer demand – real and
Why Contemporary World? imagined;
• We are living in di=erent Defining Globalization • Economic disparities between rich
circumstances and ideas of the One of the most important challenges and poor regions and countries that
present age in a colloquial “in facing the world in the 21st century is drive people to migrate, both legally
modern times like these”. globalization; to look at the concept of and illegally, in search of a better
• We need to look at the situation “Globalization” it is generally defined as life;
which considers the past and the increasing interconnectedness of • An army of international workers,
future; our cultural- way of life and people and places through converging managers, and executives who give
at the same time understanding the economic, political, and cultural this powerful economic force a
world of having diversity. activities. human dimension.
• Since our world is diverse, we
practice what anthropologist Attributes of Globalization Topic 2 (Metaphors of Globalization)
called as “Cultural Relativism”; this • Global communication systems
is to understand diverse culture that link all regions and most Metaphors of Globalization
and the uniqueness of one’s people on the planet
culture without prejudice and instantaneously; The metaphors of globalization describe
biases. • Transportation systems capable of the process of globalization and how these
• Economic and technological moving goods quickly by air, sea phenomena can be best articulated. In
advances are characteristics of the and land; general, it is described in two opposing
contemporary world and there are • Transnational business strategies poles – the solid and liquid, and how it
fundamental aspects of it. that have created global flows.
corporations more powerful than
Di?erent debates about Globalization many sovereign nations; Solid and Liquid
• New and more flexible forms of
There are di=erent issues about capital accumulation and • Solidity refers to barriers that
globalization that most people would international financial institutions prevent or make di=icult the
debate about like the issue of global that make 24-hour trading possible; movement of things. Furthermore,
governance. This aspect of globalization • Global agreements that promote solids can either be natural or man-
resonance with the stability of government free trade; made.
 • Liquidity refers to the increasing of globalization trend include the Homogeneity – refers to the increasing
ease of movement of people, internationalizing of production, sameness in the world as cultural inputs,
things, information, and places in the new international division of economic factors and political
the contemporary world. labor, new migratory movements orientations of societies expand to create
• Liquid phenomena change quickly from South to North, the new common practices, same economies, and
and their aspects, spatial and competitive environment that similar forms of government.
temporal, are in continuous accelerates these processes, and Homogeneity in culture is often linked to
fluctuation. the internationalizing of the state. cultural imperialism. This means, a given
• Space and time are crucial Making states into agencies of the culture influences other cultures.
elements of globalization. globalizing world”.
In homogeneity, a given culture influences
Flows Recent definition by Ritzer (2015) – other cultures. A good example is
“globalization is a transplanetary process Americanization through global economy
Flows is the movement of people, things, or a set of processes involving increasingly that brought American products, ideas,
places, and information brought by the liquidity and the growing multidirectional images, practices, and behavior to the
growing “porosity” of global limitations flows of people, places, and information world. This process also spread ideologies
(Ritzer, 2015). As Landler (2008) put it: “in as well as the structures they encounter like capitalism, neoliberalism, and the
the global financial system, national and create that are barriers to, or expedite, market economy in the world. The political
borders are porous”. This means that a those flows”; this assumes that realm also su=ers homogenization if one
financial crisis in a given country can bring globalization could bring either or both takes into account the emerging similar
ramifications to other regions in the world. integration and/ or fragmentation; models of governance in the world.
although things flow easily in a global
Defining Globalization world, hindrances or structural blocks are Ritzer (2008) claimed that, in
also present, these blocks could slow general, the contemporary world is
• The term globalization first down one’s activity in another country or undergoing the process of
appeared in Webster’s Dictionary could even limit the places a person can McDonaldization. It is a process by
in 1961; it is then classified as visit. which Western societies are
either (1) broad and inclusive or (2) dominated by the principles of fast-
narrow and exclusive; Topic 3 (Globalization Theories) food restaurants. It involves the
• Ohmae (1992) stated that global spread of rational systems,
“globalization means onset of the Globalization Theories such as e=iciency, calculability,
borderless world” – an example of a predictability, and control.
broad and inclusive type of Globalization as a process increases
definition; either homogeneity or heterogeneity. Heterogeneity – pertains to the creation
• Robert Cox’s definition is narrow of various cultural practices, new
and exclusive – “the characteristics economies, and political groups because
of the interaction of elements from thing the fastest way possible, while cultural imperialism happens
di=erent societies in the world. regardless of quality, profiteering when one culture imposes itself on
company owners, or underpaid and tends to destroy at least parts
Heterogeneity refers to the di=erences workers. of another culture.
because of either lasting di=erences or of • One of the critique of cultural
the hybrids or combinations of cultures Topic 4 (Dynamics of Local and Global imperialism is Deterritorialization
that can produced through the di=erent Culture) of culture which means that it is
transplanetary processes. Contrary to much more di=iculty to tie culture
cultural imperialism, heterogeneity in Dynamics of Local and Global Culture to a specific geographic point of
culture is associated with cultural origin.
hybridization. Global flows of culture tend to move more
easily around the globe than ever before,
Contrary to cultural imperialism, especially through non-material digital In the convergence of culture around the
heterogeneity in culture is associated with forms. There are three perspectives on globe these concepts describe di=erent
cultural hybridization. A more specific is global cultural flows. These processes like:
“glocalization” coined by Roland di=erentialism, hybridization and
Robertson (1992). It explains that as global convergence. • “Glocalization” or the
forces interact with local factors or a interpenetration of the global and
specific geographical area, the “glocal” • Cultural di=erentialism local resulting unique outcomes in
(global+ local) is being produced. This is emphasizes the fact that cultures di=erent geographic areas.
not only happening in culture but also in are essentially di=erent and are (Giulianotti & Robertson, 2007)
economic issues and in political only superficially a=ected by global • Arjun Appadurai’s “Scapes” in
institutions. flows. The interaction of cultures is 1996, where global flows involve
deemed to contain the potential for people, technology, finance,
For Ritzer, "McDonaldization" is “catastrophic collision.” political images, and media and the
when a society adopts the • Cultural hybridization approach disjuncture between them, which
characteristics of a fast-food emphasizes the integration of local lead to the creation of cultural
restaurant. and global cultures. Globalization hybrids.
is considered to be a creative • Global cultural flow, a theory
Calculability is about the process which gives rise to hybrid coined by Arjun Appadurai,
quantitative qualities of the fast- entities that are not reducible to demonstrated the definition and
food business model. In a either the global or the local. e=ects of cultural flows in 5 distinct
McDonaldized world, quantitative • Cultural convergence approach scapes: ethnoscapes,
qualities, meaning big, cheap, and stresses homogeneity introduces technoscapes, financescapes,
quick, supersede quality. People by globalization. Culture are mediascapes and ideoscapes.
tend to prefer getting the biggest radically altered by strong flows,
 Global cultural flow is a result of competition amongst forms and make new connections with
the process of globalization. corporations. one another (Wang, et, al 2005).

1. Ethnoscapes refer to the shifting 4. Mediascapes refers to the Topic 5 (Globalization and Regionalization)
landscape of people across culture electronic capabilities of
and borders such as tourists, production and dissemination of Globalization and Regionalization
immigrants, refugees, exiles, guest information through media.
workers. An example of The process of globalization and
ethnoscapes is Australia – a multi- 5. Ideoscapes are the global flow of regionalization reemerged during the
ethnic country with one of the most ideologies. Mediascapes and 1980s and heightened after the end of
linguistically and culturally diverse ideoscapes have a close Cold War in the 1990s. At first, it seems
populations in the world. relationship as they usually work that these two processes are
upon the reliance of the other contradicting, but the regionalization of
2. Technoscapes are the transmission scape. Ideas can be disseminated the world system and economic activity
of cultures through the flow of via media platforms. An example is undermines the potential benefits coming
technology. New types of cultural Michael Jackson, famously known from a liberalized global economy. This is
interactions and exchanges are as the king of Pop. He used his fame because regional organizations prefer
brought about by technology, to promote world peace, equality, regional partners over the rest. Regional
particularly the Internet. The and human rights through his organizations respond to the states’
globally integrated information songs. These songs were then attempt to reduce the perceived negative
network has become a powerful broadcasted on media and his e=ects of globalization. Therefore,
tool in shaping how culture and ideology approached thousands of regionalism is a sort of counter-
communication are transmitted his fans around the world, which globalization.
across the globe. Nowadays, it is helped shape their perceptions
extremely easy to access an online and inspire them. According to Hurrell (2007) “one world/
forum and hear an English man many worlds relationship. Regional
complaining about politics or Hybridization has become part of an developments in one part of the world
watch a Brazilian dancing Samba. ongoing trend in cultural production, with have a=ected and fueled regionalization
both the globalization and localization of everywhere else in a sort of contagion or
3. Financescapes refer to the global the culture industry. Hybridization, domino e=ect. This fact, along with
movement of money, including however, is not merely the mixing, increasing developments in interregional
currency, trade, and commodity. blending, and synthesizing of di=erent cooperation, shows the regionalization
Countries nowadays are allowed to elements that ultimately forms a culturally process is global in nature. Therefore,
freely exchange good. However, it faceless whole. In the course of regionalization is intimately linked to
leads to the intensification of hybridization, cultures often generate new globalization since it is a part of it and it
builds on it.”
 attempts to make globalization more wasn’t until the following month, however,
Regionalization (Hurrell (2007) – societal palatable to citizens. on the 11th of February that the novel
integration and the often-undirected coronavirus got its o=icial name - COVID-
process of social and economic Topic 6 (Globalization and the COVID-19 19. Nine days later, the US Centers for
interaction. Di=erent from regionalism Pandemic) Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
(Ravenhill, 2008) which is the formal confirmed the first person to die of COVID-
process of intergovernmental The Covid-19 Pandemic 19 in the country. The individual was a man
collaboration between two or more states. in his fifties who lived in Washington state.
The novel human coronavirus disease
Huntington (2006) believed that culture 2019 (COVID-19) was first reported in Declaring COVID-19 a pandemic
and identity guide regionalization. For him Wuhan, China, in 2019, and subsequently
“in the post-Cold War world, states spread globally to become the fifth In the first months of COVID-19, global
increasingly define their interests in documented pandemic since the 1918 flu health authorities, government agencies,
civilization terms”. Non-state actors, such pandemic. By September 2021, almost and the public were unsure of how the
as Transnational Corporations (TNCs), act two years after COVID-19 was first disease would spread and how it would
as a driving force toward regionalism. identified, there had been more than 200 impact everyday life. On the 1st of March
These TNCs, whose host countries are not million confirmed cases and over 4.6 2020, the United Nations released $15
part of a given regional trade agreement, million lives lost to the disease. million in funds to support the global
find themselves in a disadvantaged COVID-19 response. A week later, on the
commercial situation with respect to The first reported case and the initial 7th of March, cases of COVID-19 reached
competing companies belonging to the reaction to COVID-19 100,000. Several days after that, on the
regional organization in question. 11th of March, COVID-19 was declared a
The first o=icial cases of COVID-19 were pandemic by the WHO. COVID-19 rapidly
Ravenhil (2008) said that disadvantaged recorded on the 31st of December 2019, transformed from being a severe problem
TNCs will lobby their national when the World Health Organization seemingly confined to China, to a global
governments to sign similar trade (WHO) was informed of cases of health emergency almost overnight.
agreements in order to end their pneumonia in Wuhan, China, with no
disadvantaged commercial situation. known cause. On the 7th of January, the By this time, the situation in Wuhan had
Chinese authorities identified a novel been di=used following the introduction of
Many policy makers and scholars think coronavirus, temporally named 2019- unprecedented measures to contain the
that globalization must be regulated and nCoV, as the cause of these cases. virus. At the beginning of the outbreak,
managed. The threats of an “ungoverned China was reporting thousands of new
globalization” can be countered what Weeks later, the WHO declared the rapidly cases per day, which had reduced to
Jacoby and Meunier (2010) called spreading COVID-19 outbreak as a Public dozens by March. In Europe, on the other
managed globalization – refers to all Health Emergency of International hand, cases were rising rapidly day by day,
Concern on the 30th of January 2020. It with Italy recording what was an
unprecedented 250 deaths in the 24-hour postpone the spread of the virus before a Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic
period between March 12th and March vaccine could be declared safe for use. On
13th. As a result, on March 13th the WHO the 6th of April (2020), the WHO released The COVID-19 pandemic had led to a
declared that Europe had become the guidance on mask-wearing, as more dramatic loss of human life worldwide and
epicenter of the pandemic. On the same evidence began to highlight the role of presents an unprecedented challenge to
day, the US declared a state of emergency. aerosols in the spread of the disease. public health, food systems and the world
of work. The economic and social
The race to develop a vaccine New variants change the course of the disruption caused by the pandemic was
pandemic devastating: tens of millions of people
To tackle the pandemic, strict measures were at risk of falling into extreme poverty,
were put in place around the world. Social Over the summer, many countries saw a while the number of undernourished
distancing and travel restrictions began to drop in cases, hospitalizations, and people, estimated at nearly 690 million,
come into force in March, along with deaths due to the restrictions their citizens had increased by up to 132 million by the
advice on proper handwashing had endured to prevent the spread of the end of 2020.
techniques. However, these measures virus. However, towards the end of the
were predicted to only slow the spread of summer, in August of 2020, the Lambda Millions of enterprises faced an existential
the virus, scientists understood that to variant was first discovered in Peru. To threat. Nearly half of the world’s 3.3 billion
overcome the pandemic, a vaccine date, this variant has since spread to at global workforce were at risk of losing their
needed to be developed/ On the 17th of least 29 countries, according to the WHO. livelihoods. Informal economy workers
March 2020, the first COVID-19 human were particularly vulnerable because the
vaccine trials begin with the Moderna A month later, the Alpha variant was first majority lack social protection and access
mRNA vaccine. identified in the UK in September 2020. to quality health care and have lost access
The discovery of these variants was to productive assets. Without the means
It was clear that initial restrictions were significant, it showed that the virus was to earn an income during lockdowns,
not enough to stop the spread of COVID- evolving. As a result, symptoms and many were unable to feed themselves and
19. Quickly, restrictions in most regions disease outcomes were changing. their families. For most, no income means
became harsher, with the UK enforcing a Evidence has shown, for example, that the no food, or, at best, less food and less
stay-at-home rule on the 26th of March. Alpha variant may pose a heightened risk nutritious food.
Many European countries implemented of poor COVID-19 outcomes.
their own national lockdown around this The pandemic has been a=ecting the
time. By the 2nd of April (2020), total global With the emergence of these new variants, entire food system and has laid bare its
COVID-19 cases had shot up to 1 million. cases of COVID-19 began to rise again in fragility. Border closures, trade restrictions
many countries and by the 29th of and confinement measures have been
The true seriousness of the pandemic September 2020, there had been 1 million preventing farmers from accessing
came into light with this figure, and COVID-19 deaths. markets, including for buying inputs and
governments did what they could to selling their produce, and agricultural
workers from harvesting crops, thus support measures put in place by significance and importance as a non-
disrupting domestic and international governments. Guaranteeing the safety and territorial touchstone of identity. Being a
food supply chains and reducing access to health of all agri-food workers – from source of identity and pride, religion has
healthy, safe and diverse diets. The primary producers to those involved in always been promoted by its practitioners
pandemic has decimated jobs and placed food processing, transport, and retail, so that it could reach the level of globality
millions of livelihoods at risk. As including street food vendors – as well as and be embraced by so many people as
breadwinners lose jobs, fall ill and die, the better incomes and protection, will be possible.
food security and nutrition of millions of critical to saving lives and protecting
women and men are under threat, with public health, people’s livelihoods, and Turner (2007) explained that globalization
those in low-income countries, food security. transforms the generic “religion” into a
particularly the most marginalized world-system of competing and
populations, which include small-scale In the COVID-19 crisis food security, public conflicting religions. This process of
farmers and indigenous peoples, being health, and employment and labor issues, institutional specialization has
hardest hit. in particular workers’ health and safety, transformed local, diverse and fragmented
converge. Adhering to workplace safety cultural practices into recognizable
Millions of agricultural workers – waged and health practices and ensuring access systems of religion. Globalization has,
and self-employed – while feeding the to decent work and the protection of labor therefore, had the paradoxical e=ect of
world, regularly face high levels of working rights in all industries will be crucial in making religions more self-conscious of
poverty, malnutrition, and poor health, addressing the human dimension of the themselves as being “world religions”.
and su=er from a lack of safety and labor crisis. Immediate and purposeful action to
protection as well as other types of abuse. save lives and livelihoods should include Such conflicts among world religions
With low and irregular incomes and a lack extending social protection towards exhibit a solid proof confirming the erosion
of social support, many of them were universal health coverage and income and the failure of hybridization.
spurred to continue working, often in support for those most a=ected. Globalization, as stated in the above
unsafe conditions, thus exposing excerpt, makes religions more conscious
themselves and their families to additional Module 2: History of Globalization of themselves as being “world religions”
risks. Further, when experiencing income reinforcing their respective specific
losses, they resorted to negative coping Topic 1 (Globalization of Religion) identities. These identities are
strategies, such as distress sale of assets, strengthened by globalization and cannot,
predatory loans or child labor. Today, most religions are not relegated to in any way, intermingle or hybridize.
the countries where they began. Religions,
Migrant agricultural workers were have, in fact, spread and scattered on a Religion seek to assert its identity in the
particularly vulnerable, because they global scale. Globalization provided light of globalization. As a result, di=erent
faced risks in their transport, working and religions a fertile milieu to spread and religious identities come to the fore and
living conditions and struggle to access thrive. Globalization has also allowed assert themselves. Such assertions of
religion or faith to gain considerable religious identities constitute a defensive
reaction to globalization. Scholte (2005), against modern secularism and continents today, roughly after 50,000
in this respect, maintained, “At the same scientism. years ago.
time as being pursued through global • As Scholte (2005) made clear
channels, assertions of religious identity ”Accelerated globalization of Chanda (2007) mentioned that
have, nationalists strivings, often also recent times has enabled co- commerce, religion, politics and warfare
been partly a defensive reaction to religionists across the planet to are the “urges” of people toward a better
globalization”. have greater direct contact with life. These are respectively connected to
one another. Global four aspects of globalization and they can
communications, global be traced all throughout history: trade,
• It had been di=icult for religion to organizations, global finance, and missionary work, adventures and
cope with values that accompany the like have allowed ideas of the conquest.
globalization like liberalism, Muslims and the universal
consumerism, and rationalism. Christian Church to be given Cycles
Such phenomena advocate concrete shape as never before”. For some globalization is a long-
scientism and secularism. term cyclical process and thus, finding its
• This, in fact, pushed Scholte (2005) Topic 2 (Origins and History of origin will be a daunting task. What is
to speak of the anti-rationalist Globalization) important is the cycles that globalization
faiths. Since he equated has gone through (Scholte, 2005).
rationalism with globalization and There are many perspectives about how
considered religion anti-rationalist, globalization started and these are the five Subscribing to this view will
it can be deduced that religion is di=erent perspectives : suggest adherence to the idea that other
anti-globalization. 1. Hardwired global ages have appeared. There is also
• According to Scholte (2005) 2. Cycles the notion to suspect that this point of
“transplanetary relations helped to 3. Epoch globalization will soon disappear and
stimulate and sustain some 4. Events reappear.
renewals of anti-rationalists faith, 5. Broad changes
but global networks have more Epoch
usually promoted activities Hardwired Ritzer (2015) cited Therborn’s
involving rationalist knowledge. According to Chanda (2007), it is (2000) great epochs of globalization.
Contemporary revivalist because of our basic human needs to These are also called “waves” and each
movements have largely replayed a make lives better that made globalization has its own origin. The following are the
long-term tendency – one that well possible. Therefore, one can trace the sequential occurrence of the epochs:
predates contemporary beginning of globalization from our 1. globalization of religion (4th-7th
accelerated globalization – ancestors in Africa who walked out from centuries)
whereby certain religious circles the said continent in the late Ice Age. This 2. European colonial conquests (late
have from time to time revolted long journey finally led them to all-known 15th century)
 3. Intra-European wars (late 18th to Broader, More Recent Changes Africa and Asia, with the exemption
early 19th centuries) These broad changes happened in of Japan. According to Maddison
4. Heyday of European imperialism the last of the 20th century. Scholars today (2001), life expectancy in India was
(mid-19th century to 1918) point to these three notable changes as only 24 years in the early 20th
5. Post-World War II Period the origin of globalization that we know century while same life expectancy
6. Post-Cold War period today. occurred in China in 1929 until
1931.
Events They are as follows: • Fertility decline in Asia did not
Specific events are also considered 1. The emergence of the United States begin until 1950s and so on. In the
as part of the fourth view in explaining the as the global power (post-World case of Japan, it was until the 1930s
origin of globalization. Several points can War II) that “total fertility rate did not drop
be treated as the start of globalization. 2. The emergence of multi-national below five births per woman”
Gibbon (1998), for example, argued that corporations (MNCs) (Shigeyuki, et. al. 2002). This
Roman conquests centuries before Christ 3. The demise of the Soviet Union and resulted in rapid population growth
were its origin. Rosenthal (2007) gave the end of the Cold War after the World War II, a=ecting the
premium to the voyages of discovery – age structure of Asia and the
Christopher Columbus’s discovery of Topic 3 (Global Demography) developing world. Specifically, the
America in 1492, Vasco De Gama in Cape baby boom in the developing world
of Good Hope in 1498, and Ferdinand Demographic transition is a was caused by the decline of infant
Magellan’s circumnavigation of the globe singular historical period during which and child mortality. The West, on
in 1522. mortality and fertility rates decline from the other hand, experienced baby
high to low levels in a particular country or boom that resulted from rising birth
• The recent years could be also region. The broad outlines of the transition rates.
regarded as the beginnings of are similar in countries around the world, • A remarkable e=ect of the
globalization with reference to but the place and timing of the transaction demographic transition, as
specific technological advances in have varied considerably. Shigeyuki et. al, (2002) stated, is “
transportation and the enormous gap in life
communication. Some examples • The transition started in mid or late expectancy that emerged between
include the first transatlantic 1700s in Europe. During that time, Japan and the West on the one
telephone cable (1956), the first death rates and fertility began to hand and the rest of the world on
transatlantic television broadcasts decline. High to low fertility the other”. By 1820, the life
(1962), the founding of the modern happened 200 years in France and expectancy at birth of Japan and
internet in 1988, and the terrorist 100 years in United States. In other the West was 12 years greater than
attacks on the Twin Towers in New parts of the world, the transition other countries.
York (2001). began later. It was only in the 20th • There was a reverse in global
century that mortality decline in population shares during the 20th
 century as Africa, Asia, Latin safety concerns (Haddad, 2003). migrant communities. Paul Gilroy’s
America and Oceania had high Asylum seekers are refugees who (1993) conceptualization of the
levels of population growth rates. seek to remain in the country to diaspora as a transnational
The United Nations projected the which they flee. process, which involves dialogue to
population growth will be shifted • According to Kritz (2008), those both imagined and real locales.
toward Africa. It is estimated that who migrate to find work are
by 2150, the regions’ share to the involved in labor migration. Labor Diasporization and globalization are
world population will be almost 20 migration is driven by “push” closely interconnected and the expansion
percent, relatively much greater factors as well as “pull” factors. of the latter will lead to an increase in the
than its share in 1820 (7%) and Labor migration mainly involves the former (Dufoix, 2007). Today, there exists
1900 (6%). Also in 2150, there will flow of less-skilled and unskilled “virtual diasporas” (Laguerre, 2002) which
be a projected increase of two workers, as well as illegal utilize technology such as the internet to
billion if we combine the immigrants who live on the margins maintain the community network.
populations of Asia, Latin America, of the host society (Landler, 2007).
and Oceania.
Migration is traditionally governed either
Topic 4 (Global Migration) by “push” factors such as political
persecution, economic depression, war,
Migration is one key factors of and famine in the home country or by
globalization. The nuances of the “pull” factors such as favorable
movements of people around the world immigration policy, labor shortage, and
can be seen through the categories of similarity of language and culture in the
migrants – “vagabonds” and “tourists” country of destination (Ritzer, 2015).
(Bauman, 1998). Global factors, which facilitate easy
access to information about the country of
• Vagabonds are on the move destination, also exert a significant
“because they have to be” (Ritzer, influence.
2015) – they are not faring well in
their home countries and are • According to Malkin (2007), the
forced to move in the hope that Philippines is one of the leaders
their circumstances will improve. when it comes to the flow of
Tourists, on the other hand, are on remittances ($14.7 billion), next to
the move because they want to be India ($24.5 billion) and China
and because they can a=ord it. ($21.1 billion).
Refugees are vagabonds forced to • The term “diaspora” has been
flee their home countries due to increasingly used to describe